Ecology and Management of Invasive Pinaceae Around the World: Progress and Challenges

Biol Invasions DOI 10.1007/s10530-017-1483-4 FOREST INVASIONS Ecology and management of invasive Pinaceae around the world: progress and challenges Martin A. Nun˜ez . Mariana C. Chiuffo . Agostina Torres . Thomas Paul . Romina D. Dimarco . Peter Raal . Nahuel Policelli . Jaime Moyano . Rafael A. Garcıá . Brian W. van Wilgen . Anı´bal Pauchard . David M. Richardson Received: 4 October 2016 / Accepted: 15 June 2017 Ó Springer International Publishing AG 2017 Abstract Many species in the family Pinaceae are invaded areas should be addressed. There are many invaders. These species are relatively easy to control ways to prevent invasions and to deal with them. because of some of their intrinsic characteristics and Planting less invasive species, better site selection, and because they are highly visible and easy to eliminate. invasion monitoring are used successfully in different Many Pinaceae species have been well studied parts of the world to prevent invasion. Mechanical and because of their use in forestry and their invasive chemical methods are used effectively to control behavior in many countries. The impacts of invasive Pinaceae invasions. Control is more effective at the Pinaceae are not only ecological, but also economic early stages of invasion. Old invasions are more and social. We review the ecology and management of problematic as their elimination is more expensive, Pinaceae invasions and explore how restoration of and the restoration of native vegetation is challenging. In some areas, native vegetation cannot thrive after Pinaceae have been removed, and weeds colonize Guest Editors: Andrew Liebhold, Eckehard Brockerhoff and Martin Nun˜ez / Special issue on Biological Invasions in Forests cleared areas. More attention is needed to prevent the prepared by a task force of the International Union of Forest initiation and spread of invasions by focusing control Research Organizations (IUFRO). M. A. Nun˜ez (&) M. C. Chiuffo A. Torres R. A. Garcıá A. Pauchard N. Policelli J. MoyanoÁ Á Á Laboratorio deÁ Invasiones Biolo´gicas, Facultad de Grupo de EcologıÁ á de Invasiones, INIBIOMA, Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Concepcioń, Casilla CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Av. de 160-C, Concepcioń, Chile Los Pioneros 2350, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] R. A. Garcıá A. Pauchard Institute of EcologyÁ and Biodiversity (IEB), Las Palmeras T. Paul 3425, Santiago, Chile New Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd, 49 Sala Street, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua 3046, New Zealand B. W. van Wilgen D. M. Richardson Centre for InvasionÁ Biology, Department of Botany and R. D. Dimarco Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Grupo de Ecologıá de Poblaciones de Insectos, Africa CONICET, INTA, Modesta Victoria 4450, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina P. Raal Department of Conservation, Dunedin Office, P O Box 5244, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand 123 M. A. Nun˜ez et al. interventions at early stages of invasion. Finding new and grasslands (Rundel et al. 2014;Pauchardetal. ways of dealing sustainably with conflicts of interest 2016). between foresters and conservationists is crucial. Non- Pinaceae invasions have major ecological and native Pinaceae are important parts of the economies economic impacts. Impacts on water resources in and landscapes in several countries and they will South Africa are probably the best-studied example continue to play such a role in the future. Despite the (e.g. Le Maitre et al. 2002). Pinaceae invasions also numerous challenges facing Pinaceae invasion man- have important social and cultural implications agement, several approaches can be successful at (Greenaway et al. 2015) and have negative effects on controlling them. Proper application of current tech- ecosystem services (Dickie et al. 2014a). For example, niques and development of more efficient ones is an economic assessment in New Zealand quantified the needed if the goal of maximizing benefits and negative impacts of invasive conifers on farm produc- minimizing negative impacts is to be achieved. tivity, tourism, rare species conservation and water availability at over a billion NZ$ over the next 20 years Keywords Impacts Herbicides Management (Velarde et al. 2015). Invasive Pinaceae also transform Á Á Á Pinus Restoration Southern Hemisphere Tree historic landscapes by having detrimental effects on Á Á Á invasions values related to landscape features of cultural importance, such as sacred mountain tops and historical sheep-grazing country (Greenaway et al. 2015). In contrast to many other invasive tree species, Introduction invasive Pinaceae species are relatively easy to control especially when they occur at low densities (less than