A Technological Reinvention of the Textbook: a Wikibooks Project

A Technological Reinvention of the Textbook: A Wikibooks Project

Patrick M. O’Shea James C. Onderdonk Appalachian State University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Douglas Allen Dwight W. Allen University of Denver Old Dominion University

Abstract Furthermore, the authors believe Each of these four issues limits the Education traditionally has been that present technology affords us teaching and learning process by plac- defined as a one-way relationship the opportunity to experiment with ing barriers between the participants between teacher and learner. How- this reconceptualization in ways that and the content. Unfortunately, these ever, new technologies are dramati- not only facilitate teaching and learning four weaknesses are inherent in the cally changing that relationship in but also redefine the role of the teacher textbook format and cannot be over- a multitude of ways. In this article, in the classroom. We believe that the come as long as educators continue to the authors describe some of these present textbook form is outdated in depend on textbooks as the primary changes and explore one example of four important ways: source of knowledge. the intersection between technology and pedagogy, describing a college 1. The lengthy publication schedule for Take, for example, the issue of course in which students compose the textbooks, normally in the area of three textbook currency. In the past, a more course text using the wiki platform. years from beginning to end, means sedate rate of change and knowledge The process described proceeds from that textbooks inevitably include out- creation made it possible for textbooks the premise that the needs and ca- dated information as part of the final to claim a credible level of currency pacity of learners in the information product. Knowledge and information for many years after publication. age have been transformed and dis- change too rapidly for this to be accept- For example, Principles of Marketing cusses one way that using an appro- able in an era of ubiquitous learning (Clark, 1922) was in widespread use priate technology may address them. and knowledge creation. from its time of publication in 1922 For this wikibook, the creators of the 2. Because there are a relatively small through the 1960s (Ferrell, 1998). content become the prime users of the number of people involved in the It was revised three times, in 1932, content as well. The authors discuss production of a particular textbook, 1942, and 1962. Today, the velocity of both the philosophical underpinnings there is, by definition, a limitation on change and discovery makes such a and practical implications of this ap- the perspectives that can be included. life-cycle almost totally inappropriate proach. Evaluation of the project sug- 3. Textbooks are a passive medium for and virtually unimaginable. gests that the methodology produces transmitting information and as such Acceleration in the rate of new discov- an active, credible learning process. are incomplete until read. The reader eries (for example, Pluto’s demotion from This study explores the advantages takes no active role in the knowledge planet status, new research on the cause and disadvantages of this wiki pro- construction of the text itself and is of the sinking of the Titanic, advances in cess to provide context concerning simply expected to read and digest our understanding of the functioning of the efficacy and utility of employing information. This belies all that we the brain) render scientific and historical particular types of Web 2.0 tools. The know and have known since John textbooks obsolete shortly after or even course development rationale points Dewey about the importance of ac- before they are published. Meanwhile, to its potential for radically changing tive learning. game-changing events occur at such a how students and teachers interact 4. Textbooks are limited by their pace that textbooks purporting to cover with the phenomenon of ubiquitous physical form. The book itself cannot current disciplines are outdated almost learning. (Keywords: Pedagogy, tech- include video, audio, or other mul- immediately. What international business nology, textbooks, wikibooks) timedia presentations, and although textbook published only two years ago publishers have tried to minimize this contains adequate coverage of the global issue by including CD-ROMs and financial crisis or accurately describes his article proposes a relatively Web links with their textbooks, these the status of formerly revered companies radical hypothesis: Textbooks as are, at best, “add-on” solutions that such as Toyota or BP? How relevant or Teducational tools are outdated do nothing to improve the intrinsic current will these very examples be by the and in need of reconceptualization. limitations of the bound paper form. time this article is published?

