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Field-Based Analytical Methods for Explosive Compounds
Field-Based Analytical Methods for Explosive Compounds Dr. Thomas F. Jenkins Marianne E. Walsh USA Engineer Research and Development Center– Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory 72 Lyme Road, Hanover NH 03755 603-646-4385 (FAX-4785) [email protected] [email protected] 1 1 Outline of Presentation • Important properties of nitroaromatic (TNT) and nitramine (RDX) explosives • Accepted laboratory methods for explosives chemicals • Detection criteria for explosives-related chemicals • Why should you consider using on-site methods? • Sampling considerations for explosives in soil and water • Verified methods for on-site determination of explosives in soil and water • Advantages / disadvantages of various on-site methods 2 Overview of topics to be covered in the presentation. 2 ***Safety*** • Chunks of high explosives often found at contaminated sites • Concentrations of TNT or RDX in soil greater than 12% are reactive (can propagate a detonation)* • Neither chunks nor soil with concentrations of TNT and RDX greater than 10% can be shipped off site using normal shipping procedures *Kristoff et al. 1987 3 The most important property of all is the ability of these compounds to detonate if they are subjected to the right type of stimulus (spark, shock). This is one of the major reasons why on-site analysis is so important for explosives. Kristoff, F.T., T.W. Ewing and D.E. Johnson (1987) Testing to Determine Relationship Between Explosive Contaminated Sludge Components and Reactivity. USATHAMA Report No. AMXTH-TE-CR-86096, -
The Russian Job
The Russian Job The rise to power of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation “We did not reject our past. We said honestly: The history of the Lubyanka in the twentieth century is our history…” ~ Nikolai Platonovich Patrushev, Director of the FSB Between August-September 1999, a series of explosions in Russia killed 293 people: - 1 person dead from a shopping centre explosion in Moscow (31 st August) - 62 people dead from an apartment bombing in Buynaksk (4 th September) - 94 people dead from an apartment bombing in Moscow (9th September) - 119 people dead from an apartment bombing in Moscow (13 th September) - 17 people dead from an apartment bombing in Volgodonsk (16 th September) The FSB (Federal Security Service) which, since the fall of Communism, replaced the defunct KGB (Committee for State Security) laid the blame on Chechen warlords for the blasts; namely on Ibn al-Khattab, Shamil Basayev and Achemez Gochiyaev. None of them has thus far claimed responsibility, nor has any evidence implicating them of any involvement been presented. Russian citizens even cast doubt on the accusations levelled at Chechnya, for various reasons: Not in living memory had Chechen militias pulled off such an elaborated string of bombings, causing so much carnage. A terrorist plot on such a scale would have necessitated several months of thorough planning and preparation to put through. Hence the reason why people suspected it had been carried out by professionals. More unusual was the motive, or lack of, for Chechens to attack Russia. Chechnya’s territorial dispute with Russia predates the Soviet Union to 1858. -
Toxicological Profile For
RDX 107 6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 6.1 OVERVIEW RDX has been identified at 31 out of the 1,699 hazardous waste sites that have been proposed for inclusion on the EPA National Priorities List (NPL) (HazDat 2007). However, the number of sites evaluated for RDX is not known. The frequency of these sites can be seen in Figure 6-1. RDX is a military explosive produced by the nitrolysis of hexamine with nitric acid (Boileau et al. 2009). It is a synthetic compound and is not known to exist in nature. Effluents and emissions from ammunition plants are responsible for the release of RDX into the environment (Pennington and Brannon 2002; U.S. Army 1984a). RDX is expected to exist as a particulate in the atmosphere. When released to water, RDX is subject to photolysis (half-life of 9–13 hours). Photoproducts include formaldehyde and nitrosamines (U.S. Army 1980a). Alkaline hydrolysis can also occur (Balakrishnan et al. 2003; Heilmann et al. 1996). RDX undergoes biodegradation in water and soil under anaerobic conditions (Funk et al. 1993; Pennington and Brannon 2002; U.S. Army 1984f). Its biodegradation products include MNX; DNX; TNX; hydrazine; 1,1-dimethyl-hydrazine, 1,2-dimethyl-hydrazine; formaldehyde; and methanol (McCormick et al. 1981). RDX is mobile in soil, and can leach into groundwater (U.S. Army 1980c), and can be transported from soils or water to terrestrial and aquatic plants (Best et al. 1999; Harvey et al. 1991, 1997; Pennington and Brannon 2002; Simini and Checkai 1996). RDX has been identified in environmental samples, primarily near army munition depots (Bishop et al. -
