New Product Development for Papua New Guinea Balsa to Improve Smallholder Livelihoods

By Nathan James Kotlarewski

Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Swinburne University of Technology, Faculty of Health, Arts and Design

2016

ABSTRACT

The Papua New Guinea [PNG] balsa wood industry currently has an over-supply of balsa due to an under-demand in global commercial markets. The effect this has on smallholders is a reduction in financial returns and a loss of invested time and money. Since global industries are not using balsa, large processing companies are therefore not buying from smallholder plantations. Smallholders rely on large processors to purchase their balsa for financial return to support their livelihoods, family and community. Unlike common commercial timber plantations, where harvesting occurs when the market is strong, balsa must be harvested between five to seven years due to its fast growth and rapid deterioration after seven years.

New commercial applications have been developed during the process of this doctoral research project to develop and promote the positive attributes of PNG balsa in order to generate international demand. These applications have the potential to mitigate the expected hardship to smallholder’s livelihoods. A research-led industrial design practice process was used to generate design solutions in order to demonstrate innovative ways of utilising balsa in new and existing industries to rectify the current over-supply and under-demand. An artefact was developed through the process of this doctoral research which acts as an exemplar product that embeds and communicates new knowledge to the field of industrial design. The artefact also promotes a commercially viable product that could be used to diversify PNG balsa markets and increase consumer demand for the resource.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to sincerely thank the following people for their guidance, assistance and support throughout my PhD journey:

Industry and Academic partners: Anson Antriasian. The University of Melbourne, Australia. Lu Aye. The University of Melbourne, Australia. Tony Bartlett. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Australia Benoit Belleville. The University of Melbourne, Australia. David Belton. The University of Melbourne, Australia. Amanda Chalmers. Cabot’s Premium Woodcare Brands, Australia. Michael Curran. Seegrow Pty Ltd, Australia. Peter Dale. RMIT University, Australia. Evan Danahay. Timberwood Panels, Australia. Simon Dorries. The Engineered Wood Products Association of Australasia, Australia. Peter Fearnside. Marshall Day Acoustics, Australia. Todd Foster. Novas Architectural, Australia. Daniel Griffin. Marshall Day Acoustics, Australia Philip Grimshaw. Atkar Australia, Australia. Maurice Guerrieri. Victoria University, Australia. Benson Gusamo. Bulolo University College, Papua New Guinea. James Hague. Australian Forest Research Company Pty Ltd, Australia Braden Jenkin. Sylva Systems Pty. Ltd, Australia. Dylan Kane. Elton Group, Australia. Peter Kanowski. Australian National University, Australia. Doron Kipen. Music and Effects, Australia. Mathieu Lewis. Vault Industrial Design, Australia. Nathan Loutit. Vault Industrial Design, Australia Scott Mathews. Austral Plywood Pty Ltd, Australia. Stephen Midgley. Salwood Asia Pacific, Australia. Jaupo Minimulu. University of Natural Resources and Environment, Papua New Guinea. Rick Mitchell. University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia. Pierre Monéton. The PNG Balsa Company Ltd, Papua New Guinea. Jeremy Parker. Atkar Australia, Australia. Paul Soccio. Complete Quality Carpentry, Australia.

Colin Stone. Carter Holt Harvey, Australia. John Watson. RMIT University, Australia. Alastair Woodard. Wood Products Victoria, Australia.

Swinburne University of Technology staff: Deirdre Barron. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Daniel Huppatz Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Seth Jones. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Rachel Mosel. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Anne Prince. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Scott Saunders. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Kurt Seemann. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Nicholas Teo. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Alyx Williams. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. And to all the academic staff involved in the Higher Design Research unit HDR904.

Swinburne University of Technology Design Workshop staff: Extended thanks to all the Design workshop staff who helped immensely. James Bell. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Allen Brittain. Swinburne University of Technology. Australia. Eric Choi. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Michael Hall. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Andrew Tarlinton. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Mark Whitehead. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia.

Most of all to my supervisors: Associate Professor Blair Kuys. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Dr Christine Thong. Swinburne University of Technology, Australia. Associate Professor Barbara Ozarska. The University of Melbourne, Australia.

Family: A special thank you to my Parents, Kaylene and Wolodemer Kotlarewski and Sister Sarah, who have continually supported me throughout my PhD.

DECLARATION

Candidate name: Nathan James Kotlarewski Bachelor of Design (Industrial Design) First Class Honours

Subject: PhD Industrial Design Supervisors: Associate Professor Blair Kuys Dr Christine Thong Associate Professor Barbara Ozarska

This PhD thesis:

- Contains no material which has been accepted for the award to the candidate of any other degree or diploma, except where due reference is made in the text of the examinable outcome - To the best of the candidate’s knowledge contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of the examinable outcome - Discloses the relative contributions of the respective workers or authors where the work is based on joint research or publications - Furthermore I warrant that I have obtained, where necessary, permission from the copyright owners to use any third party copyright material reproduced in the thesis (such as artwork, images, unpublished documents), or to use any of my own published work (such as journal articles) in which the copyright is held by another party (such as publisher, co-author).

Editorial assistance:

- Peter Haffenden. Inherit Earth Australia. - Has edited this thesis simply for grammar, spelling and basic smoothing of the language used in the presentation of the ideas expressed. Mr. Haffenden’s background is in journalism and is not in the design profession nor is he in any way familiar with the balsa industry.

Nathan James Kotlarewski Date: 06/07/2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 ABSTRACT ...... 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 2

DECLARATION ...... 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 7

LIST OF TABLES ...... 15

LIST OF FIGURES ...... 19

CITATION METHOD AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT ...... 25

PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO, AND COMPLETED DURING THIS THESIS ...... 27

THESIS INTRODUCTION ...... 29

Aims and Scope ...... 29

Structure of thesis ...... 33

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 35

1.1 ACIAR ...... 35

1.2 Identifying the research gap through ACIAR project FST/2009/016 ...... 37

1.2.1 ACIAR FST/2009/012 scoping study ...... 37

1.2.2 ACIAR technical report #73 Balsa: biology, production and economics in Papua New Guinea …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38

1.2.3 ACIAR FST/2009/016 ...... 40

1.3 Evidence that the research gap is significant ...... 44

1.4 Who will benefit from the research? ...... 49

1.5 How research-led industrial design practice alleviates the issue ...... 52

1.6 Summary ...... 53

CHAPTER TWO: UNDERSTANDING BALSA ...... 55

2.1 Introduction ...... 55

2.2 Balsa ...... 55

2.3 The balsa industry in ENB, PNG ...... 58

2.3.1 Balsa life cycle ...... 61 7

2.3.2 Employment in ENB ...... 68

2.3.3 PNG balsa export markets ...... 72

2.4 Balsa properties ...... 76

2.4.1 Balsa mechanical properties ...... 81

2.5 Balsa applications ...... 86

2.5.1 History of balsa ...... 87

2.5.2 Marine ...... 89

2.5.3 Road and Rail ...... 89

2.5.4 Renewable Energy ...... 90

2.5.5 Aerospace ...... 90

2.5.6 Defence ...... 91

2.5.7 Industrial and construction ...... 91

2.6 Market opportunity and balsa competitors ...... 93

2.6.1 Synthetic polymer foams ...... 97

2.6.2 Particleboard ...... 102

2.6.3 Medium Density Fibreboard ...... 104

2.6.4 Plywood ...... 106

2.7 The Australian construction industry ...... 107

2.7.1 The global construction industry ...... 112

2.7.2 Timber in the construction industry ...... 113

2.7.3 Environmental organisations ...... 115

2.8 Summary ...... 118

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN METHODOLOGY ...... 119

3.1 Introduction ...... 119

3.2 The difference between industrial design practice in industry and academia ...... 119

3.2.1 Industry industrial design practice ...... 120

3.2.2 Academic research-led industrial design practice ...... 122

3.2.3 Comparing industry and academic industrial design practice ...... 127

3.3 Design research model ...... 128

3.3.1 Vulnerability to Resilience ...... 128

3.3.2 Research in art and design ...... 131

3.4 Design process ...... 134

3.4.1 Product design and development ...... 135

3.5 The research question ...... 137

3.6 Research methods ...... 138

3.6.1 Observations ...... 139

3.6.2 Interviews ...... 140

3.6.3 Material testing ...... 140

3.6.4 Prototyping ...... 141

3.7 Summary ...... 143

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH-LED INDUSTRIAL DESIGN PRACTICE ...... 145

4.1 Introduction ...... 145

4.2 Research into design informs research through design ...... 145

4.2.1 Swinburne University of Technology, Innovation Cup ...... 146

4.3 Industry demand material knowledge ...... 148

4.4 Material knowledge identifies opportunities ...... 149

4.5 Opportunities inform design practice ...... 150

4.6 Design practice communicates knowledge ...... 154

4.7 Product development iterations ...... 159

4.8 Summary ...... 161

CHAPTER FIVE: OBSERVATIONS AND INTERVIEWS ...... 163

5.1 Introduction ...... 163

5.2 Observations and Interviews ...... 163

5.2.1 First round observations and interviews (planning) ...... 164

5.2.2 Second round observations and interviews (concept development) ...... 167

5.2.3 Third round observations and interviews (system-level design) ...... 170

5.2.4 Fourth round observations and interviews (detail design) ...... 176

5.2.5 Fifth round observations and interviews (testing and refinement) ...... 179

5.2.6 Sixth round observations and interviews (industry response) ...... 181

5.3 Discussion ...... 182

5.4 Summary ...... 185

CHAPTER SIX: PNG BALSA PROPERTIES ...... 187

6.1 Introduction ...... 187

6.2 Research informed material testing ...... 187

6.3 Mechanical properties of PNG balsa ...... 189

6.3.1 Materials and methods ...... 190

6.3.1.1 Static Bending ...... 193 6.3.1.2 Hardness (Janka) ...... 194 6.3.1.3 Compression ...... 195 6.3.1.4 Shear ...... 197 6.3.2 Results ...... 198

6.3.2.1 Static Bending ...... 198 6.3.2.2 Hardness (Janka) ...... 201 6.3.2.3 Compression (parallel to the grain) ...... 205 6.3.2.4 Compression (perpendicular to the grain) ...... 207 6.3.2.5 Shear ...... 209 6.3.3 Discussion ...... 210

6.3.4 Conclusion ...... 212

6.4 Thermal Conductivity [TC] of PNG balsa ...... 212

6.4.1 Material and methods ...... 214

6.4.2 Results ...... 218

6.4.3 Discussion ...... 220

6.4.4 Conclusion ...... 223

6.5 Sound Absorption Coefficient [SAC] of PNG balsa ...... 224

6.5.1 Materials and methods ...... 225

6.5.2 Results ...... 226

6.5.3 Discussion ...... 233

6.5.4 Conclusion ...... 235

6.6 Fire performance of PNG balsa ...... 236

6.6.1 Materials and methods ...... 238

6.6.2 Results ...... 241

6.6.3 Discussion ...... 243

6.6.4 Conclusion ...... 244

6.7 Termite susceptibility of PNG balsa ...... 244

6.7.1 Materials and methods ...... 245

6.7.2 Results ...... 246

6.7.3 Discussion ...... 247

6.7.4 Conclusion ...... 248

6.8 Discussion ...... 248

6.9 Chapter summary ...... 249

CHAPTER SEVEN: DESIGN PRACTICE ...... 251

7.1 Introduction ...... 251

7.2 Planning ...... 251

7.2.1 Sketching (Ideation) ...... 252

7.3 Concept development ...... 257

7.3.1 Sketching (preliminary concept develop) ...... 258

7.3.2 Low-fidelity prototyping ...... 260

7.3.3 In-situ concept renders ...... 262

7.4 System-level design ...... 264

7.4.1 Plywood veneers to protect balsa ...... 264

7.4.2 Sketching (concept development) ...... 265

7.4.3 Low-fidelity prototyping ...... 271

7.5 Design ...... 275

7.5.1 CAD (detail design) ...... 275

7.5.2 Software product testing ...... 277

7.5.3 Detail product renders ...... 278

7.6 Build ...... 280

7.6.1 High-fidelity prototyping (testing and refinement) ...... 280

7.7 Test ...... 282

7.7.1 Product testing (Fire properties) ...... 283

7.7.1.1 Introduction ...... 284 7.7.1.2 Test facilities and procedures ...... 285 7.7.1.3 Sample 1 for testing ...... 285 7.7.1.4 Sample 2 for testing ...... 286 7.7.1.5 Results and discussion ...... 287 7.7.1.6 Conclusion ...... 291 7.7.2 Product testing (Acoustic absorption) ...... 292

7.7.2.1 Introduction ...... 292 7.7.2.2 Test facilities and procedures ...... 292 7.7.2.3 Sample 1 for testing ...... 292 7.7.2.4 Sample 2 for testing ...... 293 7.7.2.5 Results and discussion ...... 295 7.7.2.6 Conclusion ...... 300 7.8 Production ramp-up ...... 300

7.9 Summary ...... 301

CHAPTER EIGHT: DESIGN OUTCOME ...... 303

8.1 Introduction ...... 303

8.2 Balsa-lation ...... 303

8.2.1 Product branding ...... 304

8.2.2 Product design outcome ...... 305

8.2.3 Product testing ...... 308

8.3 Competitor products ...... 314

8.4 Design competitions ...... 320

8.4.1 2015 International Green Interior Awards...... 320

8.4.2 2015 Premier Design Awards ...... 322

8.5 Summary ...... 323

CHAPTER NINE: DISCUSSION ...... 325

9.1 Introduction ...... 325

9.2 Reflecting on the research model ...... 325

9.2.1 Research ‘into’ design ...... 327 12

9.2.2 Research ‘through’ design ...... 328

9.2.3 Research ‘for’ design ...... 329

9.3 Reflecting on the design process ...... 330

9.3.1 Academic product design process ...... 331

9.3.2 Industry product design process ...... 332

9.3.3 Contrasting the academic and industry product design process ...... 335

9.4 Summary ...... 338

CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSION ...... 341

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 347

APPENDIX ...... 361

Ethics Clearance ...... 361

2015 International Green Interior Award ...... 363

Wordle ...... 364

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Issues and associated research questions (Bull et al., 2009, p. 11) ...... 41 Table 1-2 Project objectives and associated activities (Bull et al., 2009, p. 19) ...... 43 Table 1-3 Major issues tabulated (Kuys et al., 2012, p.8) ...... 46 Table 1-4 Capacity impacts associated with project activities (Bull et al., 2009, p. 22) ...... 50 Table 2-1 A comparison of balsa wood against common softwoods and hardwoods (Ozarska, 2012, p. 20) ...... 56 Table 2-2 Estimates of areas of planted balsa (Midgley, 2015, p. 21) ...... 57 Table 2-3 Factors contributing to the successful development of balsa plantations in ENB (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 43) ...... 58 Table 2-4 Highlights the advantages and disadvantages of balsa ...... 80 Table 2-5 Technical specification of end-grain core as tested by Lloyd’s Register ...... 81 Table 2-6 Technical specification ProBalsa Standard ...... 82 Table 2-7 PNG balsa mechanical and basic properties (Eddowes, 1977, p. 68-69) ...... 83 Table 2-8 Solomon Islands balsa mechanical and basic properties (Eddowes, 2005, p. 36-37) ...... 83 Table 2-9 PNG balsa mechanical properties (Wiselius, 1998, p. 641) ...... 84 Table 2-10 South American balsa mechanical properties (Francis, 1991, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27) ...... 84 Table 2-11 Ecuadorian balsa mechanical properties (Bootle, 1983, p. 416) ...... 84 Table 2-12 Tropical America balsa mechanical properties (Tsoumis, 1991, p. 165) ...... 84 Table 2-13 Mechanical properties of various materials (Soden & McLeish, 1976, p. 225) ...... 85 Table 2-14 American balsa mechanical properties (Kretschmann, 2010, p. 18) ...... 85 Table 2-15 Short summary of balsa properties categorised by density (Dreisbach, 1952, p. 66-67) ...... 86 Table 2-16 Production (in million m3) of selected wood-based composites data in 2003 (FAO yearbook: forests products, 2004, as cited in Shi & Walker, 2006, p. 394) ...... 95 Table 2-17 World production of particleboard, MDF and OSB for 2004 (Chapman, 2006, p. 429) ...... 96 Table 2-18 Canadian panel manufacturing costs (Poliquin, 1998, as cited in Chapman, 2006, p. 431) ..... 96 Table 2-19 Summary of structural all-purpose grade foam (DIAB Group, 2015, p. 1 - 2) ...... 100 Table 2-20 The advantages and disadvantages of synthetic polymer foams ...... 101 Table 2-21 Material properties of standard particleboards (EWPAA, 2008, p. 4-6) ...... 102 Table 2-22 The advantages and disadvantages of particleboard ...... 103 Table 2-23 Material properties of standard MDF (EWPAA, 2008, p. 16-18) ...... 104 Table 2-24 The advantages and disadvantages of MDF ...... 105 Table 2-25 Material properties of a structural F7 plywood (EWPAA, 2009, p. 16, 19; EWPAA, n.d., p 9-10) ...... 106

Table 2-26 The advantages and disadvantages of plywood ...... 107 Table 3-1 The difference between industry and academic industrial design practice ...... 127 Table 4-1 PNG balsawood value chain (Bull et al., 2009, p. 14) ...... 146 Table 4-2 PNG balsawood market supply chain ...... 147 Table 6-1 Type of test performed, sample dimensions and number of samples ...... 193 Table 6-2 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Static Bending tests ...... 199 Table 6-3 Balsa results from the MOE tests according to density class ...... 200 Table 6-4 Balsa results from the MOR tests according to density class ...... 201 Table 6-5 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Hardness test ...... 202 Table 6-6 Balsa results from the Hardness (Tangential surface) tests according to density class ...... 203 Table 6-7 Balsa results from the Hardness (Radial surface) tests according to density class ...... 203 Table 6-8 Balsa results from the Hardness (Axial surface) tests according to density class ...... 204 Table 6-9 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Compression (parallel to the grain) test ...... 205 Table 6-10 Balsa results from the Compression (parallel to the grain) tests according to density class ... 206 Table 6-11 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Compression (perpendicular to the grain) test ...... 207 Table 6-12 Balsa results from the Compression (perpendicular to the grain) tests according to density class ...... 208 Table 6-13 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Shear test ...... 209 Table 6-14 Balsa results from the Shear tests according to density class ...... 210 Table 6-15 Calculated MC and Air Dry Densities from balsa samples used in all mechanical tests ...... 211 Table 6-16 Average balsa mechanical properties identified for each density class from each mechanical test ...... 211 Table 6-17 Test 1, balsa TC results ...... 218 Table 6-18 Data used to calculate the TC for Test 1, sample L long, trial 1 ...... 218 Table 6-19 Test 2, balsa TC results ...... 219 Table 6-20 Data used to calculate the TC for Test 2, sample H long, trial 1 ...... 219 Table 6-21 Comparison of Test 1 and 2 results ...... 219 Table 6-22 Average calculated TC of each grain direction from Test 1 and 2 ...... 221 Table 6-23 Balsa specimen test details ...... 227 Table 6-24 Balsa specimen physical details ...... 227 Table 6-25 Statistical absorption coefficients, 25 mm balsa specimens ...... 228 Table 6-26 Statistical absorption coefficients, 50 mm balsa specimens ...... 229 Table 6-27 Statistical absorption coefficients, 100 mm balsa specimens ...... 230 Table 6-28 Statistical absorption coefficients, end-grain balsa specimens ...... 231 Table 6-29 Statistical absorption coefficients, perpendicular-grain balsa specimens ...... 232 Table 6-30 NRC values calculated at specific frequencies ...... 233 16

Table 6-31 Wall and ceiling linning materials (material groups permitted)...... 237 Table 6-32 Fire test results using the cone calorimeter ...... 241 Table 6-33 Calculated material group number ...... 242 Table 6-34 Results of natural resistance of balsa exposed to Reticulitermes flavipes (Arango et al., 2006, p. 148) ...... 244 Table 6-35 Results of natural resistance of balsa exposed to Coptotermes acinaciformis ...... 247 Table 7-1 Rise in temperature against time (6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, solid, 19.2 mm total thickness) ...... 287 Table 7-2 Rise in temperature against time (6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, perforated 20 per cent, 19.2 mm total thickness) ...... 288 Table 7-3 Rise in temperature against time (3 mm veneer sandwich panel, solid, 18.7 mm total thickness) ...... 288 Table 7-4 Rise in temperature against time (3 mm veneer sandwich panel, perforated 20 per cent, 18.7 mm total thickness) ...... 289 Table 7-5 Location of sample in the reverboration chamber ...... 295 Table 7-6 SAC (sample 1) ...... 296 Table 7-7 Test conditions (sample 1) ...... 296 Table 7-8 Practical SAC for sample 1 ...... 297 Table 7-9 SAC (sample 2) ...... 298 Table 7-10 Test conditions (sample 2) ...... 298 Table 7-11 Practical SAC for sample 2 ...... 299 Table 8-1 Absorption coefficients measured at each position (before Balsa-lation) ...... 310 Table 8-2 Absorption coefficients measured at each position (after Balsa-lation) ...... 312 Table 8-3 Eco-costs of current construction materials and processes (Idemat, 2015) version V3.3 ...... 316 Table 8-4 Comparision of Balsa-lation with existing products ...... 317

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Geographic location of Papua New Guinea, in respect to Australia (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 5) .... 37 Figure 1.2 Identifying the driving forces of change (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 7) ...... 45 Figure 1.3 The sticker that promoted the ACIAR balsa project vehicle ...... 48 Figure 1.4 The East New Britain, Papua New Guinea balsa industry (Bull et al., 2009, p. 12) ...... 51 Figure 2.1 Young balsa seedlings in a nursery ...... 62 Figure 2.2 Three-month old balsa plantation ...... 62 Figure 2.3 Nine-month old balsa plantation ...... 62 Figure 2.4 One-year old balsa plantation ...... 62 Figure 2.5 Four-year old balsa plantation ...... 62 Figure 2.6 Balsa tree felling ...... 62 Figure 2.7 Measuring and marking the tree to harvest usable wood ...... 62 Figure 2.8 Cutting useable wood ...... 62 Figure 2.9 Debarking balsa logs ...... 63 Figure 2.10 Measuring and recording logs ...... 63 Figure 2.11 Carrying balsa logs out ...... 63 Figure 2.12 Balsa harvest site ...... 63 Figure 2.13 loading a harvest for transport to local mill ...... 63 Figure 2.14 Balsa mill ...... 63 Figure 2.15 Balsa processing ...... 63 Figure 2.16 Sorting balsa for staking prior to drying ...... 63 Figure 2.17 Makeshift kilns for drying balsa ...... 64 Figure 2.18 Balsa drying to 12 per cent MC ...... 64 Figure 2.19 Planning balsa lumber ...... 64 Figure 2.20 Laminating end-grain balsa ...... 64 Figure 2.21 Squaring off end-grain balsa ...... 64 Figure 2.22 End-grain balsa blocks ...... 64 Figure 2.23 End-grain balsa panels ...... 64 Figure 2.24 End-grain balsa appearance ...... 65 Figure 2.25 The port of Rabaul, PNG, where balsa products are exported ...... 65 Figure 2.26 Harvested balsa tree with red heart ...... 66 Figure 2.27 Balsa harvest residues ...... 67 Figure 2.28 Example of balsa with blue-stain ...... 67 Figure 2.29 Storage of over-supplied processed balsa ...... 68 Figure 2.30 PNG exports of balsa products (m3 and PNG Kina) (Midgley, 2015, p. 28) ...... 72

Figure 2.31 Global annual installed wind capacity 1997 – 2014 (Global Wind Energy Council, 2015, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 17) ...... 72 Figure 2.32 Global installed wind power by country (Global Wind Energy Council, 2015, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 18) ...... 73 Figure 2.33 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2001: 2000 m3 (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 47) . 74 Figure 2.34 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2008: 12,000 m3 (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 48) ...... 74 Figure 2.35 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2011: 16,400 m3 ...... 75 Figure 2.36 Wood grain direction ...... 77 Figure 2.37 Direction of loading reference ...... 79 Figure 2.38 End-grain balsa panel ...... 81 Figure 2.39 Common end-grain balsa sandwich composite ...... 87 Figure 2.40 Historical timeline of balsa products and applications ...... 92 Figure 2.41 Balsa products categorised by industry to identify market gaps ...... 94 Figure 2.42 Classification of wood-based panels (Chapman, 2006, p. 428) ...... 95 Figure 2.43 Production of structural panels in North America (Adair & Camp, 2003; Adiar, 2004, as cited in Shi & Walker, 2006, p. 393) ...... 96 Figure 2.44 Synthetic polymer foam sandwich composite ...... 97 Figure 2.45 Particleboard sandwich veneered composite ...... 102 Figure 2.46 Fibreboard sandwich veneered composite ...... 104 Figure 2.47 Plywood sandwich veneered composite ...... 106 Figure 2.48 Increase in approved units in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) ...... 108 Figure 2.49 Increase in approved unit value in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) 108 Figure 2.50 Type of approved units in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) ...... 109 Figure 2.51 Decline in approved units in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) .. 110 Figure 2.52 Increase in approved unit value in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) ...... 110 Figure 2.53 Type of approved units in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) ...... 111 Figure 2.54 Imported wood-based panels by quantity (m3) (ABARES, 2015) ...... 114 Figure 2.55 Imported wood-based panels by value (AUD$) (ABARES, 2015) ...... 114 Figure 2.56 Five best and five worst imported timbers in Australia (Greenpeace, n.d.) ...... 117 Figure 3.1 Generic model of the industrial design process based on Cross (2000) description of convergent and divergent design activity (Self et al., 2012, p. 129) ...... 121 Figure 3.2 Identifies the three main fields of academic disciplines and their contribution (Archer, 1979. p. 20) ...... 123 Figure 3.3 Resilience framework (Pasteur, 2011, p. 3) ...... 129 Figure 3.4 Resilience and moving out of poverty (Pasteur, 2011, p. 15) ...... 130 20

Figure 3.5 Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model ...... 131 Figure 3.6 Frayling’s (1993) research model used to present this doctoral research ...... 133 Figure 3.7 The generic product development process (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 14) ...... 135 Figure 3.8 The spiral product development process flow (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 22) ...... 136 Figure 3.9 The alignment of Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process with Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model ...... 136 Figure 4.1 Synthetic foam acoustic product (diffuser) ...... 151 Figure 4.2 Timber acoustic product (diffuser) ...... 152 Figure 4.3 Wood-based acoustic absorber panels. MDF substrate with high quality timber veneer (left) and interior grade plywood panel (right) ...... 152 Figure 4.4 Sheet metal acoustic product (absorber) ...... 153 Figure 4.5 Possible balsa timber products ...... 154 Figure 4.6 Preliminary balsa ideation matrix ...... 155 Figure 4.7 Learning the importance of MC by practice ...... 156 Figure 4.8 Exploring possible fixture solutions by practice ...... 156 Figure 4.9 Communicating material constraints through design practice ...... 157 Figure 4.10 Communicating product performance through design practice ...... 157 Figure 4.11 Communicating product manufacturing through design practice ...... 158 Figure 4.12 Communicating product benefits through design practice ...... 158 Figure 4.13 Research-led industrial design practice cycle ...... 159 Figure 5.1 Prototypes used to gather industry feedback and to introduce the research participant to balsa ...... 173 Figure 5.2 Early concept used to gather industry feedback on a balsa acoustic product ...... 174 Figure 5.3 Balsa product sample presented to industry for feedback ...... 177 Figure 5.4 Prototype demonstrating the lightweight balsa composite panel ...... 178 Figure 5.5 Balsa composite panel sandwiched with plywood ...... 178 Figure 5.6 Sustainable Experience Exhibition stand of new PNG balsa products ...... 182 Figure 5.7 Iterations between research participants throughout the design process ...... 183 Figure 6.1 Instron Strength Test Machine ...... 193 Figure 6.2 Broken sample following Static Bending test ...... 194 Figure 6.3 Photograph of a Hardness test ...... 195 Figure 6.4 Compression test parallel to the grain ...... 196 Figure 6.5 Compression test perpendicular to the grain ...... 197 Figure 6.6 Shear test results ...... 198 Figure 6.7 Balsa MOE results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 200 Figure 6.8 Balsa MOE results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 200 Figure 6.9 Static Bending test simple tension failure ...... 201 21

Figure 6.10 Balsa Hardness (Tangential surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 202 Figure 6.11 Balsa Hardness (Radial surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 203 Figure 6.12 Balsa Hardness (Axial surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 204 Figure 6.13 Hardness test result ...... 204 Figure 6.14 Balsa MCS (parallel to the grain) results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 206 Figure 6.15 Compression Parallel to Grain test crushing failure ...... 207 Figure 6.16 Balsa MCS (perpendicular to the grain) results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 208 Figure 6.17 Compression Perpendicular to Grain test result...... 208 Figure 6.18 Balsa Maximum Shear Stress results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD ...... 209 Figure 6.19 Shear test result ...... 210 Figure 6.20 Typical balsa lumber (left) and end-grain block (right) ...... 215 Figure 6.21 One end-grain block of 174 kg/m3 density (left), one high density sample of 137 kg/m3 density (middle) and one low density sample of 113 kg/m3 (right) ...... 215 Figure 6.22 TK04 TC meter and standard VLQ full-space probe (needle probe) ...... 216 Figure 6.23 Second test measuring the TC ...... 217 Figure 6.24 Average calculated TC, graphed against density ...... 220 Figure 6.25 End-grain sample consisting of five different densities ...... 221 Figure 6.26 Close up photograph of balsa vessels in the axial direction ...... 222 Figure 6.27 Comparison of PNG balsa TC and other materials (www.engineeringtoolbox.com) ...... 223 Figure 6.28 Balsa specimens used for sound absorption tests ...... 225 Figure 6.29 Impedance tube apparatus ...... 226 Figure 6.30 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 25 mm thick ...... 228 Figure 6.31 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 50 mm thick ...... 229 Figure 6.32 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 100 mm thick ...... 230 Figure 6.33 Statistical absorption coefficients. End-grain balsa specimens ...... 231 Figure 6.34 Statistical absorption coefficients. Perpendicular-grain balsa specimens ...... 232 Figure 6.35 Specimens mounted in the high frequency tube. The image on the right shows the use of butyl rubber to cover perimeter cavities ...... 234 Figure 6.36 Perpendicular grain balsa specimen partially installed into the impedance tube ...... 235 Figure 6.37 Cone calorimeter test apparatus ...... 239 Figure 6.38 Balsa specimen without the edge frame ...... 239 22

Figure 6.39 Balsa heat release rate over time ...... 242 Figure 6.40 Three photographs taken in the first 10 seconds of a balsa specimen tested using the cone calorimeter ...... 243 Figure 6.41 Balsa cone calorimeter test results ...... 243 Figure 6.42 A balsa trial mounted on a mature tree infested with Coptotermes acinaciformis ...... 245 Figure 6.43 Specimen’s inside a termite chamber (left). Bait wood used to surround specimens to encourage termites to invade (right) ...... 246 Figure 6.44 Termites colonising the field trial ...... 246 Figure 6.45 Remaining Bifenthrin treated balsa with no obvious attacking ...... 246 Figure 6.46 Remaining natural specimens. Remaining specimen is the PNG balsa and the two labels sitting on top of the balsa specimen are the remains of the soft and hardwood reference timbers ...... 247 Figure 7.1 Concept ideation ...... 256 Figure 7.2 Preliminary concept development ...... 259 Figure 7.3 Initial low-fidelity prototypes ...... 261 Figure 7.4 In-situ concept renders ...... 263 Figure 7.5 System-level design concept improvement ...... 270 Figure 7.6 Concept improved low-fidelity prototyping ...... 272 Figure 7.7 Advanced concept low-fidelity prototyping...... 273 Figure 7.8 Industry assisted low-fidelity prototyping ...... 274 Figure 7.9 Solidworks CAD ...... 275 Figure 7.10 Solidworks engineering drawings ...... 276 Figure 7.11 Industry software prototyping and testing (Marshall Day Acoustics, 2011) ...... 277 Figure 7.12 Photoview realistic CAD renderings ...... 279 Figure 7.13 Industry assisted high-fidelity prototyping ...... 281 Figure 7.14 Two balsa concepts; 3 mm sandwich composite panel (left) and 6.5 mm veneer single-sided composite panel (right) ...... 283 Figure 7.15 A solid and perforated balsa panel during a low-fidelity fire burn test ...... 284 Figure 7.16 Low-fidelity fire burn test apparatus ...... 285 Figure 7.17 Depth of thermal couplers inserted at the rear of the 6.5 mm veneer balsa concept ...... 286 Figure 7.18 Depth of thermal couplers inserted at the rear of the 3 mm veneer balsa concept ...... 286 Figure 7.19 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth 3 mm ...... 289 Figure 7.20 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth centre of balsa ...... 290 Figure 7.21 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth rear of front veneer ...... 290 Figure 7.22 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panel ...... 293 Figure 7.23 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panel ...... 294 Figure 7.24 Balsa panel system installation ...... 294 Figure 7.25 Reverberation chamber test environment. Not to scale ...... 295 23

Figure 7.26 SAC of 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panel ...... 297 Figure 7.27 SAC of 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panel ...... 299 Figure 7.28 Presenting prototypes to industry partners for product feedback ...... 301 Figure 8.1 Balsa-lation logo ...... 304 Figure 8.2 Final design outcome – Balsa-lation ...... 308 Figure 8.3 Before and after Balsa-lation installation (view from the main entrance) ...... 309 Figure 8.4 Before and after Balsa-lation installation (view from the rear of the dwelling) ...... 309 Figure 8.5 The five positions used to measure the reverberation time ...... 310 Figure 8.6 Absorption coefficients before installing Balsa-lation ...... 311 Figure 8.7 Absorption coefficients after installing Balsa-lation ...... 313 Figure 8.8 Average absorption coefficients before and after installing Balsa-lation ...... 313 Figure 8.9 Balsa-lation submission to the 2015 International Green Interior Awards ...... 321 Figure 8.10 Balsa-lation submission to the 2015 Premier Design Awards ...... 322 Figure 9.1 “The Balsa Conundrum” 2013 photograph submission for communicating research into design (2nd prize) ...... 328 Figure 9.2 “Designing a Balsa Revolution” 2014 photograph submission for communicating research through design ...... 329 Figure 9.3 “The view up here: Research to Commercialisation” 2015 photograph submission for communicating research for design (1st prize) ...... 330 Figure 9.4 Product design and development process used in academia ...... 331 Figure 9.5 Product design and development process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise ...... 333 Figure 9.6 Product design and development process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise aligned with Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) and Frayling’s (1993) process models ...... 333

CITATION METHOD AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT

The American Psychological Association (APA 6th ed.) style of citation was used as recommended by Swinburne University of Technology, Faculty of Design (2013).

The word processing package used was Microsoft Word (2013).

The following abbreviations are used: ABARES Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research ADD Air Dry Density ADW Air Dry Weight ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials CAD Computer-Aided Design CNC Computer Numerical Control ENB East New Britain EWPAA Engineered Wood Products Association of Australasia FSC Forest Stewardship Council MC Moisture Content MCS Maximum Compressive/Crushing Strength/Stress MDF Medium Density Fibreboard MOE Modulus of Elasticity MOR Modulus of Rupture NCC National Construction Code NRC Noise Reduction Coefficient ODW Oven Dry Weight OSB Oriented Strand Board p Page PNG Papua New Guinea PNGFA Papua New Guinea Forestry Authority RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology SAC Sound Absorption Coefficient TC Thermal Conductivity

Units of measurement used in this research: g Gram g/(s•m2) Grams/seconds/square metre GW Gigawatts ha Hectares kg Kilogram kg/CO2 Kilogram/Carbon dioxide kg/m3 Kilograms per cubic metre kPa kilopascal kW/m2 kilowatts/square metre m Metre m2 Square metre m2/kg Square metre/kilogram mg/l Milligrams per litre mm Millimetre mm2 Square millimetre MJ/m2 Megajoule/square metre MPa Megapascal N Newtons s Seconds W/mK Watts metres Kelvin OC Degrees Celsius AUD$ Australian dollar USD$ US dollar

All figures, tables, sketches, photographs or other visual graphics used are original designs of Nathan James Kotlarewski unless otherwise stated.

PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO, AND COMPLETED DURING THIS THESIS

Kotlarewski, N., Kuys, B., & Thong, C. (2016). Design innovation: a tool for value-adding to the Papua New Guinea Balsa Wood Industry. Journal of Design, Business and Society. Submission 0019. (Pending)

Kotlarewski, N., Thong, C., Kuys, B., & Danahay, E. (2016). Contrasting similarities and differences between academia and industry: evaluating processes used for product development. DRS conference paper and presentation

Kotlarewski, N., Belleville, B., Gusamo, B. K., & Ozarska, B. (2015). Mechanical Properties of Papua New Guinea Balsa Wood. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products. DOI:10.1007/s00107- 015-0983-0

Kotlarewski, N., Thong, C., & Kuys, B. (2015). Industry Feedback Academic Product Development. International Association of Societies and Design Research proceedings, 1145-1161

Kotlarewski, N., Kuys, B., & Thong, C. (2015). Design innovation: a tool for value-adding to the Papua New Guinea Balsa Wood Industry. agIdeas 2015 international design forum, Round Table Symposium: Track 4 – Corporate Innovation

Kotlarewski, N., Ozarska, B., & Gusamo, B. K. (2014). Thermal Conductivity of Papua New Guinea balsa wood measured using the needle probe procedure. BioResources. 9(4), 5784-5793

Kotlarewski, N. (2014). New and novel product development for Papua New Guinea grown balsawood, to improve smallholder livelihoods. Innovation proposal submission to the Swinburne University of Technology Innovation Cup 2014

Kotlarewski, N., Gusamo, B. K., Belleville, B., & Ozarska, B. (2014). Mechanical Properties of Papua New Guinea Balsa Wood. ACIAR Project FST/2009/016 [Report]

Kotlarewski, N., Gusamo, B. K., & Ozarska, B. (2014). Thermal Conductivity of Papua New Guinea Balsa Wood. ACIAR Project FST/2009/016 [Report]

Kuys, B., Thong, C., Kotlarewski, N., & Thompson-Whiteside, S. (2014). Research-led practice in design research used to best demonstrate design theories. Design Research Society proceedings, 1395- 1411

Kotlarewski, N. (2013). Papua New Guinea Observation Report ACIAR Project FST/2009/016 September 2013 [Report]

THESIS INTRODUCTION

Aims and Scope

The call for academic design research to find direct industry relevance to a broader community through design applications for commercial and or social benefit is of growing importance in contemporary society. Industrial design is a discipline that has the potential to develop innovative outcomes in almost any research or product design and development project conducted in academia or industry by design researchers and practitioners. The practice of industrial design is a major focus of this research. Industrial design is used as a problem finder in academia. Contemporary and future problems which threaten people’s livelihoods can be highlighted as a societal problem and a design opportunity. Industrial design research in academia employs methods to identify the scale of these problems and to discover and generate new knowledge that is used to inform the product design and development process. The refinement and eventually the design outcome is a new product and/or application that is commercially viable and socially beneficial. The product design outcome generated through industrial design practice in academia in this project is an exemplar artefact that communicates new knowledge to the field of industrial design and demonstrates a solution to the defined social problem. An industrial design process was used in this research to address a contemporary industry and social problem with the Papua New Guinea balsa industry.

The Papua New Guinea balsa industry currently has an over-supply in balsa due to a lack in demand from global commercial markets and an over reliance on a single market. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research [ACIAR] identified the Papua New Guinea balsa industry as an industry in need of assistance to prevent the undermining of the vibrant balsa industry that offers significant opportunities to smallholders, families and communities. ACIAR is an Australian government body that helps developing countries with agricultural issues where Australia has local and international expertise. In 2009, ACIAR developed ‘the balsa project’ — separate to this research — FST/2009/016 titled “Improving the Papua New Guinea balsa value chain to enhance smallholder livelihoods”. The balsa project was designed to address three main objectives:

1. To enhance the livelihoods of smallholder balsa growers 2. To improve value recovery to balsa growers and processors 3. To strengthen the global market position of the East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea balsa industry

It was the intention of this doctoral research project to support the strengthening of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry’s global market position by developing a new balsa commercial application that promoted the positive attributes of the Papua New Guinea resource. Developing a new commercial application had the potential to strengthen Papua New Guinea’s global position in balsa markets by generating global demand and in turn mitigating the financial losses and expected hardship to smallholder’s livelihoods. An industrial design process was used to generate a design outcome to demonstrate a new innovative way of using Papua New Guinea balsa. The commercial success of a Papua New Guinea balsa product would generate global interest and therefore assist rectifying the current situation of over-supply and under-demand.

This thesis argues that industrial design research used in academia explores existing knowledge, seeks to generate new knowledge through primary research methods, adapts to design research models and design processes and embeds new knowledge into design outcomes that are commercially viable for industry and socially beneficial for society.

The design outcome developed as a result of this doctoral research would act as an exemplar product that embeds and communicates a new contribution to knowledge. The design outcome will ultimately assist smallholder livelihoods by generating global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa products, raising demand for the product, therefore ensuring smallholder balsa crops are harvested and a financial return is delivered to the smallholders.

Papua New Guinea balsa is currently used in seven industries; marine, road/rail, renewable energy (wind), aerospace, defence, industrial/construction and hobbies/crafts. The renewable energy industry is the largest consumer of Papua New Guinea balsa, which is used to manufacture rotor blades. The Papua New Guinea balsa industry reliance and over-exposure to the renewable energy industry was one of the causes of the over-supply and under-demand situation. In 2012 — prior to the start of this research — a scenario planning workshop organised by ACIAR and held in Papua New Guinea, involved various stakeholders from the balsa industry. The purpose of the scenario planning workshop was to identify opportunities and threats for the balsa industry to expand its current markets beyond the renewable energy industry to remain globally competitive. Various challenges threaten the Papua New Guinea balsa industry, such as the quality of balsa, associated costs with crop maintenance, market competitiveness, security of supply, lack of commercial links, access to trade data and the ever present competition from polymer foams as an alternative material to balsa. At the conclusion of the scenario planning workshop industry stakeholders said:

“If there is no application for balsa, there is no point continuing to grow it” (Kuys, Ozarska & Thong, 2012, p. 9) 30

Before this statement, ACIAR had overlooked the need to incorporate design as a potential strategy in the balsa project. The associated activity to address Objective 3 of the balsa project ‘to strengthen the global market position of the East New Britain, Papua New Guinea balsa industry’ was to develop medium and long term market development options for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. The lack of design practice and innovative developments was noted by the CEO of The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. as an obvious reason why there was an over-supply and under-demand for Papua New Guinea balsa.

Beyond the need for new products and applications for Papua New Guinea balsa there was also evidence of a lack of knowledge around issues to do with balsa grown in Papua New Guinea. Literature available at the time to inform the product design and development process to develop a design outcome was dated, vague and primarily measured the properties of Ecuadorian balsa – which is where balsa originates. This research gap — a lack of material knowledge and design innovation — identified an opportunity to conduct academic design research to generate a new body of knowledge and develop a commercially viable product that promoted the use of Papua New Guinea balsa in new and existing markets. Leading stakeholders particularly The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. emphasised the importance of design innovation to generate new products in order to create international demand for the resource. The support — sharing knowledge and donating balsa for testing and product development — from Papua New Guinea balsa industry stakeholders further substantiated the significance of the research gap by prioritising design as an important element to address the over-supply and under-demand.

This thesis was guided by Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model and Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process. The main focus of this research was to produce a practical design outcome informed by research-led industrial design practice. Design practice became the focus of this thesis as it was determined in the ACIAR FST/2009/016 balsa project that design was needed to develop new products in an attempt to diversify balsa applications that could be used in new and existing industries. This thesis was not focused on design theory construction, however the views of various design researchers was considered and used to build academic design rigour and to demonstrate an understanding of the broader design community outside the focus of design practice. Therefore, in-depth research on existing theories or theory construction was not conducted.

A summary of the research gap, the research question and the hypothesis surrounding the research question were:

Research gap: 1. Academic industrial design research must find direct industry relevance to reach a broader community through design applications for commercial and social benefit. 2. The lack of material knowledge, design practice and design innovation entrenched in the Papua New Guinea balsa industry is a key reason for the current situation of over-supply and under- demand. 3. The use of industrial design research to develop a new and novel design outcome for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry is socially, environmentally and economically beneficial to enhancing the livelihoods of smallholders in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea.

Research question: How can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for Papua New Guinea balsa?

Assumptions surrounding the research question: 1. Research-led industrial design practice is steered by the quest to contribute to original or new contributions to knowledge in a field. 2. It is necessary to determine the physical and mechanical properties of Papua New Guinea balsa to inform the product design and development process. This will develop material and product knowledge and help develop innovative applications for Papua New Guinea balsa that have previously been dismissed. 3. Mapping the design process will demonstrate key contributions to knowledge developed through design practice, identify the influence internal/external resources had on design decision making throughout product generation and highlight the methodical, iterative and analytical process of product design and development in academia.

Structure of thesis

Chapter One introduces the Papua New Guinea balsa industry and the research gap in detail. It outlines the current situation of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry from ACIAR’s balsa project, provides evidence that the research gap is significant and identifies who will benefit from the research.

Chapter Two is about balsa. This chapter further details why the Papua New Guinea balsa industry is important to the East New Britain Province and presents a review of current literature. Historical evidence of balsa applications and current market opportunities is also presented. Competitor materials and their applications are explored and the identification of the Australian construction industry as an opportunity to implement balsa is discussed.

Chapter Three describes the design methodology. The definition of research-led industrial design practice in academia is presented and compared with industrial design practice used in industry. The design research model and product design and development process is introduced, showing how research-led industrial design practice was used to address the research gap, and the rationale behind the research methods employed is deliberated.