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Historical Context that the approach this article describes as “a cost-effective and portable alterna- Criticisms of the textbook and its limita- meets many of the criteria enumerated tive to heavy textbooks and supplemen- tions are not new. In 1936, the keynote by the APA. tal reading selections” (Johnson, Levine, speaker at an exhibition titled “The Text- In a similar vein, Educause’s Learning Smith, & Stone, 2010, p. 17). Although book of the Future and Its Forerunners” Initiative (ELI) identifies developing in- these attractions alone make a compel- lamented that “in regard to the textbook formation, digital and visual literacies as ling case for the viability of the e-book, the goodwill and patience of the child crucial challenges for 21st century educa- the vision is fairly limited. The e-book have been called upon to an unreasonable tion. ELI believes that “creating learn- is portrayed as a desirable alternative degree” (Bryson, 1936, p. 6–7). This criti- ing environments that promote active vehicle for the words and phrases con- cism would be as valid today for K–16 learning, critical thinking, collaborative tained in textbooks and articles, and not, students as it was in 1936, if not more so. learning, and knowledge creation” (¶ 2) as we would argue, as an opportunity However, new technologies now give us must be incorporated into technologi- to re-imagine the teaching and learning powerful new ways to respond in positive cally mediated curriculum in order for process. and proactive ways. Live, collectively cre- learners to be prepared to meet the chal- But the e-book also represents an ated, and continuously updated resources lenges of an increasingly complex world. entirely new palate upon which profes- can and must be embraced in the 21st In an effort to maintain currency, sional writers and students alike can century classroom. authors and publishers have incorpo- paint. All six technologies listed in In 1990, the secretary of labor ap- rated some changes into the traditional the report could be implemented and pointed a commission to examine the textbook. The inclusion of study guides, simultaneously utilized in any location skills that young Americans would need supplemental materials, corporate au- via powerful multi-use readers such to master for the country to create a thoring, rapid new editions, multimedia as the Apple iPad. Writer and reader high-performance economy and remain support, and test-item databases have alike could immediately offer and ac- globally competitive. The commission’s improved the format but have not altered cess real-time updates. A student team report (U.S. Department of Labor, 1991) in a substantial fashion the basic function could share bookmarks, annotations, outlined a series of competencies and of the textbook form. It remains a passive and highlights as they search a source foundation skills that not only would relationship between author and reader for information of particular relevance form the basis for a productive work life that purports to be accurate (sometimes to their own project. The static course but also are, arguably, essential for an wrongly so), and it is presented as an pack could be made dynamic, with enhanced quality of life for all citizens authority in a discipline. It is our conten- opportunity for students and faculty in a democracy. These include “think- tion that the type of learning experiences alike to post links to new sources as a ing creatively, making decisions, solving called for in the SCANS report and in course progresses. Articles and other problems, seeing things in the mind’s the APA principles can be, and should sources could move seamlessly in and eye, knowing how to learn, and reason- be, facilitated by melding the appropriate out of video as well as virtual worlds and ing… individual responsibility, self-es- technology with pedagogy. visual databases. Linking material from teem, sociability, self-management, and multiple sources could bring new life to integrity” (U.S. Department of Labor, Potential for Change statistics. These capabilities exist right 1991, iii). We feel it is critical to note Although the textbook has had tremen- now and they are coming to a school or that the Commission described these dous longevity as a content delivery university near you! skills not as the end product of educa- method, modern technology has given tion but rather as the foundation upon us the means to explore radically new Our Proposal which other learning depends. Respond- approaches to challenges long recog- Working from a philosophical founda- ing to a call for education to prepare stu- nized. For example, the Horizon Report tion of Constructionism, we propose dents as lifelong learners, the process of (Johnson, Levine, Smith, & Stone, 2010) that it is time to reconceptualize the education joins content as figure rather identifies six emerging technologies that textbook, especially given the needs than background. will affect education content and deliv- and characteristics of learners in the Also in 1990, the American Psycho- ery during the next five years, includ- information age. Constructionism, logical Association began publishing ing mobile computing, open content, which Papert and Harel (1991) termed its Learner-Centered Psychological electronic books, simple augmented “learning-by-making” (¶ 1), focuses on Principles. Revised in 1997, these prin- reality, gesture-based computing, and the learning that occurs when students ciples, based on a century of research visual data analysis. All of these have are actively involved with construct- into teaching and learning, stress the fundamental implications for the future ing an object, either physical or vir- importance of social interaction, rel- of the textbook. tual. The power of the constructionist evancy, and opportunities for personal Take, for example, just one of these approach, combined with the need for choice in learning and in constructing technologies, electronic books (e-books). skills such as problem solving; critical knowledge (APA, 1997). We believe The Horizon Report discusses e-books and analytical thinking; adaptability;

