DOCSLIB.ORG

Central Asia: Islam and the State

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Central Asia: Islam and the State CENTRAL ASIA: ISLAM AND THE STATE 10 July 2003 ICG Asia Report N°59 Osh/Brussels TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ i I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 II. UZBEKISTAN: REPRESSION AND RESPONSE .....................................................4 A. CONTEMPORARY ISLAM ....................................................................................................... 4 B. GOVERNMENT ATTITUDES .................................................................................................... 5 C. CONTROLLING ISLAM ........................................................................................................... 5 1. Legal restrictions....................................................................................................... 5 2. Government policy.................................................................................................... 6 3. The official Islamic establishment ............................................................................ 7 4. Control of religious education................................................................................... 8 5. State repression ....................................................................................................... 10 D. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................... 12 III. TAJIKISTAN: THE ISLAMIST COMPROMISE....................................................13 A. GOVERNMENT ATTITUDES .................................................................................................. 13 B. SYSTEM OF CONTROL ......................................................................................................... 14 1. Legal restrictions..................................................................................................... 14 2. State control: the registration issue ......................................................................... 15 3. Religious structures................................................................................................. 16 4. Repression and the security forces.......................................................................... 17 5. Control of education................................................................................................ 17 6. Social and symbolic issues...................................................................................... 18 7. Restrictions on social/charitable activity ................................................................ 20 C. THE ISLAMIC RENAISSANCE PARTY.................................................................................... 20 D. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................... 21 IV. KYRGYZSTAN: A NATION DIVIDED? ..................................................................22 A. GOVERNMENT POLICY........................................................................................................ 24 1. Legal restrictions..................................................................................................... 24 2. State structures........................................................................................................ 25 3. Repression/security forces ...................................................................................... 26 B. THE RELIGIOUS HIERARCHY................................................................................................ 26 C. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION...................................................................................................... 28 D. SOCIAL ISSUES ................................................................................................................... 30 E. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................... 30 V. KAZAKHSTAN.............................................................................................................31 A. GOVERNMENT POLICY........................................................................................................ 31 1. State bodies ............................................................................................................. 32 2. Religious bodies...................................................................................................... 32 3. Religious education................................................................................................. 32 4. Repression and the security forces.......................................................................... 33 B. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................... 34 VI. TURKMENISTAN ........................................................................................................34 A. RELIGION AND THE CULT OF PERSONALITY........................................................................ 34 1. Laws on religious belief.......................................................................................... 35 2. Official structures.................................................................................................... 35 3. Repression............................................................................................................... 35 4. Religious education................................................................................................. 35 B. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................... 36 VII. THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY......................................36 VIII. CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................37 APPENDICES A. MAP OF CENTRAL ASIA ..................................................................................................... 39 B. ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CRISIS GROUP ...................................................................... 40 C. ICG REPORTS AND BRIEFING PAPERS................................................................................ 41 D. ICG BOARD MEMBERS ...................................................................................................... 