Chapter Four discusses how design innovation could assist the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. An extension of the methods introduced in the methodology chapter will demonstrate the direction these methods provided to the product design and development process and how they shaped design innovation. The iterative process between the methods and the use of design as a vehicle to demonstrate new knowledge is presented.

Chapter Five establishes the nature of the observations and interview methods used to collaborate with industry practitioners to inform the product design and development process. Interview and observation details are contextualised to demonstrate the impact industry feedback had on the development of the design outcome throughout the design process.

Chapter Six presents the material tests conducted on Papua New Guinea balsa. This chapter also includes a discussion on how material and product tests results influenced the design outcome and why they were important to the product design and development process.

Chapter Seven describes and illustrates the design process used in this research. The design process has been broken down into several stages to illustrate the stages of product design and

33 development. Activities conducted under each process stage have been discussed to demonstrate industrial design skills used to develop a design outcome.

Chapter Eight presents the design outcome. A comparison to existing products and applications has been given to justify the commercial viability of the new balsa product and its application. A commercial install was used as proof of concept to measure the design outcome’s real-world performance and success.

Chapter Nine is the discussion chapter. The research gap, the research question and the hypothesis are evaluated and contrasted against industrial design practice used in industry to substantiate the real world value of the design process used in this academic research. A summary of the design research model will segregate the product design and development process into respective categories to determine the balance of design and research to fulfil the research gap, generate new knowledge and develop a commercially viable design outcome.

Chapter Ten presents the conclusion. The contribution to new knowledge in the field of industrial design is highlighted, an overview of the product design and development process is given, the significance of the design research is evaluated and future research is considered.

1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

This chapter identifies ACIAR as a key instigator of the balsa project FST/2009/016 “Improving the Papua New Guinea balsa value chain to enhance smallholder livelihoods”. This doctoral research aligns with ACIAR’s balsa project Objective 3 “to strengthen the global market position of the East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea balsa industry”. The research gap is identified through existing ACIAR studies and evidence is provided to demonstrate its significance. The result was the development of this doctoral research project titled “New Product Development for Papua New Guinea Balsa to Improve Smallholder Livelihoods”. Early evidence was collected through secondary and primary research methods conducted in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea and Australia to contextualise this research and substantiate the need for industrial design research and product development. This chapter will further identify who will benefit from the research and how research-led industrial design practice will alleviate the issue.

1.1 ACIAR

The main partner in this project was ACIAR. In 2009 ACIAR developed a project specific to balsa grown in Papua New Guinea to improve the livelihoods of smallholders. This project known as ‘the balsa project’ FST/2009/016, “Improving the Papua New Guinea balsa value chain to enhance smallholder livelihoods” recognised the importance of smallholders within the Papua New Guinea balsa industry as key contributors to the establishment of balsa grown for international markets. A current market down turn has seen a reduced demand in balsa for international markets and therefore has left many smallholders in Papua New Guinea vulnerable to a loss in financial returns. The ACIAR balsa project FST/2009/016 is a separate project to this doctoral research, however the intention of this research is to assist the balsa project’s Objective 3; through product design and development, to create global demand for balsa and to ultimately ensure a profitable return is achieved for smallholders. This return in income has the potential to educate children, develop social communities, improve law and order and health services in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea.

“ACIAR is an arm of the Australian Government’s Official Development Assistance Program. Its charter is to commission research that leads to more productive and sustainable agriculture through collaborative projects involving Australia and developing-country partners” (www.aciar.gov.au/OurWork, para. 1). Research projects are prioritised by Australian expertise and strengths based on current social issues. Established in June 1982 under the ACIAR Act, ACIAR encourages Australian scientists to:

Use their skills for the benefit of partner countries while at the same time contributing to solutions of Australia’s own agricultural problems. Australia is a world leader in agricultural research, and much of our scientists’ expertise is relevant to the challenges and problems encountered in countries across the Asia-Pacific and beyond (www.aciar.gov.au/OurWork, para. 2).

Developing-country partners include: “Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands; Indonesia, East Timor and the Philippines; Mekong countries and China; South and West Asia; and Africa” (www.aciar.gov.au/aboutus, para. 3).

ACIAR’s objectives are to: - commission research into improving sustainable agricultural production in developing countries - fund project related training - communicate the results of funded research - conduct and fund development activities related to research programs - administer the Australian Government’s contribution to the International Agricultural Research Centres (www.aciar.gov.au/aboutus, para. 4).

By providing aid and expertise to developing nations, ACIAR’s goal is to ensure these countries become self-sufficient and knowledgeable in approaching their own problems in the future. According to the Australian Government’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, one of Australia’s closest neighbouring countries, both geographically and through trade, is Papua New Guinea (refer Figure 1.1) (Papua New Guinea [fact sheet], 2013). The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade noted approximately 7.5 million people lived in Papua New Guinea as of 2014, with an annual growth of 3.1 per cent. Of these statistics, 85 per cent of the population’ relies on farming as an income source compared to the remaining 15 per cent living in urban areas (Papua New Guinea country brief, 2015, para. 2). Over two million Papua New Guineans (approximately 40 per cent of the population) are poor and face hardship (2013 Pacific Regional MDG Tracking Report, p. 21). According to the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade “Farming accounts for the bulk of economic activity” (Papua New Guinea country brief, 2013, para. 13) in Papua New Guinea where 80-85 per cent of the population live in traditional rural communities and secure their livelihoods from gardening and small-scale cash cropping (Papua New Guinea country brief, 2015, para. 14). ACIAR assists Papua New Guinea as a developing nation in need of Australian expertise in agricultural practices. ACIAR invests in Papua New Guinea by funding projects designed to sustainably aid agricultural industries. All projects are developed respectfully, taking account of local cultural and social sensibilities.

Figure 1.1 Geographic location of Papua New Guinea, in respect to Australia (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 5)

1.2 Identifying the research gap through ACIAR project FST/2009/016

ACIAR seeks to promote poverty alleviation and livelihood enhancement through more productive and sustainable agriculture emerging from international research partnerships. Papua New Guinea is one of [Australia’s] most important partner countries. Communities living on islands in the Pacific face significant difficulties in developing successful economies… Crops that have high value and afford opportunities for local processing are especially important. They must of course be well adapted to the relevant environmental conditions, be amenable to production by smallholders as well as larger operators, mature within an acceptable time and, to the extent possible, have a stable market. Balsa is a crop that potentially meets these criteria for some areas in Papua New Guinea. It is locally significant in East New Britain, where high rainfall and fertile soils derived from volcanic parent material are conducive to rapid growth of high-quality wood on sites close to a port. (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 3)

1.2.1 ACIAR FST/2009/012 scoping study In 2009, ACIAR commissioned a scoping study FST/2009/012 “Identification of researchable issues underpinning a vibrant balsa wood industry in Papua New Guinea”. This study was conducted in the interest of smallholder growers and large processors of Papua New Guinea balsa to determine

37 researchable issues associated with current opportunities and threats. The intended outcome of the scoping study is listed:

1. An overview of Papua New Guinea’s balsa industry and its position internationally 2. Identification and analysis of issues that could influence the continued viability of the industry or present impediments to its expansion across the whole value chain 3. A review of relevant activities of other agencies in Papua New Guinea, including commercial organisations, international donors and non-government organisations 4. An assessment of the utilisation of balsa and the nature and permanence of these markets, compiled via industry interviews and discussions with research agencies 5. A synthesis of prioritised researchable issues, and their significance as impediments or threats (Midgley, 2009, p. 5-6).

It was determined through the scoping study that the Papua New Guinea balsa industry employs a large percentage of locals in East New Britain, that was expected to increase from the time of publishing this thesis to the maturing of balsa plantations – which is between five to seven years. The East New Britain balsa industry is unlike any other forestry industry in Papua New Guinea. The balsa industry offers a “high degree of local value adding [for locals in East New Britain] which includes sawing, kiln drying and gluing into blocks and re-sawing to market size” (Midgley, 2009, p. 7). The industry presented an attractive and stable crop for smallholders to invest their time, money and land. Despite the attractiveness of the industry there are multiple risks associated with the balsa industry. Biological risk from crop pests and disease are identified, the ever present threat of a volcanic eruption from the Rabaul volcano, the strictness of international balsa quality grading (colour and Moisture Content [MC]) and the lack of local planning to overcome threats that may emerge and devastate the Papua New Guinea balsa industry had been identified as risks and threats that could undermine the vibrant balsa industry.

1.2.2 ACIAR technical report #73 Balsa: biology, production and economics in Papua New Guinea The ACIAR scoping study in 2009 was reported in an ACIAR technical report #73 “Balsa: biology, production and economics in Papua New Guinea” (Midgley et al., 2010). The focus of the study was “to [identify] researchable issues across the Papua New Guinea balsa value chain” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 3). The report covered a review of literature, interviews with stakeholders, biological background information, historical and the current status of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry and explores the three main balsa production systems in Papua New Guinea (independent smallholders, large landholders and grower groups). The study conclusion gave recommendations and research and developments that would help sustain productivity and Papua New Guinea balsa’s global competitiveness. The researchable issues that were identified from the scoping study are discussed in this section to identify the research gap 38 investigated in this doctoral research. An overview of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry in East New Britain is discussed in Chapter Two – Understanding Balsa.

Midgley et al., (2010) is heavily referenced in this doctoral thesis due to the lack of other available literature on Papua New Guinea balsa. Midgley is the director of Salwood Asia Pacific Pty Ltd, “a company which offers a professional commitment to partnerships between Asian and Australian forest industries and organisations through a range of services relating to the commercial plantation use of Australian trees, forest industries and rural development” (www.zoominfo.com). Midgley et al., (2010) presented a comprehensive body of existing knowledge that assisted the development and understanding of knowledge gaps associated with Papua New Guinea balsa. Other world experts are referenced in this thesis however few present detailed data on balsa sourced from Papua New Guinea.

The 2009 scoping study identified the Papua New Guinea balsa industry in East New Britain as an attractive and competitive use of land for landowners and smallholders. Due to a lack of entry barriers balsa production was a popular alternative crop to cocoa. In 2006, the infestation of the Cocoa Pod Borer devastated the cocoa industry resulting in an estimated withdrawal of 30,000 ha — out of a total 50,000 ha — in East New Britain. “The social consequences of this substantial community loss of income will be serious, having an impact on education, health and law and order” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 35). It was anticipated that the large withdrawal of land use and smallholder production for cocoa would make the transition to balsa production. The risk associated with such a growth in balsa production would therefore need to be matched with an expansion in export markets.

There are three systems of balsa production in East New Britain: independent smallholders, large landholders and grower groups. All systems are profitable, however a trend away from individual smallholder production to large scale plantations, where grower and processor relationships exist, are becoming mainstream because they produce the highest returns. Share-farming practices are also favourable as they provide “improved silviculture and labour management practices that generate higher yields, wood quality and prices” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 11). An estimated 3,000-4,000 individuals are employed by the Papua New Guinea balsa industry (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 59). While this statistic is projected to rise as the balsa industry matures, this current number of employees accommodates an estimated 26 per cent of the East New Britain population (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 58). Aside from forestry challenges faced by the Papua New Guinea balsa industry, the introduction of polymer foams into traditional balsa applications also poses threats.

Globally, the balsa industry faces serious challenges from the expanded use of polymer foams in sandwich composites. Innovation and research and development are vital to an assured future for balsa products. For Papua New Guinea to maintain its global competitiveness and increase 39

market share, it must strengthen its reputation for quality, reliability and responsiveness and ensure that plantation production and processing are strongly aligned with profitable global markets (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 11).

A further summary by Midgley et al. (2010, p.11) determined the Papua New Guinea balsa industry could be assisted through research and development programs aiming to:

- Improve productivity and wood quality through wider application of improved silvicultural practices - Support changes to issues relating to governance, ensuring that government regulations add value to, and do not impede, efficient functioning of the supply chain - Add transparency to the supply chain and ensure that social issues relating to production are understood - Assist in developing and maintaining markets for balsa from Papua New Guinea.

1.2.3 ACIAR FST/2009/016 ACIAR project FST/2009/016 (the balsa project) was developed in 2009 by Bull, Kanowski and Mulung – Project leader, Collaborating scientist and Project coordinator. The balsa project focussed on improving the Papua New Guinea balsa value chain to enhance smallholder livelihoods. The project was set to start in 2009 and conclude in 2015 however was extended slightly to conclude early in 2016. The research conducted in this thesis was carried out in conjunction with project FST/2009/016 with intentions to strengthen and maintain the global market position and assist in the development of new balsa products for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry in East New Britain Province. This was to be done through academic design research methods and new product design and developments to generate global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa.

Bull et al., (2009) highlights “projected growth in demand for balsa, and the strengthening position of the Papua New Guinea industry in international markets, associated with industry innovation and investment, offer encouraging prospects for improving smallholder growers’ livelihoods” (p. 10). The Country Strategy – Papua New Guinea (2010, as cited in Bull et al., 2009) claims “this project interprets these identified needs and opportunities in the context of ACIAR’s Country Strategy for Papua New Guinea, which focuses on creating an enabling environment for smallholder farmers… to generate higher incomes” (p. 10). As a result, project FST/2009/016 has been divided into research and development activities that address smallholders and the industry as a whole, to maximise their potential. Issues and associated research questions relating to improving the livelihoods of smallholders involved in the Papua New Guinea balsa industry are expressed in Table 1-1.

Table 1-1 Issues and associated research questions (Bull et al., 2009, p. 11) Issue Associated research questions Precise sector-wide understanding of the East What are the characteristics of the East New New Britain balsa value chain Britain balsa value chain, and how are they expressed in a value chain framework? Inadequate understanding of smallholder decision What are the bases of smallholder crop choices, processes related to their livelihood goals and how do these impact on decisions about balsa strategies, and associated farming systems growing, and what are the constraints to further options adoption and continuing participation in balsa growing? Sub-optimal structures for effective What forms of communication and information communication between smallholder growers and dissemination, and of grower organisation, would processors about technical and market work best for smallholder balsa growers and the information and issues, and for the most effective industry as a whole? organisation of groups of smallholders Sub-optimal wood delivery logistics for a species How can wood delivery logistics be improved in which requires prompt primary processing the context of East New Britain operational systems and infrastructure? Lack of industry-wide analysis of optimal value What improvements in processing and product recovery strategies from processing and product development would benefit the Papua New development Guinea balsa industry as a whole? Limited access by smallholder growers to the best Which new genetic resources should be available germplasm, and limited implementation of to smallholders, and how are these best made optimum silvicultural regimes available? What further trials and demonstration plantings are necessary to identify and communicate optimum crop management regimes? The absence of industry-wide systems that would What are the key constraints to certification of facilitate certification of smallholder growers. smallholder balsa production, and what steps are necessary to address these? Maintaining and improving the competitive What is the global outlook for balsa products, and position of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. what are the best options for strengthening the medium to long term global market position of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry?

The value chain is the name given to the smallholders, processing and manufacturing companies, international consumers and governing bodies that make up the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. These role players in the balsa value chain are dependent on the existence of the balsa industry to ensure they have a financial income to secure their livelihoods. The overall project aim intended “to enhance the value, value recovery and international competitiveness of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry and, by doing so, optimise its benefits for smallholder growers” (Bull et al., 2009, p. 19). Respectively, the project objective is “to enhance the livelihoods of smallholder balsa growers, improve value recovery for balsa growers and processors, and provide the basis for strengthening Papua New Guinea’s position in the international balsa market” (Bull et al., 2009, p. 19). Noted in the Country Strategy – Papua New Guinea (2010, as cited in Bull et al. 2009) “ACIAR’s Country Strategy for Papua New Guinea recognises the importance of improving returns from smallholder production systems” (p. 10). This identifies a need to improve the balsa value chain and ultimately increase the economic benefit for smallholders who dedicate their livelihood to grow balsa crops. Strengthening Papua New Guinea’s position in the international balsa market through new product design and developments would provide an incentive for smallholders to continue growing balsa by ensuring there are markets in demand for Papua New Guinea balsa.

Table 1-2 presents a breakdown of the balsa project FST/2009/016. Categorised into three sub- objectives, a list of activities are identified to introduce project topics for further exploration. The research presented in this thesis was designed to address Objective 3 and associate activity 3.1. Furthermore, the intention of the product design outcome was to enhance market development options and identify future consumer markets worthy of design exploration to further assist the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. By increasing global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa through product design and developments, the balsa value chain would evidently have new international and local markets which would invite new stakeholders to the industry, thus generating global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa.

Table 1-2 Project objectives and associated activities (Bull et al., 2009, p. 19) No. Objective Associated activities 1 To enhance the livelihoods of 1.1 Define relationships between stakeholders, smallholder balsa growers understand and illustrate the benefit distribution and identify opportunities to address inefficiencies along the balsa value chain to improve outcomes for smallholder balsa growers 1.2 Investigate how smallholders make decisions about resource use in the context of their livelihood goals and strategies 1.3 Recommendations for developing effective balsa smallholder organisational and communication structures

1.4 Review current extension, communication and capacity building activities and propose mechanisms to effectively support growth of the balsa industry in East New Britain in Papua New Guinea 2 To improve value recovery to 2.1 Optimise value recovery for the balsa industry by balsa growers and processors improving delivery logistics to processing facilities 2.2 Optimise value recovery in balsa processing an emphasis on optimising value recovery 2.3 Optimising germplasm and crop management for smallholders 2.4 Development of systems to facilitate product certification 3 To strengthen the global market 3.1 Develop medium and long term market development position of the East New Britain, options for the East New Britain balsa industry Papua New Guinea balsa industry

Table 1-2 presents three research areas of the balsa project. This doctoral research focussed on new product development to ensure the industry maintained a balance of necessary production for export markets. Consideration must be given to the design and development of new products to encourage a competitive global position for Papua New Guinea balsa. As a design-based project the social science, environmental, forestry and agricultural fields of research were beyond the scope of this design project. Without an expansion of existing products that are in demand by global markets the Objectives 1-2 and associated activities were redundant. If there was no demand for balsa products in the global market, objectives such as improving the value recovery to balsa growers and processors were pointless. New design applications were needed to ensure a future for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry in East New Britain continued to exist. Research and development were needed to improve practices and methods surrounding balsa crop maintenance and harvest recoveries, however if no markets existed or industries were not consuming balsa because design innovation and product design and developments had been neglected, smallholders invested in growing balsa would face hardship due to a loss of time, effort and income. These key factors helped substantiate the research question “how can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for Papua New Guinea balsa” in order for Objectives 1-2 of the ACIAR project to have impact and for the balsa industry to continue growing balsa for a marketable purpose.

While contributing to the ACIAR balsa project FST/2009/016, the intention of this research was to ultimately create new design products and developments through research-led industrial design practice to expand and secure global competitiveness for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry and to improve the livelihoods of the smallholders who initiate the industry. The addition of other research that supports the Papua New Guinea balsa industry such as cultivation, communication within the industry and knowledge sharing is then justifiable because market demand exists and therefore improved efficiencies, general practice and knowledge sharing is beneficial to those involved in balsa production.

1.3 Evidence that the research gap is significant

At the time of the Global Financial Crisis — 2008-2009 — international consumers of Papua New Guinea balsa reduced their demand for the resource. This resulted in a mass over-supply and under- demand for Papua New Guinea balsa, creating an unbalanced industry (further details are introduced in Chapter Two – Understanding Balsa). In April, 2012, a scenario planning workshop was held in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea to determine the underlying elements that required immediate attention to ensure that the future of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry remained competitive and continued to exist in East New Britain. The scenario planning workshop was used as a platform for gathering together the most influential stakeholders within the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. It “provided a successful

44 forum to expose as many issues associated with the factors influencing the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. These included key drivers of change such as political, economic, social, environmental and technological influences associated with the scenario topic” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 5).

The primary discussion within the scenario planning workshop was to determine issues that could devastate the Papua New Guinea balsa industry up to the year 2030. Affinity diagrams were used to visually identify and express areas of concern (Figure 1.2). Ideas were written on “post-it” notes (not colour specific) and placed onto a whiteboard to determine areas that could be elaborated. This helped identify immediate factors that could affect the Papua New Guinea balsa industry.

Figure 1.2 Identifying the driving forces of change (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 7)

Following this first affinity diagram participants had to decide which of the post-it notes were the most important. Four categories were determined (Potential Jokers, Context Shapers, Critical Uncertainty and Significant Predetermined Trends) where the most important post-it notes were placed into the appropriate category. Table 1-3 illustrates the results of categorising the post-it notes under one of these headings. Elements that could be beneficial or disastrous to the Papua New Guinea balsa industry were identified under one of these headings. The post-it notes were listed by their level of importance in each category – ideas at the top of each category were the most important.

Table 1-3 Major issues tabulated (Kuys et al., 2012, p.8) Potential Jokers Critical Uncertainties Environmental Devastation Over Supply of Balsa Attitudes of People Exchange Rate Movement Health Land Tenure Reform Climate Change Political Stability Violence/Corruption Substitutes for Balsa – Synthetics Diversification – Land Use Security Pest ad Disease Context Shapers Significant Trends Cocoa Pod Borer New Products Small Land Credit Transport Costs and Efficiency Law and Order Government Policy and Regulations Education and Capacity Building Role of Provisional Governments Occupation Pressure on Land Communication Networking Household Income New Production Technologies Labour – Wages Energy Prices Production of Balsa

While an environmental devastation and the Cocoa Pod Borer were classified as the most important post-it notes in their category, the likelihood of them effecting the Papua New Guinea balsa industry immediately was less of a threat than addressing the current issue of an over-supply of balsa and a lack of product design and development. After the scenario planning workshop held on the 17th of April 2012 with stakeholders in the local balsa industry it was determined that product design and development was a key to rectifying the material over-supply. This determination clearly identified over-supply as the most significant issue threatening the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. This clarification of the issue presented an opportunity for research-led industrial design practice to stimulate the balsa industry through new product design and developments that could expand, influence or create global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa. This approach positioned product design and development as the most important strategy for the ACIAR FST/2009/016 project. The need for new products was identified as one of the most crucial steps in ensuring a future for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry in East New Britain. The underlining consensus of the workshop participants stated:

“If there is no application for balsa, there is no point continuing to grow it” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 9).

“This statement was reiterated many times by the CEO of The Papua New Guinea Balsa Company Ltd. which is the largest company associated with balsa in Papua New Guinea” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 9). The importance of this statement legitimised the research question by highlighting the need for research-led industrial design practice to help generate and communicate knowledge about Papua New Guinea balsa and therefore stimulate and drive demand for it in international markets. This evidence also substantiated the design research approach presented in this thesis.

Prior to the scenario planning workshop the ACIAR balsa project FST/2009/016 had no design consideration because the need for design was not identified until the scenario planning workshop was conducted. “The inclusion of product design research provides the expertise required to explore and develop new alternative applications for balsa, while consolidating existing markets through innovative product development” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 9). Research-led industrial design practice would demonstrate the appropriateness of using design to conduct scholarly-based research to develop new product design and developments for new and existing markets.

“The scenario planning workshop was a significant step forward for this industry as it brought all sectors in the Papua New Guinea balsa industry together to work as one with the aim of sustaining and increasing the output of balsa from this region” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 17). Balsa is unique and dependant on specific geographic characteristics required for growth, which Papua New Guinea has (p. 17). Competitor agricultural plantations such as coffee, cocoa, copra and palm kernels raised another immediate threat to the balsa industry. If balsa exports declined then these alternative smallholder crops might have replaced balsa plantations. If there is no future demand for balsa and balsa plantations fail to return profit to smallholders the industry may cease to exist because smallholders may choose to withdraw from balsa production (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 17).

The balsa industry has many advantageous characteristics that make it a preferred smallholder investment with a lot of potential future research. These characteristics include; low maintenance; no known immediate disease or pest threat to balsa and a high survival rate; economically viable with a short harvest time and good profit return (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 65).

Further evidence to substantiate the significance of the research gap was identified early in the commencement of this research. In September 2013, while travelling to balsa plantations in East New Britain — to contextualise the research — interviews and observations were conducted with key industry stakeholders. At the time of travelling to East New Britain, Papua New Guinea the balsa industry was 47 suppressed, due to the impact of the Global Financial Crisis and to limited consumer markets. The largest consumer of Papua New Guinea balsa was China. China was buying balsa to manufacture wind blades for modern wind turbines for the renewable wind energy industry. Participants interviewed from the Papua New Guinea balsa industry claimed the Chinese wind energy industry was the largest and in most cases the only consumer of Papua New Guinea balsa. This primary research demonstrated the dependence that the Papua New Guinea balsa industry had on the Chinese wind energy industry. Considering most of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry relied solely on the wind energy industry, there was clearly a need to reduce this dependence on a single market by designing new products that targeted new and existing customers to ensure balsa grown in Papua New Guinea was sold in a range of international commercial markets.

While travelling through East New Britain and observing balsa cultivation, attention was drawn to the vehicle I was travelling in, which was labelled “ACIAR Balsa Project Papua New Guinea, better returns from balsa” (Figure 1.3). It was not unusual every time the vehicle stopped to be approached by smallholders who pleaded “I have so much balsa ready for harvesting, please help me sell it”. These smallholders would hand their contact details to the ACIAR representative — who was travelling with the research team — to try and secure a financial return for their balsa crops. It was reiterated at this point in time that balsa is an incredibly fast growing tree and is ready for harvest between the age of five and seven years. After this age the cellular structure of the balsa tree begins to rot, rapidly reducing the overall harvest recovery and the financial returns. This presented a problem to smallholders whose balsa crops were ready for harvesting but were not being bought by local processors because no international demand for Papua New Guinea balsa existed.

Figure 1.3 The sticker that promoted the ACIAR balsa project vehicle

The early interviews and observations conducted at the scenario planning workshop in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea clearly identified product design and development as an essential contribution to the ACIAR balsa project FST/2009/016. Without new product design and developments the Papua New Guinea balsa industry would remain over-supplied and over-stocked with no international market demand. Interviews with industry stakeholders identified how much the Papua New Guinea balsa industry relied on the Chinese wind energy industry and observations demonstrated first-hand the desperation and frustration of smallholders whose balsa crops were ready for harvest yet were not being taken by local mills due to the lack of international demand. Generating international demand through design innovation and new product design and developments was identified as a key element to rectifying the significant research gap presented.

1.4 Who will benefit from the research?

ACIAR had identified who would benefit from the balsa project FST/2009/016 in Table 1-4 for each objective and associated activity. The research presented in this thesis has addressed the balsa project Objective 3 and associated activity 3.1 to develop medium and long term market development options for the Papua New Guinea balsa industry.

Table 1-4 Capacity impacts associated with project activities (Bull et al., 2009, p. 22) Activity/ Landowners Harvesting Papua New Papua New Papua New Australian Key Group and haulage Guinea Guinea Guinea researchers businesses balsa government researchers processors agency staff 1.1 Value chain       analysis 1.2 Landowner      decision-making 1.3 Improving       outgrower collaboration 2.1 Harvesting      and transport logistics 2.2. Optimising    value recovery from processing 2.3. Optimising      germplasm supply and crop management 2.4. Forest and       forest product certification

3.1. Market     analysis and strategic assessment

It was not until 2012 at the conclusion of the scenario planning workshop that product design was recognised as imperative to enhancing the livelihoods of smallholders. By creating demand for balsa, processors would then be inclined to purchase available smallholder crops to meet global demand. Table 1-4 indicates that associated activities of the balsa project’s Objective 3 — market analysis and strategic assessment — would not have a direct impact on smallholders or harvesting and haulage businesses. However, design innovation could generate international demand for balsa which in turn

50 would mean larger processors would purchase smallholder’s crops thus providing a financial return. It is argued that product design and development would significantly impact on the Papua New Guinea balsa industry, where an increase in global demand for Papua New Guinea balsa would result in local demand in East New Britain for smallholders’ balsa crops. Figure 1.4 demonstrates the scale and supply chain of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry.

Figure 1.4 The East New Britain, Papua New Guinea balsa industry (Bull et al., 2009, p. 12)

Around 75 per cent of the balsa plantations in East New Britain in 2009 were run by smallholders (Bull et al., 2009, p. 10). Figure 1.4 indicates there were approximately 1,500 balsa growers situated at the beginning of the balsa value chain (Bull et al., 2009, p. 12). Smallholders initiated the supply chain to the industry by growing balsa. Papua New Guinea balsa processors such as The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. — the largest balsa company in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea — are secondary stakeholders in the

Papua New Guinea balsa value chain. These companies were the processors and distributors, which employed approximately 1,700 workers. The processors purchased smallholder balsa crops and distributed processed balsa to international markets (Bull et al., 2009, p. 12).

Table 1-4 indicates balsa processors would benefit the most from project FST/2009/016 (Bull et al., 2009, p. 22). Local communities including Papua New Guinea government agency staff and Papua New Guinea researchers would also benefit from project FST/2009/016. They are the information hubs that address agricultural issues and support both smallholders and balsa processors. Organisations such as the Papua New Guinea Forest Authority [PNGFA] and other governing bodies that provide valuable information and support to smallholders and large balsa companies play an important role in agricultural management that is necessary to increase Papua New Guinea’s global competitiveness (Bull et al., 2009, p. 13).

Papua New Guinea and Australian governments would also benefit from promoting the Papua New Guinea balsa industry since it will employ sustainable management protocols and knowledge to maintain the global competitiveness of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. The Papua New Guinea government would benefit from sustainable management protocols and knowledge generation because their current knowledge would expand, helping Papua New Guinea to become more self-sufficient with regard to agricultural issues. This would empower Papua New Guinea and help in dealing with future agricultural issues. Likewise, the Australian government would learn from Papua New Guinea’s developments, which would assist Australia’s own agricultural issues and help develop a framework for assisting other developing agricultural industries with international markets.

The help of foreign and local expertise offered local communities increased employment and the potential to improve smallholder livelihoods. This ultimately had the potential to assist improving smallholder livelihoods in developing communities by developing new balsa products to increase the global competitiveness of Papua New Guinea balsa. Additionally, design researchers would benefit from the process used in this thesis to demonstrate how research-led industrial design practice can develop novel products that embed and communicate new knowledge and generate demand for materials, products, technologies or systems.

1.5 How research-led industrial design practice alleviates the issue

Research-led industrial design practice is informed practice through academic research to address a knowledge gap and to satisfy a design problem (discussed in detail in Chapter Three – Design Methodology). As previously identified the research focus of this academic project was product

52 development to address an industry problem which was threating the social balance and livelihoods of smallholders associated with the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. As the title suggests industrial design practice was justified through preliminary research and necessary to generate and communicate new knowledge through design practice. The methodical and academic nature of research to inform practice substantiated the design decision making and differentiated academic design practice from typical industry design practice. Research-led industrial design practice considers historical evidence and contemporary literature to identify knowledge gaps and market opportunities to design and develop new products in an attempt to rectify contemporary social and industry issues. By identifying knowledge gaps research is driven to generate new knowledge to bridge knowledge generation with product development where design is used as the vehicle to communicate new knowledge to wider audiences. Moreover, industrial design practice is used to assist the transition from academic research to real-world industry product design commercialisation.

1.6 Summary

ACIAR is an Australian government body that seeks to assist developing countries with agricultural issues where Australia has expertise. ACIAR’s mission statement is to help developing nations with contemporary forest management issues to ensure correct practices are adopted from ACIAR – who are considered world leaders in agricultural research (www.aciar.gov.au/OurWork, para. 2). In 2009 the Papua New Guinea balsa industry was identified as an industry in need of agricultural assistance. ACIAR conducted a scoping study to determine researchable issues that required further investigation. The results were three main objectives:

Research around these objectives exposed the lack of design innovation practiced to maintain the global competitiveness of the Papua New Guinea balsa industry. It was not until 2012 at the conclusion of the scenario planning workshop that ACIAR acknowledged the importance of product design and development to generate innovative balsa products to ensure international markets would purchase the Papua New Guinea resource. The key statement reiterated by stakeholders involved in the Papua New Guinea balsa industry was “if there is no application for balsa, there is no point continuing to grow it” (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 9). This statement substantiated the need for research-led industrial design practice to develop products for Papua New Guinea balsa to ensure future balsa supplies would be in demand by

53 international markets and this demand would be met by local balsa processors in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea.

The intention of this research was to assist the ACIAR balsa project FST/2009/016 Objective 3 through product design and development, to create global demand for balsa and ultimately ensure a profitable return was achieved for smallholders. Smallholders rely on balsa production to support their livelihoods, their family and community. Financial returns to smallholders has the potential to educate children, develop social communities, improve law and order and health services in East New Britain, Papua New Guinea.

The research question “how can research-led industry design practice generate and communicate knowledge for Papua New Guinea balsa?” was determined by the lack of design innovation and knowledge on Papua New Guinea balsa. The research question also helps structure the process of industrial design practice used to generate and communicate knowledge presented in this thesis.

2 CHAPTER TWO: UNDERSTANDING BALSA

2.1 Introduction

Balsa is commonly associated with childhood memories of arts, crafts and model-making. This is a fraction of its commercial use in international markets. This chapter will explain what is balsa and where it comes from? It will also explain the scale of the global balsa industry and elucidate the balsa industry in the East New Britain [ENB] Province, Papua New Guinea [PNG]. Existing knowledge of balsa properties, balsa applications, competitive materials and a market gap will be discussed in detail. A market opportunity was discovered in the Australian construction industry, where implementing balsa products offers advantages to contemporary building and construction. This discovery has the potential to generate international demand for PNG balsa thus introducing new international consumers to the PNG balsa industry.

Existing knowledge was sourced to identify historical evidence around balsa products and applications. This research was used to inform the design process of product design and development. Additionally, knowledge gaps were identified indicating areas which required further design research and investigation. These knowledge gaps are emphasised in this chapter. A discussion around the methods and process used to address the knowledge gaps and market opportunities is presented in Chapter Three – Design Methodology.

2.2 Balsa

Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale, syn. O. lagopus) is a unique sub-tropical and tropical, deciduous or evergreen tree that produces a very low density wood (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10). According to Fletcher (1951, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 24) as many as 11 species of balsa are recognised in existing literature. Originating from Central and South America, it is a medium-sized tree that grows to 25 m in height and one metre in diameter (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10). It primarily grows along the equator where its natural distribution range is 22 ON to 15 OS, in mean winter and summer temperatures ranging from 20 OC and 30 OC respectively. Balsa is not frost tolerant, can grow from sea level to 1,800 m above sea level and can grow on flat or steep inclines (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 23). Balsa requires well-drained, alluvial soils to grow. Its natural environment is humid and receives an annual rainfall of 1,500-3,000 mm (Francis, 1991, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 23). Balsa trees flower annually — at night — from the age of three to four, however under plantation conditions in PNG, balsa can flower as early as nine months although produces few seeds (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 24). Flowers are pollinated by at least five species

55 of South American bats (Alley-Crosby 2009, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 24). Commonly mistaken for a softwood because of its lightweight and fragile characteristics balsa is in fact a hardwood (Ozarska, 2012, p. 5). According to Francis (1991) “commercial balsa wood usually ranges in density from 100-170 kg/m3 but can vary from 50-410 kg/m3” (as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27). Table 2-1 is a list created by Ozarska (2012, p. 20) that highlights the difference in densities between balsa and common softwoods and hardwoods:

Table 2-1 A comparison of balsa wood against common softwoods and hardwoods (Ozarska, 2012, p. 20) Name and type of timber Density (kg/m3) Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale, syn. O. lagopus) Hardwood: Light 80-120 Medium 120-180 Heavy 180-220 Softwood: Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) 500 Hardwood: Teak (Tectona grandis) 670 Victorian ash (Eucalyptus regnans) 680 Red gum (Euc. Camaldulensis) 900 Spotted gum (Corymbia maculata) 950 Red ironbark (Euc. sideroxylon) 1130

Due to balsa’s low density cell structure, it “is the lightest and softest of all commercial timbers” (Eddowes, 2005, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27). “Due to its low density, strength and versatility, balsa is suitable for a wide range of end uses” (Midgley, 2010, p. 10). Identified by Midgley (2015, p. 15) balsa serves several industries:

- Marine - Road and rail - Renewable energy - Aerospace - Defence - Industrial and construction - Hobbies and crafts

Its appearance, noted by the United States Department of Agriculture (n.d.), is “nearly white or oatmeal-coloured, often with a yellowish or pinkish hue” (as cited in Midgley et al.,2010, p. 27). Advantageous characteristics of balsa, listed by Alcan Baltek (2009, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 29), include:

- It is an ecological product – balsa is the only core material to derive from a natural and renewable resource - Has a wide operating temperature range (–212 OC to +163 OC) - Has excellent fatigue resistance - Offers good sound and thermal insulation - Has high impact strength

The largest global supplier of balsa is Ecuador and has been for over 60 years (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 32). Fletcher (1949) claimed in 1943 Ecuador supplied 95 per cent of the global balsa market (p. 47). “Ecuador has the world’s largest and most sophisticated primary processing facilities, supplying balsa products for secondary processing in over 50 client countries” (Midgley, 2015, p. 21). In 2014, Ecuador supplied 90 per cent of the global market, PNG nine per cent and other countries one per cent. Since 2008, the value of global balsa trade has risen from USD$71 million to an estimated USD$123 million (Midgley, 2015, p. 27). Balsa plantations have been recorded in several countries outside of Ecuador. These countries include PNG, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, West Africa, Solomon Islands, Costa Rica, Mexico, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Midgley et al., 2010 p. 25; Midgley, 2015, p. 21). It was estimated in 2014 more than 60,000 ha of balsa plantations exist globally (Midgley, 2015, p. 21) contributing to the 2014 balsa export volume of 213,000 m3 to global markets (p. 7). It is estimated that 47,000 ha are dedicated to balsa plantations in Ecuador in 2014, where it was calculated that Ecuador exported 186,000 m3 of processed balsa with a mean density of 150 kg/m3 (p. 21). Table 2-2 presents a breakdown of the estimated area of balsa plantations by country.

Table 2-2 Estimates of areas of planted balsa (Midgley, 2015, p. 21) Country Estimated Plantation Area (ha) Ecuador 47,000 PNG 6,200 Brazil 3,700 Indonesia 1,200 Others (Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Peru) 2,000 Estimated Total 60,100

2.3 The balsa industry in ENB, PNG

Balsa has been introduced to many tropical countries such as PNG “and now forms the foundation of a small and expanding industry in ENB” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10). Balsa was first introduced to PNG in the 1930’s (Midgley, 2009, p. 5) and is now “the best example nationally of a successful value-adding forest industry based in part on smallholder tree growing” (Bull et al., 2009, p. 10). “PNG has several significant competitive advantages in relation to the production of timber; available land, good soils and climate, and a long history of successful incorporation of trees into agroforestry system” (ACIAR Country Profiles 2009-10: PNG, 2009, p. 10). Table 2-3 highlights the strengths and challenges of the balsa industry in ENB.

Table 2-3 Factors contributing to the successful development of balsa plantations in ENB (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 43) Factor Strengths Challenges Infrastructure Extensive network of sealed roads Port capacity and efficiency as balsa development linking growers, processors and port. production increases. Deep-water port with direct shipments Availability of suitable labour for balsa to export markets. processing. Balsa-processing operations located Institutional arrangements governing close to plantations. balsa exports. Financial Short-rotation tree crop generating Managing plantation as a renewable tree competitiveness positive cash flows after 5 years. crop and not as a resource. Long production history. Continuity and consistency of supply Seedlings provided by PNG Forest from smallholders over multiple rotations. Authority at cost. Relative returns to labour. Access to International Tropical Timber Since completion of International Tropical technology Organization East New Britain Balsa Timber Organisation Project, technical Industry Strengthening Project 1996- support has declined significantly. 2003 provided high-quality extension PNG Forest Authority extension services. services, seedlings and professional advice on silvicultural practices. The balsa manual (Howcroft 2002)

Threat of loss Relatively stable provincial economy Volcanic eruptions. and society with good cash incomes, Disruption to the local economy due to high land potential and very good cocoa pod borer and associated loss of access to services (Hanson et al., livelihood for many smallholders. 2001). High population density. Established infrastructure. Competitive industry structure. Expediency Tolai people of East New Britain are Awareness and understanding of market well educated and have a long history vagaries and benefits of good silvicultural of trade and commerce (Newlin 2000). practices. Perennial tree species have been Understanding operations and costs grown as part of land-use systems for along generations. the balsa supply chain. Need for short-term income. Inexperience Long history of growing perennial tree Possible new supply arrangements for crops including coconut palms for Smallholders. copra, cocoa, coffee. International Tropical Timber Organisation Project. Short-rotation tree crop. Security of tenure Established land groups. Competition for land withdrawn from Opportunity for smallholders to grow cocoa production. trees and sell resources to processors. Private ownership of larger estates.

ENB balsa plantations have increased from 280 ha in 2001 to 700 ha in 2003, 3,500 ha in 2009 and to an estimated 6,200 ha in 2014 (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 35). In 2008 PNG contributed eight per cent to the global balsa export figures. PNG successfully increased their global share to nine per cent despite the global economic downturn in 2008 and 2009. PNG is currently the second largest global balsa producer. The largest consumer of PNG balsa is China for its renewable wind energy industry. This industry thus far has been a major role player in the success of the ENB balsa industry and will continue to be the main consumer market for the medium term. The opportunities presented by the Chinese wind energy industry has provoked major investments by large global corporations into the PNG balsa industry. The global proximity of PNG strengthens its global competitiveness and is therefore expected to maintain a dominant trading position with India – PNG’s second largest consumer of balsa. Midgley (2015, p. 7) noted an over-exposure to the wind energy industry — which currently offers a large consumer market —

59 also offers associated risks by relying on a single industry to purchase PNG balsa. At the time of the Global Financial Crisis China and other international consumers of PNG balsa significantly reduced their demand and consumption rate for PNG balsa. This resulted in a mass over-supply and under-demand for PNG balsa. The change in the market forced hardship on smallholders who relied on international balsa markets. Without a major consumer like China smallholder balsa plantations were not harvested, which meant smallholders who relied on balsa for a financial income did not receive the financial support they desperately relied on. Furthermore, the short cumbersome life cycle of balsa trees meant prolonging balsa harvests reduced the total amount of timber recovery and financial returns that smallholders would receive from their balsa plantations. If the PNG balsa industry continues to rely solely on the global wind energy industry as a key consumer it could face a similar fate of an over-supply and under-demand generated at the time of the Global Financial Crisis. For example, if policy changes are made in the current global wind energy industry, — regarding materials and manufacturing turbines — and balsa is unable to meet industry criterions.

Highlighted by Midgley (2015, p. 7) the PNG balsa industry faces several challenges: - Product quality control - Access to trade data and industry updates - Maintenance of functional networks - Managing growing, processing and freight costs - Competition and opportunity from polymers - The maintenance of balsa’s cost competitiveness with the core composites markets - Security of supply - Some plantations lack commercial links

The lack of design innovation to minimise the PNG balsa industry’s dependence on the wind energy industry in China and India is alarming. “There is little point in encouraging smallholders and other balsa growers and processors in ENB Province of PNG [to invest in balsa production] unless there is a robust demand and reliable global markets for balsa products” (Midgley, 2015, p. 9). Aside from the obvious financial losses that would affect the PNG balsa industry if demand from international wind energy industries cease to exist, the nature of balsa cultivation is problematic and threated by disease, pests and rot if strict grower guidelines are not practiced. The following section of this chapter presents the balsa life cycle and elements which threaten the livelihoods of smallholders who dedicate their time, money, land and effort to balsa cultivation.

2.3.1 Balsa life cycle Balsa is considered an invasive weed in the Pacific islands (Meyer & Malet, 2000, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 24). It has an abundant seeding habit and through plant propagation can quickly colonise habitats. The following photographs were taken in 2013 as part of an observation study conducted in ENB, PNG to contextualise the research presented. The photographs depict the life cycle of PNG balsa from cultivating, harvesting and processing.

Figure 2.1 Young balsa seedlings in a nursery Figure 2.5 Four-year old balsa plantation

Figure 2.2 Three-month old balsa plantation Figure 2.6 Balsa tree felling

Figure 2.3 Nine-month old balsa plantation Figure 2.7 Measuring and marking the tree to harvest usable wood

Figure 2.4 One-year old balsa plantation Figure 2.8 Cutting useable wood

Figure 2.9 Debarking balsa logs Figure 2.13 loading a harvest for transport to local mill

Figure 2.10 Measuring and recording logs Figure 2.14 Balsa mill

Figure 2.11 Carrying balsa logs out Figure 2.15 Balsa processing

Figure 2.12 Balsa harvest site Figure 2.16 Sorting balsa for staking prior to drying

Figure 2.17 Makeshift kilns for drying balsa Figure 2.21 Squaring off end-grain balsa

Figure 2.18 Balsa drying to 12 per cent MC Figure 2.22 End-grain balsa blocks

Figure 2.19 Planning balsa lumber Figure 2.23 End-grain balsa panels

Figure 2.20 Laminating end-grain balsa

Figure 2.24 End-grain balsa appearance

Figure 2.25 The port of Rabaul, PNG, where balsa products are exported

Balsa is most desirable as end-grain blocks and panels. This processed balsa configuration optimises the strength properties of the material perpendicular to the face plane of the panel. End-grain panels are commonly used as a core component in sandwich panels due to the lightness they provide in the composites market.

Balsa trees are commonly grown on rotational plantations in PNG. Rotational plantations are divided into different age groups so balsa harvesting at the age of five can occur annually. This generates more frequent financial returns for smallholders growing balsa. The rapid rate of growth means smallholders entering the balsa industry can potentially secure a financial return in a short amount of time.

Current literature states balsa trees grow to heights of 25 m and one metre in diameter in five to seven years. Observations of harvest trials conducted in 2013 however, recorded that PNG balsa tree heights can reach up to 40 m in five to seven years. Unlike other tree species grown on plantations which continue to grow until target growth sizes are met, when markets are strong and good financial returns are achievable, balsa plantations must be harvested at the ideal age of five years due to changes in balsa’s cellular structure. Starting at the age of five balsa trees begin to rot internally, forming what is known as red heart. Figure 2.26 depicts the disease in an estimated six-year-old tree.