Managing invasive species to reduce their impacts on 100 trees per hectare) and are of smaller size (e.g. biodiversity and ecosystems services is a major seedlings and saplings). None of the most widespread challenge. Considerable resources are allocated to invasive Pinaceae species resprout after felling, none manage invasions in many parts of the world, often have long-lived seeds that accumulate in the soil, and with limited success. Some invasive species are seedlings can easily be hand-pulled (Ledgard notably difficult to control, such as microbial species, 2001, 2009b). It takes them years to start producing animals such as mice or pigs, or plants that produce viable seeds (more than seven years for most invasive very large numbers of seeds, accumulate large long- Pinaceae species, and more than 15 for others). Their lived seed banks in the soil, can resprout vigorously, or seeds are dispersed by wind, which is more pre- have early onset of reproduction (e.g. Richardson and dictable than some other forms of seed dispersal, such Kluge 2008; Wilson et al. 2011; Garcıá et al. 2015; as dispersal by birds (Buckley et al. 2006). Moreover, Dickie et al. 2016). However, there are other invasive because pines are important forestry species, key organisms with biological characteristics (e.g. later aspects of their biology and ecology have been well onset of reproduction, site specificity) that make them studied (e.g. Richardson 1998a; Richardson and easier to control, at least when they occur at low Higgins 1998). densities over small areas. In the last few decades, numerous studies have Invasive Pinaceae species (members of the pine investigated the invasion ecology of most of the family) that establish from self-sown seeds in areas invasive Pinaceae species (Richardson and Higgins where they are unwanted are transformative species 1998; Richardson 2006; Essl et al. 2011; and refer- that invade large areas outside their native range, ences therein) and in some countries economic especially in the Southern Hemisphere (Richardson incentives and legal instruments are in place to and Higgins 1998). Such invasions change the prevent and manage current and future invasions functioning of ecosystems, affect the provision of (van Wilgen and Richardson 2012; MPI 2014). Pines certain services, and restrict options for land use are well-known and conspicuous invasive species, and (Simberloff et al. 2010). This is particularly prob- conservation organizations are concerned about them. lematic when pines invade systems where trees were Nonetheless, invasive pines remain a huge and previously rare or absent, such as natural shrublands growing problem in areas with a long history of 123 Ecology and management of invasive Pinaceae afforestation of non-native pine plantations, and are an all important forestry Pinaceae species have suc- emerging problem in areas with a shorter history of ceeded in invading new ranges (Richardson and exposure to non-native pine plantation forestry Higgins 1998). (Richardson et al. 2008). Pinaceae invasions occur To invade a new area, species must overcome predominantly in the Southern Hemisphere. In the abiotic and biotic barriers. Among the abiotic barriers, Northern Hemisphere, the lower introduction effort of climate is an important factor determining invasion non-native Pinaceae and other factors such as the success in Pinaceae species (Nun˜ez and Medley 2011). widespread presence of pathogens adapted to native Even though appropriate climatic conditions per se are species in the family, have been proposed as causes for required for Pinaceae to invade, in practice the the low levels or even absence of invasions (Sim- importance of this filter is reduced because foresters berloff et al. 2010; Essl et al. 2011; McGregor et al. have tended to use provenances of pine species that are 2012; Rejmańek and Richardson 2013). well adapted to the local climates in new environments Pine invasions in the Southern Hemisphere are (Zenni et al. 2014; Pauchard et al. 2015). Consistently, difficult to manage, for a number of reasons. These invasion patterns show a strong match between broad include the fact that the invaded areas have become climatic zones in native and invaded ranges—i.e. quite large, and are often in rugged and inaccessible tropical Pinaceae are invasive in tropical regions, sub- terrain; the difficulties of assigning responsibility for tropical and temperate Pinaceae species invade in sub- their management when pines escape from plantations tropical and temperate zones (Pauchard et al. 2015). and invade adjacent areas (McConnachie et al. 2015); Interestingly, in some cases climate in the introduced and the fact that the trees themselves have value in range is more favorable for growth and reproduction certain contexts, but not in others, leading to conflict- of a species, which

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