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Copyright © 2011, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], iste.org. All rights reserved. Technological Reinvention of the Textbook applying knowledge to real-world, tion is not intended to focus solely on coverage of the course material as well, novel situations; information literacy the research aspects of this offering. This providing integration, focus, depth, con- (meaning access to, and sense-making paper intends to explore the lessons that text, alternative viewpoints, and another of, knowledge rather than acquisition have been learned through this holistic source for the students to triangulate the of knowledge); the triangulation of in- implementation of this process, how it information they had brought into the formation as a means of validation; and has adapted over time, and how it has wikibook. valuing and seeking multiple perspec- altered the instructional paradigm of the ECI 301, the Social and Cultural tives make it imperative to rethink such class. Having said that, in the spring of Foundations of Education, is a required a passive means of content delivery. 2006, the instructional staff of the Social course for preservice teachers and, as The compelling needs of 21st century and Cultural Foundations of Educa- such, enrolls more than 200 students learners demonstrate that the nature tion course (ECI 301) at ODU began to each semester. Consequently, it was and structure of education is (or needs discuss the idea of assigning students in necessary to design an inclusive process to be) on the brink of transformation. the course the responsibility of writing where all students would participate in Indeed, “content is so abundant as to their own textbook. Note that this peda- writing the textbook. The instructional make it a poor foundation on which gogy represents a significantly different team weighed two options: (a) have to base an educational system; rather approach than posting a textbook or groups of students work together to pro- context and meaning are the scarce but course pack online or making a textbook duce a submission, or (b) have several relevant commodities today” (McCombs available electronically. The students in students cover each topic individually. & Vakili, 2005, p. 1582). the course, under the guidance of an As this writing project would be ground- We believe that this transformation instructional team, would, in fact, write breaking in nature, the instructors de- will hinge on how educators answer their own textbook, evaluate and reflect cided to avoid the additional complexi- questions such as: on their own work, and post it in a wiki. ties of group work. This decision led to After initial discussions regarding a structure where up to three students •• How can classrooms be designed the dimensions of such a project, the could write on a given topic. Each stu- to facilitate active construction of instructional team decided to submit a dent selected a topic that interested him knowledge by communities of col- proposal for a faculty innovator grant to or her, but no more than three students laborators? ODU to develop the framework for this were allowed to write on the same topic. •• What is the role of peer-to-peer pedagogy. This grant, which received If three students had already selected learning in such settings? funding in the summer of 2006, led to that topic, then the student would be •• Can educators develop new meth- a series of planning meetings where the instructed to select a different topic. ods for evaluation where asking the instructional design was developed and The instructional staff soon real- right questions is as important as, or refined. Fundamental to the process ized that this structure would make perhaps more important than, giving was a review of traditional educa- it exceedingly difficult for students to the right answers? tional foundations textbooks to identify effectively read the entire textbook, •• Can educators redefine achievement concepts, themes, and topics that are particularly as there would be three ver- to become a construct focusing on both essential and generally accepted in sions of content on which the students open-ended, criterion-referenced this discipline by a variety of authors. could be assessed. The solution to this results? This review yielded 77 topics that the concern was to incorporate a reading •• How must the role of teachers change instructional team felt must be included schedule that required students in the to facilitate this transformation? to constitute a reasonable survey of the class to read individual sections and rate •• What role can technology play in course. These topics, plus an additional the content on a 3-point scale (good, helping create a learner-centered 15 “wildcards” (blanks where students average, and poor). The highest rated of community? could submit a selection of their own if the three submissions was then included One way to explore the reconceptual- they felt a pertinent and germane area in the product designated as the official ization of the textbook is to experiment had been omitted from the other 77), textbook. It was through this methodol- with new ways of creating, organizing, were organized into 15 instructional ogy that the instructional staff hoped to and disseminating knowledge. One such chapters on the Wikibooks section of leverage what Surowiecki (2004) called initiative is taking place at Old Dominion Wikimedia (Wikimedia Foundation, the “wisdom of crowds” and to encour- University (ODU), in Norfolk Virginia. Inc., 2010), which was selected for its age the students to reflect on the work of pre-existing availability and due to lack their peers in a critical fashion. Description of Wikibook Project at of substantial other options. In addition, each submission had to Old Dominion University As in many courses, the textbook conform to certain specifications. For in- Before describing the Wikibook project was not the only source of knowledge stance, each had to be a minimum of 1,000 at Old Dominion University (ODU), it and perspective offered to the students. words. The author also had to include five is important to state that this descrip- Professor-led lectures offered systematic references (two from scholarly sources