Figure 2.26 Harvested balsa tree with red heart

The growth of red heart significantly reduces the amount of harvest recovery since affected timber is rejected as poor quality produce. The amount of financial returns that smallholders receive from older trees is proportional to balsa plantations that are harvested at the optimal age of five. There is a variety of balsa harvest guidelines that are set out by processors who contract harvest crews to log smallholder plantations. Guidelines typically record the girth of a log, the length, and the presence of red heart. At the time of harvesting, logs that fail to pass the set guidelines are left on site as harvest residues to rot or be burnt. Figure 2.27 is a photograph of harvest residues and rejected balsa that failed to meet harvest guideline assessments.

Figure 2.27 Balsa harvest residues

Figure 2.27 highlights the impact prolonged harvesting has on the total amount of balsa log recovery. According to Midgley (2015, p. 21) only 12 per cent of a standing balsa tree is exported to international markets. Further produce loss is recorded at mills where “recovery of 1 mm balsa sheets for the models market can be as low as 5-7 per cent. For larger balsa blocks, recoveries can be up to 28 per cent. This study [by Midgley et al.] has used an average figure of 23 per cent for finished recoveries” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 61). Such low recoveries could be improved through capital investments of superior technologies and processing machinery, including educating workers about efficient techniques for processing timber resources. Another challenge associated with balsa harvesting is the growth of blue- stain fungus once the resource is harvested. “Blue-stain fungus is a significant source of commercial degradation and can develop in the wood if there are delays between harvesting, sawing and drying” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27). Blue-stain — unlike red heart — does not affect the mechanical properties of the material however the natural yellowish/pinkish appearance of balsa is stained with a blue tint which is considered a lesser quality balsa. Figure 2.28 shows the growth of blue-stain fungus on balsa.

Figure 2.28 Example of balsa with blue-stain

The threat of blue-stain fungus is removed once balsa is processed into lumber and kiln dried to 12 per cent MC. In 2008-2009 when the effect of the Global Financial Crisis was most prevalent, the over- supply of PNG processed balsa meant what little storage facilities were available reached capacity. This in effect prolonged the harvesting of smallholder plantations. Figure 2.29 is a photograph of a storage facility used to shelter the over-supplied balsa.

Figure 2.29 Storage of over-supplied processed balsa

By delaying the harvest of smallholder plantations, the growth of blue-stain fungus is prevented, however the threat of red heart then contributes to the problematic balsa life cycle. By not acquiring logs from smallholder plantations large processing companies protect themselves from financial and material losses. The problem however is then passed onto smallholders, who need to cut and sell their balsa plantations to financially support their everyday living expenses and to prevent low harvest recoveries from the growth of red heart. The lack of international balsa customers means large processors prolong buying from smallholder plantations to prevent reaching full storage capacity and potentially losing harvest recoveries from natural decay or disease growth.

Unlike cocoa and other common smallholder crops distributed across ENB, there are currently no immediate threats such as disease or insects that could affect the future of the PNG balsa industry. Howcroft (2002) acknowledges balsa is susceptible to some diseases and insect pests in addition to those previously introduced, but good harvesting practices thoroughly discussed in the ‘balsa manual’ can help reduce the impact these threats have on balsa cultivation.

2.3.2 Employment in ENB Balsa cultivation offers extensive employment opportunities to locals in the Gazelle Peninsula, ENB, which is among the highest populated places in PNG (Hanson et al., 2001, as cited in Midgley et al.,

2009, p. 7). It is estimated between 3,000-4,000 people — approximately 25 per cent of ENB employment — are employed by the balsa industry (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 58-59). The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. alone employs an estimated 1,500 people – 800 of which work in the processing factory and 700 work in the field (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 58). The total estimated number of employees from the processing, harvesting and transport sector is 1,800-2,000. Midgley et al., (2010, p. 58) also acknowledged there were 500 registered smallholders under the PNGFA, who noted each smallholder had on average two workers helping then cultivate balsa. Additionally, is it assumed that the multiplier effect of the PNG balsa industry extends employment opportunities to “other businesses, including transport and maintenance services, fuel and chemical suppliers, government services, port services and general retail services” (p. 59). Continued growing and processing was expected to bring the total estimated employment above 4,500 employees.

In 2003 there were an estimated 400 smallholders with plots less than five hectares who grew 80 per cent of the country’s balsa resource. By 2012, smallholder’s growing balsa had become a minority group in PNG, who maintain crops on properties of less than five hectares and who produced five per cent of the countries balsa resource. The remaining 95 per cent consists of plantation sites larger than 20 ha run by large processor companies. In light of the previous problems identified throughout balsa’s life cycle “It has proven difficult for smallholders to accommodate the fluctuating demand for balsa logs, and this has discouraged several growers from replanting and remaining part of the industry” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 39). Regardless there still remain many smallholder growers and processors operating in ENB.

Processors produce a varying degree of sophisticated balsa products. According to Kuys et al. (2012) “the majority of companies involved in the production of balsa in PNG have below-standard capital equipment to produce balsa material that meets industry standard” (p. 12). Most balsa processors use makeshift kilns from shipping containers to dry green balsa with waste material generated from inconsistent saws. The “PNG Balsa [Company Ltd.] is the largest producer of balsa in PNG [who has] invested heavily in capital equipment to ensure [a] quality product can be produced” (p. 12). They alone are responsible for “enhancing the reputation of balsa exported from PNG” (p. 12). The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. in 2015, was bought by 3A Composites – the world’s largest grower and producer of balsa products. 3A composites currently has over 7,500 ha of Forest Stewardship Council [FSC] certified balsa plantation in Ecuador. 3A Composites has attained FSC certification in Ecuador to differentiate their balsa products and provide global competitiveness over other balsa suppliers. Prior to the acquisition of The PNG Balsa Company Ltd., FSC certification was given to The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. for forest management (FSC-C125018 for more than 4,600 ha in ENB) and chain of custody (FSC-C-123469) (Midgley, 2015, p. 24).

Coconut Products Limited is the second largest balsa producer in PNG. “Coconut Products Limited is the largest landholder in ENB, with interests in coconut, cocoa, cattle and aquaculture” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 44). Coconut Products Limited produces their own produce and does not rely of external smallholders or landowners to supply Coconut Products Limited mills. Auszac is another balsa producer with close ties with GMSC — the longest-standing balsa processor in PNG — who is known for supplying international model making demands and more recently Chinese markets (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 44). Gunter Balsa is yet another balsa processor situated in ENB that is linked with balsa distributors and manufactures in Germany. Gunter Balsa has established a close relationship with the University of Natural Resources and Environment where it provides formal training to students in PNG (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 44). Listed by Midgley et al. (2010) “other processors include Takubar Centre Limited, Avenell Engineering, Tavilo Timbers Limited, North Baining Timbers and Niugini Models (PNG) Limited” (p. 44).

Aside from the smallholders and balsa processors in ENB there are governing bodies and organisations that assist legislation and forest management to ensure sustainable practices are used to protect contemporary and future generations. The Papua New Guinea Forest Authority [PNGFA] is a government organisation dedicated to achieving sustainable forest management in PNG. The PNGFA’s mission statement is to “promote the management and wise utilisation of the forest resources of PNG as a renewable asset for the well-being of present and future generations” (PNGFA, 2007, para. 3). The PNGFA helps manage and legislate forest policies by encouraging wise use of forest resources as a renewable asset to future generations through three key branches; A National Forest Board who advices the Minister of Forests on forest policies and legislations; A Provincial Forest Management Committee, which is made up of key stakeholders who report forest related issues to the National Forest Board and; The National Forest Service who are the operational or implementing arm of the PNGFA. (PNGFA (b), 2007, para. 6-8).

The PNG Forest Research Institute is a branch of the PNGFA, developed to conduct forest research in line with the National Forest Policy (1990). According to Midgley et al. (2010) the PNG Forest Research Institute’s “mission is to provide a scientific basis for the management of PNG’s forest resources” (p. 56) in four program areas; natural forest management, planted forests, forest biology and forest products. The underlining goals of the PNG Forest Research Institute for the balsa industry is to:

- Improve germplasm of tree species for increased productivity and profitability - Aim for sustainable management of new and existing plantations for supply of certified quality timber for domestic and international markets - Promote utilisation of plantation and less-used species - Ensure efficiency of small-to-medium-scale wood-processing mills (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 56-57). 70

The National Agricultural Research Institute “promote[s] innovative agricultural development in PNG through scientific research, knowledge creation and information exchange” (PNG National Agricultural Research Institute, n.d., para. 1). The purpose of the National Agricultural Research Institute is to “accomplish enhanced productivity, efficiency, stability and sustainability of the smallholder agriculture sector in the country so as to contribute to the improved welfare of rural families and communities who depend wholly or partly on agriculture for their livelihoods” (PNG National Agricultural Research Institute (b), n.d., para. 4). The National Agricultural Research Institute dedicates research to:

- Any branch of biological, physical and natural sciences related to agriculture - Cultural and socioeconomic aspects of the agricultural sector, especially of the smallholder agriculture - Matters relating to rural development and of relevance to PNG (PNG National Agricultural Research Institute (b), n.d., para. 2).

Ultimately the National Agricultural Research Institute serves as a representative for smallholders and stakeholders that delivers information and strategies to ensure appropriate practices are used to create positive developments in PNG, particularly for smallholders and rural communities.

The International Tropical Timber Organisation is an action-orientation organisation that generates policies and programs relevant to tropical forest management, marketing and trade of forest products and the development of forest based industries. The International Tropical Timber Organisation assists in implementing these policies and programs to adjacent fields through research activities designed to “improve the livelihoods in struggling communities by assisting value-added timber processing” (International Tropical Timber Organisation, 2011, para. 2). Furthermore, the International Tropical Timber Organisation invests in sustainable forest management to mitigate negative environmental impacts that forest practices have on the land. The International Tropical Timber Organisation defines sustainable forest management as:

The process of managing forest to achieve one or more clearly specified objectives of management with regard to the production of a continuous flow of desired forest products and services without undue reduction of its inherent values and future productivity and without undue undesirable effects on the physical and social environment (International Tropical Timber Organisation (b), 2011, para. 2).

These organisations look to see that sustainable forest management practices are developed, implemented and maintained to ensure future generations and developments have the resources available to improve the livelihoods of smallholders and rural communities. 71

2.3.3 PNG balsa export markets According to Midgley (2015) PNG’s estimated export volume for 2014 was 24,800 m3 and valued at USD$11 million (p. 28). Figure 2.30 presents the scale of growth by volume and value of the PNG balsa industry. The significance of the Global Financial Crisis is evident in the 2009 downturn in volume and value. Nonetheless PNG has successfully maintained their position — and grown by one per cent — as the world’s second largest balsa exporter. The growth in global investments made towards wind energy has contributed to the expanding PNG balsa industry. Approximately 40 per cent (by volume) of a wind turbine blade is balsa (The Crown Estate, 2011, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 17). Figure 2.31 shows the annual growth of turbine installations from 1997-2014.

Figure 2.30 PNG exports of balsa products (m3 and PNG Kina) (Midgley, 2015, p. 28)

Figure 2.31 Global annual installed wind capacity 1997 – 2014 (Global Wind Energy Council, 2015, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 17)

Highlighted by the Global Wind Energy Council (2015, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 17) “the average annual growth rate for the wind industry over the last 10 years (2005-2014) has been almost 23 per cent”. China, America, Germany, Spain and India are accountable for 74 per cent of the global installations (Midgley, 2015, p. 17). China has been the world’s largest market for wind energy since 2009 and is expected to increase its global dominance further. Many other countries such as Brazil, South Africa and Canada are also expecting growth in wind energy markets. Figure 2.32 presents the countries and global share of installed wind power.

Figure 2.32 Global installed wind power by country (Global Wind Energy Council, 2015, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 18)

In respect to the growth of the global wind energy market Figure 2.33, Figure 2.34 and Figure 2.35 present the change in destination of balsa exports from PNG in 2001, 2008 and 2011. The influence the Chinese wind energy industry had on the PNG balsa industry is evident that China’s growing wind energy industry has played a significant role for PNG balsa exports.

Destination of PNG balsa exports by percentage in 2001 3 3 10 32

Australia Italy China UK Germany Hong Kong Other

Figure 2.33 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2001: 2000 m3 (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 47)

Destination of PNG balsa exports by percentage in 2008 3 2 2 3 6

42 11

China India USA Australia UK Italy Vietnam Other

Figure 2.34 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2008: 12,000 m3 (Kuys et al., 2012, p. 48)

Destination of PNG balsa exports by percentage in 2011 1 1 <1 <1 9

16 61

China India UK Australia Germany USA Taiwan Vietnam

Figure 2.35 Destination of balsa exports from PNG by volume, 2011: 16,400 m3 (PNGFA, 2012, as cited in Midgley, 2015, p. 29)

Identified by Midgley (2015, p. 7) the Chinese demand for PNG balsa will remain a key driver for balsa exports. The total energy generated from wind in China 2009, was 25 GW. With China’s energy demand rising by 12 per cent per year, China is forecasted to increase the amount of energy generated by wind to 150 GW by 2020. China’s wind energy industry provides medium term benefits to PNG. It also sustains PNG’s reliance on this dominant market and hinders the need to diversify balsa products to generate international demand from other industries. The growing threat of relying on the Chinese wind energy market could impact negatively on the PNG balsa industry if the market changes and balsa is no longer consumed for manufacturing turbine blades. To address this dependency on China to consume PNG balsa, research-led industrial design practice plays an important role in generating new knowledge to identify and communicate new applications which balsa could be used in.

Despite China’s dominance in the wind energy industry, by the end of 2014 India had more than 20 reported wine turbine manufacturing and turbine suppliers operating. “Leading manufacturers like Suzlon, Wind World and RRB Energy, and players like Regen Powertech, Gamesa, Inox, Kenerys, GE, Siemens, Nupower, Sinovel and Garuda have set up wind turbine production or assembly facilities in India” (Midgley, 2015, p. 18). This shows that India may increase its consumption of PNG balsa and become the dominate consumer of the balsa resource.

2.4 Balsa properties

The following section highlights the preliminary properties of balsa which are important for new product design and developments. Balsa is used in a variety of applications, from its stereotypical domestic model making hobbies, like toy aircrafts and boats, to its commercial uses in marine, road and rail, wind energy, aerospace, defence and industrial applications (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10). Bootle (1983) summarises balsa as a material that is easy to work with, providing “sharp thin-edged tools are used to avoid crushing of the wood. Glues satisfactorily. Unsuitable for stem bending because it buckles too easily. Too soft for the use of nails and screws [and] has high insulating value against heat and sound transference” (p. 243).

Balsa is primarily used as end-grain panels for its compressive strength properties and minimal weight. “This end-grain orientation demonstrates the highest compression and shear strength properties, fundamental for good sandwich construction” (Black, 2003, para. 29). Balsa is also used for its sustainable credentials, high stiffness, shear and strength performances and acoustic and thermal insulation properties. Contemporary international balsa processors segregate processed balsa into three density classes. Highlighted by Midgley et al. (2010, p. 28) the three density groups are; light 80-120 kg/m3; medium 120-180 kg/m3; and heavy 180-220 kg/m3. These density groups can vary from processors but generally are similar in value – a market for balsa with densities exceeding 220 kg/m3 was not found. Most of the available knowledge on balsa dates back to the middle of the twentieth century and tests the properties of Ecuadorian balsa. A review of the literature revealed an absence of recent publications that identify the properties of PNG balsa for each international density class. A summary of the difference between Ecuadorian and PNG balsa does not exist and current studies conducted on balsa claim that the material has good properties but details on the tests conducted and the results are vague and fail to segregate balsa into the respective international density classes. One of the earliest recorded literature on the properties of balsa, by Carpenter (1917) states:

The wood is remarkable: first, as to its lightness; second, as to its microscopical structure; third, for its absence of woody fibre; fourth, for its elasticity; and, fifth, for its heat-insulating qualities. So far as the [1917] investigation has disclosed, it is the lightest commercial useful wood known (p. 30).

Da Silva and Kyriakides (2007) state, “wood has historically been, and indeed remains today, one of the most widely used structural materials. It’s a naturally occurring, renewable, biodegradable and relatively low-cost material with outstanding axial stiffness-to-weight and strength-to-weight ratios” (p. 8685-8686). Respectively, “balsa wood is a natural cellular material with excellent stiffness-to-weight and

76 strength-to-weight ratios as well as superior energy absorption characteristics” (p. 8685). These characteristics derive from low relative density which also make balsa “one of the lightest woods available” (p. 8686). Balsa requires careful handling to prevent denting or injuring the soft natured wood. It is highly porous, non-resinous, tasteless and odourless (Wiepking & Doyle, 1960, p. 3). The natural configuration of balsa’s microstructure provides the material with its superior compression and shear strength parallel to the grain. Like all woods balsa is anisotropic and therefore is “less stiff and weaker in the tangential and radial directions” (Da Silver & Kyriakides, 2007, p. 8685). Figure 2.36 illustrates the grain directions of balsa.

Figure 2.36 Wood grain direction

Identified by Grenestedt and Bekisli (2003) “a typical end-grain balsa core, with a density around 155 kg/m3, the quasi-static shear strength is slightly higher than that of a polyvinyl chloride foam core of the same density” (p. 1327). Furthermore, due to balsa’s high axial stiffness, when balsa is used as a core component in a sandwich panel it improves the resistance to local indentations and face-sheet wrinkling and dimpling (Kepler, 2011, p. 46), which are common modes of failure for sandwich composite panels. Kepler (2011) further highlights that balsa’s “axial compressive strength properties are clearly superior to those of polyvinyl chloride foams of comparable densities” (p. 46) which compete directly with balsa as a core component in commercial sandwich composite applications. Highlighted by Black (2003):

Although it may seem counter-intuitive, balsa wood actually performs very well in fire-critical applications… a product’s available combustion energy is a function of its density; a typical lightweight balsa doesn’t offer much fuel, and it burns with a nontoxic white smoke. If the wood does come in contact with flame, a uniform char layer forms that protects unconsumed cellulose from the heat source (para. 33).

Also highlighted by Lie (1977, p. 161) the charring rate of wood depends on density, its permeability and the Moisture Content [MC]. In a fire scenario polymer foams would melt and expel a black toxic smoke. “For these reasons, balsa is approved in most transit applications and as insulation in engine rooms” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 29). A concern with balsa as a core component in sandwich composites, introduced by Sadler, Sharpe, Pandurange and Shivakumar (2009) is water absorption. In critical weight applications, such as marine and aviation industries, water absorption is undesirable. Balsa absorbs mass volumes of water relative to its weight, volume and density, and significantly swells and deteriorates, resulting in reduced compressive strength properties. Recorded by Sadler et al. (2009) an experiment of exposing balsa and other materials — Eco-Core and polyvinyl chloride foam — to tap and sea water proved ”balsa wood showed highest percentage of weight gain (around 963 per cent in tap water)” (p. 333) and 443 per cent in sea water. Additionally the “balsa wood core showed the highest percentage of density increase (873 per cent)” (p. 334) and the “strength loss in balsa wood [was] much larger compared to Eco-Core and polyvinyl chloride foam… 30 per cent of balsa wood samples lost more than 50 per cent of strength” (p. 335). Ritter and Fleck (1922, p. 11) acknowledge while balsa must be chemically treated to prevent water uptake and decay because it’s extremely lightweight it floats which is useful in marine applications.

Proven by Soden and McLeish (1976) balsa has great specific strength and stiffness properties when loaded in tension parallel to its fibres. Soden and McLeish (1976) claim “a designer wishing to take full advantage of the material’s properties will therefore go to considerable lengths to ensure that the material is loaded in tension parallel the grain” (p. 225). Figure 2.37 indicates the directions of loading balsa in tensile applications. In addition Soden and McLeish (1976) presented the compressive strength of balsa — the reverse direction of loading tension — is greater parallel to the grain as opposed to perpendicular to the grain. The fibre alignment in balsa gives the material its strength parallel to the grain.

Figure 2.37 Direction of loading reference

Shishkina, Lomov, Verpoest and Gorbatikh (2014, p. 789) noted despite balsa’s low density the material exhibits good mechanical properties. These properties are dependent on the density and porosity of balsa. Similarly, the shear stiffness and strength performance of balsa presented by Osei-Antwi, de Castro, Vassilopoulos and Keller (2013, p. 238) indicated that an increase in performance was related to higher specimen density. In addition balsa’s total specific energy absorption also increases with density (Vural & Ravichandran, 2003, p. 533). Furthermore, Knoell (1966, p. 2) noted balsa “is known to be a structurally and materially efficient energy dissipator in an Earth environment”.

Balsa has received a lot of recent attention as a core component material where it is commonly used in contemporary lightweight sandwich composite structures. Early literature by Doyle, Drow and McBurney (1962, p. 2) noted “because of its exceptionally lightweight and insulating properties, [balsa] has found increasing use as [a] core material in sandwich construction for aircraft and other war uses”. Once again, the thermal performance of balsa was recognised as a useful characteristic, however details and values are not given. Highlighted early, Bootle (1983, p. 243) also acknowledges balsa has good heat and sound transference properties. Sound performance, like the thermal performance of balsa is also highlighted in various publications but is not referenced or linked to studies that substantiate these claims. A study by Goodrich et al., (2010, p. 441) measured the impact an increase in temperature (representing a fire scenario) had on balsa cores in sandwich composites. The study found balsa cores used in sandwich composites lose their compressive strength with an increase in temperature. A balsa core will not be permanently damaged and will return to its full strength potential at room temperature providing it is not exposed to temperatures of 250 OC, where decomposition takes place. 79

Table 2-4 Highlights the advantages and disadvantages of balsa Advantages - Sustainable, natural and renewable resource - Biodegradable - Lightweight - Offers three density ranges: 80-120 kg/m3, 120-180 kg/m3 and 180-220 kg/m3 - Grows incredibly fast - High strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness-to-weight ratio - Wide operating temperature range - High mechanical properties - High impact strength and energy absorption - Good fire performance - Low thermal and acoustic conductivity - Not a conductor of static or electrical charge - Floats - Cheaper than synthetic polymer foams - Has aesthetic value - Contains no Formaldehydes or chemicals - Naturally resists Coptotermes acinaciformis (common Australian termite) Disadvantages - Susceptible to fungi and rot attack - High water absorption rate - Poor product quality control - Labour intensive - Processed balsa requires careful handling and packaging. - Low recovery rate from plantation to processed balsa for export markets

The disadvantages listed in Table 2-4 highlights elements which can be controlled with good practice and education. Balsa is a vulnerable resource, however the advantages of using balsa in applications that optimise the physical properties and sustainable attributes far exceed the disadvantages. The majority of disadvantages of balsa are the lack of facilities, good quality control practices and education in ENB, PNG, which can all be resolved. It is not the fault of the resource more the availability of contemporary consumer markets, modern technologies for smallholder agricultural practices and timber processing facilities for export markets.

2.4.1 Balsa mechanical properties Available information of PNG balsa is scarce and most of the mechanical strength data available primarily presents the density, Modulus of Elasticity [MOE], Modulus of Rupture [MOR]. A study by Chowdhury, Sarker, Deb and Sonet (2013) grouped 79 tree species from Bangladesh based on each timber’s density, MOE and MOR. The density, MOE and MOR where tested to determine the mechanical strength properties of Bangladesh timber so they could be arranged into structural grading groups. The data presented by Chowdhury et al. (2013) suggested PNG balsa would be placed in the lowest timber species category (i.e. group 1) based on the range provided for the density (220-330 kg/m3), MOE (3600- 6100 MPa) and MOR (20.6-37.8 MPa). Figure 2.38 is an image of end-grain balsa panel.

Figure 2.38 End-grain balsa panel

Table 2-5 Technical specification of end-grain core as tested by Lloyd’s Register Standard (Medium) density end-grain core as tested by Lloyd’s Register Density (kg/m3) 150 Compression Strength (MPa) ASTM C-365 19.2 Compression Modulus (MPa) ASTM C-365 5,010 Shear Strength (MPa) ASTM C-273 1.95 Shear Modulus (MPa) ASTM C-273 275 Light density end-grain core as tested by Lloyd’s Register Density (kg/m3) 100 Compression Strength (MPa) ASTM C-365 8.12 Compression Modulus (MPa) ASTM C-365 2,120 Shear Strength (MPa) ASTM C-273 1.32 Shear Modulus (MPa) ASTM C-273 125

Table 2-5 is a summary of mechanical properties and performances of end-grain balsa that The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. supplies to global markets. The information presented was sourced from the product specification sheet available on The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. website (www.pngbalsa.com). Table 2-6 is a summary of mechanical properties and performances of end-grain balsa that DIAB Group supplies from Ecuador to global markets. The information presented was also sourced from the product specification sheet available on DIAB Group website (www.diabgroup.com).

Table 2-6 Technical specification ProBalsa Standard Mechanical (ProBalsa Standard) Panel Density (kg/m3) ASTM C 271 155 Compressive Strength perpendicular to the plane (MPa) ASTM C 365 12.7 Compressive Modulus perpendicular to the plane (MPa) ASTM C 365 4,100 Tensile Strength perpendicular to the plane (MPa) ASTM C 297 13.5 Shear Strength perpendicular to the plane (MPa) ASTM C 273 3 Shear Modulus perpendicular to the plane (MPa) ASTM C 273 166 Thermal Conductivity [TC] (W/mK) ASTM C 177 0.064 MC (%) ASTM D 4442 8 – 12 Water absorption, 24 hours (%) ASTM C 272 225 Water absorption, 48 hours (%) ASTM C 272 310 Water absorption, saturation (%) ASTM C 272 625 R-value at various thicknesses (12mm) Based on +10O K 1.1 (25mm) factor 2.3 (51mm) 4.5 All values measured at +22 OC, TC at +23 OC.

Current literature noted the density of balsa can range from 50-410 kg/m3 (Francis, 1991, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27). As previously highlighted minimal research exists that determines the mechanical properties of processed PNG balsa (not end-grain) in the international density classes. Mechanical properties refer to the MOE, MOR, Maximum Compressive/Crushing Strength/Stress [MCS], Hardness, Load at Maximum Compressive Extension, and Maximum Shear Stress. Early research by Eddowes (1977) and Wiselius (1998) was the only literature that presented data on balsa sourced from PNG. PNG balsa was described as being extremely soft, light in weight, density and hardness. Eddowes (1977, p. 68) highlighted the Air Dry Density [ADD] of balsa — at 12 per cent MC — ranged between 130- 240 kg/m³ and the mechanical properties of unseasoned balsa were classified into the strength group S7. S7 is the lowest strength class for unseasoned timber, measured in (MPa). The minimum standard strength values for a S7 classification are: Density 320 kg/m3, MOR 36 MPa, MOE 6900 MPa, MCS 18

MPa and Maximum Shear Stress 4.6 MPa (Eddowes, 1977, p. 6). Although Eddowes (1977) classifies PNG balsa in the S7 strength group exact figures were not given for the green timber data. Table 2-7 presents the data highlighted by Eddowes (1977).

Table 2-7 PNG balsa mechanical and basic properties (Eddowes, 1977, p. 68-69) ADD Strength Natural Shrinkage Movement Sapwood Heartwood (kg/m3) Group Durability Class 130-240 S7 4 Low Low White White. Sometimes, pink heart. Note: Natural Durability Class classifies the resistance of untreated heartwood to decay. Class 4 is the poorest class indicating balsa’s in-ground service life would range from 0-5 years and above-ground service life from 0-7 years (Eddowes, 2005, p. 2).

A more recent study by Eddowes (2005) highlighted the mechanical properties of balsa sourced from the Solomon Islands. Eddowes (2005, p. 37) presented the ADD range of balsa grown there ranged from 120-240 kg/m3, where the most desirable densities range from 125-175 kg/m3. By comparison to Eddowes’ earlier work (Eddowes, 1977) this study measured the properties of seasoned timber at an ADD at 12 per cent MC. The results classified the balsa in the SD8 strength group. SD8 is lowest strength class for seasoned timber — at 12 per cent MC —, measured in (MPa). The minimum standard strength values for SD8 classification are: MOR 45 MPa, MOE 7900 MPa, and MCS 30 MPa (Eddowes, 2005, p.3). Table 2-8 presents the data highlighted by Eddowes (2005).

Table 2-8 Solomon Islands balsa mechanical and basic properties (Eddowes, 2005, p. 36-37) ADD Strength MOE MOR MCS Hardness Shrinkage Movement (kg/m3) Group (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (Janka) (J) 120-240 SD8 3,800 19 12 0.4 Low Low

Wiselius (1998, p.641) highlighted the range of balsa’s mechanical properties using samples from a single tree with an ADD range of 100-130 kg/m³ at 13 per cent MC. Wiselius (1998, p. 414) also noted the density of balsa can range from 90-310 kg/m³. Although specific data of PNG balsa was provided it was related only to the MOE and MOR (Table 2-9). Since this publication in 1998 there have been no further published mechanical properties on processed balsa from PNG.

Table 2-9 PNG balsa mechanical properties (Wiselius, 1998, p. 641) ADD at 13 per cent MC (kg/m3) MOE (MPa) MOR (MPa) 100-130 1,155 - 1,645 8.5-12.5

The most recent and extensive research conducted on PNG balsa was by Midgley et al. (2010). Midgley et al. (2010, p. 27) highlighted the work of Francis (1991) on balsa sourced from South America which is summarised in Table 2-10.

Table 2-10 South American balsa mechanical properties (Francis, 1991, as cited in Midgley et al., 2010, p. 27) Density (kg/m³) MOE (MPa) MOR (MPa) MCS (MPa) 50-410 2,942-5,884 14.5-36.5 6.2-6.3

Bootle (1983, p. 243) highlighted the ADD of balsa ranged from 50-400 kg/m3, though the most commercially desirable balsa ranged between 110-170 kg/m3. Table 2-11 identifies the mechanical strength properties of balsa sourced from Ecuador by Bootle (1983).

Table 2-11 Ecuadorian balsa mechanical properties (Bootle, 1983, p. 416) ADD (kg/m3) MOE (MPa) MOR (MPa) MCS (MPa) Hardness (Janka) (N) 170 3,800 19 12 400

Tsoumis (1991, p. 165) presented the mechanical properties of balsa sourced from Tropical America however the density of the balsa was not disclosed.

Table 2-12 Tropical America balsa mechanical properties (Tsoumis, 1991, p. 165) Tension parallel to grain (MPa) 73.0 Tension perpendicular to grain (MPa) 1 Compression Parallel to grain (MPa) 9 Compression perpendicular to grain (MPa) 1 MOE (MPa) 2,550 MOR (MPa) 19 Shear (MPa) 1.1 Hardness (side) (N) 400 Toughness (J/cm2) 2.2

Soden and McLeish (1976, p. 225) outline the properties of a range of materials to compare property values of balsa against other common materials. The results of Soden and McLeish (1976, p. 233) measured the tensile and compressive ability of balsa from a density range of 70-290 kg/m3 (p. 230).

Table 2-13 Mechanical properties of various materials (Soden & McLeish, 1976, p. 225) Material Density Tensile MOE Specific Specific tensile Specific (kg/m3) strength (MPa) stiffness strength (MPa) buckling (MPa) (MPa) strength √E/ kg/m3 Mild steel 7,800 415 207,000 27,000 53 1.8 Nylon 1,140 69 2,800 2,400 60 1.5 Aluminium 2,800 460 73,000 22,000 166 3.1 Balsa 270 64 10,400 38,000 236 11.9

Additionally, the mechanical strength properties of balsa imported to the United States from America — assuming South or Central — was referenced by Kretschmann (2010) in Table 2-14. The data originated from existing literature.

Table 2-14 American balsa mechanical properties (Kretschmann, 2010, p. 18) ADD MOE MOR Work to maximum Compression parallel Shear parallel to (kg/m3) (MPa) (MPa) load (kJ/m3) to grain (MPa) grain (MPa) 160 3,400 21.6 14 14.9 2.1

Dreisbach (1952, p. 66-67) provides the most comprehensive summary located in this literature review. The purpose of the study was to provide the properties of balsa for aircraft engineers, model builders and other users of balsa. The mechancial property results presented by Dreisbach (1952), unlike other existing literature segregated the findings into coresponding densities classes ranging from 80-240 kg/m3. The study also defines the direction of the grain under testing which determines the optimal grain orientation for maximum strength.

Table 2-15 Short summary of balsa properties categorised by density (Dreisbach, 1952, p. 66-67) ADD MOE MOR Compression Shear parallel Tension Hardness (kg/m3) (MPa) (MPa) parallel to to grain perpendicular to parallel to grain MOE tangential grain tangential grain (N) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 80 1,792 8.6 1,447 1.2 0.7 311 100 2,068 10.3 2,068 1.4 0.8 498 120 2,254 12.4 2,895 1.6 0.9 711 160 3,998 18.9 4,550 2.4 1.2 1,023 180 4,481 22.8 5,584 2.9 1.2 1,218 200 4,860 24.5 5,963 3.1 1.5 1,378 240 - - 6,756 - 1.6 -

The literature provides an extensive range of values that vary between countries which produce balsa. The values of balsa presented are generally from the medium (120-180 kg/m³) international density class however some of the literature does not indicate the density of balsa samples, the standard test method used or if the figures given are average values. It is therefore difficult to compare PNG balsa with Ecuadorian balsa because of the lack of detail presented in the literature. Information on the mechanical properties of PNG balsa is needed to inform product design and development of new balsa applications that could be appropriate. Information on additional material properties of PNG balsa, such as the thermal value, acoustic performance, fire properties and termite susceptibility of processed balsa is also needed. These values will allow effective comparisons with competitor materials with similar properties and identify existing and potential product applications.

2.5 Balsa applications

“Innovation has become the hallmark of successful companies which use balsa” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10). As previously presented, balsa is used in several contemporary industries: marine, road and rail, renewable energy, aerospace, defence, industrial/construction and hobbies/crafts (Midgley, 2015, p. 15).

[Balsa’s] main industrial use, and the [product] that forms the largest part of the global balsa market, is as end-grain panels. These are widely used as components of structural sandwich panels consisting of low density core material sandwiched between two high-modulus face skins to produce an exceptionally stiff and light composite panel (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 10).

Figure 2.39 Common end-grain balsa sandwich composite

The name ‘balsa’ derives from the Spanish word ‘raft’ (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 23) which is the earliest recorded application for balsa. This section introduces historical and contemporary balsa applications, market gaps and opportunities for new product design and development. It is difficult to identify every single balsa product and application throughout history. A selection of products and applications to further identify material properties and characteristics were sourced from existing literature to outline historical and contemporary applications that would inspire new product design and developments for PNG balsa.

2.5.1 History of balsa There is evidence of three balsa revolutions throughout history. The first recorded application of balsa was in raft construction, driven by early military and trade demands. According to Mohammadi and Nairn (2013) balsa “has its historical roots among the Polynesian people” (p. 1). Easterling, Harryson, Gibson and Ashby (1982) claimed, the use of balsa dates back to “500 A.D [where] the Peruvians constructed their Kon-Tiki rafts from raw balsa trees to navigate the Pacific” (p. 31). Additionally, Fletcher (1949) stated the Inca Indians used balsa “some five hundred years ago for making rafts to transport armies and equipment on the Guayas River” (p. 47) in Ecuador.

The second balsa revolution was brought on by military demand for wartime and consumer demand for mass-produced products and applications post war, despite there being small mass-produced balsa products already in the market before World War II. Prior to the twentieth century balsa was only used in raft construction. “By 1911 a few thousand logs annually were being exported [from Ecuador], but not until 1936 did balsa become a significant item of trade” (Fletcher, 1949, p. 47). Before World War II balsa supplies were limited due to primitive logging and harvesting practices and transportation problems (Weipking & Doyle, 1960, p. 1; Doyle et al., 1962, p. 2). Balsa was used in commercial applications for its

87 lightness, strength and insulating properties (Easterling et al., 1982, p. 31; Wiepking & Doyle, 1960, p. 1). Early applications included toy aircrafts, personal floatation devices and surfboards. Balsa “was first used for aircraft [construction] in the USA in the early 1920’s” (p. 31). During World War II demand for balsa increased as “it became a strategic material of war construction of 400-mile-per-hour British Mosquito bombers” (Fletcher, 1949, p. 47). However demand for balsa in wartime did decline later in 1944. Nonetheless, Fletcher (1949) stated demand for balsa was “expected to continue in more demand than before the war” (p. 52). Fletcher (1949) acknowledged there are three major industries that demand the resource: “(1) aircraft construction, (2) buoyancy apparatus—floats, rafts pontoons, etc., (3) toys, model planes, etc. A fourth, the box industry or packaging crates for air freight, will no doubt develop” (p. 54).

Fletcher (1949) elaborated further to identify a “promising field is as a new type of “fill” for an extremely light tennis racket” (p. 54). This type of innovative thinking resembles modern uses for balsa as a lightweight core composite material used in a variety of products. World War II revolutionised innovative thinking to develop balsa products for competitive advantage – mostly military driven during wartime and consumer driven in peacetime. While demand for balsa did slow at the end of World War II in military applications, post war demand expanded in various fields such as the contemporary applications identified by Midgley (2015, p. 15). The expansion of balsa products was heavily influenced by the physical and mechanical properties which the material exhibits. Tsoumis (1991) highlighted that balsa was the lightest wood in use and lists a range of common uses from thermal insulation, sound absorption, buoyancy applications, a core component in sandwich panels and for model making. Soden and McLeish (1976, p. 225) claimed “balsa has been used as a modelling material mainly because of its low cost and the ease with which it can be shaped and jointed without special tools”. Additionally, Carpenter (1917, p. 30), Easterling et al. (1982, p. 31) and Bootle (1983, p. 243) note that balsa thermal insulation is appropriate in cold storage structures, refrigeration ships and refrigerated trucks. In addition Bootle (1983, p. 243) noted balsa is useful in applications such as stage sets, surgical splints, surfboards and hat blocks.

The third balsa revolution is occurring in and responding to the sustainable and socially responsible contemporary society we live in. The need for socially and ethically sourced materials that are renewable, have a small environmental footprint, are strong yet lightweight and increase efficiencies are highly desirable. The development of innovative balsa products and applications are currently widespread ranging from small niche markets to mass quantity industries like the wind energy industry.

Due to [balsa’s] low density and versatility, balsa has a wide range of end uses. Among its attractive attributes are its high impact strength, good sound and thermal insulation, excellent fatigue resistance and wide operating temperature range. For many industries, it has the added advantage of being competitive in price (compared to alternative core materials) and is the only core material from a natural, renewable resource (Midgley, 2015, p. 14). 88

Balsa is heavily used in traditional applications such as military, aerospace and marine as well as new markets such as transport (road and rail), wind energy and industrial markets (p. 29-31). As previously highlighted:

Global markets for balsa are dominated by the demand for end-grain panels which are used widely as cores for sandwich composite applications which comprise a low-density core material sandwiched between two high-modulus face skins to produce a lightweight panel with exceptional stiffness (Midgley, 2015, p. 14).

2.5.2 Marine Tagarielli, Deshpande, Fleck and Chen (2005) claimed the main commercial balsa application in 2005 was as a thermal insulator in refrigerated ships, floating aids in lifeboats and packaging applications (p. 671). Bekisli and Grenestedt (2004) highlighted that balsa end-grain panels are widely used in marine applications due to a combination of its lightweight nature, good mechanical properties and effectiveness for thermal insulation (p. 667). “Many power boats, recreational craft and commercial vessels have components made from lightweight, balsa composites where strength, stiffness, durability and weather resistance are required” (Midgley, 2015, p. 15).

Balsa is typically used to manufacture hulls, bulkheads, superstructures, tables, hatches, doors and non-structural partitions in modern marine applications. The 2005 Dehler 47 yacht and the 2009 Viking 74 Fishing Boat are examples of balsa used in marine vessels. Many yachts and other sporting vessels also utilise balsa for hull construction. Identified by Midgley et al. (2010, p. 29) “balsa has been used for the massive, static-free insulation for cryogenic transport ships (used for shipping liquefied natural gas)”. There are many alternative materials for marine applications but none are as suitable for fire or heat sensitive environments. “Cost-effective polymer foams such as polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride are compromised by their relatively poor fire, smoke and toxicity performance, and other more suitable foams are more costly” (Midgley, 2015, p. 15). Because of balsa’s superior fire performance it “is approved in most transit applications and as insulation for engine rooms and its use can attract reduced insurance premiums” (Midgley, 2015, p. 15).

2.5.3 Road and Rail Balsa has drawn particular attention from the automotive industry as a way of reducing a vehicles weight without compromising strength or safety. Common applications include sandwich composite construction for flooring in mass transit vehicles such as trains and buses, and consumer vehicles such as cars, caravans and motor homes. Roof, body and interior panels, front bumpers and side skirts are also cored with balsa, as a lightweight alternative in transit industries. Heat and sound transition, — like marine

89 applications — fire, durability, cost and vehicle energy efficiencies are of high importance. Because balsa composites offer weight reductions and high rigidity it has been proven to reduce maintenance cost over the whole life span of mass transit vehicles. The competitive cost of balsa and its fire performance properties have seen balsa composites replace phenolic honeycomb cored laminates previously used in San Francisco metropolitan trains. The San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit train in 2003, the 2005 Toyota IMTS Bus, 2007 Cadillac XLR, 2005-2013 C6 Chevrolet Corvette and 2008 Kenwood T2000 truck are examples of balsa used in the road and rail industries.

2.5.4 Renewable Energy Balsa is used for manufacturing wind turbine blades for the renewable energy industry as a core component The PNG balsa industry relies heavily on this industry to purchase processed balsa. Many PNG balsa stakeholders claimed the majority of their balsa was exported to China post processing, to manufacture wind turbine blades. Current global growth of the industry offers significant opportunities to the PNG balsa industry as the global demand for green energy and products demand sustainable resources such as balsa. “Many observers regard the wind energy sector as the single largest defining influence on the global balsa market” (Midgley, 2015, p. 19).

Balsa makes up approximately 40 per cent (by volume) of a turbine blade. The introduction of structural synthetic foams has generated fierce competition for balsa. Blade manufacturers use structural foam or end-grain balsa and sometimes both (Midgley, 2015, p. 16). The life expectancy of turbine blades is 10-25 years. In the next 10 years it is forecast that demand for balsa will increase to replace previous generation blades. Siemen currently holds the world record for the largest turbine blade manufactured with balsa (Siemen B75 blade).

2.5.5 Aerospace Balsa has been used in aviation industries since the early twentieth century. The industry owes its success to the strength, impact resistance, lightness, insulation properties and ease of balsa processing. Highly driven by the military during wartime, balsa was used to manufacture the de Havilland Mosquito bomber in World War II. Post war, balsa was used by NASA to develop its X-4 Bantam in 1953 and is also used in commercial airlines as floor panels, interior partitions, galley carts and cargo pallets for its low cost and long service life. Spacecraft development is another industry identified by Knoell (1966) – where balsa’s performance as an energy dissipator is used to protect spacecraft.

2.5.6 Defence Industry stakeholders claimed 30 per cent of global balsa markets is purchased for military applications. For security reasons exact products and applications are unknown, but common to most industries the lightness of balsa is used in composite applications to reduce weight, which is ideal for armoured vehicles which are notoriously heavy. The 2007 Humvee military vehicle is an example of a lightweight military vehicle. According to Midgley (2015, p. 20) naval ship structures use balsa composites in surface structures and hulls to reduce detection from radar. Temporary shelters and cargo pallets for defence also utilise balsa as a core component. According to Tagarielli, Deshpande and Fleck (2008, p. 83) demand has also grown in applications where impact and blast protection is needed.

2.5.7 Industrial and construction Balsa is well known as a material commonly used for model making and crafts. Other common products often associated with balsa are surfboards, fishing floats/lures and personal floatation devices. An increase in contemporary niche markets has introduced balsa musical instruments, skis/snowboards/wakeboards, and furniture and packaging (for fragile goods like wine and cigars). These niche markets target small consumer groups and do not offer the mass quantity consumption needed by the PNG balsa industry to sustain demand for the resource which would support the livelihoods of smallholders in ENB. Despite small niche markets balsa has industrial commercial value as cladding and insulation for industrial pipes, tooling, storage tanks, impact limiters and concrete forms (Midgley, 2015, p. 20). Another industrial application was complete in 2009 Louisiana America. A bridge decked with a balsa core composite was installed as the first balsa cored composite containing single walled carbon nanotubes. Osei-Antwi et al. (2013) also noted that an attempt to replace honeycomb and foam sandwich composites with balsa core sandwich composites was underway in Norway to construct a 56 metre-span Bascule Footbridge. Another recent industrial development was by 3A Composites (www.3accorematerials.com/banova). The developed of a balsa plywood known as BANOVA PLY is a reduction of up to 50-70 per cent weight compared to birch, particleboard and poplar panels. This balsa product has been developed for applications such as desktops, panelling, cladding, floor panels, structural and industrial componentry. This balsa product is the latest revolutionary development for balsa in contemporary industrial and construction industries. Due to the absence of plywood manufacturing facilities available in ENB, PNG this type of balsa product is currently unable to be produced in PNG.

The historical outline of balsa products and applications identified an absence of consideration given to the construction industry, where balsa products can compete with existing and emerging materials such as timbers, composite materials and synthetic polymers foams. “Any expansion of the global demand for balsa will be linked with the innovative industrial use of end-grain panels in a range of applications” (Midgley et al., 2010 p. 50). A new generation of balsa products and applications driven by

91 research-led industrial design practice will explore new product design and developments to enter commercial markets. Balsa is labelled as a strong material in composite structures, however when it is not used as a core component it is vulnerable. In comparison to structural timbers, raw processed balsa is relatively weak rendering it a non-structural commercial timber. Balsa is naturally susceptible to decomposition, dents and fractures easily and absorbs moisture. Balsa is therefore not suitable for exterior or structural applications.