Explosives and Terminal Ballistics
AND TERMINAL BALLISTICS A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE AAF SCIEN'rIFIC ADVISORY GROUP By D. P. MAC DOUGALL Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Washington, D. C. N. M. NEWMARK Department oj Civil Engineering, University oj Illinois • PMblished May, 1946 by HEADQUARTERS AIR MATERIEL COMMAND PUBLICATIONS BRANCH, INTEJtJYiE~9) '1001 WRIGHT FIELD, DAYTON, OHIO V-46579 The AAF Scientific Advisory Group was activated late in 1944 by General of the Army H. H. Arnold. He se cured the services of Dr. Theodore von Karman, re nowned scientist and consultant in aeronautics, who agreed to organize and direct the group. Dr. von Karman gathered about him a group of Ameri can scientists from every field of research having a bearing on air power. These men then analyzed im portant developments in the basic sciences, both here and abroad, and attempted to evaluate the effects of their application to air power. This volume is one of a group of reports made to the Army Air Forces by the Scientific Advisory Group. Thil document contolnl Information affecting the notional defenle of the United Statel within the meaning of the Espionage Ad, SO U. S. C., 31 and 32, 01 amended. Its tronsmiulon or the revelation of Its contents In any manner to on unauthorized person II prohibited by low. AAF SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY GROUP Dr. Th. von Karman Director Colonel F. E. Glantzberg Dr. H. L. Dryden Deputy Director, Military Deputy Director, Scientific Lt Col G. T. McHugh, Executive Capt C. H. Jackson, Jr., Secretary CONSULTANTS Dr. C. W. Bray Dr. A. J. Stosick Dr. L. A. -
Part 3 Explosives
Utah Code Part 3 Explosives 76-10-302 Marking of containers of explosives before transportation or storage. Every person who knowingly leaves with or delivers to another, or to any express or railway company or other common carrier, or to any warehouse or storehouse, any package containing nitroglycerin, dynamite, guncotton, gunpowder, or other highly explosive compound, or any benzine, gasoline, phosphorus, or other highly inflammable substance, or any vitriol, sulphuric, nitric, carbolic, muriatic, or other dangerous acid, chemical or compound, to be handled, stored, shipped, or transported, without plainly marking and indicating on such package the name and nature of the contents thereof, is guilty of a class B misdemeanor. Enacted by Chapter 196, 1973 General Session 76-10-303 Powder houses. Every person who builds, constructs, or uses within 300 feet of any residence or traveled county road any powder house, magazine, or building in which powder, dynamite, or other explosive is kept in quantities exceeding 500 pounds is guilty of a class B misdemeanor; provided that this section shall not apply to any magazine maintained at any mine or stone quarry. Enacted by Chapter 196, 1973 General Session 76-10-304 Marking of containers of explosives held for sale or use. It shall be a class A misdemeanor to sell or offer for sale or take or solicit orders of sale, or purchase or use, or have on hand or in store for the purpose of sale or use, any giant, hercules, atlas, venture or any other high explosive containing nitroglycerin, unless on each box or package and wrapper containing any such high explosive there shall be plainly stamped or printed the name and place of business of the person, partnership, or corporation by whom or by which it was manufactured, and the exact and true date of its manufacture, and the percentage of nitroglycerin or other high explosive contained therein. -
Recent Developments in Composition C-4: Towards an Alternate Binder and Reduced Sensitivity
Recent Developments in Composition C-4: Towards an Alternate Binder and Reduced Sensitivity NDIA Insensitive Munitions & Energetic Materials Technology Symposium 2009 Jim Owens* BAE SYSTEMS OSI, Holston Army Ammunition Plant Paul Vinh RDECOM-ARDEC, Picatinny Arsenal IMEMTS 2009 – Tucson, AZ Cleared for Public Release by BAE Systems 1 Presentation Outline • Research Extrudable Moldable Insensitive eXplosive (OSX-REMIX) • Background • Program Objectives • Technical Approach • Formulation and Evaluation • Summary • Alternate Plastic-binder Extrudable eXplosive (OSX-APEX) • Background • Program Objectives • Technical Approach • Formulation • Modified Accelerated Aging Trial • Summary IMEMTS 2009 – Tucson, AZ Cleared for Public Release by BAE Systems 2 Acknowledgement • PM-CCS • Mr. Felix Costa • RDECOM-ARDEC • Mr. Paul Vinh • Mr. Sanjeev Singh • Mr. Gregory Tremarco • BAE SYSTEMS OSI • Mr. Jim Haynes • Ms. Kelly Guntrum • Mr. Alberto Carrillo • Mr. Matt Hathaway • Mr. Brian Alexander IMEMTS 2009 – Tucson, AZ Cleared for Public Release by BAE Systems 3 OSX-REMIX – Program Objectives • Composition C-4 already fares well in the arena of insensitivity, due to relatively