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Copyright © 2011, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], iste.org. All rights reserved. O’Shea, Onderdonk, Allen, & Allen such as peer-reviewed journals, two that texts: one on the foundations of educa- wikibook score as well as traditional could be from popular sources such as tion and one on assessment practices. textbook readers (O’Shea et al., 2009) on newspapers, and one that could be from Additional changes made to the process a core competency examination that the either), five multiple-choice questions ap- at this time included the addition of an instructional staff designed to measure propriate to the topic, and one sidebar (an About the Authors section that allowed academic outcomes. Although this does additional section of content—a quotation, all of the students to identify themselves not necessarily settle the issue of the video, cartoon, etc.—that would illustrate (including their educational philoso- product’s credibility, it suggests that the the main topic). phy), greater use of feedback from read- process has promise as a viable educa- This instructors implemented this ers (including the authors’ reflections on tional pedagogy. process first for the fall 2006 semester their submissions based on the feedback As promising as these results are, we and have continued it each semester received from peers), and an About Our believe that even if “constructivism in since. At the same time as the initial Schools section that asked the students practice” sometimes does lead to uneven implementation in 2006, a graduate-lev- to reflect on their experiences observing results in the final product, this should el research class was assigned to analyze in K–12 settings. The ease with which not necessarily be interpreted as a failure the methodology and course outcomes. we accomplished these changes to the of the process. If the process of learning The research class designed instruments content of the course and to the process is truly to be valued, then the learning to gather data on student perceptions of implementing the wikibook pedagogy experience must be assessed in its own concerning their comfort level with the provides a vivid, and unanticipated, right, where the teacher and course material, the level of material that they demonstration of the flexibility and materials become guides to learning believed they learned from the wikibook strength of the model. The model effort- rather than simply serving as content process, and their usage of the textbook. lessly and fluidly accommodated itself to experts. The roles of guide and process Findings from research indicated that these changes and consistently main- facilitator are frequently celebrated, but the students used the wikibook more tained its focus on student authorship teachers often fail to fully realize them than they used traditional textbooks of material, peer ratings of content, and while using conventional classroom and and felt more involved with the content competition for inclusion in the official textbook methodologies. (O’Shea et al., 2007). textbook. After all, building an outline In addition to the more structured re- for the textbook that met the needs of Advantages of the Wiki Approach search results, we undertook a formative the new course structure was no more There are several obvious advantages to evaluation to review the process itself. difficult than building any previous out- the wikibook approach in the educa- As a result of this formative evaluation, line. The various editions of the texts can tional process. First and foremost, this is we made several iterative changes were be found either on Wikibooks (http:// a truly student-centered learning experi- made to the process. For example, the en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cul- ence. As the consumers of the content instructional staff decided to port the tural_Foundations_of_American_Edu- are also the producers of the content, best content across semesters to seed the cation for the initial edition) or on the the learning experience is integrative, next textbook and provide students an WiTTIE Project’s website (http://www. revolving around the students and their exemplar. This permitted each new class wittieproject.org/wiki/In_Our_Schools/ ability to find, analyze, and report infor- to write their own textbook while main- Fall_2010 for the most recent). mation that is plentiful and available. In taining the highest quality material from As this pedagogical approach evolves, essence, this capitalizes on indigenous semester to semester. Another change several issues must be addressed to and discovered knowledge and informa- indicated by the research involved the ensure successful development of the tion provided by the learners them- redesign of the rating scale. The students wikibook process. Chief among these selves. This dynamic, interactive process indicated that they needed further guid- issues is the concern surrounding the allows the students to build specific