The implementation of balsa into the industrial and construction industry will benefit from the sustainable attributes, economic viability and socially responsible use of a renewable resource to support developing communities in ENB, PNG. Since the 1900’s balsa has been recognised as a lightweight, exceptionally strong timber that offers commercial uses in military, aviation, marine and lifestyle/sporting goods. Only recently, in the twenty-first century where demand for sustainable, renewable and environmentally sound materials is on the rise, has innovation driven balsa into new commercial markets. This latest social change in society is behind the third major revolution and innovative turning point in balsa’s product and application history. Figure 2.40 identifies a selection of significant balsa products and applications throughout history. As previously highlighted the three balsa revolutions are; 500-1400 A.D: Polynesians and Inca Indians manufacture balsa rafts for trade and war, 1941: World War II innovation creates demand for balsa in military applications, Twenty-first century: Contemporary society is driven by sustainable innovation and social awareness to develop lightweight products.

Figure 2.40 Historical timeline of balsa products and applications

This section of the literature review has identified successful and appropriate balsa applications both past and present. A large percentage of PNG balsa processors target the renewable energy industry. The impact the market downturn had on the PNG balsa industry — brought on by the Global Financial Crisis — demonstrated the level of hardship that would affect smallholders and the PNG balsa industry if global balsa markets reduced their demand. The PNG balsa industry relies heavily on China’s renewable energy industry. The need for design to diversify PNG balsa product and application markets is necessary to prevent potential hardship and the dependence on a single industry. Without new design, products and applications the PNG balsa industry would continue to rely on a single industry and the markets associated with that single industry. If balsa is substituted with competitive materials, the affect this will have on smallholders will be devastating due to a loss in resources, time and financial returns.

2.6 Market opportunity and balsa competitors

Balsa is being used in increasingly high-technology applications where performance to specifications is critical. Manufacturers need high-quality and uniform materials to produce products within design specifications. The quality issues raised through [Midgley et al.] study include uniformity of density within end-grain panels, colour and MC (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 80).

In many applications balsa is in direct competition with synthetic foams. While balsa has its pros and cons, in recent times balsa has been replaced by polymer foams as a competing resource in some commercial applications. “Rather than compete with foams in high-technology, high-value applications, there is a body of opinion in the industry that sees balsa’s logical place as a supplement to the particleboard and fibreboard industries and being used in furniture and construction applications” (Midgley et al., 2012, p. 50). This statement by Midgley et al. (2012) highlights an opportunity to investigate markets purchasing particleboards and fibreboards to determine if balsa can compete in this market. With the advantage of balsa being a sustainable material this offers superior alternatives to current particleboard and fibreboard applications. While balsa can remain a direct competitor with synthetic foams for some applications, greater opportunities are evident within existing timber markets for the construction industry.

Commercial balsa products and applications are categorised in a matrix presented in Figure 2.41. The previously identified industries and additional specific industries have been used to categorise and differentiate the types of existing balsa products and applications. Evident in Figure 2.41 there are multiple market gaps.

Figure 2.41 Balsa products categorised by industry to identify market gaps

Highlighted by Midgley et al. (2015, p. 50) an opportunity for balsa composites exist in the construction industry as a substitute material for particle and fibreboards products. Aside from these existing wood-based products, polymer foams used within the construction industry also offer competitor products. Chapman (2006, p. 427) introduces other wood-based products such Oriented Strand Board [OSB]. Particleboard, Medium Density Fibreboards [MDF] and OSB which were developed from technologies first applied to plywood manufacturing in the latter half of the twentieth century. These types of wood-based products are plotted by Chapman (2006, p. 428) against density and particle size in Figure 2.42, to demonstrate the elements used to manufacture each product.

Figure 2.42 Classification of wood-based panels (Chapman, 2006, p. 428)

Moreover, Chapman (2006, p. 429) highlights the potential of wood-based products such as MDF and OSB as limitless and advantageous, considering they are manufactured from wood processing residues and small diameter logs. Table 2-16 indicates the global production of selected wood-based composites in 2003. Table 2-17 presents the global scale and growth of particleboards, MDF and OSB in 2004. Table 2-18 highlights the manufacturing costs of wood-based panels and Figure 2.43 is a historical timeline which displays the growth in demand for OSB over plywood in North America.

Table 2-16 Production (in million m3) of selected wood-based composites data in 2003 (FAO yearbook: forests products, 2004, as cited in Shi & Walker, 2006, p. 394) Country Sawn wooda Veneer Plywoodb Particleboardc Fibre-based sheets boardd Africa 7.7 0.88 0.69 0.47 0.23 N. & C. 152.1 1.66 17.4 30.9 8.7 America S. America 34.0 0.83 3.7 2.9 2.3 Asia 67.6 5.44 39.7 11.7 16.4 Europe 132.1 1.78 6.3 42.6 14.9 Oceania 8.6 0.72 0.58 1.2 1.7 World 402.0 11.30 68.4 89.7 44.1 a) All softwood and hardwood. b) Structural and decorative plywoods. c) Includes OSB but not those with inorganic binders. d) Insulation board, MDF and hardboard. 95

Table 2-17 World production of particleboard, MDF and OSB for 2004 (Chapman, 2006, p. 429) Wood-based product Million (m3) % Average growth, 1995–2005 million (m3/yr) Particleboard 81.5 54.8 2.4 OSB 26.5 17.8 2.1 MDF 40.7 27.4 3.5 Total 148.6

Table 2-18 Canadian panel manufacturing costs (Poliquin, 1998, as cited in Chapman, 2006, p. 431) Cost SC/m3 Softwood OSB (Quebee Particleboard MDF plywood (BC) and Ontario) Wood, net cost 151 58 28 40 Adhesive 17 23 35 36 Wax 0 4 3 4 Labour 103 29 22 20 Electricity 11 8 10 14 Misc. 22 18 17 22 Total Variable 304 140 115 136

Figure 2.43 Production of structural panels in North America (Adair & Camp, 2003; Adiar, 2004, as cited in Shi & Walker, 2006, p. 393)

These tables and figures emphasis the different types of wood-based panels, the global scale and growth, the cost of manufacture and changes in history of preferred products. For balsa to become competitive in this large global industry the properties and applications of the identified wood-based products must be identified to understand why they are chosen for use in the construction industry. Property and performance similarities, advantages and disadvantages and the appropriateness of use in the construction industry will be highlighted to inform new product design and development of balsa products that could be competitive in similar applications.

2.6.1 Synthetic polymer foams

Figure 2.44 Synthetic polymer foam sandwich composite

Synthetic polymer foam core composites are balsa’s biggest commercial competitor (Figure 2.44). Synthetic polymer foams are by-products derived from non-renewable petroleum resources. “Foam cores are manufactured from a number of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers including polyvinyl chloride, polyurethane, polystyrene, styrene acrylonitrile [SAN], polyetherimide and polymethacrylimide” (Black, 2003, para. 8) yet the most common is polyvinyl chloride (para. 9). According to Midgley et al., (2010) “these [polymers] can be tailored for better compressive strength and greater temperature resistance than balsa” (p. 50).

Sandwich composite panels cored with a polymer foam consist of two outer skins made from a superior material that can carry high in-plane compression and tensile strength which resists bending by keeping the two skins separated at a distance that optimises the composites strength with a light-weight core (Mostafa, Shankar & Morozov, 2013, p. 92). Polymer foams are appropriate in applications that require: 97

- High flexural strength and stiffness - High impact strength - High corrosion resistance - Low thermal and acoustic conductivity (Mostafa, Shankar & Morozov (b), 2013, p. 1008).

Identified by Midgley et al., (2010) “flammability is an important consideration with foams, and where fire performance is an issue in transport applications such as high speed marine vessels and trains, foams need to offer high-temperature performance, low-smoke density and halogen free chemistry” (p. 50). Polymer foam sheets can be “manufactured quickly in response to market demand” (p. 50) “of varying strength and density ranging from 30-300 kg/m3 [and] offer considerable uniformity” (p.50). Polymer foam sandwich composite panels are commonly used in aeronautical construction, marine, automotive industries and modern mechanical design applications (Mostafa, Shankar & Morozov (c), 2013, p. 90). According to Langdon et al. (2013) industries that use “lightweight sandwich materials are seeking to improve fuel economy and speed whilst reducing harmful emissions” (p. 64). Polymer are currently used in wind blade manufacturing for renewable energy industries. Midgley et al. (2010, p. 50) notes that one manufacturer of wind turbine blades has begun to phase out balsa as a material of choice and replace production lines with polymer foams due to the capacity to manufacture on demand.

If foams are required for a large new project, the response time is short, whereas there can be no guarantee that sufficient balsa will be available [at the time of demand]. Foams are, however, more expensive than end-grain balsa cores, which are seen as the low-cost entry point for manufacturers seeking to enter the cored-composites markets (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 50).

It takes five years for a balsa tree to grow before it can be harvested versus a considerably shorter time to produce polymer foams in a controlled environment on demand. The introduction of polymer foams into the renewable energy industry has further reduced international demand for PNG balsa. Some smallholders have discontinued growing balsa as an invested income because of the market downturn during the Global Financial Crisis and the small guarantee that the resource will be in demand when it is time to harvest. Regardless, the industry has shown significant growth since the Global Financial Crisis. Highlighted by Triantafillou and Gibson (1987) polymer foams have been used in other high-quality applications before being introduced into renewable energy industries for turbine blade manufacturing. Triantafillou and Gibson (1987, p. 37) recognised that rotor blades for helicopters and exterior panels for rapid transit rail vehicles were manufactured with foam cores. Synthetic foams have also found a market gap in the construction industry.

Increasingly, light-weight sandwich panels are being considered for use in building construction to reduce the cost associated with handling of the panels. As labour costs rise, and as construction processes become more automated, the availability of light-weight structural panels for building construction will grow in importance. In all these applications, the weight of the panel must be minimised to reduce the costs associated with either transporting or handling the structure… Applications in which the panel must have a low TC in addition to a low weight, as in buildings or mobile homes, foam cores are preferred (Triantafillou & Gibson, 1987, p. 37).

Synthetic polymer foams are increasingly being used in structural insulated panels, which are contemporary building alternatives to traditional masonry and timber frame construction. Structural insulated panels are solid construction panels that are cored with a polymer foam and sandwiched between two outer skins – typically one skin is designed for exterior environments and the other for interior environments. Structural insulated panels construction produces high thermal efficiencies and reduces maintenance and living expenses throughout the service life of a building. Polymer foams also offer good acoustic performance and are often sold as acoustic panels for offices, theatre rooms and other noisy environments. These panels come in the form of room partitions, wall or ceiling linings and as smaller pattern or artistic panels.

As highlighted earlier in this chapter, the density range of balsa can range from 50-410 kg/m3 (Bootle, 1983, p. 243). By comparison foam has a density range of 30-300 kg/m3 (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 50) and offers considerable uniformity, unlike balsa. Additionally, foam sheets can be manufactured rapidly at market demand. “There can be no guarantee that sufficient balsa will be available” (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 50) for whatever market demands are present at a given time. However, Foam panels are currently more expensive than balsa end-grain panels where higher entry point investments for manufactures are needed (Midgley et al., 2010, p. 50).

Table 2-19 Summary of structural all-purpose grade foam (DIAB Group, 2015, p. 1 - 2) Mechanical (Divinycell HP) HP80 HP100 HP130 HP200 HP250 Density (kg/m3) 80 100 130 200 250 Compressive Strength ASTM D 1621 1.5 2 3 5.4 7.2 perpendicular to the plane (MPa) Compressive Modulus ASTM D 1621-B- 105 135 170 310 400 perpendicular to the grain 73 (MPa) Tensile Strength perpendicular ASTM D 1623 2.8 3.5 4.8 7.1 9.2 to the grain (MPa) Tensile Modulus perpendicular ASTM D 1623 100 130 175 250 320 to the grain (MPa) Shear Strength (MPa) ASTM C 273 1.25 1.6 2.2 3.5 4.5 Shear Modulus (MPa) ASTM C 273 28 35 50 73 97 Shear Strain (%) ASTM C 273 38 40 40 45 45 Thermal TC (W/mK) EN 12667 0.037 0.037 0.038 0.045 0.048 Continuous temperature range (OC) -200- -200- -200- -200- -200- +80 +80 +80 +80 +80 All values measured at +23 OC, TC at +10 OC.

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Table 2-20 The advantages and disadvantages of synthetic polymer foams Advantages - Manufacturable of demand and quick turn over - Uniform quality - Lightweight - High flexural strength and stiffness - High impact strength - High corrosion resistance - Low thermal and acoustic conductivity - Long service life Disadvantages - Expensive - Energy intensive manufacturing - Derived from non-renewable petroleum resources - Low aesthetic value - Non-biodegradable - Poor fire performance - Releases toxic fumes when burnt - Foams with an equivalent density to balsa are weaker (Compressive, tensile, shear strength)

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2.6.2 Particleboard

Figure 2.45 Particleboard sandwich veneered composite

Particleboards are reconstructed wood panels manufactured from timber by-products. This type of product consists of wood particles as flakes or strands that are resin coated (urea formaldehyde) and pressed together to form a uniform timber panel. Figure 2.45 is a close up view of a particleboard. Particleboards like balsa are commonly used as a core component in sandwich composites but are mostly used in structural applications as flooring platforms. Both structural and non-structural applications are available. Structural applications are typically used in load bearing applications where the product can be exposed to full weather conditions for up to three months (EWPAA, 2008, p. 4). Non-structural applications utilise standard particleboards for shelving in wardrobes, wall units, cabinets/cupboards and wall linings. The product is susceptible to wood destroying fungi and termites (EWPAA, 2008, p. 7). Attack from wood destroying beetles is possible but unlikely in Australia (EWPAA, 2008, p. 7). A summary of typical particleboard properties are presented in Table 2-21.

Table 2-21 Material properties of standard particleboards (EWPAA, 2008, p. 4-6) Mechanical Property (unit) Thickness Class (mm) ≤12 13-22 >23 Density (kg/m3) 660-700 660-680 600-660 MOR (MPa) 18 15 14 MOE (MPa) 2,800 2,600 2,400 Internal Bond Strength (MPa) 0.6 0.45 0.4 Surface Soundness (MPa) 1.25 1.3 1.3 Screw Holding – Face (N) - 600 700

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Screw Holding – Edge (N) - 700 750 Thickness Swell – 24 Hour (%) 15 12 8 Formaldehyde E1 – Desiccator method (mg/l) 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5 Thermal TC (W/mK) 0.1-0.14 Acoustic Sound Transmission (dB) 25 (16 mm and thicker) Fire Index Range Ignitability 13-14 0-20 Spread of Flame 6-7 0-10 Heat Evolved 6 0-10 Smoke Developed 3 0-10 Average Heat Release (kW/m2) 120 Average Specific Extinction Area (m2/kg) 33 Building Code Australia group classification 3

Table 2-22 The advantages and disadvantages of particleboard Advantages - Up-cycling processed wood by-products - Cheaper than MDF - Popular substitute for plywood - Uniform quality - Joinable with screws - Available as a structural, non-structural, fire and moisture resistant product Disadvantages - Heavy - Low aesthetic value - Contains Urea Formaldehyde - Energy intensive manufacturing - Reacts to fire - Susceptible to fungi and termite attack - Reacts to moisture by swelling

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2.6.3 Medium Density Fibreboard

Figure 2.46 Fibreboard sandwich veneered composite

Fibreboards are also reconstructed wood panels manufactured from timber by-products. Different to particleboards, as the name suggests, fibreboards are made of wood fibres. Evident in Figure 2.46, Medium Density Fibreboard [MDF] have a smoother face plane and a higher density than particleboards. Standard MDF has numerous applications within dry interior environments. It is common in non-structural applications such as cabinets, doors, skirting boards, laminated bench tops, wall/ceiling lining and shelving. MDF panels are typically painted or veneered with wood veneers or laminates to enhance its appearance and to protect it from moisture absorption. Standard MDF is not suitable in environments where the MC is greater than 18 per cent. The product is susceptible to wood destroying fungi and termites (EWPAA, 2008, p. 18). Attack from wood destroying beetles is possible but unlikely in Australia (EWPAA, 2008, p. 18). A summary of typical MDF properties are presented in Table 2-23.

Table 2-23 Material properties of standard MDF (EWPAA, 2008, p. 16-18) Mechanical Property (unit) Thickness Class (mm) ≤5 6-12 13-22 >23 Density (kg/m3) 800-850 775 725 650-700 MOR (MPa) 44 42 38 30-40 MOE (MPa) 3,800 3,500 3,300 3,200 Internal Bond Strength (MPa) 1.15 1.0 0.75 0.6 Surface Soundness (MPa) 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.4 Screw Holding – Face (N) - - 800 850 Screw Holding – Edge (N) - - 1,150 1,000 Thickness Swell – 24 Hour (%) 20-30 10-20 8-12 5-8

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Formaldehyde E1 – Desiccator method 0.7-1.0 0.7-1.0 0.7-1.0 0.7-1.0 (mg/l) Thermal TC (W/mK) 0.12-0.15 Acoustic Sound Transmission Class Sound Transmission Class -29 (16 mm and thicker) Fire Index Range Ignitability 15 0-20 Spread of Flame 7-8 0-10 Heat Evolved 6-9 0-10 Smoke Developed 3-5 0-10 Average Heat Release (kW/m2) 84 Average Specific Extinction Area (m2/kg) 72 Building Code Australia group classification 3

Table 2-24 The advantages and disadvantages of MDF Advantages - Up-cycling processed wood by-products - Cheap - Popular substitute for particleboard - Uniform quality - Joinable with screws - Available as a fire and moisture resistant product - Available in a variety of colours Disadvantages - Very heavy - Low aesthetic value - Contains Urea Formaldehyde - Energy intensive manufacturing - Resource intensive - Reacts to fire - Susceptible to fungi and termite attack - Reacts to moisture by swelling

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2.6.4 Plywood

Figure 2.47 Plywood sandwich veneered composite

Plywood differs to particleboards and MDF mainly because of its construction. Plywood is the layering of wood veneers to produce a cross laminated sheet (Figure 2.47). Unlike particle board and MDF plywood in not typically used as a core component in sandwich composites. Plywood is sometimes veneered with laminate or high quality wood veneers in high-end products. It is typically used in structural applications however has various non-structural applications. Plywood is versatile and can be used in both exterior and interior applications. Common applications include doors, stairs, interior and exterior linings, flooring, framing, railing and balustrades, joinery and shear walls. A summary of typical structural F7 plywood properties are presented in Table 2-25.

Table 2-25 Material properties of a structural F7 plywood (EWPAA, 2009, p. 16, 19; EWPAA, n.d., p 9-10) Mechanical (F7 structural hoop pine plywood) Property (unit) Density (kg/m3) 530 (Hoop pine) Short duration average MOR (MPa) 345 Short duration average MOE (MPa) 7,900

Bending (f’b) 20

Tension (f’t) 12

Panel shear (f’s) 4.2

Compression in the plane of the sheet (f’c) 15 Thermal TC (W/mK) 0.115 Acoustic

Sound Absorption Co-efficient (αw) 0.04

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Fire Index Spread of Flame (0-10) 9 Smoke Developed Index (0-10) 3 Average Specific Extinction Area (m2/kg) 82.4 Building Code Australia group classification 3 (6 mm or greater for wall/ceiling linings)

Table 2-26 The advantages and disadvantages of plywood Advantages - High aesthetic value (interior grade) - Natural wood-based processed panel - Popular substitute for solid lumber - Uniform quality - Joinable with screws - Available as a structural, non-structural, fire and moisture resistant product Disadvantages - Heavy - Expensive - Labour intensive - Contains Urea Formaldehyde - Energy intensive manufacturing - Very resource intensive - Reacts to fire - Susceptible to fungi and termite attack

2.7 The Australian construction industry

According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS] the construction industry accounts for “the places in which most of us work and play, our schools and hospitals, and the infrastructure such as roads, water and electricity supply, and telecommunications, essential for our day to day living” (ABS, 2010, para. 1). The ABS categorises the construction industry into three broad areas of activity:

1. Residential building (houses, flats, etc.) 2. Non-residential building (offices, shops, hotels etc.) 3. Engineering construction (roads, bridges, water and sewerage, etc.) (ABS, 2010, para. 4) 107

The Australian Construction Industry Forum noted in the July 2015 report summary, the biggest change in the Australian construction industry is a reduction in engineering construction due to the end of the mining boom (Australian Construction Industry Forum, 2015, para. 5). Identified by ABS (2015) the Australian residential building sector has increased by volume and value over the last decade. During the 2014-2015 period residential building construction increased to AUD$79 billion and is forecasted to rise another nine per cent in 2015-2016 due to investments into traditional housing, apartment buildings, townhouses and building alterations (Australian Construction Industry Forum, 2015, para. 6). Houses, semi-detached townhouses, apartments and other residential buildings fall under the ABS residential category. Figure 2.48 and Figure 2.49 present the number and value of residential buildings approved since 2005. Figure dwelling breakdown is a breakdown of the types of residential buildings approved.

Total number of dwelling units approved in new residential buildings by year

350 300 250 Approved units 200 150 Linear 100 (Approved 50 units) 0

Total number Total number of new residential 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

dwelling units approved: Australia ('000) Year

Figure 2.48 Increase in approved units in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015)

Total value of dwelling units approved in new residential buildings by year

80 70 60 Approved 50 units value 40

30 Linear 20 (Approved 10 units value) 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Total value Total value of residential new dwelling units approved: units approved: Australia (AUD$ billion) Year

Figure 2.49 Increase in approved unit value in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015) 108

Type and percentage of new residential buildings by year 100%

80%

60%

40%

20% Percentage Percentage breakdown of each residential each residential building type 0% 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year

Other residential Flats units or apartments - In a four or more storey block Flats units or apartments - In a three storey block Flats units or apartments - In a one or two storey block Semi-detached, row or terrace houses, townhouses - Two storey Semi-detached, row or terrace houses, townhouses - One storey Houses Figure 2.50 Type of approved units in the Australian residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015)

Evident in Figure 2.50 there is a decrease in traditional suburban house approvals and an increase in multi-storey and high-rise apartments. These apartment type buildings are typically built from pre-fabricated concrete walls and load-bearing steel members for the building envelope. The interior of the building is typically fitted-out with plasterboard to disguise the low aesthetic value of the concrete structure. Wood-based products are also used in such applications to increase the aesthetic value of a dwelling. This is typically done with interior grade plywood or with wood veneers pressed onto particleboard and MDF substrates as a cheaper alternative.

Also identified by ABS (2015) the Australian non-residential building sector has decreased in numbers and increased in value over the last decade. Retail and trade buildings, offices, commercial buildings, factories and warehouses, other industrial buildings, education, religion, aged care, health, entertainment, accommodation and other non-residential buildings fall under the non-residential category. Figure 2.51 and Figure 2.52 present the number and value of non-residential buildings approved since 2005. Figure 2.53 is a breakdown of the types of non-residential buildings approved.

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Total number of approved non-residential building jobs by year

50 Approved non- 40 residential building jobs residential residential building jobs - 30

20 Linear (Approved approved: approved: Australia ('000) 10 non- residential 0

Total number Total number of non building jobs) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year

Figure 2.51 Decline in approved units in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015)

Total value of approved non-residential building jobs by year 45 40 35 Approved non- residential 30 building jobs 25 value residential residential building - 20 Linear (Approved 15 non-residential 10 building jobs value) 5

jobs approved: jobs approved: Australia (AUD$ billion) 0 Total number Total number of non 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year

Figure 2.52 Increase in approved unit value in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015)

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Type and percentage of non-residential building jobs by year 100%

80%

60%

40% residential residential building type - 20% Percentage Percentage breakdown of

each each non 0% 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year Retail and wholesale trade buildings Transport buildings Offices Commercial buildings n.e.c. Factories and other secondary production buildings Warehouses Agricultural and aquacultural buildings Other industrial buildings n.e.c. Education buildings Religion buildings Aged care facilities Health buildings Entertainment and recreation buildings Short term accommodation buildings Other non-residential n.e.c.

Figure 2.53 Type of approved units in the Australian non-residential sector since 2005 (ABS, 2015)

Non-residential construction is projected to decrease during the 2014-2015 period due to the end of the mining boom. “Demand for building and refurbishment of offices, schools, retail, health and industrial building remains flat” (Australian Construction Industry Forum, 2013, para. 3). Therefore demand for products necessary for office fit-outs and interior developments will not be high. There is an opportunity to consider the implementation of balsa cored panels into residential construction for interior fit-outs to increase the aesthetic value in new buildings. The added benefit of balsa’s lightweight nature means construction in high rise residential apartment buildings is favourable and in addition is a sustainable alternative to particleboard and MDF products.

The construction industry generated the largest volume of waste in Australia from 2009-2010 (ABS, 2013, p. 8). 16.5 million tonnes of construction waste represented 31 per cent of the total volume of waste produced during that period. There is growing demand from consumers and developers to source ethical and sustainable products to reduce the impact the construction industry has on the environment. Balsa is the only green material available in the sandwich composite market to derive from a renewable resource. Balsa end-grain panels contain no urea formaldehydes and naturally decompose in landfill. As a sandwich composite, balsa is protected by two superior skins from natural elements which cause the wear and tear (denting) and therefore the balsa core can be up-cycled or reused in other applications after its service life in a residential building. Further studies are required to determine the appropriateness of up- cycling balsa sandwich panels. 111

2.7.1 The global construction industry Robinson (2013) claimed the global construction market is forecasted to reach USD$15 trillion by 2025, an increase of more than 70 per cent in respect to contemporary markets – 60 per cent of this growth is predicted to take place in China, India and the US. “World construction markets are at a tipping point already with 52 per cent of all construction activity in emerging markets today. We expect to see this increasing to 63 per cent by 2025, with China and India contributing most to growth in emerging markets” (Robinson, 2013, p. 1). Since 2010, China has been the world’s largest construction market “and is expected to increase its global share from 18 per cent today to 26 per cent in 2025” (Robinson, 2013, p. 1). “China and India will need to build another 270 million new homes by 2025 – mostly affordable homes” (Betts, n.d., as cited in Robinson, 2013, p. 1). Additionally, India will become “the third-largest construction market with an annual growth averaging 7.1 per cent in construction expected to exceed that of China” (p. 1). “By 2050, there’ll be two billion additional city dwellers - sustainable urbanisation will be a major construction challenge and the industry must strive to find innovative new products and solutions, to contribute to building better cities” (Lafont, n.d., as cited in Robinson, 2013, p. 1).

The opportunities that will arise from the expansion of China’s and India’s construction markets present an abundance of opportunities for affordable and sustainable products to be used for construction. Previously highlighted by Betts (n.d., as cited in Robinson, 2013, p.1) the construction of 270 million affordable homes for developing countries like China and India is needed by 2025. Sustainable, innovative solutions that address construction demands to develop new cities will be needed. Balsa offers a great opportunity as a cheap resource that is lightweight, sustainable and renewable to meet the requirements of developing countries.

As identified in Figure 2.41 the construction industry has few existing products and applications that are taking advantage of balsa. There is great potential for balsa to compete with current wood-based products and panels in interior dwellings as affordable, sustainable, non-structural partitions for developing countries and cities where high density living apartments will be developed by 2025. Additional applications include temporary shelter for disaster relief in disaster prone countries. Further studies and design developments are required to develop exterior applications for balsa in harsh environments.

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2.7.2 Timber in the construction industry The construction industry was identified as an industry that can benefit from the implementation of balsa. Emphasised by Da Silva and Kyriakides (2007, p. 8685-8686) wood has served as a historical building material and currently still is due to its various environmental, cost efficient and mechanical benefits. There is a variety of wood-based composites that are currently used in the construction industry:

- Particleboards - Fibreboards (MDF) - Oriented Strand Board commonly referred to as OSB - Plywood - Glued Laminated Timber commonly referred to as Glulam - Laminated Veneer Lumber commonly referred to as LVL

According to Shi and Walker (2006, p. 392) these wood-based composites can be segregated into two end application categories: panel applications (particleboard, MDF, OSB and plywood); and beam or header applications (glued laminated timber and laminated veneer lumber). “Panel applications are mainly for sheathing and flooring in residential housing and other industrial applications. Beam and header applications are mainly for load-carrying members in the residential and commercial buildings” (Shi & Walker, 2006, p. 392). Despite balsa’s strength it is not suitable for beam or header applications. As previously highlighted, balsa is a suitable core component in sandwich composite panels. The sandwich structure produces a strong, rigid, lightweight panel that can compete directly with particleboards, MDF and plywood panels as a highly sustainable and renewable alternative. Particleboards, MDF and plywood can also be used as core components in sandwich composite products, however this is typically done to veneer an interior grade face onto the panel to give it aesthetic value and not to increase the strength properties like end-grain balsa panels. Balsa is disadvantaged when competing against these artificially engineered wood-based products, due to the controlled manufacturing and uniform quality they possess.

Nonetheless, it must be reiterated that balsa — unlike particleboard and MDF — is a sustainable resource (socially, environmentally and economically), is renewable and produces a material that exhibits strength properties that artificial materials are manufactured to replicate. Since balsa also does not have the physical hardness like other natural timbers, or engineered applications, balsa must be used as a core component in sandwich composite panels – balsa would rarely be used as a raw material due to its vulnerability to damage and tendency to decompose. To further argue the case for balsa, it should be pointed out that some artificially manufactured timber applications contain additives that resist decay, contain harmful chemicals known to cause cancer in humans and are structurally fixed with synthetic glues that eliminate possibilities for recyclability, which complicates product disposal after its service-life.

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Figure 2.54 and Figure 2.55 present the volume of imported wood-based products and the value of imported wood-based products into Australia from 2000-2014 by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences [ABARES]. The most imported wood-based panel by volume and value is plywood (Figure 2.54 and Figure 2.55). If balsa is used in applications where aesthetics are not a primary concern, balsa could be sandwiched with other wood-based panels, such as particleboard, hardboard or MDF. Since the construction market is price sensitive, where balsa panels are required to have aesthetic value they can be veneered with an interior grade plywood rather than with expensive timber veneers.

Imported wood-based panels by quantity (m3) 350.0 ) 3

m 300.0 Veneers

'000 '000 250.0 Plywood

200.0 Particleboard

150.0 Hardboard

based based panels ( 100.0

- MDF

50.0 Softboard and other fibreboards 0.0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Imported Imported wood Year

Figure 2.54 Imported wood-based panels by quantity (m3) (ABARES, 2015)

Imported wood-based panels by value (AUD$) 300.0

250.0 Veneers

200.0 Plywood

150.0 Particleboard based based panels (AUD$ - million) Hardboard 100.0 MDF 50.0 Softboard and other fibreboards

Imported Imported wood 0.0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year

Figure 2.55 Imported wood-based panels by value (AUD$) (ABARES, 2015)

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An article by Werner and Richter (2007) revised 20 years of literature on international research to compare the environmental impact and life cycle analysis of wood products used in the construction and building industry compared to functionally equivalent products from other materials. The following interpretations and conclusions specific to wood compared to other materials were drawn by the study:

- Wood products tend to have a favourable environmental profile over the same product made from another material, considerably in terms of energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and the lesser quantities of solid waste produced - Wood preservation can be more toxic than treating other materials - Incinerating wood products can cause higher impacts of acidification and eutrophication however, thermal energy can be used - Particleboards and fibreboards use more volume of round wood than solid wood products however, require more energy to manufacture including the production of resins and additives used in production (Werner & Richter, 2007, p. 475).

The point being made about particleboards and fibreboards utilising more volume of round wood than solid timber products introduces further studies for utilising balsa residues from wood processing to manufacture particleboards or fibreboards.

2.7.3 Environmental organisations There are numerous government bodies and organisations that govern the construction industry. Each offer an assessment criteria to ensure sustainable practices from forest management to harvesting, processing, manufacturing and product disposal are in place to achieve the organisation’s goals. The benefit of certified products and applications allows consumers to be aware of ethical issues regarding the origins of whatever product they are purchasing. Certification by any of the organisations discussed in this section demonstrates the timber products used in consumer goods are from a trustworthy and regulated source. The criteria used by these organisations can be used to measure the social, economic and environmental benefits of utilising balsa for new products and applications. The following organisations are recognised green certification bodies that assist in sustainable development and management programs.

The Forest Stewardship Council [FSC] is an international network that promotes responsible management of the world’s forests, brings people together to find solutions to the problems created by bad forestry practices and to reward responsible forest management (www.au.fsc.org). FSC certification identifies products that are sourced from sustainably managed forests that are beneficial to the environment, society and the economy. 3A Composites, the world’s largest grower and processor of balsa

115 products, contribute in excess of an estimated 60 per cent of global balsa trade (Midgley, 2015, p. 10). In 2014, 3A Composites owned 9,298 ha of land in Ecuador – 6,054 ha of which was planted to balsa (Midgley, 2015, p. 11).

3A Composites has certified its [balsa] plantations and processing facilities through FSC. 3A Composites remains the only supplier of FSC-certified balsa and believe that evidence of sustainable plantation management and corporate responsibility along the entire value chain are important for long term business and marketing (Midgley, 2015, p. 11).

Greenpeace “is an independent global campaigning organisation that acts to change attitudes and behaviour, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace” (Greenpeace, 2015, para. 1). Figure 2.56 depicts the five best and five worst imported timbers in Australia. Evident from the ‘best’ category, timbers from established plantations, or secondary cleared forest sites and small-scale communities that produce large volumes of timber, are considered better environmental and ethical consumer choices. Timbers from the ‘worst’ category are unethical and illegal practices that reduce resources, such as the tree itself, indigenous tribes and animal habitats. Timbers from the worst category also threaten the existence of future generation resources.

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Figure 2.56 Five best and five worst imported timbers in Australia (Greenpeace, n.d.)

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Green peace highlights that three of the five best-imported timbers into Australia are FSC- certified. The five best timber resources are considered superior environmental choices because they either originate from established plantation sites that do not promote de-forestation, are plentiful, fast growing and support small-scale communities. Balsa adheres to this criterion and is a potential best- imported timber choice. Additionally, balsa has unique characteristics that none of the five best-imported timbers offer. The first and most relevant is the lightweight nature of balsa and its strength-to-weight ratio. Second is its weed-like-regeneration habit and renewability. Third is its ability to grow at a rapid rate ready for harvest in five years at a height in excess of 25 m and fourth, its extensive use as the only renewable and natural resource as a core component material for composite applications.

2.8 Summary

The review of the literature on balsa has presented a picture of the global balsa production situation and demonstrated the life cycle of the balsa industry in ENB, PNG. An overview of the mechanical properties indicated an absence of current literature that discusses the physical properties of PNG balsa. Historical evidence revealed past and present balsa products and applications and identified market opportunities for the use of balsa sandwich composite panels in the construction industry. Competitor wood-based products, their properties and applications were also identified to determine possible alternative balsa applications to existing wood-based products.

Further research is needed to determine the properties (mechanical, thermal, acoustic, fire and termite) of PNG balsa to justify its use in the construction industry. An investigation into interior construction markets is also required to substantiate the opportunity of introducing balsa into contemporary construction markets. The methods used to address these knowledge and market gaps is presented in Chapter Three: Design Methodology. The results and findings are imperative to inform the design process followed in this thesis. Research-led industrial design practice was used to develop new products and applications for PNG balsa to sustain the PNG balsa industry. The intention of new balsa product design and developments was ultimately to enhance the livelihoods of smallholders who rely on balsa cultivation to support their livelihood, their family and their community.

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3 CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

A definition of research-led industrial design practice used in this doctoral research is given to differentiate practice-led design projects (which may be more prevalent in industry) from research-led design projects. The research model, design process, methods and research question are highlighted in this chapter. Frayling’s (1993) design research model into, through and for design, and the product design and development process by Ulrich and Eppinger (2012) were chosen to frame this research. Justification for why this research model and industrial design process model was used is also given. In addition the methods chosen to address the research question are listed and aligned with the research model and design process.

Sections of this chapter have been published and presented at the International Association of Societies of Design Research conference in Brisbane, Australia (2015) and the Design Research Society conference in Umea, Sweden (2014).

3.2 The difference between industrial design practice in industry and academia

This section looks at the difference between research-led industrial design and practice-led industrial design. While either practice can occur in academia and industry, more typically academia is concerned with research-led industrial design while industry is more concerned with practice-led industrial design. In this thesis I refer to the latter as industry industrial design projects. The term practice refers to the methods and skills used in the product design and development process to generate design outcomes. Both research-led industrial design and practice-led industrial design use design skills to develop tangible solutions. The advantage of the scholarly approach of research-led industrial design is the reduction in risk associated with the product developed. That is, by understanding the material to be used and the application possibilities the designer is able to reduce the cost of prototyping and testing designs.

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3.2.1 Industry industrial design practice The concept of industrial design has been defined in various ways but none of these definitions has been universally accepted. This apparent lack of uniformity in the definition of industrial design reflects, to a large extent, the different perspectives on the functions of industrial design (Gemser & Leenders, 2001, p. 29).

The Industrial Designers Society of America defines industrial design as a profession where concepts are generated that optimise “the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both the user and manufacturer” (www.idsa.org/what-is-industrial-design, 2010, para. 1). Concepts are generated through “collection, analysis and synthesis of data guided by the special requirements of the client or manufacturer” (www.idsa.org/what-is-industrial-design, 2010, para. 2). Ideas are often represented in sketch form, prototypes and verbal deliveries. Industrial designers often work in interdisciplinary teams of management, engineers, scientists, manufacturers and marketing personnel. “The industrial designer expresses concepts that embody all relevant design criteria determined by the group” (www.idsa.org/what-is-industrial-design, 2010, para. 3). “The industrial designer's unique contribution places emphasis on those aspects of the product or system that relate most directly to human characteristics, needs and interests” (www.idsa.org/what-is-industrial-design, 2010, para. 4).

Industrial design is a profession that communicates product solutions to a client, consumer, user and manufacturer. It is an adaptive profession that complements traditional professions within interdisciplinary teams, by embedding knowledge into tangible products that are beneficial to the user and society. “Industrial design is one of the several key areas critical to new product development, together with research and development, marketing, manufacturing and purchasing, among others” (Hertenstein, Platt & Veryzer, 2005, p. 4). Industrial design practitioners are typically employed in industry for product research and development projects. Veryzer (2005) outlined that the input an industrial designer has in a research and development project is not only about aesthetics but covers a broader spectrum of material selection and competitive market analysis. While directly influencing the final product, industrial design “bring[s] a unique perspective to market research” (Veryzer, 2005, p. 25). “Design isn’t just about making things beautiful; it’s also about making things work beautifully. Design is about moving knowledge along the funnel” (Martin, 2009, p. 58). The design process is both convergent and divergent (Cross, 2000, as cited in Self, Dalke & Evans, 2012, p. 128). “The industrial designer will move through the stages in the design process, evolving solution ideas through increasing levels of detail (Pipes, 2007, as cited in Self et al., 2012, p. 128). Figure 3.1 highlighted the industrial design process used to develop a final design solution.

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Figure 3.1 Generic model of the industrial design process based on Cross (2000) description of convergent and divergent design activity (Self et al., 2012, p. 129)

Product design… has to push the envelope to the point where it seems like you’re making a mistake… you have to strive to make a leap far beyond what is possible at the moment. It has to be audacious from a technical point of view (Lazaridis, 2009, as cited in Martin, 2009, p. 60).

According to Tanthapanichakoon (2013, p. 50), new product development is concerned with generating potential future commercial applications quickly and effectively, to reduce the amount of resources such as time and effort invested in research and development (p. 48). According to Gemser and Leenders, (2001) “research on industrial design in general and on the relationship between industrial design and company performance in particular, is extremely light” (p. 28). Gemser and Leenders (2001) however claimed industrial design contributions in industry possibly lead to “better sales and higher profit margins of a company’s products compared to competitive products without specific industrial design investments” (p. 29).

The role of industrial design in industry projects is seen as an asset used to increase market demand, to create useful commercial products for end users and manufacturers, to enhance a firm’s image by differentiating products from competitors and presenting uniqueness to marketing campaigns. Industrial design practice in industry traditionally focussed on product aesthetics and brand identity. Contemporary industrial design used in industry projects considers client and manufacturer demands, market opportunities, takes a user-centred approach and generates quick design concepts in multidisciplinary teams to reduce the time and money spent on resources to develop new products. A summary of designers in given by Cross (2006, p. 12):

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- Designers tackle ‘ill-defined’ problems - Their mode of problem-solving is ‘solution-focussed’ - Their mode of thinking is ‘constructive’ - They use ‘codes’ that translate abstract requirements into concrete objects - They use these codes to both ‘read’ and ‘write’ in ‘object languages’

To summarise, industrial designers are product focussed in industry. They synthesise industry problems, problem solve, construct, develop products and communicate value in writing and product form for clients, manufactures and consumers.

3.2.2 Academic research-led industrial design practice Identified by Archer (1979) there are three main fields of academic research: Humanities; Science; and Design. According to Cross (2006, p. 102) good research is:

Purposive – based on identification of an issue or problem worthy and capable of investigation Inquisitive – seeking to acquire new knowledge Informed – conducted from an awareness of previous, related research Methodical – planned and carried out in a disciplined manner Communicable – generating and reporting results which are testable and accessible by others

Figure 3.2 illustrates the three academic fields and their contribution to knowledge. Design is a discipline made up of a material culture and “the executive skills of the doer and maker” (Archer, 1979, p. 20). It is the generator of tangible products resulting from fine and useful arts to communicate new knowledge. In a more recent study, Archer (1995) introduced the idea that research through practice is action research. Archer (1995) defined action research as a “systematic investigation through practical action calculated to devise or test new information, ideas, forms or procedures and to produce communicable knowledge” (p. 6).

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Figure 3.2 Identifies the three main fields of academic disciplines and their contribution (Archer, 1979. p. 20)

Practitioner activity can count as research if, and only if, it accords with the criteria of research. It must be knowledge directed, systematically conducted and unambiguously expressed. Its data and methods must be transparent and its knowledge outcome transmissible. But like all action research, research through practitioner action must be recognised as very probably non-objective and almost certainly situation specific (Archer, 1995, p. 13).

The purpose of “a research degree… is primarily an acknowledgement of the competence of the person who conducted the research... an examiner… is concerned much more with the soundness of the methodology than with the usefulness of the findings” (Archer, 1995, p. 13). Archer (1995) further noted “some artists and designers, and some other creative practitioners, claim that what they ordinarily do is research. They argue that their art works or design products or other creative practitioner output constitutes new knowledge” (p. 10). There is no denying that design in general communicates tacit knowledge to its audience, however, the act of practising design does not count as design research. Design in used as the vehicle to communicate new knowledge. Similarly Cross (2006) and Friedman (2008) agree:

I do not see how normal works of practice can be regarded as works of research. The whole point of doing research is to extract reliable knowledge available to others in re-usable form. This does not mean that works of design practice must be wholly excluded from design research, but it does mean that, to qualify as research, there must be reflection by the practitioner on the work, and the communication of some re-usable results from that reflection (Cross, 2006, p. 102).

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One of the deep problems in design research is the failure to engage in grounded theory, developing theory out of practice. Instead, many designers confuse practice with research. Rather than developing theory from practice through articulation and inductive inquiry, some designers mistakenly argue that practice is research (Friedman, 2008, p. 154).

Cross (2006) highlighted the importance of practitioner reflection throughout the process of design practice. Practitioner reflection should communicate knowledge through product creation to a wide audience and demonstrate the results of the methodical and disciplined process. Friedman (2008) introduced “tacit knowledge is reflected in the larger body of distributed knowledge embedded in social memory and collective work practice. Our stock of tacit knowledge enables us to practice” (p. 154). In order for designers to user their tacit knowledge for research it must be reflected upon and converted to explicit knowledge – knowledge that is accessible and transmittable to a wider audience. “Reflective practice itself rests on explicit knowledge rather than on tacit knowledge” (Friedman, 2008, p. 155). Practice is used to communicate new knowledge which can be presented explicitly. “While we learn the art and craft of research by practicing research, we do not undertake research simply by practicing the art or craft to which the research field is linked” (Friedman, 2008, p. 156). Design practitioners cannot claim practice is research. When design practice is conducted within a research project and the act of practice is reflected upon and converted to an explicit language for theory construction, then design practice becomes a key contributor to design research.

“Design-based research is not so much an approach as it is a series of approaches, with the intent of producing new theories, artefacts, and practices that account for and potentially impact learning and teaching” (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 2). As the name suggests design-based research involves some form of design. “Design-based research has a number of common features, including the fact that they result in the production of theories on learning and teaching, are interventionist (involving some sort of design), take place in naturalistic contexts, and are iterative” (Cobb, diSessa, Lehrer & Schauble, 2003, as cited in Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 2-3). Barab and Squire (2004) argued “design-based research is not simply a type of formative evaluation” (p. 3) of results found in a laboratory rather, it is the process “with the expectation that researchers would systemically adjust various aspects of the designed context so that adjustment served as a type of experimentation that allowed the researchers to test and generate theory” (p. 3).

Design-based research requires more than simply showing a particular design works but demands that the researcher (move beyond a particular design exemplar to) generate evidence- based claims about learning that address contemporary theoretical issues and further the theoretical knowledge of the field (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 5-6).

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Researchers who “engage in doing design work… directly impact practice while advancing theory that will be of use to others” (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 8). The findings from the research methods employed in this doctoral research will inform the need to practice design. This will assist the generation of theories which will be tested through the development of artefacts. This process of knowledge generation can be useful to others who chose to replicate this design research for similar projects. Theories generated and proven through practice will highlight the pros and cons of research-led industrial design practice to answer a research question. Moreover, these theories may specifically assist future designers wanting to develop new balsa products and applications.

The development of an artefact is an important element in research-led industrial design practice. Criticism is given to this form of research contribution as it is commonly argued that the researcher receives credit for the artefact instead of for the theory produced. Biggs (2002) referred to artefacts as embodied knowledge (p. 5). “Neither artefacts alone nor words/texts alone would be sufficient” (p. 6) in design research. In respect to making claim that the artefact is a substitute for written text, it must be noted that the development of an artefact is a form of explicit knowledge that is presented to a wider audience outside of the field of design and research.