47 ICG Asia Report N°59 10 July 2003 CENTRAL ASIA: ISLAM AND THE STATE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS To avoid future instability, Central Asian states the overthrow of all secular states in the region in need to re-examine their policies towards Islam and favour of a single Islamic Caliphate, although it step back from reliance on repression. Seventy claims to be committed to non-violence. years of Soviet rule in Central Asia did not crush Islam but it had a profound effect in secularising In Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan there has been much society and political elites. Nevertheless, after less interest in ideologies that challenge secularism. independence there was a surge of interest in Islam, But non-traditional Muslim tendencies have including the emergence of political Islamist appeared in both, and there is debate over the role groups seeking to challenge the secular nature of of religion in society and in politics and over the these new states. The heavy-handed repression of limits to state interference in religion. In southern early manifestations of political Islam led to Kyrgyzstan and southern Kazakhstan, the growth in confrontation, violence, and the appearance of influence of groups such as Hizb ut-Tahrir has extremist and terrorist groups. sometimes been exaggerated, but they do have a committed following. In Uzbekistan the first manifestations of Islamism were rapidly suppressed, and an all-out campaign In Turkmenistan Islam has only weak roots as an against any Muslim political activity was initiated. organised religion but President Niyazov has Many Islamists fled first to Tajikistan and then to combined widespread repression of any independent Afghanistan, where they formed the Islamic religious activity with attempts to create a pseudo- Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), an ally of the Islamic spiritual creed centred on his own personality. Taliban. High levels of repression continued inside the country, provoking widespread discontent and Central Asian governments have often resorted to fuelling political Islam as a focus for opposition. old Soviet methods of control. In Uzbekistan this There are at least 6,000 religious prisoners in 2003 has been repressive in the extreme; in Kyrgyzstan but dissatisfaction with the regime continues to much more subtle. All five regional governments, feed into Islamist sentiment. however, have two aims: first, to control any appearance of political Islam, whether moderate or In Tajikistan tension over the role of Islam in state- extreme, since they consider independent building was a contributory factor to the outbreak of expressions of Islam a threat to the constitutional civil war in 1992. The Islamic Renaissance Party order; secondly, to use Islam as a conduit to (IRP) led opposition to the former Communist regime promote their own ideologies and campaigns, and but failure on both sides to compromise produced in general as a tool of the state. bitter fighting that continued until a peace accord was reached
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Nexus Between Politics and Islam in Kyrgyzstan Since 2005 in the Context of Islamic Revival and Unconsolidated Democracy a Thesi
    NEXUS BETWEEN POLITICS AND ISLAM IN KYRGYZSTAN SINCE 2005 IN THE CONTEXT OF ISLAMIC REVIVAL AND UNCONSOLIDATED DEMOCRACY A THESIS Presented to the MA Programme of the OSCE Academy in Bishkek in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Politics and Security Programme (Central Asia) by Nadezhda Tatkalo December 2019 DECLARATION I declare that I clearly understand the OSCE Academy Essay and Master Thesis Writing and Anti-Plagiarism Rules; and that the submitted dissertation is accepted by the OSCE Academy in Bishkek on the understanding that it is my own effort without falsification of any kind. I declare that I clearly understand that plagiarism and cheating are academically fraudulent and a serious offence against the OSCE Academy Rules. I declare that I am aware about the consequences of plagiarism or/and cheating. Name: Nadezhda Tatkalo Signature: Date: December 4, 2019 2 ABSTRACT Islam is one of the discourse strands in politics in Kyrgyzstan. This study is aimed at investigation of the correlation between the problems of democratization process manifested in reduction of the public recognition of Kyrgyzstani political actors and growing public interest to Islam, on the one hand, and addressing Islam by Kyrgyzstani political actors in their speeches and behavior, on the other. In this respect, the study asks: how have Kyrgyzstani political actors addressed Islam in their public rhetoric and behavior in the context of unconsolidated democracy since 2005, and what is the role of Islamic revival in this process? Basing on literature review, media analysis of facts of addressing Islam by Kyrgyzstani political actors, and critical discourse analysis of their speeches, the study has provided the following results.
    [Show full text]
  • Islamic Revivalism and State Failure in Kyrgyzstan
    ISLAMIC REVIVALISM AND STATE FAILURE IN KYRGYZSTAN Eric McGlinchey George Mason University The National Council for Eurasian and East European Research University of Washington Box 353650 Seattle, WA 98195 TITLE VIII PROGRAM Project Information* Principal Investigator: Eric McGlinchey NCEEER Contract Number: 822-09g Date: February 3, 2009 Copyright Information Individual researchers retain the copyright on their work products derived from research funded through a contract or grant from the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research (NCEEER). However, the NCEEER and the United States Government have the right to duplicate and disseminate, in written and electronic form, reports submitted to NCEEER to fulfill Contract or Grant Agreements either (a) for NCEEER’s own internal use, or (b) for use by the United States Government, and as follows: (1) for further dissemination to domestic, international, and foreign governments, entities and/or individuals to serve official United States Government purposes or (2) for dissemination in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act or other law or policy of the United States Government granting the public access to documents held by the United States Government. Neither NCEEER nor the United States Government nor any recipient of this Report may use it for commercial sale. * The work leading to this report was supported in part by contract or grant funds provided by the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research, funds which were made available by the U.S. Department of State under Title VIII (The Soviet-East European Research and Training Act of 1983, as amended). The analysis and interpretations contained herein are those of the author.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extre