ance on how to rate their classmates’ credibility of the product the students information-related skills in addition to material, so the rating scale was expand- created. As is common when discuss- simply acquiring information. The fact ed to include four variables (importance, ing the use of wikis to create content, that the ODU program incorporates interest, credibility, and writing), each of critics have voiced concerns about how an element of competition does not which was to be rated on a 5-point scale. credible and accurate the material is preclude using this type of instructional This methodology persisted sub- in the student-authored wikibook. To model in a collaborative and cooperative stantially unchanged until the spring of address this, the instructional staff has form that fosters metacognitive skills as- 2008, when the course was redesigned assessed the credibility of this process by sociated with learning how to learn. This as the Foundations of Education and comparing the academic performance is also inherently a problem-centered Instructional Assessment due to changes of students using the wikibook process method, which is often more engaging mandated by the Commonwealth of Vir- to peers using a conventional textbook. and motivating for students. ginia for all teacher preparatory courses. Thus far, the research indicates that Second, this paradigm naturally This change necessitated two distinct the students using the learner-created facilitates the learning of a panoply of

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Copyright © 2011, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), [email protected], iste.org. All rights reserved. Technological Reinvention of the Textbook information literacy skills. After all, in project provides a concrete example of an inclusive approach may be more in- the modern, information-rich world, “it how this transition can be facilitated, but teresting than the exclusive” (Saul, 1994, becomes less important for students to many teachers will require substantial p. 9). We would argue that the pedagogy know, memorize, or recall information, support as they take on this new role. we describe is a way to create such intel- and more important for them to be able Another issue that must be confront- lectual space and is one method, among to find, sort, analyze, share, discuss, cri- ed—but which is not unique to a wiki- what we hope becomes a suite of meth- tique, and create information” (Wesch, book approach to textbook creation—is ods, for teachers to promote creativity 2009, ¶ 3). Additionally, this format of that textbooks in general encourage and joy in teaching and learning. instruction allows for much more cur- students to think in “sound bites” rather The same can be said for the future rency of information, as the students are than delving deeply into primary sourc- of the textbook. The learner-authored finding and evaluating information in es of information. It is the rare under- wikibook is one way that textbooks may real time and can incorporate the most graduate or master’s-level student who evolve to meet the needs of learners in recent additions to the knowledge base. will actually have read Vygotsky, Bloom, the information age. Third, and perhaps most importantly, Gardner, Piaget, or Dewey’s primary is the adaptability and flexibility of this works. The concept of writing a textbook Author Notes type of instructional design. In a very does not necessarily ensure that students Patrick M. O’Shea is currently an assistant professor practical sense, a change in a course such read primary sources any more than in instructional technology at Appalachian State University and an educational consultant working as the one mandated by the Common- reading a traditional textbook does. on augmented reality and distributed learning edu- wealth of Virginia did not have a substan- cational initiatives. Before that he held a postdoc- tial impact on the process. There was no Conclusion toral fellowship in learning technologies at Harvard’s need to search for a new textbook to add Perhaps the most important conclu- Graduate School of Education, where he directed to the course. All that was needed was a sion from this discussion deals with the the Handheld Augmented Reality Project. He has professional experience working with educational new outline for the wikibook, which the credibility associated with the process technology, assessment, and program evaluation. instructional staff was able to create in and product. The issue of credibility will He has taught online and in face-to-face settings short order. This flexibility allows for the always arise in any project that attempts and consulted nationally and internationally on incorporation of new information and to supplant or even supplement content educational projects, including working for the Bill perspectives in real time. gatekeepers. The argument becomes & Melinda Gates Foundation in Africa and as a Fulbright Specialist in Sri Lanka. Please send corre- more vociferous if the focus of the spondence to Patrick O’Shea, 1057 Autumn Harvest Disadvantages of the Wiki Approach evaluation of this pedagogical approach Drive, Virginia Beach, Virginia, 23464. E-mail: We have summarized what we feel are is more on the product created rather [email protected] the advantages of the wikibooks pro- than on the learning experience cre- cess, but it also has disadvantages. For ated. With the ubiquity of information James C. Onderdonk is the associate director for education and outreach with the Institute for example, there are practical problems of and access, there is a need to rethink Computing in the Humanities, Arts, and Social managing the technology and the pro- the old construct of credibility, which is Science at the University of Illinois at Urbana- cess. The tools that are