A designer’s ability to embody ideas and knowledge in artefacts can give us access to tacit knowledge, and can stimulate people to employ their tacit knowledge to form new ideas. Sometimes, as in the analogous arm, designers are engaged in developing new knowledge on their own account, in other cases, their role may be to table propositions or hypotheses in accessible forms that can stimulate people to further evaluate and develop the ideas (Rust, 2004, p. 84).

Artefacts communicate new knowledge. “Although some question the value of practice and projects in design research (Durling, 2002, p. 79-85), making in the design research process has significance for knowledge creation in creative arts and industries (Mäkelä, 2007, p. 157-163)” (as cited in Kuys, 2010, p. 61). The design artefact presented in this thesis will act as an exemplar product that communicates tacit and new knowledge. Other professions can relate to the artefact as explicit knowledge and evaluate it to develop ideas and new knowledge in future research.

Researchers make prototypes, products, and models to codify their own understanding of a particular situation and to provide a concrete framing of the problem and a description of a proposed, preferred state… Designers focus on the creation of artefacts through a process of disciplined imagination, because artefacts they make both reveal and become embodiments of possible futures… Design researchers can explore new materials and actively participate in intentionally constructing the future, in the form of disciplined imagination, instead of limiting their 125

research to an analysis of the present and the past (Zimmerman & Forlizzi, 2008, as cited in Koskinen, Zimmerman, Binder, Redstrom & Wensveen, 2011, p. 5).

Koskinen et al. (2011) presented a distinct contrast between researchers, designers and design researchers. Constructive design research is “research in which construction — be it product, system, space, or media — takes centre place and becomes the key means in constructing knowledge” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 5). Koskinen et al. (2011) claimed that construction within design research is a form of constructing knowledge. The act of design practice embeds new knowledge into artefacts. As previously highlighted design practice can also test theories and substantiate or construct knowledge. There are three key characteristics that design-based research present, “[first] design-based research creates opportunities for focusing on key questions… [Second] design-based research supports design process with both formal research backing and rapid prototyping… And, [third] in design-based research, emergent theory shapes research methods as well as design” (Joseph, 2004, p. 241).

To produce effective research, we need to focus on specific questions… Design-based research addresses this dilemma by using design needs and contextual demands as a way of determining the specific key questions of interest, and using engineering techniques such as “rapid prototyping” to address design issues and practical issues that are scoped out of the research (Joseph, 2004, p. 236).

The research question introduced by Joseph (2004) and hypothesis surrounding the research question are important elements to scholarly research-led industrial design practice. The design question results from identifying a gap in researched literature (Joseph, 2004, p. 236). Furthermore, “the design researcher creates artefacts that embody hypotheses and places them in the real-world for testing” (Joseph, 2004, p. 236). This statement by Joseph demonstrates that the use of an artefact not only communicates knowledge but can prove theories and give research-led industrial design practice a substaintiated contribution to knowledge. “Design is the central tool for refining research questions, whether they emerge from prior literature or from the design itself” (Joseph, 2004, p. 236). This emphaises that research and practice have the capability to inform the research questions.

Design-based research can be a powerful engine for exposing crucial research questions and for constructing incisive research apparatus around design questions. This work happens most powerfully in the field–in real-world implementations and interactions between research goals (and researchers), design goals (and designers), and practice goals (and practitioners) (Joseph , 2004, p. 241).

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Industrial design plays multiple roles depending on the context. In academia, research-led industrial design practice is used to generate theories, communicate new knowledge and demonstrate the design process to solve research questions. New knowledge can derive from research findings sourced from humanities, science and design methods. Results found through primary and secondary research methods influence the design process and the need to practice design to embed new knowledge into artefacts for a wider audience to appreciate.

3.2.3 Comparing industry and academic industrial design practice The following Table 3-1 is used to differentiate industrial design practice in industry and research- led industrial design practice in academia.

Table 3-1 The difference between industry and academic industrial design practice Industry industrial design practice Academic research-led industrial design practice Industrial design practice Research-led industrial design practice New products New products, theories and knowledge Design practitioner Design researcher and practitioner Expresses tacit knowledge Expresses tacit, explicit and new knowledge Market research Knowledge research Identifies a market gap and design opportunity Identifies a knowledge gap and design opportunity Research does not have to inform practice Research must inform practice Uses industrial design skills to develop product Uses research methods to inform the use of industrial outcomes and communicate value design skills to communicate new knowledge Methods and development is secretive for Methods and development are presented and competitive advantage reflected upon so they can be replicated in other projects as a theory Develops and differentiates a firms image from Develops theories and tests them through artefact competitors development to substantiate the knowledge contribution Project is: purposive, informed and Project is: purposive, inquisitive, informed, methodical communicable and communicable End user/consumer, client and manufacturer Individual or academic-industry driven driven

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The intent of differentiating industrial design practice used in industry from academia is to create a clear contrast between the two. “Both academics and practitioners have emphasised that the role of industrial design in product development relates not only to aesthetics, but to aspects such as ergonomics, ease of manufacture, efficient use of materials, and product performance” (Gemser & Leenders, 2001, p. 29). In both professions, design remains important “in order to stand out in the crowd” (Gemser & Leenders, 2001, p. 35). Table 3-1 suggests that academic research-led industrial design practice considers a greater depth of research to identify knowledge gaps and design opportunities that are not primarily driven by consumer demand. Academic industrial design practice communicates at various levels such as academic publications and traditional product design outcomes. Both types of industrial design practice have their place in society however, as highlighted academic industrial design practice considers the cycle of knowledge generation, product development and the communication of purposive actions to develop design theories, products and new knowledge for society. The purpose of this comparison is to demonstrate that this doctoral design research presents academic rigour, where the outcome was to highlight research-led industrial design practice used to construct new knowledge, products and a product development research model that can be employed by other academic industrial design projects to deliver a new contribution to knowledge and satisfy social and industry problems as demonstrated in this thesis.

3.3 Design research model

Design research consists of various explorations in a more structured and systematic approach than in normal design practice. Two research models are discussed – the first focuses on sustainable livelihoods (from vulnerability to resilience) and the second focuses on design research (research in art and design). Consideration of the two models is demonstrated throughout this thesis however the chosen research model used is Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design. Frayling’s (1993) model illustrates a methodological process that demonstrates the process of design research while appreciating the practice of industrial design towards the construction of new knowledge. The research presented in this thesis also considers the livelihoods of smallholders in ENB, PNG who have dedicated their livelihoods to balsa cultivation. As previously highlighted the lack of design innovation and product development has led to financial hardship to smallholders, who lack access to international markets to sell their balsa for financial return. In this instance elements of the vulnerability to resilience model are considered when developing a new balsa product as a form of resilience development for vulnerable smallholders in PNG.

3.3.1 Vulnerability to Resilience The vulnerability to resilience model is designed to permanently move people out of poverty by strengthing livelihoods, disaster prepardness, building adaptive capacties and addressing different areas of the governance. The model targets vulnerable communities where research determines the necessary

128 actions to assit in developing resilient communities. “The goal is to address the multidimensional nature of poverty through an integrated approach that considers all of the core factors underlying vulnerability” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 3). Research indicated PNG smallholders — particularly thoes who grow balsa — are vulnerable to fluctuating demand from international markets. The inclusion of product development to offer new markets and expand international demand for PNG balsa was considered as a core factor to reduce the level of vulnerablity to balsa smallholders who rely on a single market to consume their resource. Figure 3.3 highlights the integration of areas (hazards and stresses, livelihoods, future uncertainty and governance) which present vulnerability and the goal of resilience. The following section will discuss each component of the vulnerability to resilience model.

Figure 3.3 Resilience framework (Pasteur, 2011, p. 3)

“Vulnerability is the degree to which a population or system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, hazards and stresses, including the effects of climate change” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 11). Underprivileged people living in developing countries have limited access to disposable resources such as skills, technology and money. Most live in disaster prone environments that are isolated from markets and other services (Pasteur, 2011, p. 3). Financial income options are limited and unsustainable developments are widely practiced. “In the event of hazards, the poor and their livelihoods tend to be the hardest hit” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 3). “Securing basic needs such as food is an important outcome related to resilience. It means that households, and all members within them, are able to produce, purchase, or obtain sufficient, nutritious and culturally appropriate food at all times” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 15). For people to be resilient during unforeseen events they must build up security and assets to see them through periods of hardship. Figure 3.4 illustrates the goal of the vulnerability to resilience model to move people out of poverty and build resilient communities.

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Figure 3.4 Resilience and moving out of poverty (Pasteur, 2011, p. 15)

Hazards are dangerous events that threaten people’s livelihoods ranging from loss of life, service, social and economic disruptions and damage to property and environments. Stresses are lower impact events that also undermine livelihoods such as unemployment (Pasteur, 2011, p. 16). The vulnerability to resilience model demonstrates key areas to vulnerable people to help them identify, prevent, increase awareness and plan for hazards and stresses. Livelihoods are directly impacted by hazards and stresses. The term “livelihood comprises the resources (including skills, technologies and organisations) and activities required to make a living and have a good quality of life” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 29). Livelihoods refer to more than the source of employment or income. They are the activities of everyday life to produce and sell resources for lifestyle security. Future uncertainties increase the vulnerability of livelihoods brought on by changes out of people’s control. Governance — both public and private organisations — impact on livelihoods by “providing support to communities to prepare for and respond to hazards and stresses” (Pasteur, 2011, p. 54).

The vulnerability to resilience model assists underprivileged people coping with natural disasters and climate change. The identification of hazards, livelihoods, future uncertainties and governance are needed to develop an action plan. Primary and secondary research is used to identify elements for each area of vulnerability. The findings are presented to communities to help facilitate the development of the action plan. The action plan is designed to mitigate risks and prepare communities for unforeseen hazards. The lack of market diversification and design incorporated into the PNG balsa industry identifies a high level of future uncertainties which could indicate an action plan is not in place nor has one been considered and therefore smallholders remain vulnerable to hardship if international markets reduce their demand for PNG balsa. Financial hardship to smallholders inevitably will impact on livelihoods and cause stresses, leading to future financial uncertainties and increased vulnerable households, communities and overall the PNG balsa industry.

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This research model is useful for identifying actions needed to prepare communities for worst- case-scenarios. Prior to the commencement of this doctoral research the PNG balsa industry was already identified as vulnerable and in need of action to improve the livelihoods of smallholders. The vulnerability to resilience research model was not used in framing this research because ACIAR had already produced an action plan to prevent hardship and enhance smallholder livelihoods. It was not until 2012 that design was recognised as an additional action needed to assist improving smallholder livelihoods by developing new balsa products and applications to generate international demand for the PNG resource. It is because of these reasons that Frayling’s (1993) design research model was used to frame how research-led industrial design practice was used to develop and communicate new knowledge to generate international demand for PNG balsa. In turn, smallholder balsa crops would then be in demand and sourced by larger processor companies in ENB, which would provide a financial return to smallholders dedicated to balsa cultivation and reduce the vulnerability of smallholder livelihoods.

3.3.2 Research in art and design Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design identifies three stages of design research: “research into art and design, research through art and design and research for art and design” (p. 5). These research stages into, through and for design were interpreted and used to guide the design process of new product development for PNG balsa to improve smallholder livelihoods. Figure 3.5 represents the research model.

Figure 3.5 Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model

Research into design is the investigation of evidence such as historical events, aesthetic or perceptual research and existing theory’s relating to a research topic. In this doctoral research balsa products and applications were researched to identify what commercial benefits balsa offered to the industries it is used in. Historical references built on existing knowledge (products, applications, and material properties) and identified knowledge gaps in which research questions and hypothesis were generated. Research into design also identified theoretical perspectives around conducting design research, issues (past, present and future) with the PNG balsa industry and material and product outlooks. This research stage also recognised potential markets where balsa products or applications could benefit industries – socially, environmentally and economically. Additionally, historical evidence of successful and

131 failed balsa products determined areas of development that could benefit from innovative balsa product outcomes. These research findings generated a criterion that was used to measure good design and research outcomes.

Research through design is the act of practising research, design and reflection. “Research is a practice, writing is a practice, doing science is a practice, doing design is a practice, making art is a practice” (Frayling, 1993, p. 4). This stage was directed by primary and secondary research methods to practise design through the design process. Research findings were used to inform and influence the need to practise industrial design skills to communicate new knowledge. Concept sketches, low and high-fidelity prototypes, Computer-Aided Design [CAD] and reflective evaluations of design outcomes were used as tools to measure design innovation and concepts worthy of further development. This communicated results such as material properties, manufacturing techniques and processes, the value of balsa products and the research-led industrial design practice theory. Research through design makes up a substantial proportion of this research. It is the stage of knowledge generation and transformation of communicable results into design outcomes where experiments are presented as a methodological process to communicate to wider audiences.

Research through the design of products has been hindered by the lack of any fundamental documentation of the design process which produced them. Too often, at best, the only evidence is the object itself, and even that evidence is surprisingly ephemeral. Where a good sample of the original product can still be found, it often proves to be enigmatic (Agnew, 1993, as cited in Frayling, 1993, p. 5).

The importance of this statement by Agnew (1993, as cited in Frayling, 1993, p. 5) demonstrates the lack of documentation around academic product design and development processes used to develop an artefact. The artefact alone communicates a knowledge contribution that is short-lived. The documentation and reflection of design practice assists theory construction and delivers explicit knowledge that supports the development of an artefact, thus delivering a stronger contribution to knowledge that is embedded in products and future design research.

Research for design is “where the end product is an artefact – where the thinking is… embodied in the artefact, where the goal is not primarily communicable knowledge in the sense of verbal communication, but in the sense visual or iconic or imagistic communication” (Frayling, 1993, p. 5). The development of a new balsa product will embed primary research findings through which tacit knowledge will be used in the research through design stage, to visually communicable knowledge in the artefact. The reflection of design practice and product development will communicate tacit knowledge explicitly through

132 writings and the design artefact presented as research for design. Figure 3.6 illustrates the use of Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model for this doctoral thesis.

Figure 3.6 Frayling’s (1993) research model used to present this doctoral research

The research model stages into, through and for design are summarised as history, practice and communicate. As depicted in Figure 3.6 the research journey does not follow a linear path, rather an iterative process of reflection and communication. The goal of this research was to develop a new balsa product and application to help improve smallholder livelihoods in ENB, PNG. Historical research identified knowledge gaps and assisted the generation of a research question which was used to direct the research. Research and design practice answered the research question and generated results that were used to reflect on the design process. Lastly, the design artefact communicated new knowledge through explicit documentation and the design artefact to its audience.

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The dominant research model stage in this thesis was research through design. A significant proportion of this doctoral thesis was dependant on research-led industrial design practice to develop balsa concepts that generated knowledge and communicated the value of PNG balsa. A key focus was to develop a commercially viable product outcome that could assist the PNG balsa industry by generating demand for the resource thus preventing financial hardship to smallholders. Highlighted by PNG balsa industry stakeholders, design was needed to diversify balsa into new applications to target new markets. The approach used in this doctoral thesis was therefore primarily focused on practicing industrial design — informed by research — to develop new products and not to construct design theories. However, by reflecting on the design practice conducted, new knowledge could be extracted and communicated to all audiences and the broader design community.

There are similar completed design PhD’s which focused on commercialising other exotic timbers such as bamboo and cork (Van Der Lugt, 2008; Mestre, 2014). The approach used in these theses were similar as they were working with a lesser known material to develop new applications in order to promote sustainable design and product commercialisation. These theses were also engaged with research through design, mapping the design process and evaluating design outcomes to justify design innovation and product development as a necessary tool to assist existing timber industries. These theses are invaluable exemplars for communicating and demonstrating the contribution design innovation has to communities by embedding new knowledge in design products and design research. A key difference to the research presented in this thesis was the overall theme was to develop a commercially viable balsa product for the PNG balsa industry, which is constrained by the life cycle of the tree. While the work of many scholars have been discussed in this thesis to substantiate research-led industrial design practice as academic research, it was not the intention of this thesis to construct a design research theory which is defined by Frayling (1993) as research into design. Research into design is identifiable as historical research and design theory construction. Research into design in this thesis focused on historical evidence of balsa applications to inform design decisions and industrial design practice. This stage of research was also used to highlight the properties and global value of PNG balsa. Finally, research for design was the communication of embedded knowledge in the design artefact. This stage was the point of reflection by visually and explicitly communicating the value of design in either product or written form as documented throughout this thesis.

3.4 Design process

Academic design processes are steered by the quest to contribute to original or new contributions to knowledge in a field. Ho, Lai and Chang (1997, as cited in Yang, You & Chen, 2005) divides the industrial design process into four stages: planning, designing, prototyping and engineering (p. 159). This

134 is a typical simplified industrial design process. A more detailed process is highlighted by Cooper (1983) – idea, preliminary assessment, concept, development, testing, trial and launch (p. 6). Huang and Gu (2006) claimed product development is a process of resource allocation and development that should be measured against technology, economy and society. It is through the design process that “people construct knowledge [by] moving back and forth from the analytic phase of design, which focuses on finding and discovery, to the synthetic phase, which focuses on invention and making” (Gerber & Carroll, 2012, p. 65).

The reflection and evaluation of industrial design practice throughout the design process will demonstrate tacit knowledge explicitly as a methodical and disciplined process of scholarly research-led industrial design practice. Explicit knowledge will offer other professions or designers an understanding of the process used in this research that can be replicated for use in similar product design and development research projects in academia or industry.

3.4.1 Product design and development “A product development process is the sequence of steps an enterprise employs to conceive, design, and commercialise a product” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 30). Ulrich and Eppinger (2012) summarises the generic product design and development process in six phases; planning, concept development, system-level design, detail design, testing and refinement and production ramp-up (p. 13- 16). The product development process presented is commonly used in industry for market-pull products. Figure 3.7 shows the six phases of a generic product development process.

Figure 3.7 The generic product development process (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 14)

The product development process begins with planning. The purpose of the planning phase is to identify opportunities guided by corporate strategy, technology developments, consumer need and market objectives. The second phase, concept development identifies the needs of markets and begins generating product concepts for evaluation. The chosen concept is then further developed and tested according to the set specifications and economic parameters of the project. The system-level design phase breaks the concept down into components to define the products architecture and a preliminary assembly process. The detail design phase then specifies the geometry, material and tolerances of the product and identifies suppliers. Product documentation in the detail design phase outlines specifications, parts, tooling, the fabrication and assembly process. The testing and refinement phase is the preliminary construction and evaluation of various preproduction versions of the final product. Finally the production ramp-up phase fabricates the final product using the intended production cycle. Workforce training and 135 careful evaluation of the fabricated product is conducted to remove remaining flaws. The transition is then made from production ramp-up to ongoing production and the product is launched and distributed. Postproduction reviews are carried out after the product launch to improve future product development processes (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 13-16).

While this model is presented in a linear orientation the process is not. “The product development process generally follows a structured flow of activity and information flow” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 22). Figure 3.8 presents a spiral product development process which consists of quick-build products “whereby detail design, prototyping, and test activities are repeated a number of times” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 22).

Figure 3.8 The spiral product development process flow (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 22)

The spiral product development process is an appropriate representation of the product design and development process used in this doctoral research. This product design and development process aligns with Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model. Figure 3.9 illustrates the alignment.

Figure 3.9 The alignment of Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process with Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model

As previously highlighted research into design consists of historical evidence and planning that identifies opportunities. Research through design is practice. Using research methods to source primary data the findings inform the need to practice industrial design practice to communicate results. The reflection of this practice is an iterative process and is repeated to design, build and test products until a final concept is developed and preproduction ramp-up is formulated. Research for design is the deliverance of communicable visual knowledge as an artefact. 136

3.5 The research question

Designers are immersed in… material culture, and draw upon it as the primary source of their thinking. Designers have the ability both to ‘read’ and ‘write’ in this culture: they understand what messages objects communicate and they can create new objects which embody new messages. The importance of this two-way communication between people and ‘the world of goods’ has been recognised by Douglas and Isherwood (1979, as cited in Cross, 2006, p. 9).

Research-led industrial design practice is a complex process starting with problem and opportunity identification. Frayling’s (1993) design research model and Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product development processes were used to direct research-led industrial design practice. Frayling’s (1993) research model was used to frame academic research conducted in the field of design whereas Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product development process guided the practice of industrial design skills to develop a new balsa product. The alignment of an academic research model and a generic industry product development process ensured the research conducted in this thesis demonstrated academic rigour which generated knowledge and communicated a contribution to knowledge. The research question used to reflect on the developments made in this doctoral research was:

How can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for PNG balsa?

Frayling’s (1993) research model and Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product development process initiated research into design and planning to identify knowledge and market gaps for PNG balsa. The use of research methods to source primary data to inform the practice of industrial design skills was framed as scholarly research through design. Method findings where used to inform concept development to communicate the results. Iteration cycles — design, build and test — were documented to explicitly present tacit knowledge in written and prototype form to communicate results. The design artefact demonstrated a visual communicable outcome of design research by highlighting a contribution to knowledge in product form. This doctoral research generated a contribution to knowledge through research-led industrial design practice by developing a socially responsible balsa product for PNG that could potentially generate international demand for the PNG balsa industry and improve smallholder livelihoods.

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3.6 Research methods

This section is an analysis of the methods adopted in this doctoral research. Reasons why the four primary methods (observations, interviews, material testing and prototyping) were used is discussed through evidence found in literature. These research methods were chosen to inform the product development process, to generate research findings and to communicate new knowledge in product form. While interviews and observations fall under ethnographic studies, the term is not used in this research. Ethnographic studies relate to the discipline of design anthropology. It is not the intention of this research to discuss the relationship people have with design, culture, or society. It must also be acknowledged that the methods used followed an iterative and repetitive process of opportunity identification, development, reflection and refinement, discussed in Chapter Four – Research-led Industrial Design Practice.

Early research identified material knowledge gaps for PNG balsa and market gaps within the construction industry. Observation was the first research method used to contextualise this research. In- field observations demonstrated the cycle of balsa production in ENB, PNG and emphasised the hardship smallholders and the industry was facing by the lack of international demand and fluctuating demand. Interviews were employed to determine background knowledge on balsa markets and current product developments for balsa and the construction industry. Interview findings highlighted material knowledge gaps and informed the need to conduct material tests on PNG balsa. Prototyping was used to communicate knowledge contributions in product form that demonstrated new knowledge to generate international demand for PNG balsa.

“Design practice provides methods” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 23). “The design method is a pattern of behaviour employed in inventing things of value which do not yet exist… design is constructive” (Gregory, 1966, as cited in Cross, 2006, p. 97). “The 1990s and 2000s saw the growth of “generative” research methods that put design practice at the core of the research process” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 23). Such methods include prototyping, design games and various types of traditional design tools (collages, mood boards, storyboards, personas) used to support research. These design tools, normally used by designers, play an important role in “lowering [a] designer’s entry into research” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 28). The skills used in practice by a designer can also be used as research methods. Additionally “these methods have proved that many things in design practice can be turned into research methods fairly easily” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 28). Industrial design researchers practise both design and research. Design is used to create and research is used to find. Industrial design researchers borrow and adapt methods from various disciplines (humanities, science and engineering) to inform, influence design decisions and to gain constructive feedback on new product developments. Nowadays, it is common for a design method to be labelled as a research method. However, this is only the case if a design method has

138 some methodical process and is recorded in detail to communicate rigour and new findings. For example, prototyping is used to create a tangible outcome to assist in design development. This methodology argues that prototyping — a design method — can be considered a research method when prototyping is reflected upon to communicate explicitly what new information was found by using the design method. Therefore, prototyping is a design tool used as a research method to build something for testing, reflection and detailed research. The following sections provide evidence as to why the methods chosen in this doctoral research were imperative for knowledge generation and balsa product development.

3.6.1 Observations Observation “requires attentive looking and systematic recording of phenomena – including people, artefacts, environments, event, behaviours and interactions” (Martin & Hanington, 2012, p. 120). Two types of observations were conducted in this research. The first were informal observations used to contextualise this research and to discover techniques, skills and practices used in PNG and Australia surrounding balsa production. “The intent is to collect baseline information through immersion, particularly in territory that is new to the design” (Martin & Hanington, 2012, p. 120). This method was a non-intrusive way of obtaining data from people, products and the environment. Design researchers typically observe with an open mind and document observations with notes, sketches or photographs. “Photographs are useful throughout a research project because of their illustrative quality” (Zeisel, 1984, p. 123). Reflecting on recorded observations highlighted the life cycle stages of balsa throughout the PNG balsa industry. This evidence illustrated the manufacturing facilities available in ENB, which would potentially be used to manufacture the design outcome of this research. Further observations noted storage, transport and packaging constraints. “The most useful insights are nonobvious and surprising” (Kumar, 2013, p. 139). Various other in-field observations highlighted areas worthy of future research and product developments that could assist different balsa life cycle stages from cultivation, harvesting, processing and shipping. Despite the presence of these opportunities the current priority is to generate international demand for PNG balsa so international consumer sales increase.

The second type of observation was interactive with research participants. This type of observation was recorded in conjunction with interviews. The focus of interview observations highlighted participant reactions to balsa prototypes. This interactive observation highlighted the benefits of balsa products compared to competitor wood-based panels. Nonobvious information was highlighted through gestures and comments made by participants. This information was used to inform product design and developments to improve elements of the product that would suit the capabilities of manufactures and end users.

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3.6.2 Interviews “Interviews are a fundamental research method for direct contact with participants, to collect first hand personal accounts of experience, opinions, attitudes, and perceptions” (Martin & Hanington, 2012, p. 102). “Observation is critical, but to really know the user’s experience, you have to ask him or her about it” (Kuniavsky, 2003, p. 117). Interviews were used to gain insights from participants where evidence of a knowledge gap existed, to identify tacit knowledge from industry professionals. Interview findings were used to inform and influence the product development process to communicate results. “Interviews provide in-depth information pertaining to participants’ experiences and viewpoints of a particular topic. Often times, interviews are coupled with other forms of data collection in order to provide the researcher with a well-rounded collection of information for analyses” (Turner, 2010, p. 754).

Interviews were conducted simultaneously with observations being made. Early interviews asked participants questions regarding manufacturing processes, material properties and the construction industry. The data gathered through interviews and observations revealed opportunities, industry insights and industry participants tacit knowledge that would otherwise have been overlooked. Prototypes were used in later interviews for product development feedback as props to provoke discussions of industry opinions and product flaws. This assisted the testing and refinement stage of the product development process as it highlighted exactly what required detailed attention.

Academic design researchers are less concerned with the time it takes for a new product to reach the market and more concerned with generating knowledge. The link with industry participants helped speed up the product design and development process by minimising the time spent practising design through trial and error to develop an industry acceptable product. Interviews highlighted industry experience with product fails and successes. This substantiated the credibility of feedback derived from interviews and the ability to build on existing knowledge by extracting industry tactic knowledge.

3.6.3 Material testing [A] material must be identified and understood before successful design can begin. It is important to understand the limitations of the material to successfully design a product that is not only comparable to existing products, but also better, due to the scientific advancements in the material. This innovation is of key significance in contributing to new knowledge (Kuys. 2010, p. 68).

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The mechanical, physical, thermal, acoustic, fire performances, disease and pest susceptibility varies across all species of timber. “The age of the tree, climate, environmental and genetic factors, even the position in the tree form which the test sample was taken, all have a significant effect on the results obtained” (Bootle, 1983, p. 27). Because of the range of mechanical strength results varying between species, timber is classified into strength groups. These strength groups determine the appropriateness of timber applications. With no reference to contemporary PNG balsa data, the mechanical properties can only be based on assumption and reference from existing literature. Moreover, generalisations are typically made about timber used in construction regarding the thermal and acoustic performance. The density and porosity of the wood plays a large role in its versatility, which effects the various performances of timber. Similar to the mechanical properties of balsa, the literature provides generic details about timber properties (thermal and acoustic), however current literature is vague and fails to consider the unique physical properties of PNG balsa.

“The performance of an engineering component is limited by the properties of the material of which it is made, and by the shapes to which this material can be formed” (Ashby & Cebon, 1993, p. 1). Materials can be selected by meeting a specified range of material properties or a combination of required properties. The identification of a material’s properties is needed for it to be specified for use.

Material testing was identified through early interviews. Participants responded to interview questions with their own questions regarding the properties of PNG balsa. This identified material knowledge gaps and justified the need to conduct standardised material tests for PNG balsa. The properties of PNG balsa created a criteria of constraints and design considerations needed for the development of balsa prototypes to communicate new knowledge.

3.6.4 Prototyping Prototypes and other types of expressions such as sketches, diagrams and scenarios, are the core means by which the designer builds the connection between fields of knowledge and progresses toward a product. Prototypes serve to instantiate hypotheses from contributing disciplines, and to communicate principles, facts and considerations between disciplines. They speak the language of experience, which unites us in the world. Moreover, by training (and selection), designers can develop ideas and concepts by realising prototypes and evaluating them… The designing act of creating prototypes is in itself a potential generator of knowledge (if only its insights do not disappear into the prototype, but are fed back into the disciplinary and cross disciplinary platforms that can fit these insights into the growth of theory) (Stappers, 2007, as cited in Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 60).

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“Prototyping is the tangible creation of artefacts at various level of resolution, for development and testing of ideas within design teams and with clients and users” (Martin & Hanington, 2012, p. 138). Prototypes are used to determine early in the product development process design flaws, product appearance and functionality. Prototypes are key for product testing, reflection and for gathering feedback from a variety of external professions. Prototyping is a source for qualitative and quantitative results that are imperative to informing the product development process. They provide reflective feedback on a design concept to better demonstrate the development process and communicate research results in product form.

According to Kelley (n.d., as cited in Schrage, 1993) “prototypes are designed to answer questions” (p. 59) generated from the literature review by communicating knowledge in product form. “I strongly believe that prototypes and products are intimately related, that the number of prototypes and quality of those prototypes is directly proportional to the ultimate quality of the product” (Kelley, n.d., as cited in Schrage, 1993, p. 55). Prototypes “embody the principle of ‘building to learn’” (Kumar, 2013, p. 235). Prototypes provide insights to what works by physically producing tangible outcomes to allow users or other testing methods to find implications otherwise not evident without prototyping (Kumar, 2013, p. 235). “The production and rapid visualisation of multiple ideas through low-fidelity prototyping allows practitioners to reframe failure as an opportunity for learning, supports a sense of forward progress, and strengthens beliefs about creative ability” (Gerber & Carroll, 2012, p. 64). Researchers build prototypes to learn the mechanics, behaviour, material and colours of a product (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 134). “Prototyping is the only way to understand touch, materials, shapes, and the style and feel of interaction. It is also the only way to understand how people experience product concepts and how they would interact with them” (Koskinen et al., 2011, p. 134).

Prototypes developed and tested in this research were imperative to learning and understanding the nature of balsa. Prototypes were also used in interviews to communicate concepts and knowledge to professionals to gather industry feedback regarding manufacturing processes and industry opinions. The number of low quality prototypes and development iterations informed the development of high quality prototypes prior to the final artefact. High quality prototypes demonstrated user interactions and the benefits of a balsa product compared to competitor wood-based panels currently used in the construction industry.

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3.7 Summary

Research-led industrial design practice was framed in this doctoral research by Frayling’s (1993) academic research into, through and for design model. Research into design was used to investigate historical evidence and literature of balsa. Research through design embraced practice to communicate results and product development. While research for design visually presented the contribution to knowledge through an artefact. Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process was aligned with the research model to demonstrate how industrial design practice develops products that embed new knowledge. The methods chosen identified knowledge gaps and market opportunities. They informed product development, communicated results and assisted with the reflection and evaluation of balsa products to answer the research question – How can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for PNG balsa? The methodical procedure of research-led industrial design practice was used to generate knowledge to inform the development of a balsa product that embodied and communicated a new contribution to knowledge.

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4 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH-LED INDUSTRIAL DESIGN PRACTICE

4.1 Introduction

This chapter demonstrates that the research-led industrial design practice cycle is an iterative learning process of opportunity identification, product development and reflection. This chapter highlights the iterations between the research methods used to inform the product development process. Primary and secondary data was sourced through practice to answer the research question, which directed the product design and development process to generate and communicate new knowledge. A model of the research-led industrial design practice cycle is presented at the end of this chapter to demonstrate the flow of data and knowledge between the research methods (observation, interview, material testing and prototyping) and the research model (research into, through and for design).

Sections of this chapter have been published and presented at the agIdeas International Design Forum conference in Melbourne, Australia (2015), publishing pending in the Journal of Design, Business and Society (2016) and also published as a business proposal to the Swinburne University of Technology Innovation Cup competition (2014).

4.2 Research into design informs research through design

Primary and secondary research into design highlighted the current PNG balsa industry problem. The transition from research into design to research through design demonstrated the need for further primary evidence that the current balsa conundrum was affecting smallholder livelihoods. The first research method used in the field was observation. Observations contextualised the research topic and demonstrated evidence that the identified problem (that the lack of design innovation had led to the over- supply and under-demand for PNG balsa) was severe. A review of secondary research indicated that the PNG balsa industry was worthy of scholarly research-led industrial design practice to help generate international demand for PNG balsa through product development.

Innovation in the forest industry is generally the result of two connected elements; a resource push (an over-supply of timber encourages the development of new product and applications) and a market pull (market demand or market gap) (Bull & Ferguson, 2006, p. 744). A resource push is often less successful than a market pull due to the limited need in current markets (Bull & Ferguson, 2006, p. 747). The current situation of the PNG balsa industry is driven by a resource push. When developing new 145 products for a resource push it is imperative to align developments with a market pull. Design innovation is needed to differentiate balsa products from existing competitor products by offering benefits that competitor products do not have. Research and design innovation can help support the implementation of a new balsa product in markets that are filled with alternative competitor products. Innovation is instrumental to the future of the forest products industry (Hansen, Juslin & Knowles, 2007, p. 1325). Despite decades of attention from academic communities there is a lack of studies that document innovation from the perspective of a practitioner. Moreover there is little documentation of evidence that stakeholders in the forest products industry are attempting to increase innovation. The following section presents research used in the Swinburne University of Technology Innovation Cup competition to align the balsa resource push with a market pull. The perspective of a design researcher and practitioner is given to emphasise the opportunity to fulfil a market gap by generating new knowledge and communicating it through product development.

4.2.1 Swinburne University of Technology, Innovation Cup The Swinburne University of Technology, Innovation Cup is a research competition that promotes the development of innovation and entrepreneurial skills to give researchers the opportunity to impact on the daily lives of people. The Innovation Cup competition was used to contextualise research into design by exploring the value and supply chain of PNG balsa to initiate research through design. Key areas of product development and professional occupations were identified for interviewing and observing to inform design practice.

Table 4-1 PNG balsawood value chain (Bull et al., 2009, p. 14) Element Landowner → Growing → Harvesting → Market and choice and product ← ← Processing ← development Indicative Farming Germplasm Wood delivery Market analysis components systems provision logistics Innovation and Outgrower Silviculture Value recovery positioning arrangements management at primary and strategies Communication Systems to secondary strategies enable forest stages certification Research and Development

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Table 4-2 PNG balsawood market supply chain Who Smallholder → Harvesters → Designers and → Project → Commercial and Manufacturers Specifiers Consumers Processors ← Indicative Farming Plantation Design Project Builders components harvesting by applications managers End-users contractors Secondary Material Balsawood manufacturing and processing for specific application into end-grain projects and specifiers blocks and applications panels

The value of balsa increases as it progresses along the value chain from cultivation to supplying markets with processed timber. Balsa is valuable to each stakeholder along the supply chain, however its commercial value is only appreciated once it is processed for international markets. As processed timber the value of PNG balsa is limited to specific markets that required the resource for specialised post manufacturing. To expand the international demand for balsa, key stakeholders such as project specifiers must be targeted to achieve specification — for construction and building projects — if balsa products are to enter already crowded markets. By developing and proving balsa products offer greater benefits that cannot be matched by other products or materials — renewable attributes, lightness in weight and strength — project specifiers will request balsa or equivalent products in construction projects. It would be difficult for other wood-based panels to replicate the nature and properties of balsa composite panels. The Innovation Cup was the first step taken to align the balsa resource push with a market pull. A balsa composite panel would inevitably offer a sustainable, renewable and lightweight product for use in the construction industry. Identifying market gaps in the construction industry and aligning a market pull with a resource push presented the best opportunity for balsa to become a successful product to generate international demand.

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4.3 Industry demand material knowledge

A knowledge gap had prevented the exploration of balsa design developments for the construction industry. A market gap therefore existed which presented an opportunity to develop new balsa products for the construction industry. The literature stated that the mechanical properties of balsa grown in Ecuador are within the lowest strength group (SD8). However, as previously highlighted, there are a number of factors which effect the properties of timber species, including the environment where the tree is grown.

Industry professionals from forestry and wood product manufacturing industries were sourced and interviewed early in this research. Interview methods and findings are discussed in detail in Chapter Five – Observations and Interviews. Prior to concept development, forestry practitioners were asked general questions about balsa. They were also asked if they had recommendations for researchable areas for the use of balsa in the construction industry based on their experience, tacit knowledge, timber products awareness and or construction practices. Participants responded to interview questions with their own questions: “What are the properties of PNG balsa – is it a structural timber?” Participants claimed for timber to be used in the construction industry it must adhere to various standards of strength, durability, fire, life expectancy and ethical sourcing. Another example of a return interview question was: “How do you protect balsa to prevent easy damage in an industry which relies on durable materials?” Based on experience participants noted the vulnerable nature to easily damage balsa. Wood product manufacturers similarly stated that the properties (mechanical, fire, manufacturability and tolerance) of balsa products need to be able to compete against existing wood-based panels.

It became obvious that without testing the mechanical properties of balsa the credibility of any product development would be diminished by the absence of proof. The construction industry is heavily regulated by standards of practice. These standards vary depending on the type of building (commercial or residential) and the location within the building (fire-isolated exists, public corridors or personal dwellings). These early interviews justified the need to conduct material tests on balsa to determine the properties of PNG balsa.

After preliminary balsa tests were concluded, interviews and observations were used to gather industry feedback on concept developments. Industry professionals from timber science, wood product manufacturers, building and construction specifiers, architects and acousticians provided industry insights which helped refine the balsa product outcome. Feedback was typically given around manufacturing parameters and key features that project specifiers are looking for when specifying products for commercial projects.

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The reaction of industry professionals was also observed when new balsa developments were presented to them. This was used to measure the level of interest in balsa products for the construction industry from an industry perspective. Industry is blunt. If a product is unsuitable and not commercially viable it would be stated. Practitioners would justify — with evidence — why the product was flawed and how it could be improved. This relentless feedback aided the development of a product that has commercial interest for the construction industry, wood product manufacturers, project specifiers and the PNG balsa industry.

4.4 Material knowledge identifies opportunities

Material tests were conducted and analysed. Balsa test methods and findings are discussed in Chapter Six - PNG Balsa Properties. A difference in mechanical properties between Ecuadorian and PNG balsa was identified. The mechanical properties of PNG balsa, not surprisingly, maintained its current position in the lowest strength group (SD8) for seasoned timber.

Non-structural applications for balsa products were chosen to be explored through design practice. Structural applications do however exist where balsa is a core component of a product’s structure. These applications typically use balsa as a core component in sandwich composite panels. These type of applications require careful engineering and material science to perform in high-quality commercial applications. The financial investments and expense of these applications are much higher than the development of a non-structural applications that is designed to function in low-technologically driven applications, such as the identified wood-based panel market in the construction industry. In addition this doctoral research is a design-based practice project not a mechanical engineering or material science project, though further product development can be explored in these academic disciplines.

The mechanical test results highlighted similar properties to competitor products and materials. Balsa primarily competes with synthetic foams in the wind energy industry. Synthetic foams are also widely used in the construction industry because they are non-biodegradable, are lightweight and exhibit low Thermal Conductivity [TC]. Materials with a low TC are typically used as insulators. According to the literature balsa is also a good insulator, however the origin of this knowledge could not be sourced. To prove balsa has a low TC material tests were needed to substantiate this knowledge claim.

The TC results demonstrated that balsa has a low TC value like synthetic foams. The thermal performance of synthetic foams is superior to balsa, however the fact that balsa is a renewable and natural insulating material was highlighted to the construction industry. Synthetic foams and wood-based panels are also used as interior lining products for acoustic solutions in noisy environments. Materials are

149 either reflective or absorptive. The use of acoustic panels depends on the environment and intention to manipulate sound. Wood-based panels are typically used to absorb sound. This is commonly measured as the Noise Reduction Coefficient [NRC] of material. Timber generally has a low NRC value, meaning it reflects sound. The porosity of a material determines the absorption capability of a material. Wood-based panels are perforated to enhance the absorption capabilities and are often used as architectural features. The literature stated balsa has good sound performances, however it failed to elaborate on the type of tests carried out, the methods used and the results found.

The NRC value of balsa was therefore measured. The results showed that despite balsa’s porous cellular structure it is a reflective material. Similar to wood-based panels a balsa composite panel would require perforations to increase its NRC value. Some wood-based panels offer fire retardant chemical treatments that prevent the panel from combusting. Small-scale fire testing was conducted on balsa to determine its fire group number. This area of research did not conduct full-scale fire tests as preliminary tests indicated balsa has the lowest group fire rating number a material can have. Further research is however required to develop a non-combustible balsa product to offer additional competition to existing fire retardant products.

Additional testing was conducted later in the product development stage on the design outcome as opposed to typical raw processed balsa. Full-scale international standard test methods to determine the acoustic absorption coefficient of balsa composite panels were conducted and are discussed in Chapter Seven – Design Practice. The results proved the development of a balsa interior lining panel is competitive in the construction industry against existing products used in the same application.

4.5 Opportunities inform design practice

The literature review introduced competitor materials and wood-based products used in the construction industry. This section introduces current products and applications which balsa composite panels would be in direct competition with as a non-structural interior lining. In respect to Cross’s (2000, as cited in Self et al., 2012, p. 128) convergent and divergent description of the industrial design process, material testing converged the design process to non-structural, thermal insulating, acoustic performing interior panels. Further research was used to benchmark existing products, applications and materials. This further research provoked divergence within the non-structural interior lining area to develop various concepts early in the product development process. The following products and applications introduced are contemporary solutions used in the construction industry. These products were used to inspire balsa concept developments.

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Synthetic foams are commonly found in residential theater rooms to replicate a cinematic acoustic experience or in noisy commercial buildings and offices. These panels are non-structural, lightweight, tiles that act as diffusers and absorbers. The aesthetic quality of these products are low, however they exhibit excellent acoustic and thermal properties.

Figure 4.1 Synthetic foam acoustic product (diffuser)

Since foams have a low aesthetic value they are typically covered with fabric or used as insulation to disguise their existence. By contrast, wood-based panels have a high quality visual appearance and can be designed and manufactured to replicate the acoustic performance of foams. Plywood and MDF panels are commonly used as architectural features in interior dwellings that provide acoustic solutions for noise prone environments. Wood-based panels can exhibit different types of visual grade appearances, thermal properties and acoustics performances.

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Figure 4.2 Timber acoustic product (diffuser)

Figure 4.3 Wood-based acoustic absorber panels. MDF substrate with high quality timber veneer (left) and interior grade plywood panel (right)

Plywood panels used in interior dwellings use high quality wood veneers to manufacture interior grade plywood. MDF panels are either painted or veneered with wood or laminate veneers to disguise the MDF substrate. The common thickness of wood-based panels used for interior linings is 16 mm. Wood-

152 based panels come in a variety of sizes but the most common is 2400x1200 mm. Plywood panels usually have a density of approximately 500 kg/m3 and MDF around 750 kg/m3. The mass of these panels is calculated by multiplying the density of the material by its volume. Plywood panels without acoustic perforations would weigh approximately 23 kg and MDF 35 kg. Sheet metal is also used as an architectural feature that provides an acoustic solution.

Figure 4.4 Sheet metal acoustic product (absorber)

Due to the durability of sheet metal the product can be used in interior and exterior environments. Unlike foams and timber, sheet metal is not a good thermal insulator. In most acoustic applications a system of products (the product panel, acoustic and thermal insulation and additional acoustic fabrics) work together to deliver premium performance and results. So the performance or choice of material is not the key reason why an acoustic interior lining product is specified. Most of the time the cost of a product determines whether or not a product is used in the construction industry. Long term benefits such as sustainable attributes, performance, product weight and aesthetics are not considered as important as saving money in Australian construction projects. This information was gathered through in-context industry interviews. This key information indicated product developments must consider the cost to manufacture new balsa products for balsa to be competitive in the construction industry, despite its advantageous characteristics and performances.

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4.6 Design practice communicates knowledge

Early concept developments are presented in this section. The design outcome is presented in Chapter Seven – Design Practice. Prior to concept development a sound understanding of the PNG balsa industry, PNG balsa properties and a market opportunity were all identified. The preliminary analysis of primary and secondary data (material tests, observations and interviews) had begun converging contributions to knowledge while maintaining the divergent exploration of balsa product developments within the Australian construction industry. A contribution to knowledge had already been demonstrated through material testing, however the research question also emphasised the importance of communicating knowledge to promote PNG balsa. Early sketches and prototypes were used to build personal knowledge on balsa and to express preliminary ideas considered worthy of investigation.

Figure 4.5 Possible balsa timber products 154

Figure 4.6 Preliminary balsa ideation matrix

Figure 4.5 presents possible balsa products considered for development in this research and Figure 4.6 presents an ideation matrix. Low-fidelity prototypes were constructed early in this doctoral research to observe the physical changes of balsa products when exposed to natural atmospheric elements. Evident in Figure 4.7 an increase in MC damaged an end-grain balsa panel where delamination at glue lines occurred and mold began to grow. Additional prototypes demonstrated the act of learning through practice. A series of fixtures were trialed on balsa lumber to determine the success of fastening balsa lumber with screws, nails and bolts (Figure 4.8) as would be practised in the construction industry.