    View metadata, citationOmelicheva, and similar Mariya papers Y. Ethnic at core.ac.uk Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science brought to you by CORE Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Publisher's Official Version: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192512110364738>. provided by KU ScholarWorks Open Access Version: <http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/>. [This document contains the author’s accepted manuscript. For the publisher’s version, see the link in the header of this document.] Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Mariya Y. Omelicheva Paper citation: Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Keywords: Abstract: produced PDF of an article accepted for publication following peer review. The publisher version is available on its site. site. on its available is version publisher The review. peer following publication for accepted an article of PDF produced - Please note that this is an author is this that note Please Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Publisher's Official Version: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192512110364738>. Open Access Version: <http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/>. International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Mariya Omelicheva, University of Kansas The collapse of the Soviet Union unleashed a flood of religious activity in parts of Central Asia. Along with the moderate and traditional forms of the Islamic faith, radical Islam reemerged in the Muslim communities of the Central Asian republics.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Central in Terrorism Extremism and of Religious Dimension Ethnic 2010
    Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Publisher's Official Version: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192512110364738>. Open Access Version: <http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/>. [This document contains the author’s accepted manuscript. For the publisher’s version, see the link in the header of this document.] Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Mariya Y. Omelicheva Paper citation: Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Keywords: Abstract: produced PDF of an article accepted for publication following peer review. The publisher version is available on its site. site. on its available is version publisher The review. peer following publication for accepted an article of PDF produced - Please note that this is an author is this that note Please Omelicheva, Mariya Y. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia, International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Publisher's Official Version: <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192512110364738>. Open Access Version: <http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/>. International Political Science Review, 2010 31(2): 167-186. Ethnic Dimension of Religious Extremism and Terrorism in Central Asia Mariya Omelicheva, University of Kansas The collapse of the Soviet Union unleashed a flood of religious activity in parts of Central Asia. Along with the moderate and traditional forms of the Islamic faith, radical Islam reemerged in the Muslim communities of the Central Asian republics. Although, people of all backgrounds have been drawn to radical Islam, Islamists have been less successful in gaining support in the communities of indigenous populations of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan, than among the Uzbek and Tajik minorities.
    [Show full text]
  • Uyghur Dispossession, Culture Work and Terror Capitalism in a Chinese Global City Darren T. Byler a Dissertati
    Spirit Breaking: Uyghur Dispossession, Culture Work and Terror Capitalism in a Chinese Global City Darren T. Byler A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2018 Reading Committee: Sasha Su-Ling Welland, Chair Ann Anagnost Stevan Harrell Danny Hoffman Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Anthropology ©Copyright 2018 Darren T. Byler University of Washington Abstract Spirit Breaking: Uyghur Dispossession, Culture Work and Terror Capitalism in a Chinese Global City Darren T. Byler Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Sasha Su-Ling Welland, Department of Gender, Women, and Sexuality Studies This study argues that Uyghurs, a Turkic-Muslim group in contemporary Northwest China, and the city of Ürümchi have become the object of what the study names “terror capitalism.” This argument is supported by evidence of both the way state-directed economic investment and security infrastructures (pass-book systems, webs of technological surveillance, urban cleansing processes and mass internment camps) have shaped self-representation among Uyghur migrants and Han settlers in the city. It analyzes these human engineering and urban planning projects and the way their effects are contested in new media, film, television, photography and literature. It finds that this form of capitalist production utilizes the discourse of terror to justify state investment in a wide array of policing and social engineering systems that employs millions of state security workers. The project also presents a theoretical model for understanding how Uyghurs use cultural production to both build and refuse the development of this new economic formation and accompanying forms of gendered, ethno-racial violence.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Digital Cultures: Perspectives from South Asia
    Revised Pages Global Digital Cultures Revised Pages Revised Pages Global Digital Cultures Perspectives from South Asia ASWIN PUNATHAMBEKAR AND SRIRAM MOHAN, EDITORS UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS • ANN ARBOR Revised Pages Copyright © 2019 by Aswin Punathambekar and Sriram Mohan All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publisher. Published in the United States of America by the University of Michigan Press Manufactured in the United States of America Printed on acid- free paper First published June 2019 A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication data has been applied for. ISBN: 978- 0- 472- 13140- 2 (Hardcover : alk paper) ISBN: 978- 0- 472- 12531- 9 (ebook) Revised Pages Acknowledgments The idea for this book emerged from conversations that took place among some of the authors at a conference on “Digital South Asia” at the Univer- sity of Michigan’s Center for South Asian Studies. At the conference, there was a collective recognition of the unfolding impact of digitalization on various aspects of social, cultural, and political life in South Asia. We had a keen sense of how much things had changed in the South Asian mediascape since the introduction of cable and satellite television in the late 1980s and early 1990s. We were also aware of the growing interest in media studies within South Asian studies, and hoped that the conference would resonate with scholars from various disciplines across the humanities and social sci- ences.