large amount of binder. • Passes Bullet Impact and Fragment Impact (Army) sensitivity tests at ambient temperature. • Fails shock stimulus – Sympathetic Detonation and Shaped Charge Jet. • BAE’s task – to develop an alternate extrudable formulation with similar physical and energy output characteristics, while enhancing its insensitivity. • Maintain current binder configuration for comparison to standard C-4. • Identify modifications to process or alternate input energetics. • Formulate and evaluate physical and energetic properties. IMEMTS 2009 – Tucson, AZ Cleared for Public Release by BAE Systems 4 OSX-REMIX – Technical Approach • Modification to manufacturing process. • Maintain aqueous slurry-coating process. • Premixing RDX with fluid portion of binder (DOA/Oil). -
Tnt Equivalence of C-4 and Pe4: a Review of Traditional Sources and Recent Data
TNT EQUIVALENCE OF C-4 AND PE4: A REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL SOURCES AND RECENT DATA D. Bogosian1, M. Yokota1, S. Rigby2 1Baker Engineering and Risk Consultants, 360 N. Sepulveda Blvd., Ste 1090, El Segundo, CA 90245, USA; 2University of Sheffield, Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, United Kingdom ABSTRACT Since standard engineering-level blast models are typically developed to predict airblast parameters (pressure and impulse) from TNT bursts, prediction of airblast from other materials uses an equivalence factor by which an equivalent TNT weight is computed and used in the source term of the model. This approach is widespread in the industry and has been codified in numerous manuals, books, and papers. A recent effort co-sponsored by TSWG (U.S.) and FSTD (Singapore) collected and compiled equivalence data for a wide variety of explosive materials (both military grade as well as home-made) into a single software tool named STREET. The database thus assembled provides a comprehensive and expandable repository for equivalence data. Two of the main achievements in STREET are the consideration of equivalence as a function of scaled standoff (rather than a scalar), and the documentation of uncertainty in the estimated value. In this paper, we consider specifically the manual- and test-derived data related to Composition C-4, and as a first step, we draw some judgments regarding the equivalence implicit in blast curves provided by UFC 3-340-02, for both pressure and impulse. Next, we consider PE4, which is similar in composition to C-4 and is used widely in the UK. -
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (Tnt)
2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE (TNT) What is 2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE? 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, also called TNT, is a man-made compound. The odorless, yellow solid is used in explosives. In the United States, TNT is primarily made at military sites. Where can TNT be found and how is it used? TNT is an explosive used by the military in artillery shells, grenades and airborne bombs. TNT may be found in old artillery shells that wash up or are dredged up on beaches. Industries use TNT to make dye and photography chemicals. How can people be exposed to TNT? You could be exposed to TNT through: Breathing vapor or dust containing TNT. This might happen if your work involves TNT. Drinking water polluted with TNT. This could happen if you drink water polluted by a waste site containing TNT. Eating fruits and vegetables grown in soil containing TNT. Touching soil that contacted TNT. You can also touch it if you work with TNT. Eye Contact by touching the eyes with hands contaminated with TNT, or getting TNT-contaminated dust in them. How does TNT work? When you breathe in air or drink water with TNT in it, the chemical enters your body quickly and completely. If TNT touches the skin, the body absorbs it more slowly. Regardless of the type of exposure, TNT is absorbed by the bloodstream and travels to the organs. When it reaches the liver, it breaks down and changes into several different substances. Not all of these substances have been identified, so it is not known if they are harmful. -
Plastic Explosives
History and Present DIRECTORS of VUPCH Plastic Explosives Research Institute of Industrial Chemistry (VÚPCH) with its seat in Pardubice-Semtín was established by the Ministry of Defense Decree of November 2nd, 1953 to In the fifties of the last century the research and later the industrial production January 1st 1954 as a state administration facility with the scope of activities - research and development of explosives. VÚPCH was entitled to administrate research of plastic explosives based on High explosives and non-explosive plasticizer workplaces of national enterprise Synthesia, and experts were centralized there from the original research department, the so-called Central Laboratories of the was started in VCHZ (today known as Explosia). ® company, and technological groups of the former Explosia. The activity of VÚPCH continuously linked up to the activity of departments R and X that had been entrusted Plastic explosives from Explosia are known under the trade name Semtex . with research, development and testing within the framework of Explosia a.s. since 1923. From the beginning, the newly established research institute (VÚPCH) was the author of the technical solutions of plastic explosives as well as most of the By the Ministry of Chemical Industry Decree of December 30th, 1958 VÚPCH was abolished as an independent budgetary organization and to the date of January 1st, production equipment. 