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Figure 4.7 Learning the importance of MC by practice

Figure 4.8 Exploring possible fixture solutions by practice

Concept development was well-informed by post preliminary interviews, material testing and product benchmarking. Material testing and interviews generated a series of micro research questions that required answers in order to progress through the product development cycle. Micro research questions were developed from interview responses and deemed important to answer in order to develop a balsa concept:

- How do you protect balsa from impact denting? - How do you optimise the thermal and acoustic performance of balsa? - How do you keep production cost to a minimum to ensure balsa panels are cheap? - What does a balsa product offer that other products do not? 156

Through the product development cycle balsa was from then on used as a substrate material in order to protect the vulnerable physical properties of end-grain balsa. To optimise the thermal and acoustic properties the thickness of the panel, the choice of veneer and the acoustic perforation design was manipulated. The cost of manufacturing was addressed through evaluating product genetics to develop an efficient production cycle and the benefits of balsa composites were highlighted to ultimately achieve specifier choice.

Figure 4.9 Communicating material constraints through design practice

Figure 4.10 Communicating product performance through design practice 157

Figure 4.11 Communicating product manufacturing through design practice

Figure 4.12 Communicating product benefits through design practice

Figure 4.9-Figure 4.12 communicate answers to the micro research questions. Research through design by practice (observations, interview, material testing and prototyping) demonstrated the ability to source primary data to direct research-led industrial design practice. New knowledge informed product design and development by highlighting material parameters and industry perspectives surrounding balsa developments. These results were communicated in product form to substantiate the use of research-led industrial design practice to generate and communicate a new contribution to knowledge.

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4.7 Product development iterations

This section attempts to illustrate the iterative cycle of the research-led industrial design practice discussed in this chapter. Research into design identified knowledge and market gaps, which informed the need to practice design and conduct primary research. Knowledge was therefore generated through design practice and research for design, was the presentation of a final design artefact that communicated new knowledge. Figure 4.13 highlights the iterative research-led industrial design practice cycle used in this doctoral research.

Figure 4.13 Research-led industrial design practice cycle

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The goal of research-led industrial design practice was to generate new knowledge to be embodied into new products for markets which demand them. The research-led industrial design practice cycle presented in Figure 4.13 is presented as a linear progression of stages and development however the true process was iterative and various stages were conducted simultaneously. The knowledge extracted from the research methods was fed back to the research gap and allied with the research question “how can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for PNG balsa?” By reflecting on the research question the methods were informed and guided by the focus of this research which helped extract useful knowledge. Concept development was underway while material testing and research was conducted. Concepts that were proven impractical through material tests or deemed unsuitable in industry interviews were either adjusted to suit new research findings or abandoned.

The PNG balsa industry demanded a new generation of balsa products that could be sold in international markets to rectify a current over-supply and under-demand of PNG balsa. This is the design and research problem. This problem was also recognised as a significant issue to society, due to the potential threat of hardship the local community would face without a product design solution. Research into design revealed broad existing knowledge which later converged to identify knowledge gaps. Knowledge gaps were aligned with market gaps to develop appropriate products that communicated new knowledge in products that were in demand for international commercial industries.

Knowledge is generated through research methods and communicated through the product design and development process and design artefacts. While this provides a product solution to the design research problem it also demonstrates how research-led industrial design practice is used to develop commercially viable and successful products for international industries. Research through design and the product design and development process is an iterative cycle of sourcing, proving, prototyping and reflecting on new knowledge and product development. This process repeats as many times as necessary from concept development, designing, manufacturing and testing to product refinement and production ramp-up. The transfer of new knowledge from research to product, driven by design innovation is a valuable tool for developing next generation products that are in demand by markets. Design practice, informed by research and reflection, communicates new knowledge generated through research-led industrial design practice and demonstrates academic rigour whilst finding direct relevance to commercial industries associated with product design and development. This research cycle is key to developing products for the PNG balsa industry, wood product manufactures and the construction industry, and to addressing the associated societal problems.

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4.8 Summary

The research-led industrial design practice cycle is iterative. The design research model into, through and for design aligns with the product design and development process to generate and communicate new knowledge. Micro research questions identified from research into and through design substantiate the need for additional research methods to discover answers in order to progress through the product development process. Industry interviews identified the need to conduct material testing on balsa to inform design practice through prototyping. Material and product benchmarking was simultaneously conducted for inspiration and to identify additional market opportunities that balsa products could satisfy. Prototyping communicated ideas and knowledge to industry professionals for product feedback. Industry feedback assisted the refinement of the balsa product prior to manufacturing and testing phases. Ultimately, the product design and development process was used as the vehicle to communicate new knowledge in product form.

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5 CHAPTER FIVE: OBSERVATIONS AND INTERVIEWS

5.1 Introduction

Interviews and observations were used to extract tacit knowledge from industry practitioners to inform the product design and development process. The term ethnography is not used in this thesis to discuss interview and observation methods. Ethnography studies are the immersion of research methods to experience and understand a user’s perspective to develop design empathy and insights. Ethnography is closely related to anthropology where people are studied in their natural environment, social settings and culture. While elements of this chapter are considered ethnographic research a full analysis and comprehensive ethnographic approach is outside the scope of this research. This doctoral research is not studying the user’s environment, social interactions or culture, rather it is focused on the practice of industrial design to develop a practical outcome informed by observations, interviews and other methods presented in later chapters. The use of observations and interviews were used to understand the nature of balsa, how it is handled, how it is processed, who consumes balsa and why, to identify market opportunities and constraints within Australia and to gather feedback on the development of a new balsa product.

Sections of this chapter have been published and presented at the International Association of Societies of Design Research conference in Brisbane, Australia (2015).

5.2 Observations and Interviews

20 research participants were involved in 17 interviews from 17 enterprises – 10 medium-sized, four small and three micro. Three of the 17 interviews involved paired participants. Interviews were semi- formal and in-context. 11 observation studies were also conducted from 10 enterprises – 9 medium-sized and 1 small. Participants were equally sourced from six industries; timber product manufacturing, forest and wood product associations, building and construction, acoustics, universities (science faculties) and other. Observations and interviews were used in this research to contextualise the need for design innovation and product development to mitigate hardship to smallholders in ENB, PNG. Observations informed wood product manufacturing techniques to refine the manufacturing process of the design outcome and to gather feedback from industry practitioners. Interview findings generated micro research questions which justified the need for additional research methods to find answers. Micro research questions were used as a criterion to validate product design developments and to communicate knowledge in product form.

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Interviews and observations were conducted as needed to inform the product design and development process. Some participants were observed and interviewed on more than one occasion to gather product feedback to assist the refinement of the balsa product. As previously indicated Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process was used in this doctoral research. There are six generic stages to the product design and development process. Each design process stage conducted observations and interviews to answer research and design questions that industry have experience and expertise with, and for product feedback. Iterations between the two research methods were common and often generated more questions that required answering hence the diversity of participants.

Observations and interviews were conducted with industry practitioners to better understand project planning, concept development, research and development techniques, timber and material properties, product testing, refinement, manufacturing, and supplying of consumer markets. Observations were either discrete or with groups of practitioners, depending on the context of the research. Observations focussed on industry practice, from balsa cultivation, harvesting and processing to timber product manufacturing and product development interactions with new balsa products. Individuals and their culture was not the target of observations and the utmost respect was practiced when recording data. Interviews lasted 30-60 minutes, were semi-structured and recorded via note taking. Interview questions covered manufacturing techniques, the importance of innovation within the timber industry, new product performance and market considerations. Industry participants were selected at different stages of the product design and development process to inform the development of the balsa product. The level of experience from each participant varied from short term to 40 years experience. Interviews were tailored for each participant to draw feedback from their expertise.

The following sections provide details on the practitioner, the industry they work in, the research method agenda and the results. A discussion on what the results meant and the influence the observation and interview had on the product design and development process is summarised. The identity of participants and associated companies are not identified or linked to any of the results discussed in this research.

5.2.1 First round observations and interviews (planning) Observation was the first research method used to contextualise the scale of hardship smallholders were exposed to. Observation studies conducted in ENB, PNG were non-invasive and focussed on industry practice and balsa. An additional goal of observations was to document evidence of smallholder hardship. Observations were conducted during balsa harvesting trials, processing facilities and at a PNG university. This research method documented industry practice and processing techniques. On some occasions smallholders were observed in the field and in local communities. During the time

164 spent in ENB, PNG three smallholders approached the research team and pleaded for help to sell their balsa crops. Each time the smallholder graciously supplied their contact details, location of balsa and their financial circumstances to express their concerns and fear of financial loss. This primary evidence justified the current hardship smallholders faced and the need to improve smallholder livelihoods by ensuring balsa crops are purchased to meet potential new international demand for the resource.

In addition to observation studies, interviews were held with industry participants from balsa processing companies. These interviews where semi-formal and were directed at the current market situation. Interviewees responded that without doubt the Chinese wind energy industry was the largest consumer of PNG balsa. It was emphasised that since the Global Financial Crisis, China’s demand for PNG balsa had severely reduced and as a result synthetic polymer foams were increasing in popularity for manufacturing products that were traditionally manufactured out of PNG balsa. It was also reiterated many times throughout interviews that design innovation is needed to develop new products to help improve international demand for PNG balsa.

Observations and interviews conducted in ENB, PNG put into perspective the scale and presence of hardship that threatened not only the livelihoods of smallholders, their family and community but the future of balsa production in PNG. This information substantiated the literature and justified the need for product design and development to improve international market demand for PNG balsa to enhance the livelihoods of smallholders.

Other early interviews were conducted in Australia with forestry and wood products industries to gather practitioner’s opinions on future product developments for timber in the construction industry and possible implementation for balsa products. Two practitioners were interviewed at this early stage to understand the role of sustainability in the construction industry and current market demand for engineered timber products. Interviews conducted in this industry were intended to gather insights and build knowledge to assist the development of a new balsa product for the construction industry.

The first interviewee was from a wood product association with a goal to support sustainable timber and wood products supported by informed research, credible technical publications, comprehensive customer information and positive product and market development. Interview questions were directed at existing engineered timber building solutions such as glued laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber and cross laminated timber structures available in the Australian construction industry. This participant was sourced through an existing relationship with an ACIAR representative and was interviewed via phone call. The participant had experience with cross laminated timber structures. Questions such as what is cross laminated timber? What is sustainable timber? And why are specific timbers chosen for engineered timber structures? Were used to identify if balsa was a suitable material for implementation in cross 165 laminated timber construction or other timber engineered structural applications. Without answering the first interview question the interview participant asked “what are the properties of PNG balsa? Without this vital source of knowledge it is difficult to determine any useful or successful application for PNG balsa”. This interview response highlighted an obvious knowledge gap from the perspective of a forestry and wood product industry practitioner. The interview was then redirected to the properties of engineered timber products. Based on the practitioners experience with cross laminated timber, balsa was dismissed as a complementary material, even without knowing the mechanical properties. The cost of material to manufacture cross laminated timber was also emphasised as a reason why balsa would not be a commercially viable timber for the volume and strength properties required to manufacture cross laminated timber products. The participant further noted the cost of a material should not be used to measure the appropriateness of a product and its application. It’s the benefits to the system over the construction period and beyond that should determine the choice in material for construction. Low life cycle costs should be emphasised over low consumption costs to ensure future benefits outweigh the short term, particularly in waste management for the construction industry. This interview highlighted the need to identify the mechanical properties of PNG balsa, the cost to manufacture balsa products and the benefits of balsa disposal after its service life.

The second interviewee was from a manufacturers association which represents engineered wood products manufacturers within Australasia. The products which they represent are plywood, laminated veneer lumber, particleboard, MDF or any product that contains wood fibres and glue. Their goal is to promote technical market development such as market expansion and timber product developments. This participant was also sourced through an existing relationship with an ACIAR representative and was interviewed via phone call. The participant was experienced with a broad range of timber engineered products particularly plywood. Interview questions targeted responses around the use of timber in the building industry and the future role of sustainability in the construction industry. The interviewee responded by stating “timber is the only real genuine renewable building product however in commercial environments there is absolutely no advantage to using renewable materials because it all comes down to cost. If there is a dirty nasty product that happens to be 50 cents cheaper per square metre that will usually get specified in a building project over an equivalent product that is sustainable and renewable”.

Throughout the interview it was reiterated many times that the construction industry is driven by cost. There are organisations that exist that are trying to change this, however it was the opinion of the interviewee that despite this the industry remains driven by cost. Fibrous cement sheeting, compressed concrete, corrugated iron and polymer composite panels were identified as products which compete with timber products. “Basically anything that takes a panel or sheet form competes with timber products”. The future for engineered wood products however is growing and will continue to grow as native forests 166 decline. The availability of large timber for traditional construction will almost be impossible to source. However engineered timber products will easily fill this market void by utilising smaller plantation grown timbers to construct large structural building elements. This interview indicated that there are current engineered timber products that are successful in the construction industry. The material constraints of balsa may affect the implementation and success of balsa entering existing markets, however future changes in the construction industry will increase demand for sustainable and renewable materials like balsa, which should take full advantage of this demand.

These interviews identified the importance of material properties, sustainable timber products and the cost of timber products used in the construction industry. These three key findings were the foundation of a new balsa product being developed. In order to proceed through the product design and development process the mechanical properties of PNG balsa were needed to determine appropriate product outcomes that are sustainable and cost competitive within the construction industry.

Observations and interviews were conducted during the planning stage of the product design and development process. They identified evidence of hardship, knowledge and market gaps. In order to proceed through the product design and development process planning was vital for progression. Primary research substantiated the research problem and identified early constraints. The mechanical properties of PNG balsa were needed to determine appropriate product outcomes for the construction industry. This assisted the development of new products for international markets and potentially offered smallholders an opportunity to supply new markets with their balsa.

5.2.2 Second round observations and interviews (concept development) Second round observations and interviews were conducted during the concept development stage. Six research participants were involved in four observations and interviews. Two of the observations and interviews were conducted in pairs. This round of methods was used to assist the researcher with scientific material testing to demonstrate academic rigour that would produce reliable material test results on PNG balsa. A total of four material tests were conducted on PNG balsa. The fourth material test and a further two product tests were conducted during the testing and refinement stage which are discussed in the fifth round observations and interviews.

The first balsa test determined the mechanical strength of balsa. Two research participants were interviewed and observed during this test. Both participants were academics from the School of Forest and Ecosystem Science. One participant was Australian and the other from PNG. These participants were fundamentally involved in the mechanical testing of PNG balsa to ensure academic rigour prevailed. Observations noted the equipment, material preparation, the process of each test and the calculation of

167 results. Interviews were used to inform observation uncertainties, to obtain scientific insights, to compare results and to gain an understanding of the importance of material testing. The Australian participant was sourced through local university relationships and the PNG participant was sourced through an existing relationship with ACIAR. Both participants had experience with testing the mechanical properties of wood, however neither had any experience with balsa. Sample questions such as how do the results of balsa compare to other timber species were asked? What is the importance of moisture content [MC]? And what effect does the density of a timber specimen have on strength? These questions were used to identify comparisons of balsa with similar timber species and constraints and considerations when designing products with balsa. The results identified that balsa is a strong material for its weight, however it is a vulnerable material that damages easily. To implement balsa into the construction industry it would need to be utilised as a sandwich composite – veneered between two superior skins. Further research and testing was needed to determine the properties and requirements of a balsa composite panel for use in structural applications. It was noted that balsa veneered with two thin sandwich skins would increase the strength and rigidity of a balsa panel, which could then be used in non-structural applications and compete with other wood-based panel products. The choice of material to sandwich balsa required justification to ensure a balsa product was durable and maintained its sustainable attributes. Research participants emphasised that the uniqueness of balsa was demonstrated through material testing. Observations noted the fragile nature of balsa despite the impressive results of some of the mechanical strength tests.

The mechanical property results of PNG balsa identified that materials with similar proprieties were synthetic foams and other wood-based panels. Applications which these materials are used in were also identified. The extended properties of these similar materials were highlighted to identify additional material testing that was needed to determine if a balsa product was appropriate and competitive for use in the construction industry. The thermal performance of existing products used in the construction industry was typically promoted as a benefit to achieve specifier choice – particularly in green buildings. The Thermal Conductivity [TC] of balsa was therefore also required to further determine its competitiveness.

Two research participants were interviewed and observed as a pair to determine the thermal properties of PNG balsa. Both participants were academics from the School of Earth Science. These participants were also fundamentally involved in the research to determine the TC of PNG balsa. Observations noted the equipment, material preparation, and the process of testing and the calculation of results. Interviews were used to inform observation uncertainties, to obtain scientific insights, to compare results and to gain an understanding of the importance of material testing. Participants were sourced through existing academic relationship from a partnered university. Both participants had experience with testing the thermal value of materials, however the participants’ expertise was in Earth specimens and neither had any experience with timber. The equipment used however, could test the TC of any material. 168

Interview questions were similar to the mechanical strength testing questions; did the thickness of the material affect the thermal performance? What impact did the wood grain direction have on the thermal performance? The results identified that due to balsa’s low density the TC was low, proving the material had potential in insulation applications. These observations and interviews identified balsa properties that were compared to existing materials used in products that dominate insulation markets. Participants stated the origins of balsa — a natural and renewable material — outweighed the sustainable attributes of any artificial insulating product currently in the market. “The fact that balsa naturally has a low density and TC and it is not mechanically or chemically tampered with makes it an exceptional, sustainable insulator”.

The thermal performance of PNG balsa is in direct competition with synthetic foams and other wood-based panels. The obvious advantage is balsa is a natural product which highlights its sustainable credentials. Density, porosity, MC, grain direction and thickness were all noted as variables with effect to the performance of PNG balsa. Further market research demonstrated that current thermal insulators used in the construction industry also exhibited acoustic properties. The acoustic performance of balsa was therefore identified as another knowledge gap.

Another two research participants were interviewed and observed as a pair to determine the acoustic properties of PNG balsa. Participants were academics from the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering. These participants were involved in the research to determine the acoustic properties of PNG balsa. Observations noted the equipment, material preparation, the process of testing and the calculation of results. Interviews were used to inform observation uncertainties, to obtain scientific insights, to compare results and to gain an understanding of the importance of material testing. Participants were sourced through existing academic relationship from a university. Both participants had experience with testing the acoustic value of materials. Participants had some experience with timber and a variety of other materials and products. Interview questions again were similar to previous tests. Participants referenced existing literature and theories to express what the results meant for PNG balsa. The results identified that despite the porous nature of balsa it was a reflective material of sound, regardless of the grain direction and the thickness of the material. Interviews were then redirected to identify how balsa could be manipulated to improve its acoustic properties. Research participants noted the absorption and reflection of sound was dependent on a variety of variables. The key to achieving a specific performance depended on the environment and the desired outcome. This response highlighted two vital pieces of information required to further develop a new balsa product. The first was, what environments would balsa products be used in? And the second was, what were the products designed to do? Or what were they required to do?

The acoustic test results indicated PNG balsa reflected sound. The acoustic performance of a material could, however, be manipulated to either reflect or absorb sound. In addition to the test results, 169 the location and need for an acoustic performing product was required to develop an appropriate product for the construction industry. This industry response indicated the need to identify a specific market within the construction industry to develop a product that was needed and that could benefit from the implementation of a lightweight, strong, sustainable, thermally insulating and acoustic performing product.

5.2.3 Third round observations and interviews (system-level design) Third round observations and interviews were conducted during the system-level design stage. Key to this process stage was understanding the product architecture and defining the major sub-systems that give the product its identify. Five interviews and two observation studies were conducted in this round. Three participants were from timber product manufacturing industries and the remaining two where from the construction industry. This round of observations and interviews were used to identify what type of sandwich skins could be used to develop a balsa sandwich composite, to build an understanding of timber product manufacturing processes, to gain industry insights and opinions on wood-based products for the construction industry, and to assess the importance of achieving specifier choice and supplying markets with competitive products. Additionally, early concepts were presented to research participants for concept feedback to assist and direct the product design and development process.

Two participants from different Australian plywood manufacturing companies were interviewed and one observed. The first participant was interviewed and observed to identify the type of plywood product that was manufactured, the timber species used, the process of production, market drivers and the importance of innovation within the wood product manufacturing industry. This participant was identified and sourced through an earlier interview with a participant in the planning process stage. This participant had international experience with laminated veneer lumber products and plywood. Interview questions targeted responses for the following questions: what generates market demand for plywood? What products compete with plywood? And what role does innovation play in the plywood industry? The participant stated customer demand was a key industry driver as well as high profit margins. The plywood industry in Australia had reduced demand in recent times because of the introduction of exotic composite products manufactured out of polymers, MDF and OSB. This plywood manufacturer used radiata pine. “Plywood is a bit of a dying product… because timber product manufacturing is all about resource recovery and from log to finished panel plywood utilises 47-48 per cent, whereas OSB is about 65-75 per cent recovery”. Despite this, the participant stated plywood typically had a visual component as well as a strength component, unlike other wood-based panels, which is why plywood is specified for use in the construction industry. The lack of awareness about other competitor products such as OSB is another reason why plywood had remained popular in Australia. “Familiarity is what people are familiar with. People understand plywood. Specifiers and architects understand plywood. It is in the Australian building code. People are creatures of habit, so if any new product for technology comes into the market it is bound

170 by the lack of education and knowledge surrounding it” The participant also noted there was a push within the timber product manufacturing industry to value-add through product development, which generated greater profitability.

This interview justified the current popularity of plywood in the construction industry. It also demonstrated that the lack of change within the construction industry was due to a failed transfer of knowledge embedded in products that is communicated to the target industry and market. Plywood communicated reliability, strength and aesthetics, which is why it was specified. This primary information was imperative to the success of a balsa composite product that was targeting the construction industry. Most interviews with industry participants — who are experts on timber products, properties and processes — stared with a conversation about childhood memories of playing with balsa. If timber experts related balsa to model making, the layman would no doubt consider balsa an inferior material that was useless for implementation in the construction industry. The importance of substantiating product design and developments with material and product testing was therefore imperative to prove to specifiers and architects that balsa was a value-added product that had a place in the construction industry.

The plywood production facilities were observed at the same location as the interview. The process of log to product was documented to obtain insights of plywood manufacturing. The observations are not presented in this research due to confidentiality agreements. Key observations identified the process of veneer allocation for specific applications. This demonstrated the quality control measures that were in place for the different types of plywood used in the construction industry. Observations also demonstrated the quantity of each type of plywood manufactured at the facility (formply, structural plywood, non-structural plywood, visual grade plywood). Observations of the manufacturing process of plywood also indicated the value-adding process from a log to a product. Consideration was given to the implementation of balsa along the plywood production line to determine the appropriateness of manufacturing balsa composite panels with plywood sandwich skins.

The second participant was interviewed to compare plywood manufactured by a different company which uses a different timber species. The participant was recognised as an experienced plywood representative who was sourced through an existing relationship with an ACIAR representative and was interviewed via phone call. Interview questions focussed on: What timber species do you use? What properties and benefits does this species offer? What type of glues are used to manufacture plywood products? And questions around product certification were also asked. The plywood manufactured by this company was FSC and AFS certified hoop pine. The company was an appearance grade mill which produced high-end plywood that was manufactured for architectural interior and exterior features. To maintain the visual appearance and high-end quality, a C-bond melamine urea formaldehyde resin was used because it dried clear, which was more aesthetically pleasing for interior environments in 171 furniture, walls or ceilings. Formaldehyde’s are a known carcinogenic. This type of glue had an emissions rating class of E0 and can achieve a super E0 rating class. E0 is the second lowest emission rating, releasing less than or equal to 0.5 mg/l into the atmosphere – which is hundreds of times less than the required concentration to cause cancer in humans. It was also noted that hoop pine plywood was used in some composite applications for manufacturing train floors, where plywood was the core component veneered with aluminium skins. Another application, which is no longer in production, was a polystyrene composite panel veneered with hoop pine plywood. The polystyrene composite panel was discontinued because it was not an environmentally appealing product to the end user, there was a risk of toxic fume production in a fire scenario. And within Australia it was difficult to introduce the product into the market, despite the product being incredibly lightweight and strong for its weight. The participant also identified the use of plywood in value-added applications such as acoustic panels. It was mentioned that they provided a standard range of plywood to the market and have conducted research and development in composite panels – cork veneered with hoop pine plywood. The benefits of the cork composite panel was not enough to convince end users or manufactures to go to the trouble of sourcing and manufacturing a product where the cork offered an insignificant difference in acoustic performance to a standard sheet of plywood. Acoustic absorption is typically what is needed in buildings. This performance related to the open area of perforations and the acoustic fabric backing of the panel plus additional insulation. Another product that the manufacturer supplied to market was a fire retardant composite cored with a fire retardant MDF and sandwiched with a hoop pine veneer. Hoop pine alone in its natural state can only achieve a fire rating group number 3.

This interview expressed the use of hoop pine plywood in sandwich composite panels for interior environments. Product certification, visual aesthetics, the glue used in manufacturing and the fire rating of hoop pine was discussed. This type of information was imperative to understand to justify the use of plywood to manufacture a composite balsa panel that exhibited benefits to the construction industry. This interview noted that the development of a cork composite panel offered minimal advantages to traditional plywood. For a balsa composite panel to be commercially viable, proof must be delivered to demonstrate that the balsa composite panel developed in this research was superior to standard plywood, or any wood- based panel, to justify its development and potential commercial success.

A third participant was observed and interviewed from an independent distributer of timber panel products and decorative architectural finishes. The participant had extensive experience in timber veneers and wood-based panel products. The participant was sourced from industry through an existing partnered university relationship. Interview questions directed responses around: What is the process of sandwich panel construction? What skin or veneer options are available? What type of glues are used? And what installation methods do contractors use to install timber panel products in the construction industry? The participant noted four key constraints around timber panel products: cost, tolerance, weight and 172 sustainability. Cost, weight and sustainability are matters of choice in materials and the manufacturing process. Tolerance relied on a materials reputation, quality and design balance. The reputation of products and market supply were also very important for commercial success. The participant stated for balsa to be commercially viable and useful in the construction industry it must be manufactured for reliability and tight tolerances that wouldn’t complicate the installation process for building contractors. “The weight of balsa panels would be its biggest selling point”. A low product weight could be maintained by veneering balsa with thin appearance grade plywood. By comparison competitor products such as MDF panels, which were sandwiched with timber veneers, were extremely heavy, but had a reliable reputation and tolerances. Unlike MDF — which had a smooth surface finish — the surface of end-grain balsa is porous and undulates slightly across glue lines which meant if balsa was sandwiched directly with a thin timber veneer, imperfections such as dips and dents in the balsa would be highlighted – affecting the quality and tolerance of the panel product. Plywood veneers were therefore identified as the optimal sandwich skin for balsa sandwich composite production.

The same participant was exposed to balsa prototypes to gather feedback on the direction of the product design and development process and to introduce the participant to balsa. Figure 5.1 presents prototypes used in the interview.

Figure 5.1 Prototypes used to gather industry feedback and to introduce the research participant to balsa

The participant was quite excited about the level of commercial opportunity and value balsa products offered to industries, which were restricted by material weight and sustainability. As previously identified the participant emphasised the importance of sandwiching balsa to implement the resource into 173 the construction industry. The participant also stressed that the product should be flexible (not complex) for numerous design applications, to increase the potential demand for the product. Figure 5.2 is an early balsa product concept that was specifically used in acoustic applications as a tile panel. The participant noted that the installation of a balsa panel product should not be complex or require specific training to install the product. “Builders, architects and specifiers look for cheap, beautiful, reliable products that can be installed according to the design theme. If a product requires additional fixtures or training it all becomes hard and the product won’t get specified”. The participant also stated that the product should be mindful of international product dimensions so it could be used for numerous applications rather than custom designs. This directed the product design and development process — particularly design prototypes — to consider standard product market dimensions (2400x1200 mm panels).

Figure 5.2 Early concept used to gather industry feedback on a balsa acoustic product

The observations and interviews with the third research participant identified constraints and points to be considered during the product design and development process. Key elements that industry looked for in products were identified and obvious solutions such as sandwiching balsa with appearance grade plywood was identified. This information directed the product design and development process to full-scale prototyping. A better understanding of how a balsa composite panel would behave in building and construction scenarios according to international standards was identified and used in the product testing and refinement stage.

The forth participant was an architectural product supplier for the construction industry. The participant had international experience in sourcing international products for the Australian market and was experienced in achieving specifier choice in construction projects. The participant was sourced through an existing university and industry relationship for an interview. The purpose of the interview was 174 to learn how to achieve specifier choice. The participant highlighted four main themes that were necessary for achieving specifier choice: product benefits, industry relationships, understanding the value chain and having a variety of products. The most important thing for achieving specifier choice was having trusted relationships in the industry. “More money is spent on building and maintaining relationships in the construction industry than what is spent on product development” Manufacturers supply distributers who supply sub-contractors who service builders. The builder of a project held the most risk compared to manufacturers at the other end of the supply chain and value chain. A strong reputation is vital to achieving trust from the builder who would specify your product to architects for a project. How a product got to market and who supplied the product is related to maintaining relationships within the industry. The third and fourth important factors to achieving specifier choice was the selling points of the product and having a flexible product range. This helped categorise products that were demanded by architects by checking off their criteria of requirements.

This interview helped gain an industry perspective of what was considered the most important aspects of delivering products to market. The product design and development process was not a focus of this interview. The importance of building industry relationships was reiterated many times as the key driver to success. This identified a gap in the product design and development process stages not previously identified. Relationships are necessary to get entrenched in the market and without them it would be difficult to succeed.

The fifth participant was a builder/carpenter who was interviewed. The participant had experience in specifying and sourcing products for domestic and commercial construction. The participant was sourced through an existing industry relationship. Interview questions were used to gain an industry practitioner’s perspective on products used in the construction industry: What type of products are typically sourced by you for interior construction and why? The participant claimed that in domestic construction every job was different because every job had a different client. Some like timber, some steel, some plastic, some plaster. A typical contemporary construction project was whatever was cheapest, minimalist and quickest to complete. For this reason most of the projects today consisted of plaster, MDF and paint. This did not mean people were not interested in architectural features, however in most price driven projects there was no room for expensive products. Additionally most clients stuck to the normal and were afraid to try new products because they did not know what to expect. Commercial jobs were different. The home buyer in this scenario was buying something where all the design decisions were made for them. These projects were more inclined to try new things and step outside the box to grab home buyers attention. This was the market where new products were in demand at large quantities to get architectural products cheaper because of the current number of construction projects underway.

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This interview highlighted that commercial residential buildings were adapting to new architectural products to capture the attention of home buyers. This interview reiterated the cost of a product determined if a product is specified and most commercial projects were driven by quantity.

This round of observations and interviews were used to inform design decisions and product genetics. Practitioners communicated tacit knowledge through the research methods which were used to inform design decisions and direct the product design and development process. Industry practitioners demonstrated the manufacturing process of wood products and made it clear what they would prioritise for the development of a balsa composite panel. Discussions centred around a balsa composite product for acoustic architectural feature walls, itemised potential components, such as end-grain balsa, plywood, glue and an acoustic fabric insulation that would make up the product genetics. Research participants were adamant that balsa should be sandwiched between plywood because of the strength, protection, reliability, visual appearance grade and availability. It was noted that a balsa composite panel sandwiched between an appearance grade plywood, would possibly be the lightest interior grade architectural lining product that could be used in a variety of contexts and in various applications. The product design and development of a balsa product must avoid complex manufacturing and specialised requirements to build a good product reputation and to achieve specifier choice. Moreover, industry relationships were identified as very important to aid the implementation of new products and the cost of a product must be mindful of the sensitive economic constraints in the construction industry.

5.2.4 Fourth round observations and interviews (detail design) Fourth round observations and interviews were conducted during the detail design stage. Two participants were interviewed in this round as a pair to gather feedback on the balsa product developed to date. Product feedback and complementary products information was sourced from these participants to assist the development of a commercially viable balsa product. The paired participants were from the same enterprise – an industry leading supplier of architectural and acoustic paneling systems.

The paired research participants come from an enterprise that has more than 40 years experience directly working with design and the construction industry. The company has an extensive range of products and materials that were supplied to market as architectural features. These participants were sourced through the internet and had no existing relationship with the researcher prior to the interview. Participants were observed and interviewed as a pair because both had an invested interest in a new balsa composite product. The purpose of the interview was to source industry feedback from a leading supplier of similar products delivered to the construction industry. Interview questions focussed on existing products used in the market such as: What materials were commonly used? What product

176 systems did they offer (panels, materials, insulation, and installation)? And to collect constructive criticism around the balsa product development. Figure 5.3 is the product sample shown to industry for feedback.

Figure 5.3 Balsa product sample presented to industry for feedback

Participants were intrigued by the balsa sample and responded with a series of questions about what benefits did a balsa composite panel offer that existing products did not. Selling points such as the sustainable attributes, lightweight nature, appearance grade plywood, ease of manufacture, ease of labour handling and installation, material and product performance and the socially responsible and ethical design for the PNG industry were highlighted. The participants noted the product had a good green package but claimed sustainability, weight, product appearance, labour handling and installation were not imperative to the development of a new architectural acoustic product. The participants at this point brought out a balsa composite panel sample that they had sourced from an Australian balsa distributer – which was sourced from Ecuador. They claimed the panel was lightweight and very strong but it had no demand in the construction industry. The interview then changed focus and questions were asked to understand what product design and development and/or research had the company done on balsa products to help implement the existing products into the construction industry. Participants stated that they only sourced the sample and had not pursued any research or development.

Despite the interest in the balsa product sample presented to the research participants they seemed guarded and invested in their own materials, products and processes. They were aware of balsa sandwich composite panels but had dismissed the product as something that offered little value to the construction industry. This information was a significant contrast to the information attained from other research participants. Previous research participants were therefore contacted for feedback. The third and fifth participants, consulted in the third round observations and interviews, were available for follow up meetings to provide feedback on the balsa product development. These participants were chosen to provide feedback because the opinion of a manufacturer and builder would demonstrate the views and 177 opinions from three areas of product development: manufacturer, supplier and builder. The same prototype was presented to these participants and additional photographs of full-scale products were presented.

Figure 5.4 Prototype demonstrating the lightweight balsa composite panel

Figure 5.5 Balsa composite panel sandwiched with plywood

Both the wood product manufacture and the builder were impressed by the weight of the sample as demonstrated in Figure 5.4. The participant from the timber product manufacture enterprise noted that the obvious benefits of having such a lightweight panel made product handling safe for employees who are exposed to manual handling. Other benefits would include a reduction in the cost to transport the panels. The builder similarly noted contractors would welcome lightweight panels to their labour intensive job. Additionally, lightweight panels eliminated the need for heavy machinery to crane products onto a job 178 site. The manufacturer reiterated that the lightness of the panels would be the biggest selling point of the product. The builder questioned the performance of the product and stated evidence was needed to prove the product performed as good as existing products and was price competitive. The participants also stated that the sustainable attributes and responsible design development for PNG balsa told a good story that would appeal to end users and specifiers.

A review of the interviews revealed that the manufacturers and builders were more inclined to assist the product design and development process because of the benefits it presented to their line of work. Manufacturers could easily make the balsa product with available technology and builders would use balsa products because of the cost saving in construction, transport and labour, without compromising on performance. Timber product suppliers however were guarded and protective of their assets, possibly because they identified a potential competitor product which they could not control in the current market. However product testing had not yet been conducted and as identified by participants the performance of the product required evidence to prove that the product performed as good as or better than existing products.

5.2.5 Fifth round observations and interviews (testing and refinement) Fifth round observations and interviews were conducted during the testing and refinement stage. Four participants were observed and interviewed in this round from three enterprises. Additional product feedback and acoustic and fire design guidance was sourced from these participants. Three participants were acousticians and the remaining one was a fire lab technician.

The first research participant was a multi award-winning sound editor with 30 years industry experience. The participant was sourced through an existing university and industry relationship. The participant was observed and interviewed to gather product feedback. Interview questions were directed at the product: what affects the acoustic performance of a product? And how can the acoustic absorption be improved? The participant firstly noted the choice of materials were reflective and if sound absorption was the desired outcome larger open areas were required and insulation behind the panel was a must. “If acousticians had it their way insulation would be exposed in the environment where absorption is needed. Unfortunately insulation is ugly, which is why architects cover it with perforated timber, plaster or sheet metal panels”. Noise control depended on the context and the user needs (absorption, reflection or diffusion). The more open area a panel had the more sound could pass through, which was then absorbed by the insulation. When acoustic panel products were sourced people were looking for the open area percentage of the product to determine how it would perform in the designated environment. The participant also noted that the weight of the product, while it is impressive, may work against its acoustic performance. MDF panels have mass, which made them useful for low frequency absorption. MDF panels

179 were also used for architectural features because they offered additional properties, such as fire resistance. To compete against these products, industry recognised tests were essential in proving the performance of the balsa acoustic panel system.

Observations noted the interaction between the participant and the product. By talking into the product the participant began to demonstrate the performance of the panel. This demonstration of tacit knowledge measured obvious improvements or performances that the prototype provided to the user. A few minutes of low-fidelity verbal tests, changing the orientation and position of the prototype and simple clap tests demonstrated ways to informally test the products performance. The concluding response was that formal testing was required, however the demonstration of tacit knowledge informed ways of testing the performance of prototypes to determine preliminary performances prior to committing to full-scale testing.

The following participants were identified by the previous participant as industry practitioners who could further inform the product design and development process. These participants were from the same enterprise: the first was interviewed and the second observed and interviewed. The first participant specialised in architectural acoustics, planning and environmental noise control. The interview focussed on design considerations to develop a high performing absorption panel. The participant stated with all architectural panels the performance relied on the insulation. The second participant introduced an industry software that calculated a theoretical Noise Reduction Coefficient [NRC] value. The software replicated the type of construction of the environment (timber frame) and the details of the acoustic panel system (materials, open area, product thickness, insulation and installation type) to calculate a product systems performance. A variety of designs were entered into the software to calculate theoretical NRC values. Variations to the design system determined four variables that affected the performance of the product system: panel open area, panel thickness, insulation and the air-gap behind the panel. Observations of the participant noted interactions with the product. Demonstrations how to set up the product system in a commercial environment were given and suggestions to improve the performance were highlighted. This information was used to inform product testing and refinement prior to investing in full-scale international standard test methods.

The final interview conducted in this round was with a senior technical officer with 30 years experience in light frame construction, timber durability and fire research. The participant was sourced through an existing university relationship. Observations and interview questions related to the fire performance of balsa and lightweight structures. This participant was fundamentally involved in testing the fire performance of PNG balsa using a cone calorimeter. The participant noted the physical properties of balsa made it a vulnerable material in fire scenarios. The test results demonstrated that balsa ignites quickly at high temperatures and smolders until the material almost completely decomposes. The 180 participant estimated balsa would be a fire group number 4 (the lowest fire group number obtainable). Without prior knowledge or exposure to the balsa product developed at this stage of the research, the participant stated “to overcome the poor property performance of balsa the material can be sandwiched with fire retardant skins”. This would change the performance of the product system and offered opportunities to enter broader markets that demanded fire retardant products. This information substantiated the development of a sandwich composite panel for use in the construction industry. It also informed the need to conduct further research on fire performances of engineered wood products such as plywood and MDF panels.

The information obtained throughout these later observations and interviews gathered informative tacit knowledge that was used to further develop the balsa composite panel for interior environments as an acoustic and fire rated paneling system. The product was now in the later stage of high-fidelity prototyping and was ready for product testing to prove its commercial competitiveness.

5.2.6 Sixth round observations and interviews (industry response) The sixth round observations and interviews were informal discussions and demonstrations with industry practitioners, end users, home renovators, project specifiers, builders and architects at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition held in Brisbane, June 2015. The Sustainable Experience Exhibition targeted industry practitioners and consumers by promoting sustainable materials and products for use in the construction industry. The exhibition appealed to individuals dedicated to practising sustainability and was noted as an opportunity to measure the level of interest and possible demand for balsa products. This was the first public release of the design research and product design project conducted on PNG balsa to date.

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Figure 5.6 Sustainable Experience Exhibition stand of new PNG balsa products

Figure 5.6 reveals the product stand presented at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition. The purpose of presenting at the exhibition was to understand what people know about balsa, to measure the interests and demand for balsa products and to collect further industry feedback on the product. A large variety of industry practitioners approached the stand and were intrigued to learn about balsa. Product demonstrations highlighted the benefits of balsa panels compared to competitor products. Most industry practitioners knew very little about balsa compared to MDF. Most people expressed concerns about the excessive use of MDF in the construction industry and noted that the weight of MDF products was problematic. Specifiers, architects and builders were amazed by the lightness of the balsa panels presented. Many asked: How soon will the product be on the market? How much does it cost? Can I customise the design? And what are the performance values? These key findings were not new information, however they further substantiated the need to determine the supply-chain and manufacturing process, the cost and the performance of the product.

5.3 Discussion

Observations and interviews were used extensively to collaborate with industry practitioners for advice and information to inform the product design and development process. Industry practitioners tacit

182 knowledge was identified as key information that was necessary to direct design decisions made throughout the design process. The research methods discussed in this chapter did not follow the linear path presented. The order of the observations and interviews is true, however as previously highlighted the design process was iterative. Material testing and design practice was conducted throughout the observation and interview process. Figure 5.7 attempts to display the iterations between research participants and the design process.

Figure 5.7 Iterations between research participants throughout the design process

Evident in Figure 5.7 the design process (centre column) is iterative. The research methods followed an iterative process by referring back to information attained during previous observations and interviews. Secondary interviews were also performed on some participants to get further feedback on suggested changes highlighted during first interview encounters. This process was related back to the research question “how can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate new knowledge for PNG balsa?” by seeking existing knowledge from research participants and providing evidence of knowledge generation and product development attained through design practice to communicate the value of PNG balsa.

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Key findings from observations and interviews highlighted the importance of balsa properties, the product genetics and manufacturing process, costs, product performance, building industry relationships and utilising design innovation as a key selling point of a new balsa product for the construction industry. The six rounds of observations and interviews are summarised to highlight the key findings:

Round one: - The properties of PNG balsa were needed to justify its use in any given application Round two: - The mechanical, thermal and acoustic properties were of good value Round three: - Innovation and point of differentiation will drive the implementation of balsa into new markets and industries Round four: - Evidence was required to prove balsa is beneficial for use in products that can be manufactured Round five: - Further product refinement and testing was required to identify the appropriateness of balsa for use in the construction industry Round six: - Public and professional interests were measured

The observations and interviews presented in this chapter were a form of research intervention to extract participant’s tacit knowledge and opinions on the product development at that point of time. This offered a broader source of information and helped identify useful information that was considered important from and industry or academic point of view. As previously highlighted this thesis is not focused on design research theory construction, however Figure 5.7 demonstrates a model which may be implemented by other design research projects to extract the valuable key findings that direct the product design and development process. These key findings were essential to the progression of the product design and development process to commercialisation as industry participants clearly highlighted the constraints and considerations of each round of observations and interviews.

Tangible prototypes used during observations and interviews allowed practitioners to provide direct feedback to assist the development and refinement of the balsa product. Prototypes communicated ideas and tacit knowledge to industry practitioners which helped them provide direct feedback to the balsa product. Industry feedback reduced the time it took to make design decisions. The industry participants used in this research where sourced because of their experience and knowledge. Observations and interviews focussed on assisting the product design and development process where participants proved 184 useful for providing information that was obvious from and industry perspective. This emphasised the importance of industry collaboration to develop a commercially viable product in academia.

5.4 Summary

Observations and interviews were used to draw tacit knowledge from industry practitioners to inform the product design and development process. Observations primarily focussed on product interactions between balsa prototypes and industry practitioners. Interviews focussed on gathering information about market opportunities, product manufacturability, material performance and product installation. Beyond these areas of focus the research methods identified key elements required to advance through the design process. The material properties of balsa were identified as vital information needed to justify the development of any basla product or application. In addition research findings emphasised the importance of promoting the sustainble attributes of PNG balsa and the commercial viability of balsa products for the construction industry. Many research participants also emphasised the important role design played in any product design and development process as a selling point to differentiate new products from exisiting competitors. Relationship development was also highlighted as a vital piece of the product development process to assist in the implementation of new products into the construction industry. The information identified through observations and interviews influenced the research direction and design process by identifying design, academic and industry opportunities, it increased the speed and appropriateness of design decisions based on industry experience and tacit knowledge and it provided external feedback to aid research and design reflection on the product design and development process.

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6 CHAPTER SIX: PNG BALSA PROPERTIES

6.1 Introduction

There is an absence of published material properties on PNG balsa. Most publications note that balsa originates from Central (Tropical) and South America and others neglect to reference the origins of the balsa tested. Existing literature on balsa was hard to source and when specific balsa properties are found they offer little information, are vague, originate from Ecuador and values are inconsistent. The lack of balsa knowledge hinders the opportunity to implement PNG balsa into new and existing industries. The intention of this chapter is to present the mechanical, thermal, acoustic, fire and termite properties of PNG balsa. This information is important for implementing new materials and products into the construction industry. Additionally, material knowledge is typically what gets a material or product specified in construction projects. This contribution to knowledge will differentiate PNG balsa from other global balsa producers. In order to help promote PNG balsa the material properties are needed to substantiate its use in commercial applications. The advantages of using balsa over contemporary materials in the construction industry will be demonstrated through the product design and development process presented in Chapter Seven – Design Practice.

The balsa testing presented in this chapter was conducted under academic and practitioner supervision. The design researcher had no prior experience in scientific material testing and it must be noted that the purpose of this chapter was to demonstrate material knowledge to inform the need to embody new knowledge into product through design practice. Each test performed on PNG balsa was used to identify key properties, so materials with similar properties, and current applications which they are used in, could be identified. Competitor products and applications with similar properties were identified to determine the appropriateness and competitiveness of balsa products for use in the construction industry.

Sections of this chapter have been published in peer-reviewed journals: the European Journal of Wood and Wood Products (2015) and BioResources (2014). Additional practical reports have been published by ACIAR (2013) and (2014).