    [Show full text]
  • Violent Extremism and Insurgency in Tajikistan: a Risk Assessment
    VIOLENT EXTREMISM AND INSURGENCY IN TAJIKISTAN: A RISK ASSESSMENT AUGUST 14, 2013 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Dr. Eric McGlinchey for Management Systems International for USAID’s Office of Technical Support in the Bureau for the Middle East (USAID/ME/TS). VIOLENT EXTREMISM AND INSURGENCY IN TAJIKISTAN: A RISK ASSESSMENT DRAFT Contracted under AID-OAA-TO-11-00051 Democracy and Governance and Peace and Security in Asia and the Middle East Dr. Eric McGlinchey is Associate Professor of Politics and Government in the Department of Public and International Affairs at George Mason University. He is an expert in Central Asian regime change, comparative politics, and political Islam. He is the author of Chaos, Violence, Dynasty: Politics and Islam in Central Asia. DISCLAIMER The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. CONTENTS Acronyms .................................................................................................................................... i Map ............................................................................................................................................ ii Executive Summary.................................................................................................................. iii I. Background: The Interplay of Religion and Politics in Tajikistan .....................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Eye on the East – the Yemen Review
    The JUNE 2021 Yemen Review EYE ON THE EAST The Yemen Review The Yemen Review Launched in June 2016, The Yemen Review – formerly known as Yemen at the UN – is a monthly publication produced by the Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies. It aims to identify and assess current diplomatic, economic, political, military, security, humanitarian and human rights developments related to Yemen. In producing The Yemen Review, Sana’a Center staff throughout Yemen and around the world gather information, conduct research, hold private meetings with local, regional, and international stakeholders, and analyze the domestic and international context surrounding developments in and regarding Yemen. This monthly series is designed to provide readers with a contextualized insight into the country’s most important ongoing issues. COVER PHOTO: Wadi Hadibo on Socotra island, April 2021 // Sana’a Center photo by Quentin Müller The Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies is an independent think-tank that seeks to foster change through knowledge production with a focus on Yemen and the surrounding region. The Center’s publications and programs, offered in both Arabic and English, cover political, social, economic and security related developments, aiming to impact policy locally, regionally, and internationally. Copyright © Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies 2021 CONTENTS The Sana’a Center Editorial 4 The Urgency to Protect Yemen’s Minorities 4 June at a Glance 6 The Political Arena 6 Developments in Government-Controlled Territory 6 Developments in Houthi-Controlled
    [Show full text]
  • Denis Micheal Rohan Ushering in the Apocalypse Contents
    Denis Micheal Rohan Ushering in the Apocalypse Contents 1 Denis Michael Rohan 1 1.1 Motives .................................................. 1 1.2 Response ................................................. 2 1.2.1 Israeli Chief Rabbinate response ................................. 2 1.2.2 Arab/Muslim reactions ...................................... 2 1.3 See also .................................................. 3 1.4 References ................................................. 3 1.5 External links ............................................... 3 2 Mosque 4 2.1 Etymology ................................................. 5 2.2 History .................................................. 5 2.2.1 Diffusion and evolution ...................................... 6 2.2.2 Conversion of places of worship ................................. 9 2.3 Religious functions ............................................ 10 2.3.1 Prayers .............................................. 11 2.3.2 Ramadan events .......................................... 11 2.3.3 Charity .............................................. 12 2.4 Contemporary political roles ....................................... 12 2.4.1 Advocacy ............................................. 13 2.4.2 Social conflict ........................................... 14 2.4.3 Saudi influence .......................................... 14 2.5 Architecture ................................................ 15 2.5.1 Styles ............................................... 15 2.5.2 Minarets .............................................
    [Show full text]
  • Seminar Nasional / National Seminar
    PROGRAM BOOK PIT5-IABI 2018 PERTEMUAN ILMIAH TAHUNAN (PIT) KE-5 RISET KEBENCANAAN 2018 IKATAN AHLI KEBENCANAN INDONESIA (IABI) 5TH ANNUAL SCIENTIFIC MEETING – DISASTER RESEARCH 2018 INDONESIAN ASSOCIATION OF DISASTER EXPERTS (IABI) . SEMINAR NASIONAL / NATIONAL SEMINAR . INTERNASIONAL CONFERENCE ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT (ICDM) ANDALAS UNIVERSITY PADANG, WEST SUMATRA, INDONESIA 2-4 MAY 2018 PROGRAM BOOK PIT5-IABI 2018 Editor: Benny Hidayat, PhD Nurhamidah, MT Panitia sudah berusaha melakukan pengecekan bertahap terhadap kesalahan ketik, judul makalah, dan isi buku program ini sebelum proses pencetakan buku. Jika masih terdapat kesalahan dan kertinggalan maka panitia akan perbaiki di versi digital buku ini yang disimpan di website acara PIT5-IABI. The committee has been trying to check the typos and the contents of this program book before going to the book printing process. If there were still errors and omissions then the committee will fix it in the digital version of this book which is stored on the website of the PIT5-IABI event. Doc. Version: 11 2 PIT5-IABI OPENING REMARK FROM THE RECTOR Dear the International Conference on Disaster Management (ICDM 2018) and The National Conference of Disaster Management participants: Welcome to Andalas University! It is our great honor to host the very important conference at our green campus at Limau Manis, Padang. Andalas University (UNAND) is the oldest university outside of Java Island, and the fourth oldest university in Indonesia. It was officially launched on 13 September 1956 by our founding fathers Dr. Mohammad Hatta, Indonesia first Vice President. It is now having 15 faculties and postgraduate program and is home for almost 25000 students.