used for this type largely self-referential. The new question Champaign. His research interests include the of activity, while improving, are still rela- of credibility that must be considered intersection of technology and learning. Please tively difficult to incorporate seamlessly is: Can credibility be reconceptualized address correspondence to James Onderdonk; Institute for Computing in the Humanities, Arts, into the classroom setting. The lack of as a validation of a continual sequence and Social Sciences; 306 University Library; 1408 user-friendly interfaces means that a of iterations, with changing criteria, West Gregory; MC 522; Urbana, IL 61801. E-mail: substantial amount of technological sup- expected transitions and transforma- [email protected] port is needed to ensure success. tions, unexpected sources and stimuli, This leads to another critical issue, al- and the expectation that all judgments Douglas Allen is the director of global business pro- grams at the University of Denver Daniels College of luded to earlier, that must be addressed: are temporary? Business. He is a permanent Guest Professor. at the This pedagogical approach can reach its Although we feel that the wikibook Renmin (People’s) University Business School in Bei- full potential only if the teacher’s role approach offers a good example of jing, China, and a regular guest professor at Tongji changes. The idea of the teacher being the appropriate use of technology in University School of Management and Economics the “guide on the side” rather than the learning, we are also cognizant that the in Shanghai, China. He has published articles and made frequent presentations on management in “sage on the stage” has been repeated so wikibook approach is “a” way to help the China, globalization, and human resource manage- often that it has become offensively trite. evolution of the teacher’s role, not “the” ment to a wide variety of conferences and organiza- The challenge of evolving a new role for way. In The Doubter’s Companion, John tions. Please send correspondence to Douglas Allen, teachers stems from the fact that teach- Raulston Saul elucidates the difference Department of Management, University of Denver, ers are often told that they must make between “a” and “the” in his definition, Denver, CO 80208. E-mail: [email protected] this transition but are seldom given “A versus the. Indefinite versus definite. Dwight W. Allen is Emeritus Eminent Scholar of guidance on how to do it or a context A suggestion that there is room for Educational Reform at Old Dominion University. in which to make the change. The ODU doubt, questioning, consideration. That He advocates the development of an entire new

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structure for formal education. For the past six Ferrell, O. C. (1998). The history of marketing Rotfeld, H. J. (2000). The textbook effect: Conventional years he has been researching strategies for student- principles textbooks. Paper presented at wisdom, myth, and error in marketing, The Journal written textbooks and other Web 2.0 initiatives. He Academy of Marketing Science annual of Marketing, 64(2), pp. 122–126. is the author of nine books on educational reform conference, Norfolk, VA (May 28–30). Saul, J. R. (1994). The doubter’s companion. New and teacher education. Please send correspondence Johnson, L., Levine, A., Smith, R., & Stone, S. York: The Free Press. to Dwight W. Allen, Eminent Scholar of Educa- (2010). The 2010 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds: Why tional Reform, Emeritus, Old Dominion University, The New Media Consortium. the many are smarter than the few and how 19375 E Stanford Avenue, Aurora, CO 80015. McCombs, B., & Vakili, D. (2005). A learner- collective wisdom shapes business, economies, E-mail: [email protected] centered framework for e-learning. Teachers societies and nations. New York: Random House College Record, 107(8), 1582–1600. Publishing. References O’Shea, P., Curry-Corcoran, D., Baker, P., Allen, D. U.S. Department of Labor (1991). What work American Psychological Association (1997). B., & Allen, D. W. (2007). New levels of student requires of schools, A SCANS report for America Learner-centered psychological principles: participatory learning: A wikitext for the 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving A framework for school reform & redesign. introductory course in education. The Journal of Necessary Skills. Retrieved April 29, 2010, from Washington, D.C. Retrieved April 28, 2010, Interactive Online Learning, 6(2007). http://wdr.doleta.gov/SCANS/whatwork from http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/ O’Shea, P., Kidd, J., Baker, P., Kaufman, J., Wesch, M. (2009). From knowledgeable to learner-centered.pdf Yun, X., & Allen, D. (2009). Traditional knowledge-able: Learning in new media Bryson, L. (1936). The textbook of the future. New textbook vs. student-authored wikibook: A environments. Academic Commons. York: H. Wolff Book Manufacturing Co. quasi-experimental study of student academic Retrieved May 26, 2009, from http://www. Clark, F. (1922). Principles of marketing. New York: outcomes. Paper presented at the American academiccommons.org/commons/essay/ The Macmillan Company. Educational Research Association conference, knowledgable-knowledge-able EDUCAUSE (2010). The EDUCAUSE top teaching San Diego, California, April 13–17, 2009. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. (2010). Wikimedia and learning challenges. Retrieved on April Papert, S., & Harel, I. (Eds.) (1991). Foundation. Wikipedia. Retrieved January 29, 2010, from http://www.educause.edu/eli/ Constructionism. Norwood, NJ, Ablex 5, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Challenges Publishing Corporation. Wikimedia_Foundation

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