6.2 Research informed material testing

In order to design new products and applications with PNG balsa for the construction industry it was necessary to understand the primary properties of the material. The mechanical, thermal, acoustic, fire and termite properties were needed to justify the implementation of balsa products in the construction

187 industry. These tests determined the strength, insulation value, the sound characteristic (reflection, absorption or diffusion), the fire properties and the termite susceptibility of PNG balsa. These properties are particularly important for construction in multi residential high-rise living apartments to ensure quality living and resident safety is achieved. The purpose of testing PNG balsa was to substantiate concept developments and design decisions. The tests generated new knowledge which was used to inform design decisions to create a design artefact that communicated that knowledge. This knowledge generation is important because it differentiates PNG balsa from competitive balsa grown in countries like Ecuador and competitor materials.

The results generated from various tests would help direct the design process by highlighting appropriate applications based on balsa’s physical properties. In regards to the design process material properties determined the direction of concept generation and development where the strength, thermal, acoustic and fire performances identified areas of exploration that would benefit from the implementation of balsa. This helped avoid poor design outcomes and blind decision making. Blind decision making would be to implement balsa into structural applications without proving if balsa was suitable as a structural building element. By performing various material tests on PNG balsa obvious discrepancies could be noted in regards to global balsa producers and other timber species. The applications of these other materials could be referenced to justify design decisions made in the product design process. By highlighting other timber species and their applications additional research questions were generated to determine why particular species of timbers or engineered wood-based products are used for certain applications and if there was an opportunity to design a better solution that utilises PNG balsa. Essentially it was necessary to identify where balsa can and can’t be used in the construction industry.

The product design process is not a linear progression through process stages. As previously highlighted the design process is iterative. Material testing was identified as a priority through interviews with industry practitioners early in this research. Most material tests were conducted during the concept development stage. When new knowledge was found it was fed back into the concept development stage to generate plausible concepts for the construction industry. Both research and concept development were constantly re-visited to generate various design ideas in order to satisfy the research gap.

Balsa tests were conducted in collaboration with wood scientists, geoscientists and forestry experts from Australia and PNG. The opportunity to work in a multidisciplinary environment as a researcher and industrial designer with external professionals provided expert insights from a range of disciplines. Industrial designers synthesise design questions by exploring potential changes to existing products or generating new products to address contemporary problems. Industrial designers are experts at generating product solutions by borrowing existing knowledge from other professions to make appropriate design decisions. Industrial designers are not material scientists or experts at conducting 188 material tests, however by interacting with other experts and professions the industrial designer can widen their knowledge and make justifiable design decisions.

Justified by Friedman (2003): “the designer is a synthesis who helps to solve problems and a generalist who understands the range of talents that must be engaged to realise solutions” (p. 511). This skill helps designers identify problems in complex scenarios that can be addressed through multidisciplinary collaboration. Friedman (2003) highlights that designers understand the range of talents that are needed from disciplines outside of design to identify solutions. The industrial designer uses the talents and knowledge of other disciplines to identify design solutions and to contextualise scientific knowledge to inform design decisions. New knowledge was used to inform design decisions by contrasting balsa properties with other timber species to determine potential applications based on the context and application of existing timber species. Industrial designers have a talent to interpret scientific knowledge into a design context where data can be used to increase the designer’s knowledge and inform design decisions. The scientific knowledge obtained on balsa was used to justify the development of specific design concepts to support the design artefact developed in this doctoral research. This is helpful to the industrial designer because it is through the final execution that the scientific knowledge is expressed in a way that is recognisable and understandable to all audiences – not just academics, designers, scientists or forestry experts.

6.3 Mechanical properties of PNG balsa

The mechanical strength properties of PNG balsa was tested under supervision at The University of Melbourne, Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, Melbourne, Australia.

The “mechanical properties [are] necessary to the designer when timber is required for structural members” (Bootle, 1983, p. 33). Despite the initial assumption that balsa is not a structural timber, this statement by Bootle (1983) acknowledges knowledge was needed to determine if balsa could be used in structural applications. Mechanical properties were addressed in three stages of testing; the basic properties; the basic working stresses; and the actual working stresses. The basic properties are the first indication of a materials strength. Small defect-free samples were tested to determine the MOE, MOR, tensile strength perpendicular to the grain, compression strength parallel and perpendicular to the grain, shear strength parallel to the grain, cleavage strength, impact strength and hardness of a timber species. The basic working stresses are a modified version of the basic properties where timber imperfections are considered — sloping grain and knots — which reduces the calculated values of the basic properties. The actual working stresses are used for design calculations for specific jobs which consider the loading requirements and the environmental conditions of the site. The basic properties were determined in this

189 doctoral research in order to make an informed decision about the type of balsa product and application design potential as a result of this research. Further tests were necessary to determine the basic working stresses and actual working stresses of balsa if it was intended for use in structural applications.

The basic properties of balsa were needed to determine if the material was suitable for structural applications. By determining the basic properties of PNG balsa the data could be compared to existing literature that expressed the basic properties of balsa sourced from other countries and other common structural timbers used in the construction industry. Timbers with similar properties could then be researched to identify what applications that timber species is used in to determine if there is potential to design a better product and application utilising balsa.

6.3.1 Materials and methods In order to calculate the mechanical properties of a timber species a standard test method must be followed to ensure the calculated values are credible. Standards are used “to give some measure of protection to the consumer who has no means of determining the merits of the claims made by the manufacturer’s or retailer’s salesman” (Bootle, 1983, p. 220). Standards are also useful to the manufacturer of timber products who want a competitive advantage over manufacturers who fail to comply with standards. There are a variety of standards from each country where value is placed on different elements. The mechanical tests conducted in this research comply with American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM]. ASTM were selected because:

These test methods are the outgrowth of a study of both American and European experience and methods. The general adoption of these test methods will tend toward a world-wide unification of results, permitting an interchange and correlation of data, and establishing the basis for a cumulative body of fundamental information on the timber species of the world (ASTM Standard D143, 2009, p. 1).

The mechanical properties of PNG balsa were tested according to “ASTM D143 – 09 Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber”. Highlighted in the standard, it has the intention to “classify wood species by evaluating the physical and mechanical properties of small clear specimens” (ASTM Standard D143, 2009, p. 1). The standard claims the tests are used for generating data to compare the mechanical properties of various species, to establish strength functions and allowable timber stresses and to determine influences on the mechanical properties such as “density, locality of growth, position in cross section, height of timber in the tree, change of properties with seasoning or treatment with chemicals, and change from sapwood to heartwood” (ASTM Standard D143, 2009, p. 2). This standard was used to identify the similarities and differences between globally processed balsa and

190 other commercial timbers to determine appropriate design decisions. Where balsa was evidently stronger, weaker, heavier or lighter — by comparison to other commercial timbers — this information was used to justify the implementation of balsa as a superior alternative to traditional commercial design applications within the construction industry.

Mechanical tests performed in this research included; Static Bending (MOE and MOR); Compression parallel and perpendicular to the grain; Shear parallel to the grain and; Hardness (Janka). A description of each test follows:

- MOE: the measure of timber’s stiffness and resistance to deflection - MOR: the measure of the ultimate short-term load carrying capacity of a beam when the load is applied slowly - Compression parallel to the grain: the measure of the ultimate strength attainable under a load slowly applied parallel to the grain - Compression perpendicular to the grain: the measure of the maximum across-the-grain stress of a few minutes duration that can be applied through a plate covering only a portion of the timber surface without causing injury to the timber - Shear parallel to the grain: is the measure of the ultimate strength attained when the applied force causes the member to fail by the sliding of one part upon another along the grain - Hardness: the measure of the hardness of timber, representing its resistance to wear and marking (Bootle, 1983, p. 33-34).

Balsa used in this study was sourced from ENB Province, PNG plantations. The lumber was harvested, kiln-dried to 12 per cent MC and shipped to Melbourne, Australia in October 2012. Typical balsa lumber was donated by The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. and Coconut Products Limited to perform all mechanical property tests. Mechanical property tests were conducted at the University of Melbourne, Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science. Tests were conducted over a three week period from 18th November to 6th December, 2013. Clear wood samples were prepared from defect-free (no knots or splits) and straight grained boards as required by the standard. Prior to testing samples were placed in a conditioning chamber with a set temperature of 20 OC and 65±5 per cent relative humidity until samples equilibrated to 12 per cent MC and a constant Air Dry Weight [ADW] was reached. The formula used to determine the MC of each sample follows (Standards Australia, 2012):

 ww MC  g od 100)( wod

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Where: MC = Moisture content (%)

Wg = ADW (g) at 12 per cent MC, before testing or oven drying,

Wod = Sample Oven Dry Weight [ODW] (g),

Samples were measured (mm) and weighed (g) immediately before testing to determine the volume of each sample and its equilibrated ADW. After each test all samples were placed in an oven at 103±2 OC for 24 hours. The ADW and the ODW were used to calculate the MC of each sample after testing was completed. The ADW and the sample volume were used to calculate the ADD at the time of testing. The formula used to determine the ADD of each sample follows:

wg ADD  1000000)( V

Where: ADD = Air dry density (kg/m3)

Wg = ADW (g) at 12 per cent MC, before testing or oven drying, V = Sample volume (mm3)

Each mechanical strength test was conducted using an Instron model 5569 universal testing machine (Instron; Massachusetts, USA) (Figure 6.1). Individual tests required a specific mounting bracket and test fixture. The direction of the test — the axial (longitudinal), tangential or radial surface of the specimen — was determined by the parameters of the test method. The instrument was connected to a computer and controlled by Instron Bluehills v2.0 software. As the experiments were conducted, the preliminary data and results were generated automatically by the software. Secondary calculations were generated manually on Microsoft Excel. Once the tests had concluded all sample results where segregated into their density classes and presented on a graph representing the unit measured and density as highlighted by Midgley et al. (2010). This identified the specific mechanical properties for each density class of PNG balsa. The literature review noted there are three defined density categories for balsa; light (80-120 kg/m3); Medium (120-180 kg/m3) and; Heavy (180-220 kg/m3). The density of the balsa samples tested according to ASTM D143–09 standard across all mechanical tests ranged from 73-227 kg/m3. Samples were sourced from randomly selected lumber, clear from defects such as knots and wondering piths. Care was also taken to select a range of random heavy and light balsa lumber samples. Table 6-1 presents the test samples, sample dimensions and the number of samples used for each test.

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Figure 6.1 Instron Strength Test Machine

Table 6-1 Type of test performed, sample dimensions and number of samples Test Dimensions Number of samples Static Bending 25x25x410 mm 26 Hardness (Janka) 50x50x150 mm 25 Compression Parallel to the grain 25x25x100 mm 20 Compression Perpendicular to the grain 50x50x150 mm 24 Shear 50x50x63 mm 33

6.3.1.1 Static Bending Static Bending tests were conducted to determine the MOE and MOR. MOE was tested to determine balsa’s stiffness and resistance to deflection. When a timber member is loaded it tends to deflect. “The measure of resistance to deflection is called the stiffness of the material and it is often a more important consideration for providing satisfactory performance than the material’s strength” (Bootle, 1983, p. 33). Noted by Bootle (1983) a timber member may have sufficient strength performance to carry a load, however if the material deflects excessively under a load the member may crack or vibrate when subjected to transient loads (p. 33). MOR measured the ultimate short-term load-carrying capacity of a timber beam. This test generated data that can be used to calculate the structural suitability of balsa in structural applications (p. 33). These tests are important for determining balsa’s behaviour in structural applications because they identified safety constraints and considerations that need to be addressed. 193

Sample dimensions were 25x25 mm cross section by 410 mm length. Samples were individually placed across a span of 360 mm of the bending fixture so the loading block would apply the load in the centre of the sample on the tangential surface continuously at a speed of 1.3 mm/s until it reached maximum value and caused the sample to fail (Figure 6.2). At the point of failure the test stopped automatically and the type of failure was recorded for each sample. A stress vs. strain curve was generated automatically for each sample by the software.

Figure 6.2 Broken sample following Static Bending test

6.3.1.2 Hardness (Janka) Hardness tests were conducted to determine the Load at Maximum Compressive Extension of each surface (tangential, radial and axial). Hardness measures a timbers resistance to wear and marking by determining the force required to drive a ball bearing of 11.3 mm in diameter into the timber specimen at a depth of one half of the diameter of the ball bearing (5.65 mm). Noted by Bootle (1983, p. 60) the hardness of a timber specimen is not related to its workability but is the measure of resistance to indentation. The hardness of a timber is necessary to know for timber applications that are exposed and in contact with various elements that pose a threat to indentation and marking, such as timber floors. Hardness figures are used to inform design decisions by determining the possibility of various shoes

194 penetrating the timbers surface. Similarly, the hardness of a timber beam is essential to ensure where beams are under a load in structural applications, the beam will not become indented from the load of another cross beam. Sample dimensions were 50x50 mm cross section by 150 mm length. The longitudinal, radial and tangential surfaces were identified in order to measure the hardness of each surface at two points. Each sample was tested using a ball bearing fixture of 11.3 mm in diameter, which was loaded down on the sample surface at the speed rate of 6 mm/min until the ball bearing had penetrated to one half its diameter (Figure 6.3). A load vs. extension curve was generated automatically for each sample by the software.

Figure 6.3 Photograph of a Hardness test

6.3.1.3 Compression Two separate tests for compression were performed based on the ASTM D143-09. The tests were (1) compression parallel to grain and (2) compression perpendicular to grain. Two different test fixtures were mounted to the Instron Strength Test Machine to conduct these tests.

Compression parallel to the grain Compression tests parallel to the grain were conducted to determine the MCS. Compression parallel to the grain measures the ultimate strength of timber under a load applied to the longitudinal surface. According to Bootle (1983) this value “indicates relative suitability of species for short columns”

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(p. 33). The compressive nature of timber is necessary to determine the service life and durability of a structural member that is designed to support a compressive load. An example is a timber column used as a footing to raise a house off ground level. Safety precautions and material behaviour are necessary considerations that need justification to ensure residents are safe and the structure can withstand unforseen events. Sample dimensions were 25x25 mm cross section by 100 mm length. Samples were placed longitudinally between two platens – one equipped with a spherical bearing to maintain a uniform distribution of load across the axial direction (Figure 6.4). The load was applied on the top axial surface of the sample at the speed rate of 0.3 mm/min in order to compress the balsa. A compressive load vs. compressive strain curve was generated automatically for each sample by the software.

Figure 6.4 Compression test parallel to the grain

Compression perpendicular to the grain Compression tests perpendicular to the grain were conducted to determine the MCS (Figure 6.5). Compression perpendicular to the grain tests the ultimate stress a timber sample can withstand across- the-grain on the radial surface. The purpose of this test is not to fully compress the test specimen but to expose the sample to a constant force for a few minutes without damaging the timber. Similar to the

196 compression test parallel to the grain this test is relevant to determine the compressive force and potential damage of a timber member that crosses over another. This test is again important to determine the durability and safety parameters of timber members in structural applications. Sample dimensions were 50x50 mm cross section by 150 mm length. The samples were placed individually across a platen, subjecting the radial surface to the applied load through a 50x50 mm bearing plate. The load was applied in the centre of the specimen at the speed rate of 0.305 mm/min. The applied load ceased automatically when it reached 2.5 mm extension. A compressive load vs. compressive strain curve was generated automatically for each sample by the software.

Figure 6.5 Compression test perpendicular to the grain

6.3.1.4 Shear A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force. Shear tests were conducted to determine the Maximum Shear Stress. Shear parallel to the grain tests show how each wood sample behaved under shear force on the longitudinal surface. The purpose of this test is to determine the necessary force in order to cause the sample to fail by separation along the grain. Like compression tests, this data is needed to determine how a timber member will behave in a structural application. If two timber members are using a rebate joint it is

197 important that the force of the load applied to the rebate is determined to ensure the timber structure does not fail due to shear forces. Sample dimensions were 50x50x20 mm block to be subjected to shear forces and break away from the overall sample size of 50x50x63 mm. A load was applied on the shear end forcing one side of the wood to slide downward whilst the other part of the sample remained stationary. The load was acting in opposite directions exposing one part of sample to shear forces at a rate of 0.6 mm/min (Figure 6.6). A compressive load vs. compressive extension curve was generated automatically for each sample by the software.

Figure 6.6 Shear test results

6.3.2 Results There was difficulty sourcing balsa for each density class, hence the absence of information in some of the tables presented in this reserach. Individual results identifying the properties of balsa from existing literature and the tests performed in this research are compared against other commercial materials previously presented in Chapter Two – Understanding Balsa.

6.3.2.1 Static Bending Table 6-2 presents the sample weight, volume, MC and ADD for the Static Bending test samples. An average MC of 13.05 per cent and ADD of 136 kg/m³ was calculated. Table 6-3 and Table 6-4 present the data calculated for each density class for MOE and MOR.

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The results of this study indicate the average MOE and MOR values of PNG balsa were lower than the values of balsa sourced from Tropical America (Midgley et al., 2010; Bootle, 1973; Tsoumis, 1991; Kretschmann, 2010). It should be noted that the data presented in the literature does not state if the results were an average value of a data or if they were the maximum values achieved. Considering the maximum values achieved in this study, the results still remain lower than what was stated in the literature. The maximum MOE value measured in this study was 2720 MPa and the maximum MOR was 23.80 MPa. The results were similar to Eddowes (2005) balsa sourced from the Solomon Islands and higher than the results of PNG balsa published by Wiselius (1998). The range of values identified a large difference from the minimum to maximum values. It was clear that an increase in density increases the MOE and MOR of a sample as indicated in Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8. The relationship between the MOE and MOR of a sample was also evidently similar – a sample that produced a high value MOE also produced a high value MOR.

All samples tested followed a stress/strain curve when a load was applied to the sample. As expected, all samples showed a linear relationship up to the limit of proportionality. As the load increased beyond the limit of proportionality, the deflection increased above the elastic limit to the plastic zone (non- recoverable area) until a maximum load was reached and the sample failed. Figure 6.9 is a close up photograph of the most common type of failure – simple tension (according to ASTM D143-09). All but four samples failed as a simple tension failure. Of the remaining four samples three failed as a compression failure and one failed in a cross-grain tension.

Table 6-2 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Static Bending tests Test results ADW (g) ODW (g) MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 23.36 20.68 12.39 94.02 Maximum 43.93 38.88 13.81 178.58 Median 33.63 29.74 12.99 135.69 Mean 33.49 29.63 13.05 135.91 Standard Deviation 5.58 4.96 0.39 22.85 Range 20.57 18.20 1.42 84.56

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Modulus of Elasticity vs. ADD 3000

2500 Light Denstiy Class (80-120 2000 kg/m3)

1500 Medium Denstiy Class 1000 (120-180 MOE (MPa) kg/m3) 500

0 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 3 ADD (kg/m ) Figure 6.7 Balsa MOE results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

Table 6-3 Balsa results from the MOE tests according to density class Test results MOE (MPa) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 1061.24 1384.82 - Maximum 1675.55 2719.96 - Median 1090.88 2034.84 - Mean 1222.14 2037.07 - Standard Deviation 246.93 374.85 - Range 614.31 1335.14 -

Modulus of Rupture vs. ADD 25

20 Light Density Class (80-120 15 kg/m3)

10 Medium MOR (MPa) Density Class (120-180 5 kg/m3)

0 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 ADD (kg/m3)

Figure 6.8 Balsa MOE results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD 200

Table 6-4 Balsa results from the MOR tests according to density class Test results MOR (MPa) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 8.40 12.10 - Maximum 13.20 23.80 - Median 9.20 16.50 - Mean 9.83 16.63 - Standard Deviation 1.72 2.74 - Range 4.80 11.70 -

Figure 6.9 Static Bending test simple tension failure

6.3.2.2 Hardness (Janka) Table 6-5 presents the sample weight, volume, MC and ADD for the Hardness test samples. An average MC of 14.75 per cent and ADD of 139 kg/m³ was calculated. Table 6-6, Table 6-7 and Table 6-8 present the data calculated for each density class for the Hardness tests on each surface (tangential, radial and axial).

As previously explained the Hardness test was conducted twice on each surface of a sample. Unlike the existing literature presenting PNG balsa (Eddowes, 1977; Wiselius, 1998) this study identified the hardness of each surface. While some of the literature does state the side and end hardness of balsa, they all fail to separate the tangential and radial surface, giving one general value for the two surfaces. This study identified that balsa has superior hardness in the axial direction (424 N) and the average tangential value (307 N) was slightly higher than the radial surface (301 N). Figure 6.10, Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12 highlight the effect density has on the hardness of balsa. All graphs show that an increase in density increases the hardness of a specimen. Figure 6.11 however displays an unusual behaviour 201 compared to the Figure 6.10 and Figure 6.12. The transition from the light density class samples to the medium density class samples appear to vary less by an increase in density until the samples reach the heavy density class, where the hardness values double. Each sample was graphed on a stress/strain curve when the Hardness (Janka) test was conducted. Figure 6.13 is a close up photograph of a completed test sample – note the two test areas on each surface (according to ASTM D143-09).

Table 6-5 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Hardness test Test results ADW (g) ODW (g) MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 42.91 37.32 14.18 111.44 Maximum 75.61 66.00 15.93 193.80 Median 51.54 44.94 14.60 133.42 Mean 54.00 47.08 14.75 139.10 Standard Deviation 8.66 7.65 0.52 21.51 Range 32.70 28.68 1.75 82.36

Hardness (Tangential surface) vs. ADD 700 Light Density Class 600 (80-120 kg/m3) test 1 Light Density Class 500 (80-120 kg/m3) test 2 Medium Density Class 400 (120-180 kg/m3) test 1 300 Medium Density Class (120-180 kg/m3) test 2 200 Heavy Density Class (180-220 kg/m3) test 1 100 Heavy Density Class Maximum Compressive Compressive Extention Maximum (N) (180-220 kg/m3) test 2 0 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 ADD (kg/m3)

Figure 6.10 Balsa Hardness (Tangential surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

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Table 6-6 Balsa results from the Hardness (Tangential surface) tests according to density class Test results Tangential surface (N) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 170.50 196.15 469.55 Maximum 229.80 511.93 658.51 Median 192.63 287.60 607.37 Mean 196.59 307.35 585.70 Standard Deviation 17.95 92.06 84.91 Range 59.30 315.78 188.96

Hardness (Radial surface) vs. ADD 700

600 Light Density Class (80-120 kg/m3) test 1 500 Light Density Class (80-120 kg/m3) test 2 400 Medium Density Class (120-180 kg/m3) test 1 300 Medium Density Class (120-180 kg/m3) test 2 200 Heavy Density Class (180-220 kg/m3) test 1 100 Heavy Density Class Maximum Compressive Maximum Compressive Extention (N) 0 (180-220 kg/m3) test 2 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 ADD (kg/m3)

Figure 6.11 Balsa Hardness (Radial surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

Table 6-7 Balsa results from the Hardness (Radial surface) tests according to density class Test results Radial surface (N) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 177.02 191.38 509.73 Maximum 290.82 487.15 600.10 Median 232.86 280.99 577.12 Mean 233.17 290.60 566.02 Standard Deviation 37.15 69.96 42.08 Range 113.80 295.77 90.37

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Hardness (Axial surface) vs. ADD 800

700 Light Density Class 600 (80-120 kg/m3) test 1 Light Density Class 500 (80-120 kg/m3) test 2 Medium Density Class 400 (120-180 kg/m3) test 1 300 Medium Density Class (120-180 kg/m3) test 2 200 Heavy Density Class 100 (180-220 kg/m3) test 1 Heavy Density Class Maximum Compressive Maximum Compressive Extention (N) 0 (180-220 kg/m3) test 2 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 ADD (kg/m3)

Figure 6.12 Balsa Hardness (Axial surface) Load at Maximum Compressive Extension results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

Table 6-8 Balsa results from the Hardness (Axial surface) tests according to density class Test results Axial surface (N) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 267.68 280.80 565.20 Maximum 396.05 633.43 742.67 Median 319.03 417.61 719.58 Mean 313.44 426.17 686.76 Standard Deviation 38.79 88.83 83.89 Range 128.37 352.63 177.47

Figure 6.13 Hardness test result 204

6.3.2.3 Compression (parallel to the grain) Table 6-9 highlights the sample weight, volume, MC and ADD for Compression (parallel to the grain). An average MC of 13.23 per cent and ADD of 182 kg/m³ was calculated. Table 6-10 presents the data calculated for each density class

While some of the literature does not state the direction of testing the MCS, this study assumes that the compressive value provided in the literature was the value of the MCS parallel to the grain. This study produced similar results to the literature at an average value of 11.8 MPa (Eddowes 2005; Midgley et al., 2010; Bootle, 1983; Tsoumis, 1991; Kretschmann, 2010). This average value was slightly lower than in most of the literature, however the maximum value measured in this study was 15.8 MPa which was higher than any in the existing literature. Figure 6.14 indicates a increase in density increases the Maximum Compressive Stress [MCS]. Unfortunately, samples from the light density class were not tested to indicate a more accurate relationship. A sample greater than 220 kg/m3 was however measured in this study. There was no clear distinction from the heavy density class samples to the individual sample above 220 kg/m3 however it was surprising to have sourced a sample of such a high balsa density. Figure 6.15 shows a common crushing failure (according to ASTM D143-09).

Table 6-9 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Compression (parallel to the grain) test Test results ADW (g) ODW (g) MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 8.72 7.73 12.74 145.33 Maximum 13.74 12.09 13.86 226.73 Median 9.58 8.48 13.28 159.67 Mean 10.96 9.67 13.23 181.65 Standard Deviation 2.04 1.78 0.33 33.00 Range 5.02 4.36 1.12 81.40

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Maximum Compressive Stress (parallel to the grain) vs ADD 18

14 Medium Density 12 Class (120-180 10 kg/m3) 8 Heavy Density

MCS (MPa) Class (180-220 6 kg/m3) 4 Other (>220 kg/m3) 2

0 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 3 ADD (kg/m ) Figure 6.14 Balsa MCS (parallel to the grain) results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

Table 6-10 Balsa results from the Compression (parallel to the grain) tests according to density class Test results MCS Parallel to the grain (MPa) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Other >220 kg/m3 Minimum - 8.36 14.56 15.50 Maximum - 10.41 15.83 15.50 Median - 9.25 14.76 15.50 Mean - 9.24 14.88 15.50 Standard Deviation - 0.61 0.42 0 Range - 2.05 1.27 0

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Figure 6.15 Compression Parallel to Grain test crushing failure

6.3.2.4 Compression (perpendicular to the grain) Table 6-11 highlights the sample weight, volume, MC and ADD for Compression (perpendicular to the grain). An average MC of 11.25 per cent and ADD of 117 kg/m³ was calculated. Table 6-12 presents the data calculated for each density class.

The literature presented states the MCS perpendicular to the grain was 1 MPa (Tsoumis 1991). The average value calculated in this study was 0.86 MPa, which again was slightly below the existing literature. The minimum value measured in this study was much lower than was stated in the literature (0.39 MPa). The maximum value however was higher than stated in the literature at 1.77 MPa. Figure 6.16 shows a linear relationship with an increase in sample density. Samples from the heavy density class were not measured, however three samples below 80 kg/m3 were sourced. These samples did not differ significantly to samples that were just over 80 kg/m3 in the light density class. Figure 6.17 shows a compressed sample after testing.

Table 6-11 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Compression (perpendicular to the grain) test Test results ADW (g) ODW (g) MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 27.28 24.58 10.80 73.48 Maximum 62.58 56.42 11.91 166.88 Median 44.99 40.41 11.27 119.97 Mean 44.14 39.69 11.25 116.98 Standard Deviation 11.39 10.29 0.26 29.64 Range 35.30 31.84 1.11 93.40

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Maximum Compressive Stress (perpendicular to the grain) vs. ADD

2 1.8 Other (<80 1.6 kg/m3) 1.4 1.2 Light Density 1 Class (80-120 0.8 kg/m3) MCS (MPa) 0.6 Medium 0.4 Density Class (120-180 0.2 kg/m3) 0 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00 200.00 220.00 ADD (kg/m3)

Figure 6.16 Balsa MCS (perpendicular to the grain) results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD

Table 6-12 Balsa results from the Compression (perpendicular to the grain) tests according to density class Test results MCS Perpendicular to the grain (MPa) Density Class Other <80 kg/m3 Light Medium Heavy Minimum 0.39 0.40 0.64 - Maximum 0.45 0.93 1.77 - Median 0.40 0.71 1.17 - Mean 0.41 0.64 1.14 - Standard Deviation 0.03 0.19 0.39 - Range 0.06 0.53 1.13 -

Figure 6.17 Compression Perpendicular to Grain test result 208

6.3.2.5 Shear Table 6-13 highlights the sample weight, volume, MC and ADD for the Shear test samples. An average MC of 9.88 per cent and ADD of 141 kg/m³ was calculated. Table 6-14 presents the data calculated for each density class.

The Literature has limited information about the shear properties of balsa, however the values provided in the literature ranged from 1.1-2.1 MPa (Tsoumis, 1991; Kretschmann, 2010). This study identifies that PNG balsa has a slightly higher average shear performance than balsa referenced in the literature. The minimum and maximum shear values calculated in this study were higher than what was stated in the literature. Figure 6.18 highlights the shear performance of the samples tested in this study. Noted in Figure 6.18 an increase in density appears to have little effect on the overall shear properties of PNG balsa. Most of the data ranges between 1.5-2 MPa. Figure 6.19 shows a typical test result (according to ASTM D143-09).

Table 6-13 Physical properties of balsa samples used in the Shear test Test results ADW (g) ODW (g) MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 5.59 5.12 8.66 111.80 Maximum 8.08 7.33 10.48 161.60 Median 7.34 6.68 10.20 146.80 Mean 7.05 6.42 9.88 141.04 Standard Deviation 0.79 0.70 0.61 15.74 Range 2.49 2.21 1.82 49.80

Maximum Shear Stress vs. ADD 2.5

2 Light Density (MPa) Class (80-120 1.5 kg/m3) Medium Density 1 Class (120-180 kg/m3)

0.5 Maximum Maximum Shear Stress

0 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 3 ADD (kg/m ) Figure 6.18 Balsa Maximum Shear Stress results segregated into international density classes, graphed against ADD 209

Table 6-14 Balsa results from the Shear tests according to density class Test results Maximum Shear Stress (MPa) Density Class Light Medium Heavy Minimum 1.47 1.38 - Maximum 1.64 2.37 - Median 1.57 1.90 - Mean 1.56 1.90 - Standard Deviation 0.09 0.25 - Range 0.17 0.99 -

Figure 6.19 Shear test result

6.3.3 Discussion Table 6-15 presents data of all the mechanical property samples used in all tests to indicate the average MC and ADD. An average MC of 12.43 per cent and ADD of 143 kg/m³ was calculated. In accordance to ASTM D143-09, sample MC averaged slightly higher than 12 per cent and sample ADD averaged 143 kg/m3, which aligns with the most commercially desirable balsa range, between 110-175 kg/m3, as highlighted by Bootle (1983) and Eddowes (2005). Furthermore, the MC did vary slightly, despite remaining in a moisture control room for months prior to testing, but the variation was within standards. The ADD did range significantly across all test samples, which proved difficult to source similar timber densities, however this did produce a variety of useful data to determine the properties of balsa across the international balsa density classes.

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Table 6-15 Calculated MC and Air Dry Densities from balsa samples used in all mechanical tests Test results MC (%) ADD (kg/m3) Minimum 8.66 73.48 Maximum 15.93 226.73 Median 12.99 135.69 Mean 12.43 142.94 Standard Deviation 0.14 6.84 Range 7.27 153.25

Table 6-16 summarises the average mechanical properties for each density class tested. There is an absence of data in Table 6-16 noted by “*” due to difficulties of sourcing a variety of density classes. Data for the mechanical properties of balsa densities below 80 kg/m3 or above 220 kg/m3 does not seem to be of interest as these densities are outside the international density classes that are used to categorise balsa. Further research is needed to complete the mechanical property study for PNG balsa; mainly for balsa from the heavy density class, as it could help in finding other applications for higher density balsa, which derives from older trees.

Table 6-16 Average balsa mechanical properties identified for each density class from each mechanical test Density Class Light 80≤120 kg/m3 Medium 120≤180 kg/m3 Heavy 180≤220 kg/m3

MOE (MPa) 1222.14 (246.93) [6] 2037.07 (374.85) [20] *

MOR (MPa) 9.83 (1.72) [6] 16.63 (2.74) [20] *

Hardness tangential 196.59 (17.95) [5] 307.35 (92.06) [18] 585.70 (84.91) [2] surface (N)

Hardness radial surface 233.17 (37.15) [5] 290.60 (69.96) [18] 566.02 (42.08) [2] (N)

Hardness axial surface (N) 313.44 (38.79) [5] 426.17 (88.83) [18] 686.76 (83.89) [2]

Compression parallel to * the grain (MPa) 9.24 (0.61) [11] 14.88 (0.42) [8]

Compression 0.64 (0.19) [9] 1.14 (0.39) [12] * perpendicular to the grain (MPa)

Shear (MPa) 1.56 (0.09) [4] 1.90 (0.25) [29] *

Note: Areas marked by “*” indicate that specimens with the corresponding density were not sourced for testing, standard deviation in parenthesis, number of specimens tested in square brackets.

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A great deal of consideration can be given to the obvious lightweight nature of balsa in commercial markets that are constraint by the weight and strength of chosen materials. The mechanical test results determined that PNG balsa was not suitable for structural applications as noted in existing literature. New applications worthy of design exploration would be non-structural, lightweight and sustainable balsa products.

6.3.4 Conclusion The results identified specific mechanical properties for each international balsa class density. This level of detail and consideration had never been presented for PNG balsa. Some test results appeared less variable, with an increase in density (in the low to medium density classes), however all tests indicated an increase in strength as density increased. The following average values for balsa with a density between 120-180 kg/m3 were calculated using the ASTM standard ASTM D143–09; MOE 2037 MPa, MOR 16.6 MPa, Hardness tangential surface 307 N, Hardness radial surface 291 N, Hardness axial surface 426 N, Compression parallel 9.2 MPa, Compression perpendicular 1.1 MPa and Shear 1.9 MPa.

PNG balsa has slightly lower mechanical properties than balsa sourced from South America as is shown in most property tests. Comparing the results of this research with the data available in the literature it can be concluded that the mechanical properties of PNG balsa are slightly lower than balsa grown in South America. It should be noted that most of the data presented in the literature used to compare balsa on a global scale is dated. The calculated average results were however, superior to the results that Wiselius (1998) presented on PNG balsa.

Further studies are needed to identify average values for samples from the light and heavy density classes to complete Table 6-16. This data would summarise the mechanical properties of PNG balsa and identify the difference in mechanical strength properties between each balsa density class and internationally sourced balsa. The tests performed demonstrated the vulnerable nature of balsa and indicated that balsa is not suitable for structural building elements as a raw material. This substantiated the proposal to use superior skins to sandwich balsa for use as a sandwich composite panel.

6.4 Thermal Conductivity [TC] of PNG balsa

The TC of PNG balsa was tested under supervision at The University of Melbourne, School of Earth Science, Melbourne, Australia.

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TC is the measure of “the rate of heat flow through a material when subjected to a temperature gradient” (Bootle, 1983, p. 57). Much like the mechanical properties of a material, the importance of a materials TC is dependant on its context. A material that resists the flow of heat in the context of an interior dwelling may be considered a good thermal insulator because it traps a desired temperature within the space and resists change from undesirable temperatures penetrating a building’s facade. The thermal performance of a material is important in justifying the appropriateness of a material in a specific application. This study was important in determining the thermal performance of balsa to justify its use within the construction industry where the importance of energy efficiency and quality of comfort for residents was considered.

By determining the TC of balsa, context specific applications were targeted and justified against existing materials and their applications. It was necessary to contrast the advantages and disadvantages of using balsa in the construction industry against competitive thermal insulators to promote balsa as a superior alternative to existing contemporary building materials. Where balsa holds superior thermal performance there was potential to use balsa to reduce consumer demand on energy requirements to maintain a desirable temperature in residential dwellings. This in effect would improve the carbon footprint the occupants had within the space by consuming less energy.

This research explored the potential TC value balsa has as an insulator to justify future design developments. Determining the TC of balsa was essential to identify opportunities for product development to promote PNG balsa for new commercial applications. Gusamo, Semeli and Ozarska (2013) highlighted that there was an opportunity for balsa to compete with lightweight composite building materials such as plywood, masonite, particleboard and medium density fibreboards in applications such as internal wall and ceiling construction, at reduced costs. Since end-grain panels were the largest type of balsa export it was important that this material configuration, including standard balsa lumber, was tested to identify TC values.

There is an abundant amount of experimental literature that measures the TC of commercial building materials at a range of local temperatures, material density and MC. According to Abdou and Budaiwi (2005) and Bootle (1983) the TC of a material is affected by: density, porosity, MC, mean temperature difference, grain direction and extractives content. Bootle (1983) stated that an increase in density, extractives content and MC increase the TC value. Moreover, the rate of heat flow in the axial direction is two and a half times greater than the rate through the radial and tangential directions. Bergman et.al (2010) claimed the TC of timber is also affected by structural irregularities (checks and knots) and fibril angles.

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Considering the range of densities balsa is categorised in and the natural porosity of the material these factors needed consideration to support its use in commercial applications. When balsa is exposed in its service life to varying atmospheric conditions such as temperature and humidity the MC will change and affect its thermal performance. The orientation of the wood grain also needed special consideration to ensure the most appropriate TC value meets design requirements, because wood is anisotropic by nature – the direction of the grain differs in the axial (longitudinal), tangential and radial direction. A study by Abdou and Budaiwi (2005) stated that the greater an environment’s temperature — that an insulating material is exposed to — the higher the TC value. Therefore, materials with a low density are affected more by varying temperatures due to the amount of air by volume trapped in the porous material allowing easier heat transfer. When considering the standard test parameters to determine the TC of a material it must be noted that because TC values are generated in laboratories using small standard dimension samples in standard laboratory conditions, the tested materials may behave differently in service due to varying atmospheric conditions.

6.4.1 Material and methods ASTM D5334 – 08 standard was used to conduct TC tests on balsa. The standard’s title “determination of TC of soil and soft rock by thermal needle probe procedure” suggested that this standard was suitable for isotropic materials – materials with a uniform grain orientation. Wood specimens were prepared according to ASTM D143 – 09. The intent of this standard test method was to generate a body of data that could be compared to existing materials used by the construction industry. This would identify possible applications that balsa could target to compete with existing insulation materials as a superior alternative in the construction industry.

As previously highlighted balsa in anisotropic. This means the direction of the grain differs on each surface of a specimen. Therefore, the thermal performance would also differ depending on the orientation of the balsa. By using the needle probe procedure to determine the TC of balsa a range of values could be identified for each grain direction. It was necessary to perform a range of tests on two occasions to determine the average TC value of each grain direction (axial, tangential and radial). This identified the optimal design orientation of balsa in order to get the best performance out of the material for insulation applications.

All balsa samples used for testing originated from PNG plantations and were donated by The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. Three types of samples were selected for testing. The first was a typical end- grain block; the second was high density lumber; and the third was low density lumber (Figure 6.20). Solid lumber was chosen to identify a TC value of a balsa sample with a high and low density. Tests were conducted on an end-grain block to determine the TC of the most common form of balsa sold to international markets. It was expected that the end-grain block would generate a range of TC values due 214 to the presence of glue and varying wood densities used to make the end-grain block. It was necessary to conduct tests on end-grain block because, as highlighted, it is the largest form of balsa distributed to international consumers.

Figure 6.20 Typical balsa lumber (left) and end-grain block (right)

Samples were cut from sapwood to the dimensions of 85x85x85 mm blocks and conditioned at 20±3 OC and 65±3 per cent relative humidity until the weight of each sample equilibrated according to ASTM D143 - 09. The equilibrium MC of the samples was 12 per cent. A total of three samples were tested; one end-grain block of 174 kg/m3 density; one higher density sample of 137 kg/m3 density; and one lower density sample of 113 kg/m3. In respect to the balsa density categories used by international processors the samples used were categorised as medium (upper value), medium (lower value) and light (upper value). The samples are shown on Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21 One end-grain block of 174 kg/m3 density (left), one high density sample of 137 kg/m3 density (middle) and one low density sample of 113 kg/m3 (right) 215

The equipment used to perform the ASTM D5334 – 08 test procedure was a TK04 TC meter using the standard VLQ full-space probe (needle probe). Figure 6.22 shows the equipment used. In order to perform the test, holes were drilled into the sample to allow the needle probe to be inserted into the balsa. Data is generated once the needle probe is inserted into the sample and a gradient temperature is applied. If the data recorded demonstrated an increase in temperature to the needle probe then the balsa sample is considered to have low thermal performance because the heat applied by the needle probe is trapped locally within the drilled hole. If there was no increase in temperature to the needle probe the sample would be considered to have high thermal performance, meaning the heat supplied to the sample through the needle probe could dissipate through the sample rather than be trapped locally around the needled probe.

Figure 6.22 TK04 TC meter and standard VLQ full-space probe (needle probe)

The purpose of performing the needle probe procedure on balsa samples was to generate quick results to determine if balsa would be suitable as an insulator. By generating a database of balsa TC values for each grain direction, future TC tests on balsa could be justified and compared. Prior to any tests on balsa, tests were conducted on reference materials to ensure the TK04 TC meter was accurate. Reference materials included air, ceramic, glycerine and polytetrafluoroethylene.

Each balsa sample was drilled on one axial, tangential and radial surface to allow the needle probe to be inserted into the sample block. This allowed the needle probe to calculate the average TC of each grain direction. As previously highlighted this test procedure is appropriate for isotropic materials, therefore it must be noted that by inserting the needle probe into the axial surface, the probe would calculate an average TC from the radial and tangential directions. Measurements taken from the radial

216 surface would calculate the average TC of the axial and tangential directions and a measurement from the tangential surface would calculate an average of the axial and radial directions. A total of two tests on separate occasions were conducted for this study. Both tests measured one surface from the axial, radial and tangential direction. During the second test a different hole spaced 10-15 mm away from the first test hole was measured (Figure 6.23). Each hole was tested three times to generate a range of data to see how consistent the calculated values were. The first set of tests measured the temperature rise of the needle probe over 80 seconds. The second tests were performed at the same location using the same equipment over 120 seconds. Over the duration of the tests the rise in temperature was graphed against time to determine the greatest change in the temperature gradient. The greatest change in the temperature gradient was then used to calculate the TC of the sample.

Figure 6.23 Second test measuring the TC

Given the high porosity characteristic of balsa a thermal joint compound paste was applied to the needle probe to reduce the amount of air cavities in the sample. Excessive amounts of air trapped within the sample would alter the test measurements and produce bias results. A contact agent with a lower viscosity such as glycerine (liquid) would be absorbed by the balsa sample and would affect the results due to local saturation in the holes where the needle probe was inserted.

The formula used to calculate the TC of each sample material is as follows (TK04 TC Meter 2011) (Baghe-Khandan, Choi, Okos, 1981):

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1 푄 훬 = ( ) × ( ) 퐷푇 4휋 퐷퐿𝑛(𝑡)

Where: Λ = TC (W/mK) D = Change in unit T = Temperature (OC) Ln = Natural log t = Time (s) Q = Heating power (W)

6.4.2 Results The following names and terms were used to describe which surface of the sample was tested: End-grain axial (E-G Long), End-grain radial/tangential side A (E-G RTA), End-grain radial/tangential side B (E-G RTB), Low density axial (L Long), Low density radial (L Rad), Low density tangential (L Tan), High density axial (H Long), High density radial (H Rad), High density tangential (H Tan).

Table 6-17 Test 1, balsa TC results Balsa Test 1 End- E-G E-G L L Tan L Rad H H Tan H Rad Long RTA RTB Long Long Trial 1 (W/mK) 0.0420 0.0627 0.0721 0.0339 0.0451 0.0407 0.0386 0.0552 0.0443 Trial 2 (W/mK) 0.0423 0.0627 0.0753 0.0344 0.0444 0.0407 0.0385 0.0552 0.0439 Trial 3 (W/mK) 0.0417 0.0634 0.0763 0.0342 0.0442 0.0404 0.0387 0.0537 0.0432 Average TC (W/mK) 0.0420 0.0629 0.0746 0.0342 0.0445 0.0406 0.0386 0.0547 0.0438

As shown in Table 6-17, balsa can achieve a TC value as low as 0.0339 W/mK. Each sample was tested three times to calculate the average value. The largest gradient is isolated between 60-80 seconds where the greatest change in temperature is 0.204 OC. Table 6-18 is the data used to calculate the TC of the highlighted value in Table 6-17.

Table 6-18 Data used to calculate the TC for Test 1, sample L long, trial 1 Beginning t (s) End t (s) DLn(t) DT (OC) ((1/DT)/DLn(t)) Q (W) TC (W/mK) 60 80 0.288 0.204 1.4121 0.3016 0.0339

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Table 6-19 Test 2, balsa TC results Balsa Test 2 E-G E-G E-G L L Tan L Rad H Long H Tan H Rad Long RTA RTB Long Trial 1 (W/mK) 0.0378 0.0638 0.0658 0.0384 0.0464 0.0438 0.0373 0.0570 0.0457 Trial 2 (W/mK) 0.0377 0.0651 0.0627 0.0387 0.0458 0.0434 0.0386 0.0569 0.0464 Trial 3 (W/mK) 0.0380 0.0647 0.0660 0.0383 0.0461 0.0438 0.0386 0.0571 0.0462 Average TC 0.0378 0.0645 0.0648 0.0385 0.0461 0.0437 0.0382 0.0570 0.0461 (W/mK)

Table 6-19 highlights that the balsa sample with the highest density can achieve a low TC value of 0.0373 W/mK. This change in thermal behaviour identified that the lower density of a material does not always result in the lowest TC value. The largest gradient is isolated at 75-85 seconds where the greatest change in temperature is 0.081 OC. Table 6-20 is the data used to calculate the TC of the highlighted value in Table 6-19.