    [Show full text]
  • Strengthening Capacity to Prevent Violent Extremism in the Kyrgyz Republic
    Strengthening Capacity to Prevent Violent Extremism in the Kyrgyz Republic Strengthening Capacity to Prevent Violent Extremism in the Kyrgyz Republic 1 Search for Common Ground | Kyrgyzstan | 74, Erkindik Blvd, Bishkek Strengthening Capacity to Prevent Violent Extremism in the Kyrgyz Republic Table of Contents Models of State-Islam Relations in Russia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Pakistan, Norway, and Israel: Lessons to be Learned ................................................................. 3 The Muftiyat as an Institute of the Muslim Community and its Potential for Building Interfaith Dialogue in Kyrgyzstan ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Interaction Mechanisms of State Structures and Islamic Organizations in Preventing Extremism in the Kyrgyz Republic.............................................................................. 36 Teaching Pluralism in Conflict Resolution through Central Asian Religious Traditions ................................................................................................................................... 49 Assessing the Possibility of Building a Kyrgyz Theological School ............................ 62 The Role of Imams in Conflict Prevention .................................................................. 71 Assessing the Role of Imams in Conflict Resolution .................................................. 82 Problems within the Intraction between Law-Enforcement Authorities and Religious Organizations in Countering Religious Extremism: National and
    [Show full text]
  • Editor Aya Walid Shamaa Translator Samah Miqdad
    Editor Translator Aya Walid Shamaa Samah Miqdad Israel Kills Families Targeted by Israeli Terror in 2012 Editor Aya Walid Shamaa Translator Samah Miqdad Book: Israel Kills “Families Targeted by Israeli Terror in 2012” Documentary Study First Edition © All Rights Reserved Women for Palestine Website: www.womenfpal.com Email address: [email protected] Telephone: +970-8-28 28 164 Mobile: +970-59-888 90 70 Address: Al Khozondar Building, Ahmad Abd El Aziz St., Al Remal, Gaza, Palestine Supervision: Ibtisam Saymah Editor: Aya Walid Shamaa Introduction by: Dr. Adnan Abu Amer Proofed by: Refaat Alareer Team: Alaa Al-Hasanat Heba Hamdan Kholoud Abu Jazar Dima Aydiya Summer Abu Madi Yasmin Saqallah Asal Abu Taqiya Iman Abu Sal Doaa Abdulatif Abeer Abu Mokhadah Photographers: Asmaa Hamad Majdi Suliman Momen Qureqe Israel Kills Families Targeted by Israeli Terror in 2012 Contents Preface 1 Method of Documentation 2 Contents of study 4 First Day November 14, 2012 25 1 Testimony of Um Mohammed, Wife of the Martyr, Ahmed Jabari 27 2 Testimony of Um Hamid al-Hams, Wife of the Martyr, Mohammed 28 3 Testimony of Nisreen Arafat, 28, Mother of Martyr Ronan 29 4 Testimony of Ahlam Al-Ashi, 24, Mother of Omar 30 5 Testimony of Fatima Abu Al-Meza, 15, Sister of the Martyr Essam 31 6 Testimony of Samiha Badr Al-Kaseeh, 47, Mother of Martyr Mohammed 32 7 Inaam Abu Sawaween, 33, Daughter of Martyr Mahmoud 33 Second Day, November 15, 2012 35 1 Testimony of Khansa Mesmeh, 27, Wife of Martyr Habes 37 2 Testimony of Hesham Al- Ghalban’s Mother 37 3 Testimony of
    [Show full text]