1959 transferred into administration of national enterprise East Bohemian Chemical Works Synthesia. Within the framework of Synthesia there were, however, some changes in actual organizational incorporation of VÚPCH, especially in connexion with establishing the position of Deputy for Special Production in the 1970s, and the Pl Np 10 (The Black Semtex) Plant 05 Special Production in the 1980s. -
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Nitration of Toluene (Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution)
Nitration of Toluene (Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution) Electrophilic aromatic substitution represents an important class of reactions in organic synthesis. In "aromatic nitration," aromatic organic compounds are nitrated via an electrophilic aromatic substitution mechanism involving the attack of the electron-rich benzene ring on the nitronium ion. The formation of a nitronium ion (the electrophile) from nitric acid and sulfuric acid is shown below. The sulfuric acid is regenerated and hence acts as a catalyst. It also absorbs water to drive the reaction forward. Figure 1: The mechanism for the formation of a nitronium ion. The methyl group of toluene makes it around 25 times more reactive than benzene in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. Toluene undergoes nitration to give ortho and para nitrotoluene isomers, but if heated it can give dinitrotoluene and ultimately the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). Figure 2: Reaction of nitric acid and sulfuric acid with toluene. Procedure: 1. Place a 5 mL conical vial, equipped with a spin vane, in a crystallizing dish filled with ice-water placed on a stirrer. 2. Pour 1.0 mL of concentrated nitric acid into the vial. While stirring, slowly add 1.0 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid. 3. After the addition of sulfuric acid is complete, add 1.0 mL of toluene dropwise and slowly over a period of 5 minutes (slow down if you see boiling. Reaction produces a lot of heat). 4. While Stirring, allow the contents of the flask to reach the room temperature. Stir at room temperature for another 5 minutes. 5. Add 10 mL of water into a small separatory funnel. -
Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet
Right to Know Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet Common Name: 2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE Synonyms: 1-Methyl-2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene; TNT CAS Number: 118-96-7 Chemical Name: Benzene, 2-Methyl-1,3,5-Trinitro- RTK Substance Number: 1948 Date: May 2000 Revision: September 2010 DOT Number: UN 0209 Description and Use EMERGENCY RESPONDERS >>>> SEE LAST PAGE 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene is an odorless, colorless to pale yellow, Hazard Summary crystalline (sand-like) solid that is often transported in a slurry. Hazard Rating NJDOH NFPA It is used primarily as an explosive and is also used in making HEALTH 2 - dye stuffs and photographic chemicals. FLAMMABILITY 4 - REACTIVITY 4 - CARCINOGEN EXPLOSIVE - KEEP WET FLAMMABLE AND REACTIVE Reasons for Citation POISONOUS GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE IN FIRE f 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene is on the Right to Know Hazardous Hazard Rating Key: 0=minimal; 1=slight; 2=moderate; 3=serious; Substance List because it is cited by OSHA, ACGIH, DOT, 4=severe NIOSH, IARC and IRIS. f This chemical is on the Special Health Hazard Substance f 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene can affect you when inhaled and may List. be absorbed through the skin. f 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene should be handled as a CARCINOGEN--WITH EXTREME CAUTION. f 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene may cause reproductive damage. HANDLE WITH EXTREME CAUTION. f Contact can irritate the skin and eyes and may cause a skin allergy. f Inhaling 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene can irritate the nose and throat. SEE GLOSSARY ON PAGE 5. f High levels of this substance can reduce the blood’s ability to transport Oxygen causing headache, fatigue, dizziness, and a blue color to the skin and lips (methemoglobinemia).