Table 6-20 Data used to calculate the TC for Test 2, sample H long, trial 1 Beginning t (s) End t (s) DLn(t) DT (OC) ((1/DT)/DLn(t)) Q (W) TC (W/mK) 75 85 0.125 0.081 1.5535 0.3018 0.0373

Table 6-21 Comparison of Test 1 and 2 results Test results E-G E-G E-G L L Tan L Rad H H Tan H Rad Long TRA TRB Long Long Test 1 0.0420 0.0629 0.0746 0.0342 0.0445 0.0406 0.0386 0.0547 0.0438 average (W/mK) Test 2 0.0378 0.0645 0.0648 0.0385 0.0461 0.0437 0.0382 0.0570 0.0461 average (W/mK) Difference 0.0042 -0.0016 0.0098 - - - 0.0004 -0.0023 - (W/mK) 0.0043 0.0016 0.0031 0.0023 Difference 11.06 -2.48 15.06 -12.62 -3.49 -7.58 1.07 -4.20 -5.22 (%) Final average 0.0399 0.0637 0.0697 0.0363 0.0453 0.0422 0.0384 0.0559 0.0449 (W/mK)

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TC against Density Low density Lon test 1 0.0800 Low density Lon test 2 0.0750 Low density Tan test 1 Low density Tan test 2 0.0700 Low density Rad test 1 0.0650 Low density Rad test 2 High density Lon test 1 0.0600 High density Lon test 2

0.0550 High density Tan test 1 High density Tan test 2 TC (W/mK) 0.0500 High density Rad test 1

0.0450 High density Rad test 2 End-grain Lon test 1 0.0400 End-grain Lon test 2

0.0350 End-grain Rad/Tan a test 1 End-grain Rad/Tan a test 2 0.0300 End-grain Rad/Tan b test 1 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 End-grain Rad/Tan b test 2 Sample density (kg/m3)

Figure 6.24 Average calculated TC, graphed against density

6.4.3 Discussion Uysal, Demirboğa, Şahin, and Gül (2004) highlighted an increase in density results in an increase in TC as presented in Figure 6.24. Most values are consistent across both tests, however it is evident that the values measured in the end-grain samples are clearly different across the sample. This can be explained on the basis that the end-grain sample was a composite material (made from various balsa lumber and glue). Although lumber of similar densities were specifically sourced to produce these composite blocks — which were finally cut into end-grain panels — there was still a large range of densities of glued lumber in the final product. For example, two lumbers glued together may have

3 3 densities of 121 kg/m and 179 kg/m and be categorised in the same medium density class. The tested sample used in this study consisted of five different balsa densities as highlighted in Figure 6.25.

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Figure 6.25 End-grain sample consisting of five different densities

For this reason the TC values measured across the end-grain samples varied. The direction of the lumber glued together in end-grain configurations also varied because when gluing lumber together it is not necessary for processors to align radial and tangential grain orientations, hence why the specimens are labelled “End-grain Tangential/Radial”.

Table 6-22 Average calculated TC of each grain direction from Test 1 and 2 Surface measured Average calculated TC (W/mK) Grain direction calculated Axial 0.0382 Tangential and Radial End-grain Tangential/Radial 0.0667 Axial and Tangential/Radial Tangential 0.0506 Axial and Radial Radial 0.0435 Axial and Tangential

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Table 6-22 highlights that the average TC results are consistent with the literature. The TC of a wood sample in any “Axial” direction produces higher TC values (0.0435-0.0667 W/mK) compared to the “Tangential and Radial” direction (0.0382 W/mK). The average “Axial and Tangential” TC value (0.0435 W/mK) is also less than the average “Axial and Radial” direction (0.0506 W/mK). The unique combination of Tangential and Radial directions that existed in the end-grain composite sample, produced a superior insulating material that had the lowest average TC value of 0.0382 W/mK. By comparison, the “Axial and Tangential/Radial” direction had the highest average TC value of 0.0667 W/mK.

The values generated from each sample did reveal some form of a pattern. In most cases, measurements taken from the axial surface — measuring the tangential and radial directions — proved to calculate the lowest TC value. This behaviour was related to the microstructure of balsa. Because balsa is cellular by nature, it is stronger in the axial direction (parallel to the grain). Large vessels run parallel to the axial direction giving the lumber its strength and resistance to compress under force. However, when the balsa end-grain sample was measured from the tangential and radial direction the values were noticeably higher because the heat generated by the needle probe could dissipate through the vessels rather than contain the rise in temperature at the heat source. TC values are lower in the tangential and radial direction because the heat cannot pass through the vessel’s walls as easily as the heat can travel parallel to them.

Figure 6.26 Close up photograph of balsa vessels in the axial direction

The results generated differ from the existing knowledge which states that balsa has a TC value of 0.048 W/mK and a TC value of 0.055 W/mK across the grain (www.engineeringtoolbox.com). This study revealed that balsa TC values can be as low as 0.0339 W/mK. Studies conducted on green composite materials such as PLA-Bamboo (density: 1344 kg/m3, TC value: 0.340 W/mK) by Takagi, Kako, Kusano and Ousaka (2007), durian peel (density: 428 kg/m3, TC value: 0.064 W/mK) and coconut coir (density: 338 kg/m3, TC value: 0.054 W/mK) by Khedari, Charoenvai and Hirunlabh (2003), indicate that balsa as a raw material is far superior to these composite materials. This can be explained by the clear difference in 222 density. The balsa sample with the largest density 174 kg/m3 (end-grain block) produced the highest recorded TC value of 0.0763 W/mK (Table 6-17) which competes directly with manufactured composites with densities more than double balsa’s density. Figure 6.27 is a comparison of PNG balsa TC and other materials (Aluminium 205 W/mK excluded due to the scale of the graph).

TC Material Comparison Glass 1.05 Concrete (dense) 1 Brick (common) 0.6 PLA-Bamboo 0.34 Plaster (light) 0.2 Hardboard (high density) 0.15 Plywood 0.13 Cork 0.07 PNG balsa end-grain tangential/radial 0.0667 Durian peel 0.064 Balsa across the grain 0.055 Coconut coir 0.054 PNG balsa tangential 0.0506 Balsa 0.048 PNG balsa radial 0.0435 Fibre glass 0.04 PNG balsa axial 0.0382 PS (expanded styrofoam) 0.03 Air (atmospheric) 0.024 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 TC (W/mK) Figure 6.27 Comparison of PNG balsa TC and other materials (www.engineeringtoolbox.com)

Fibre glass and polystyrene have the lowest TC values, however these are artificial materials and derive from non-renewable resources. It is evident that balsa orientated to expose its tangential and radial surface (PNG balsa axial) exhibits superior TC performance above all other materials but polystyrene. Balsa however remains competitive to polystyrene due to its sustainable and lightweight nature. If an opportunity arises for balsa to become a competitive commercial insulation material, polystyrene would be balsa’s main competitor. Balsa is competitive to existing materials for a number of reasons; aesthetics, sustainable and renewable resource, naturally low TC value, low embodied energy, and its green credentials. Where weight is a major issue in industries such as the construction and building industry an opportunity exists to utilise lightweight materials such as balsa. There is an opportunity for balsa to reduce weight, increase insulation values and compete with contemporary non-renewable building materials.

6.4.4 Conclusion This study determined thermal properties of balsa grown in plantations in PNG. Factors which affected the TC values were the direction of the grain and the density of the sample. The TC range of balsa was 0.0382-0.0667 W/mK. This was determined by average values across all samples from different densities. These results identified balsa as a direct competitor to polystyrene as an insulation material.

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There was an opportunity for balsa to enter the construction industry as an insulation material. Polystyrene and fibre glass are used heavily in the construction industry as insulation. Given the sustainable attributes of balsa, the benefits of choosing this material offered multiple advantages from aesthetics, low embodied energy, and green credentials. Determining the TC of balsa had presented an opportunity to explore a range of contemporary applications where polystyrene and fibre glass are used. The use of balsa could therefore be justified by its sustainable attributes, mechanical properties and its TC in applications that competed directly with polystyrene and fibre glass.

Although balsa was exported mostly as end-grain panels to international markets to optimise its strength properties, this current end use configuration did not optimise the greatest thermal performance of balsa for insulation markets. Despite end-grain panels exhibiting TC values from 0.0435-0.0667 W/mK, there was the opportunity for PNG balsa processors to consider producing perpendicular-grain panels for insulation markets. This new configuration would have the potential to reach TC values of 0.0382 W/mK, however the dimensional stability and panel warpage, due to the direction of the wood grain, could compromise the product quality of PNG balsa if balsa was required to adhere to tight building tolerances.

It would be beneficial to conduct further tests on balsa at different thicknesses at a range of temperatures to simulate various conditions that balsa insulation would be exposed to in its service life. This would produce a database of highly accurate TC values for specific contexts when designing new products and applications for PNG balsa.

6.5 Sound Absorption Coefficient [SAC] of PNG balsa

The SAC of PNG balsa was tested under supervision at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology [RMIT] University, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Applied Acoustics Laboratory, Melbourne, Australia.

Current literature claimed balsa had good acoustics properties. The literature failed to describe the type of acoustic properties, the test details and the origins of the tested balsa. The acoustic performance of materials and products is context specific. The mechanical and thermal tests of PNG balsa to date had determined balsa was a suitable resource for use in interior environments in non-structural applications. Products which absorb sound were commonly used in interior environments to reduce noise reverberation – which is common in dense residential living apartments constructed out of prefab concrete envelopes. Sound absorption tests were conducted on PNG balsa to determine the SAC of processed balsa. These tests were also conducted to determine the effect thickness and grain direction had on the acoustic performance of PNG balsa.

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6.5.1 Materials and methods ISO 10534-2:1998 Acoustics — Determination of SAC and impedance in impedance tubes — Part 2: Transfer-function method was used to test PNG balsa. The SAC test was conducted on six balsa specimens at three thicknesses (25 mm, 50 mm, and 100 mm) and two grain orientations (end-grain and perpendicular-grain). End-grain specimens were prepared so the wood grain was parallel to the incident soundfield and perpendicular-grain specimens were perpendicular to the incident soundfield. Each test consisted of two cylindrical balsa specimens with a diameter of 100 mm (for low frequency testing nominally 100-1250 Hz) and 29 mm (for high frequency testing nominally 800-5000 Hz). The specimens are presented in Figure 6.28.

Figure 6.28 Balsa specimens used for sound absorption tests

Specimens were tested in impedance tubes with no air-gap. The measurements performed were of the statistical absorption coefficients at 1/3rd octave centre frequencies from 100-5000 Hz. The Impedance Tubes used in the tests were Bruel and Kjaer Type 4206 and were 100 mm and 29 mm in diameter, so that all of the desired frequencies could be measured. The 100 mm diameter tube was used to measure sound absorption from 100-1250 Hz inclusive. The 29 mm diameter was used to measure sound absorption from 800-5000 Hz inclusive. The measurements in the tubes overlap at the 800, 1000, and 1250 Hz 1/3rd octave centre frequencies. The power amplifier used was a Bruel and Kjaer Type 2706. The signal generator and analysis of the microphone signals was performed using a Bruel and Kjaer Pulse System Type 3560. The microphones and microphone pre-amps were G.R.A.S. Type 40BF and Type 26AC respectively. Measurements were calibrated and all of the required checks were performed as stated in ISO 10534-2:1998. Figure 6.29 presents the equipment used for high frequency tests.

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Figure 6.29 Impedance tube apparatus

Statistical absorption coefficients values were calculated to determine the percentage of sound absorption for each balsa specimen. The Noise Reduction Coefficient [NRC] was obtainable by calculating the average absorption coefficient measured at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. The NRC was the average value of absorption at middle frequencies and was therefore most useful for speech applications (Everest & Pohlmann, 2009, p. 182).

6.5.2 Results A room temperature of 22.9 OC and barometric pressure of 101.93 kPa was recorded for each test conducted. The results presented below are statistical absorption coefficients and the results from the low frequency and high frequency tubes have been averaged over the common frequencies measured. The measurements are presented in tabular form in Table 6-25 to Table 6-27 comparing the end-grain and perpendicular samples by sample thickness. Table 6-28 and Table 6-29 depict the measurements as a function of sound-incident and wood grain orientation. Presented in Figure 6.30 to Figure 6.34 are the measurements in graphical form which correspond to the tables of data preceding the figures.

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Table 6-23 Balsa specimen test details Specimen Nominal sample Grain direction Notes thickness (mm) in relation to test soundfield 25 mm end-grain 25 End-grain - 50 mm end-grain 50 End-grain - 100 mm end-grain 100 End-grain 29 mm specimen cut to less than 29 mm diameter – butyl rubber sample mount installed around perimeter of sample 25 mm 25 Perpendicular- - Perpendicular-grain grain 50 mm 50 Perpendicular- - Perpendicular-grain grain 100 mm 100 Perpendicular- 29 mm specimen – Very difficult to Perpendicular-grain grain install, sanding of sample required

Table 6-24 Balsa specimen physical details Specimen 100 mm 29 mm 100 mm specimen 29 mm specimen specimen specimen MC (%) MC (%) density (kg/m3) density (kg/m3) 25 mm end-grain 96 79 10.3 10.4 50 mm end-grain 98 113 10.3 9.9 100 mm end-grain 105 83 10.3 10.5 25 mm 85 82 10.5 10.5 Perpendicular-grain 50 mm 110 115 10.4 10.2 Perpendicular-grain 100 mm 97 101 10.4 12.6 Perpendicular-grain

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Table 6-25 Statistical absorption coefficients, 25 mm balsa specimens

rd 1/3 Octave Centre Frequency Statistical absorption coefficient (αSTAT) (Hz) 25 mm end-grain 25 mm perpendicular-grain 100 0.00 0.00 125 0.00 0.00 160 0.02 0.02 200 0.03 0.03 250 0.04 0.04 315 0.06 0.04 400 0.07 0.05 500 0.09 0.05 630 0.11 0.04 800 0.15 0.08 1000 0.19 0.10 1250 0.23 0.10 1600 0.37 0.11 2000 0.41 0.11 2500 0.35 0.11 3150 0.28 0.14 4000 0.27 0.18 5000 0.23 0.13

Figure 6.30 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 25 mm thick 228

Table 6-26 Statistical absorption coefficients, 50 mm balsa specimens

rd 1/3 Octave Centre Frequency Statistical absorption coefficient (αSTAT) (Hz) 50 mm end-grain 50 mm perpendicular-grain 100 0.01 0.00 125 0.01 0.00 160 0.03 0.01 200 0.05 0.02 250 0.06 0.03 315 0.08 0.03 400 0.10 0.04 500 0.11 0.04 630 0.12 0.03 800 0.21 0.07 1000 0.22 0.08 1250 0.22 0.08 1600 0.25 0.08 2000 0.23 0.08 2500 0.22 0.08 3150 0.25 0.11 4000 0.29 0.15 5000 0.27 0.10

Figure 6.31 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 50 mm thick

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Table 6-27 Statistical absorption coefficients, 100 mm balsa specimens

rd 1/3 Octave Centre Frequency Statistical Absorption Coefficient (αSTAT) (Hz) 100 mm end-grain 100 mm perpendicular-grain 100 0.03 0.00 125 0.03 0.00 160 0.05 0.01 200 0.07 0.02 250 0.08 0.02 315 0.09 0.03 400 0.10 0.03 500 0.11 0.03 630 0.11 0.03 800 0.21 0.14 1000 0.21 0.17 1250 0.22 0.20 1600 0.31 0.30 2000 0.25 0.26 2500 0.22 0.26 3150 0.26 0.28 4000 0.26 0.33 5000 0.26 0.42

Figure 6.32 Statistical absorption coefficients. Balsa specimens 100 mm thick 230

Table 6-28 Statistical absorption coefficients, end-grain balsa specimens

rd 1/3 Octave Centre Frequency Statistical absorption coefficient (αSTAT) (Hz) 25 mm end-grain 50 mm end-grain 100 mm end-grain 100 0.00 0.01 0.03 125 0.00 0.01 0.03 160 0.02 0.03 0.05 200 0.03 0.05 0.07 250 0.04 0.06 0.08 315 0.06 0.08 0.09 400 0.07 0.10 0.10 500 0.09 0.11 0.11 630 0.11 0.12 0.11 800 0.15 0.21 0.21 1000 0.19 0.22 0.21 1250 0.23 0.22 0.22 1600 0.37 0.25 0.31 2000 0.41 0.23 0.25 2500 0.35 0.22 0.22 3150 0.28 0.25 0.26 4000 0.27 0.29 0.26 5000 0.23 0.27 0.26

Figure 6.33 Statistical absorption coefficients. End-grain balsa specimens 231

Table 6-29 Statistical absorption coefficients, perpendicular-grain balsa specimens

rd 1/3 Octave Centre Statistical Absorption Coefficient (αSTAT) Frequency (Hz) 25 mm perpendicular- 50 mm perpendicular- 100 mm perpendicular- grain grain grain 100 0.00 0.00 0.00 125 0.00 0.00 0.00 160 0.02 0.01 0.01 200 0.03 0.02 0.02 250 0.04 0.03 0.02 315 0.04 0.03 0.03 400 0.05 0.04 0.03 500 0.05 0.04 0.03 630 0.04 0.03 0.03 800 0.08 0.07 0.14 1000 0.10 0.08 0.17 1250 0.10 0.08 0.20 1600 0.11 0.08 0.30 2000 0.11 0.08 0.26 2500 0.11 0.08 0.26 3150 0.14 0.11 0.28 4000 0.18 0.15 0.33 5000 0.13 0.10 0.42

Figure 6.34 Statistical absorption coefficients. Perpendicular-grain balsa specimens 232

6.5.3 Discussion The results demonstrated that the acoustic absorption coefficient of balsa varied little in respect to specimen thickness and grain direction. End-grain specimens exhibited a higher absorption than perpendicular-grain specimens and the 29 mm diameter specimens also exhibited a higher absorption than the comparable frequencies in low frequency tests. Some of the 29 mm specimens had visible cavities around the perimeter of the specimen when it was mounted (Figure 6.35), thus some of the acoustic energy could get down the side of the mounted sample during the test and was likely to have introduced anomalies into the measurements, manifesting as increased absorption. It is likely that the difficulty of specimen preparation — due to balsa’s fragile nature — associated with impedance tube testing was the cause of this variance in sound absorption. Table 6-30 presents the calculated NRC values of processed PNG balsa.

Table 6-30 NRC values calculated at specific frequencies Specimen 25 mm 50 mm 100 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm end- end- mm perpendicular- perpendicular- perpendicular- grain grain end- grain grain grain grain 1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz) 250 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.02 500 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.04 0.03 1000 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.10 0.08 0.20 2000 0.41 0.23 0.25 0.11 0.08 0.26 NRC (α) 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10

The acoustic absorption of PNG balsa was low, proving that despite the porosity and low density of balsa it is a reflective material of sound. “The absorption coefficient is a measure of the efficiency of a surface or material in absorbing sound… A perfect sound absorber would absorb 100 per cent of incident sound; thus α is 1.0. A perfectly reflecting surface would have α of 0.0.” (Everest & Pohlmann, 2009, p. 180).

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As discussed in Chapter Five (Observations and Interviews) acousticians noted the acoustic absorption of a material could be manipulated with design. Acoustic absorption products depend on a system of elements to optimise the overall performance. The open area, product thickness, air-gaps and insulation are factors which could be manipulated when designing and developing a balsa acoustic product system to achieve premium results.

Figure 6.35 Specimens mounted in the high frequency tube. The image on the right shows the use of butyl rubber to cover perimeter cavities

Figure 6.36 demonstrates a 100 mm perpendicular-grain balsa specimen partially installed into the impedance tube for low frequency testing. Some of the 100 mm diameter specimens required excessive force and sanding to fit into the test apparatus. Accordingly, some compression was observed across the sound-incident side of the sample. This compression was probably significant beyond the sound incident face of the specimen due to the force exhibited on the specimen. The effect this compression had on the acoustic absorption of the balsa specimen is unknown.

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Figure 6.36 Perpendicular grain balsa specimen partially installed into the impedance tube

Due to the difficulty of installing balsa specimens into the impedance tube it was recommended that if acoustic absorption is to be thoroughly investigated a test to AS ISO 354 (Full reference: AS ISO 354-2006 Acoustics - Measurement of sound absorption in a reverberation room) was recommended. The AS ISO 354 test involved a much larger sample size (10-12 m2) and features random incidence of the soundfield on the sample under test, and is generally accepted as a more reliable quantification of acoustic absorption. Assuming the test sample could be transported to avoid compression of the balsa then all of the issues highlighted as drawbacks to the impedance tube methods would not be a factor in future sound absorption tests.

6.5.4 Conclusion The SAC of PNG balsa verified that balsa is a reflective material. The thickness of the balsa samples demonstrated minimal effect on the NRC values calculated using the impedance tube apparatus. The orientation of the wood grain also demonstrated minimal difference in performance, however end- grain balsa did prevail. Future acoustic testing would benefit from a wider range of sound frequencies according to AS ISO 354.

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6.6 Fire performance of PNG balsa

The fire performance of PNG balsa was tested under supervision at Victoria University, College of Engineering and Science, Melbourne, Australia.

There was a gap in the literature that identified the fire properties of PNG balsa, despite claims that balsa had good fire properties. Concept development to date had developed an interior lining acoustic and thermal performing balsa composite panel. In order to justify the need to design and develop a balsa sandwich composite panel — as opposed to only using balsa as a finished surface for wall or ceiling linings — a material group number relating to fire properties was needed to implement balsa into the construction industry. There are four material group numbers obtainable for wall and ceiling lining materials (National Construction Code [NCC], 2014, p. 157):

- A group 1 material is one that does not reach flashover when exposed to 100 kW for 600 seconds followed by exposure to 300 kW for 600 seconds - A group 2 material is one that reaches flashover following exposure to 300 kW within 600 seconds after not reaching flashover when exposed to 100 kW for 600 seconds - A group 3 material is one that reaches flashover in more than 120 seconds but within 600 seconds when exposed to 100 kW - A group 4 material is one that reaches flashover within 120 seconds when exposed to 100 kW

“A material that is used as a finish, surface, lining or attachment to a wall or ceiling must be a group 1, group 2 or group 3 material used in accordance with [Table 6-31]” (NCC, 2014, p. 157).

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Table 6-31 Wall and ceiling linning materials (material groups permitted) Class of Fire-isolated Public corridors Specific Areas Other areas building exists Wall Ceiling Wall Ceiling wall/ceiling wall/ceiling Class 2 or 3, Excluding accomodation for the aged, people with disabilities, and children Unsprinklered 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 Sprinklered 1 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 Class 3 or 9a, Accommodation for the aged, people with disabilities, children and health-care buildings Unsprinklered 1 1 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 Sprinklered 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 Class 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9b schools Unsprinklered 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 1, 2 1, 2, 3 Sprinklered 1 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 Class 9b other than schools Unsprinklered 1 1 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 Sprinklered 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 Class 9c Sprinklered 1 1, 2 1, 2 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 For the purpose of this Table: 1. “Sprinklered” means a building fitted with a sprinkler system complying with Specification E1.5. 2. “Specific areas” means within: (a) for Class 2 and 3 buildings, a sole-occupancy unit; and (b) for Class 5 buildings, open plan offices with a minimum floor dimension/floor to ceiling height ratio >5; and (c) for Class 6 buildings, shops or other building with a minimum floor dimension/floor to ceiling height ratio >5; and (d) for Class 9a health-care buildings, patient care areas; and (e) for Class 9b theatres and halls, etc. an auditorium; and (f) for Class 9b schools, a classroom; and (g) for Class 9c aged care buildings, resident use areas.

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The purpose of this material test was to justify the use of sandwich skins to protect balsa if PNG balsa proved to be a group 4 material. There are numerous material references available in the literature that identify other materials that are a group 3 to group 1 that could be used to create a balsa sandwich composite panel. Fire property tests were conducted to determine the rate of heat release, effective heat of combustion, smoke release and ignitability of PNG balsa to determine the materials group number.

6.6.1 Materials and methods It is recommended by the NCC (2014, p.156) that for wall and ceiling linings the group number of a material is determined by AS ISO 9705 or predicted in accordance with Clause 3 of Specification A2.4 and AS/NZS 3837. AS ISO 9705 (Fire tests – Full-scale room test for surface products) is “the best test for assessing wall and ceiling linings [at a] large scale…The ISO room burn is the only standardised large- scale test suitable for assessing wall and ceiling linings” (Australian Standard, 1998, p. 24). To minimise the financial investments required to conduct AS ISO 9705 the NCC permits the calculation of a materials group number using AS/NZS 3837.

AS/NZS 3837 (method of test for heat and smoke release rates for materials and products using an oxygen consumption calorimeter) was used to determine the fire group number of PNG balsa. “This test method is used to determine the ignitability, heat release rates, mass loss rates, effective heat of combustion, and smoke release of material and products” (Australian Standard, 1998, p. 5). The tests conducted were exploratory by nature and were preliminary results, where future studies are required to substantiate a greater specimen range.

Three end-grain balsa specimens — 100x100x12.7 mm — were tested using the cone calorimeter (Figure 6.37). Specimens were exposed to 50 kW/m2 irradiance in the horizontal orientation with an edge frame to hold the balsa specimen in position during testing. Figure 6.38 demonstrates a test specimen without the edge frame. Tests were recorded using ConeCalc software. Data was collected by the software up to two minutes after flame out in order to calculate the material group number.

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Figure 6.37 Cone calorimeter test apparatus

Figure 6.38 Balsa specimen without the edge frame

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The NCC provides guidelines on how to calculate a materials group number for materials tested to AS/NZS 3837:

(a) Data must be in the form of time and rate of heat release pairs for the duration of the test.

The time interval between pairs should not be more than 5 seconds. The end of the test (tf) is determined as defined in AS/NZS 3837 (b) At least three replicate specimens must be tested. The following procedure must be applied separately to each specimen:

(i) Determine time to ignition (tig). Time to ignition is defined as the time (in seconds) when the rate of heat release reaches or first exceeds a value of 50 kW/m2

(ii) Calculate the Ignitability Index (Iig) expressed in reciprocal minutes. 60 퐼푖푔 = 𝑡푖푔 (iii) Calculate the following two rates of heat release indices.

푡𝑓 푞"(푡) 푡𝑓 푞"(푡) 퐼푄1 = ∫ [ ] 퐼푄2 = ∫ [ ] 푡푖𝑔 (푡−푡푖𝑔) 0.34 푡푖𝑔 (푡−푡푖𝑔) 0.93 t = time (seconds), q”= rate of heat release (kW/m2) at time t These definite integral expressions represent the area under a curve from the

m ignition time until the end of the test, where the parameter q” (t)/(t – tig) is plotted on the vertical axis and the time (t) is plotted on the horizontal axis. (iv) Calculate the following three integral limits:

퐼푄,10𝑚푖𝑛 = 6800 − 540 퐼푖푔

퐼푄,2𝑚푖𝑛 = 2475 − 165 퐼푖푔

퐼푄,12𝑚푖𝑛 = 1650 − 165 퐼푖푔 (v) Classify the material in accordance with [the below table]

If 퐼푄1 > 퐼푄,10𝑚푖𝑛 푎𝑛𝑑 퐼푄2 >

퐼푄,2𝑚푖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙𝑖𝑠 푎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 4 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙

If 퐼푄1 > 퐼푄,10𝑚푖𝑛 푎𝑛𝑑 퐼푄2 ≤

퐼푄,2𝑚푖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙𝑖𝑠 푎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 3 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙

If 퐼푄1 ≤ 퐼푄,10𝑚푖𝑛 푎𝑛𝑑 퐼푄2 >

퐼푄,12𝑚푖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 푎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 2𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙

If 퐼푄1 ≤ 퐼푄,10𝑚푖𝑛 푎𝑛𝑑 퐼푄2 ≤

퐼푄,12𝑚푖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙𝑖𝑠 푎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1 𝑚푎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖푎𝑙

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(vi) Repeat steps 1 to 5 above for each replicate specimen tested. Where a different classification group is obtained for different specimen tested, then the highest (worst) classification for any specimen must be taken as the final classification for that material (NCC, 2014, p. 72).

6.6.2 Results The results of key data are presented in Table 6-32 and graphed against time and the heat release rate of the test specimens in Figure 6.39. Table 6-33 presents the calculated material group number for each test specimen.

Table 6-32 Fire test results using the cone calorimeter Specimens: Three end-grain PNG balsa, prepared at Swinburne University of Technology Specimen Density (kg/m3) 120 148 178 Thickness (mm) 12.7 12.7 12.7 Specimen mass (g) 15.2 18.8 22.6 Average mass loss rate (g/(s•m2)) 4.45 4.43 5.86 Mass loss (g/m2) 1399.7 1919.2 2342.7 Time to ignition (s) 4 6 7 Time to ignition (s) ≤ 50 kW/m2 according to NCC 9 11 11 Time to flameout (s) 241 298 286 Average specific extinction area (m2/kg) 7.77 29.71 31.97 Test duration (s) 315 430 400 Total heat release (MJ/m2) 18.6 27.8 32.5 Average heat release rate (kW/m2) 59.73 66.06 83.10 Effective heat of combustion (MJ/kg) 13.14 14.77 14.11 Heat release rate at end of test (kW/m2) 36.35 33.72 46.46 Average heat release rate at 60 seconds (kW/m2) 110.89 103.09 123.65 Average heat release rate at 180 seconds (kW/m2) 94.77 74.83 117.67 Average heat release rate at 300 seconds (kW/m2) 77.19 60.46 93.89 Peak heat release rate (kW/m2) 182.89 177.25 197.20 Total smoke release (m2/m2) 31.90 69.40 84.5

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Heat release rate vs. test duration 200

150

120 kgm3 100

148 kgm3

50 178 kgm3 Heat release Heat release rate (kW/m2)

0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425

-50 Time (s)

Figure 6.39 Balsa heat release rate over time

The results of these fire tests may be used to directly assess fire hazard, but it should be recognised that a single test method will not provide a full assessment of fire hazard under all fire conditions

Table 6-33 Calculated material group number Specimen Density (kg/m3) 120 148 178

(b)(i) Time to ignition (tig) ≤ 50 9 11 11 kW/m2

(ii) Ignitability Index (Iig) 7 5 5

(iii) Heat release indices (IQ1) 3852.1 3978.67 5109.45

Heat release indices (IQ2) 1408.4 1454.57 1868

(iv) Integral limit IQ,10min 3020 860 860

Integral limit IQ,2min 1320 660 660

Integral limit IQ,12min 165 -165 165

(v) Classification of materials IQ1 > IQ,10min and IQ1 > IQ,10min and IQ1 > IQ,10min and

IQ2 > IQ,2min IQ2 > IQ,2min IQ2 > IQ,2min (vi) Group number Group 4 Group 4 Group 4 Specimens ignited before reaching 50 kW/m2, however the above results were calculated according to the NCC (2014, p. 72) ‘predicting a materials group number’. 242

6.6.3 Discussion The test results clearly indicated that PNG balsa has the highest (worst) material group number obtainable. These results justified the need to sandwich balsa between superior material skins in order to implement balsa composite panels into the construction industry as wall and ceiling linings. Balsa specimens exposed to 809 OC (50 kW/m2) ignited almost instantaneously. Figure 6.40, presents three photographs taken in the first 10 seconds of a cone calorimeter test. The end result is presented in Figure 6.41.

Figure 6.40 Three photographs taken in the first 10 seconds of a balsa specimen tested using the cone calorimeter

Figure 6.41 Balsa cone calorimeter test results

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An increase in balsa density impacts on the overall fire performance of the material. Higher densities produced a longer time to ignition, a longer burn time, larger heat release rates and larger smoke release rates. The specimens tested according to AS/NZS 3837 tested the most commercially desirable balsa with a density from 120-180 kg/m3. Despite the difference in specimen density PNG balsa remained a group 4 material, proving that balsa cannot be used as a finished surface material in the Australian construction industry because it does not comply with the NCC. Balsa sandwiched with materials of a group 3 and lower could be implemented into the corresponding NCC guidelines.

6.6.4 Conclusion The material group number for PNG balsa was identified as group 4 – the highest (worst) material rating obtainable according to AS/NZS 3837. These results substantiated the need to sandwich balsa as a composite panel to comply with the NCC. Further full-scale room testing according to AS ISO 9705 was necessary to determine the fire performance results of a full-scale balsa sandwich composite panel system for use as interior wall and ceiling linings in the construction industry.

6.7 Termite susceptibility of PNG balsa

The termite susceptibility of PNG balsa was tested under the supervision of the Australian Forest Research Company Pty. Ltd. in Darwin, Australia.

“Many types of wood have their own natural defences against insects and other pest species. This is especially true in tropical environments because there is no frost season to keep pest populations down” (Beal et al., 1974, as cited in Arango et al., 2006, p. 146). Arango et al., (2006) tested the natural durability of various timber species against Reticulitermes flavipes – the most common termite found in

North America. The study does not note the origins of the balsa tested.

Table 6-34 Results of natural resistance of balsa exposed to Reticulitermes flavipes (Arango et al., 2006, p. 148) Mean Mass Loss Mean Mass Loss Material Envelope Treatment (% m/m) (g) (%) Balsa – hardwood, None 0.69 (0.2) 68.97 (25.7) origin unknown Southern yellow pine – None 1.04 (0.4) 41.32 (15.3) softwood Poulsenia – hardwood None 0.74 (0.1) 20.27 (1.9) Standard deviation given in parentheses 244

Table 6-34 highlights the mean mass loss caused by Reticulitermes flavipes. There was a gap in knowledge that determined the termite susceptibility of PNG balsa against Coptotermes acinaciformis – the most widely distributed and destructive timber pest in Australia. In field trials, tests were conducted on natural and treated PNG balsa to determine the susceptibility of termite attack to balsa products within Australia. This knowledge was important to further highlight whether balsa products would be beneficial to the Australian construction industry.

6.7.1 Materials and methods Balsa in field trail tests targeted Coptotermes acinaciformis over a 20 week period in Darwin, Australia. Specimens were cut from PNG balsa to the dimensions of 30x30x130 mm according to directions from the Australian Wood Preservation Committee. A total of seven termite colonies where used to determine the termite susceptibility of PNG balsa. Field trials were instigated where balsa samples were attached to mature trees, which clearly indicated a presence of Coptotermes acinaciformis (Figure 6.42). A variety of specimens were included in each of the seven trials. Each trial consisted of a single natural PNG balsa specimen, three treated balsa specimens (each the same envelope treatment but at three different strength levels) and a soft and hardwood reference timber. Treated specimens were done so with Bifenthrin – an insecticide from the pyrethroid family which is a manmade version of pyrethrins. Specimens were laid in an orderly fashion inside a termite chamber as shown in Figure 6.43.

Figure 6.42 A balsa trial mounted on a mature tree infested with Coptotermes acinaciformis

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Figure 6.43 Specimen’s inside a termite chamber (left). Bait wood used to surround specimens to encourage termites to invade (right)

6.7.2 Results After being exposed for 20 weeks to Coptotermes acinaciformis the seven PNG balsa trials were dismantled to investigate the results. Figure 6.44 shows the result of the termites colonising the field trial. Figure 6.45 and Figure 6.46 present the results of the specimens after 20 weeks exposure to Coptotermes acinaciformis.

Figure 6.44 Termites colonising the field trial

Figure 6.45 Remaining Bifenthrin treated balsa with no obvious attacking 246

Figure 6.46 Remaining natural specimens. Remaining specimen is the PNG balsa and the two labels sitting on top of the balsa specimen are the remains of the soft and hardwood reference timbers

Table 6-35 presents the data obtained for balsa and reference timbers after a 20 week exposure period field trial targeting Coptotermes acinaciformis.

Table 6-35 Results of natural resistance of balsa exposed to Coptotermes acinaciformis Envelope Treatment (% Mean Mass Loss Mean Mass Loss Material m/m) Bifenthrin (g) (%) Balsa – PNG, hardwood None 3.94 (2.11) 30.9 (16.4) Balsa – PNG, hardwood 0.02 0.05 (0.01) 0.4 (0.1) Balsa – PNG, hardwood 0.04 0.03 (0.01) 0.2 (0.1) Balsa – PNG, hardwood 0.08 0.03 (0.01) 0.2 (0.1) Radiata pine sapwood – None 47.28 (6.18) 90.3 (10.0) softwood Southern blue gum sapwood None 83.82 (1.25) 98.9 (0.5) – hardwood Standard deviation given in parentheses

6.7.3 Discussion The results obtained from seven in field trials demonstrated untreated PNG balsa is less susceptible to termite attack than the untreated soft and hardwood reference timbers used in the field trial. Each trial presented unique results, however the mean mass loss highlighted in Table 6-35 — by grams and percentage — clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of the Bifenthrin envelope treatment of PNG balsa and the natural resistance to termite attack as opposed to the reference materials used in the same field trial. 247

These results demonstrate a benefit to utilising PNG balsa in the Australian construction industry over common timber species that are more susceptible to termite attack. Reasons why PNG balsa is naturally more termite resistant than other timber species is unknown and was not the focus of this test. The purpose of this field trial was to identify the effects of exposure to Coptotermes acinaciformis on balsa products in an Australian context. Despite the obvious difference in termite timber specie preference, PNG balsa is still susceptible to termite attack.

6.7.4 Conclusion The current literature presents the results of balsa (origin unknown) exposed to Reticulitermes flavipes in North America. This test demonstrated natural balsa is susceptible to termite attack. The in field trials conducted in this thesis by comparison presented the results of PNG balsa exposed to Coptotermes acinaciformis in Australia. The results demonstrated that balsa treated with Bifenthrin at three various strength levels prevented significant termite attack. Additionally natural PNG balsa experienced a mean mass loss of 30.9 per cent, compared to reference soft and hardwood timbers, which experienced a mean mass loss of 90.3 per cent (radiata pine) and 98.9 per cent (southern blue gum). Future tests could determine the termite susceptibility of a balsa sandwich composite to identify the durability and termite preference for a balsa core or the sandwich.

6.8 Discussion

All the tests conducted at this stage of the product design and development process were conducted on raw PNG balsa conditioned to 12 per cent MC. The mechanical strength tests conducted indicated that PNG balsa is strong for its density and weight, however is not suitable for structural elements. The tests proved that PNG balsa has different strength properties to balsa produced in other countries. In order to implement the material into the construction industry the best option was to utilise PNG balsa as a core component in sandwich composite panels.

The TC of PNG balsa demonstrated superior performance over existing materials currently used in the construction industry. This identified an opportunity for balsa to compete with existing materials and products used in interior environments for their insulation properties. Sound absorption tests of PNG balsa determined that balsa was a reflective material, however, by manipulating balsa with a system of additional materials, products and design considerations the acoustic absorption of a balsa panel product could deliver superior properties.

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Fire property tests indicated that balsa has the worst fire group number and cannot be exposed as a finished surface material in the construction industry due to fire regulations in commercial and residential buildings. Balsa could however be used as a core material sandwiched with materials that have a fire group number of 3 or lower, rendering the product to comply with the NCC.

Finally termites in field trial tests indicated that natural PNG balsa is susceptible to Coptotermes acinaciformis, however is far less susceptible to attack compared to traditional dominate timber species used in the Australian construction industry, and balsa treated with Bifenthrin proved to be a very effective treatment against termite attack.

These balsa property tests were imperative to addressing the research question. While the actual tests were material science and not industrial design practice the value of conducting these tests meant the new knowledge could be embedded into product development and therefore communicate knowledge for PNG balsa through a design artefact. The tests conducted in this chapter each contributed a new body of knowledge and began to help identify ways in which balsa could be used in the construction industry as a commercial commodity. The product design and development process is outlined in the following chapter were it is demonstrated how research-led industrial design practice is used to generate and communicate new knowledge for PNG balsa.

6.9 Chapter summary

This chapter identified new knowledge on PNG balsa and compared balsa with similar materials and their corresponding applications for a variety of features, which highlighted plausible new applications for PNG balsa. Tests conducted in this doctoral research identified various material properties of PNG balsa to assist with the design developments made and to differentiate PNG balsa from global competitors. This knowledge can be used by timber experts within the construction industry and other relevant industries alike. Forestry personnel and timber scientists can better their knowledge from the presented results on balsa and further test the material for additional information. Ultimately, the data generated can be used to compare similar materials and their corresponding applications to justify design developments that propose alternative solutions to contemporary practices used in the construction industry.

The mechanical, thermal, acoustic, fire and termite properties of PNG balsa was imperative for informing and influencing the design developments generated in this doctoral research. The construction industry requires the physical performance and characteristics of any material specified for use to ensure safety and structural integrity are not affected. The mechanical strength tests were highly important to

249 determine the appropriateness of material selection for factors such as the design application, the nature of the product and the location of balsa for use in the construction industry. The thermal, acoustic, fire and termite properties were secondary considerations in the context of residential buildings where quality of life measures must be in place to eliminate heat loss, noise absorption, fire safety and maintenance costs. Tests on these four properties presented both advantages and disadvantages for utilising PNG balsa. In applications where balsa out performed existing materials used in the construction industry there was an opportunity to explore — through design — alternative applications that utilised balsa in a superior way to existing practices and products. One of the biggest advantages that balsa has over existing materials it its lightweight nature and sustainable attributes. Weight and sustainability are major issues for the construction industry. In addition materials that are lightweight, strong and renewable — such as plantation timber — are highly desirable. Balsa lacks strength performance and is a vulnerable material. For balsa to be used in structural applications further testing, funding and an interdisciplinary team of engineers, scientists and designers would be required to develop a structural application for the construction industry. For this reason non-structural applications were pursued in this doctoral design- based research.

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7 CHAPTER SEVEN: DESIGN PRACTICE

7.1 Introduction

Design practice was an important component of this doctoral research to generate and communicate new knowledge. The previous chapters (observations, interviews and material property tests) informed the need for industrial design practice to design, build and test new balsa products. As introduced in the methodology, design practice followed Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process from planning to production ramp-up. In addition, the product design and development process was aligned with Frayling’s (1993) research into art and design model. Previous chapters have emphasised the current PNG balsa industry and social problems associated with it. A clear need and opportunity to develop new balsa products for the construction industry was determined as a market gap hindered by the lack of PNG balsa material knowledge and various industry perspectives on the resource. The focus of this chapter is to demonstrate how design practice was used in the design process to develop a new balsa product to assist the PNG balsa industry. The intent was to generate demand for the resource through design innovation and product development. This chapter demonstrates the product design and development process used to develop the design artefact – A balsa lining panel that exhibits thermal and acoustic performances in an interior environment for the construction industry. The design artefact is presented in detail in Chapter Eight – Design Outcome.

Sections of this chapter have been published and presented at the International Association of Societies of Design Research conference in Brisbane, Australia (2015) and are publish pending for the Design Research Society conference in Brighton, UK (2016).

7.2 Planning

According to Ulrich and Eppinger (2012, p. 13) “This phase begins with opportunity identification guided by corporate strategy and includes assessment of technology developments and market objectives.” The planning stage primarily aligned with Frayling’s (1993) research into design. “The output of the planning phase is the project mission statement, which specifies the target market for the product, business goals, key assumptions, and constraints” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 13). The planning stage identified design opportunities through secondary and early primary research. Target markets, goals, product assumptions and constraints were explored through design sketching to illustrate early design ideas. The literature review presented existing knowledge available on balsa, an assessment of existing wood-based products and potential market opportunities. Initial observations and interviews were used to

251 substantiate opportunities identified prior to initiating concept development. Preliminary ideas such as interior/exterior applications, structural/non-structural elements, natural/composite product genetics and target markets were considered in the planning stage.

7.2.1 Sketching (Ideation) The following sketches demonstrate the diverse ideation of preliminary balsa product ideas during the planning stage. These sketches were produced before primary research was sourced and while secondary research was underway. Sketches where used to document initial ideas and to begin synthesising information visually to better understand the parameters of developing new balsa products. The importance of this visual communication was to detail potential product developments before identifying and committing to a single avenue of product development. Sketching further helped understand the construction of timber products and how they would be treated in real-world applications.

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Figure 7.1 Concept ideation

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With no prior knowledge or experience the open mindedness of various concepts led to a diverse range of ideas, products and applications. As secondary research was explored, market gaps and opportunities were discovered in the construction industry. This research generated early ideas that were also recorded in sketch form. Product and market research identified market gaps and opportunities worthy for implementing balsa products. Sketches developed ideas and areas worthy of investigation rapidly in the planning stage as constant research quickly identified design opportunities. Early sketches considered product decomposition, strength, composite applications and product joinery. Initial observations and interviews began to persuade the development of balsa products for the construction industry that promoted the sustainable and renewable attributes of balsa and its strength in respect to its lightweight nature.

7.3 Concept development

“In the concept development phase, the needs of the target market are identified, alternative product concepts are generated and evaluated, and one or more concepts are selected for further developments and testing” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 15). Observations, interviews, material testing and market research identified an opportunity for PNG balsa to be implemented into the construction industry as an interior, non-structural, composite product. The synthesis of ideas through product development research and sketching is design practice, which aligns with Frayling’s (1993) research through design. Additionally, this stage and up to the production ramp-up stage aligned with Fraying’s (1993) research through design. Interior wall and ceiling lining products were illustrated and developed to depict form, function and key features. The analysis of existing products discussed in the literature review set out a criteria that would determine the appropriate function and economic justification of a new balsa product. Low-fidelity prototypes were produced to communicate concepts and design ideas to research participants to evaluate the concepts developed and help choose a concept worthy of further development. Practitioners were direct and would explain why a product concept was flawed and how it could be improved. They provided evidence through existing products, past experiences and re-enactments of what products worked and what products failed. This feedback was used to measure early the potential success of the balsa product.

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7.3.1 Sketching (preliminary concept develop)

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Figure 7.2 Preliminary concept development

Concept development sketches — unlike ideation sketches in the planning stage — were informed by primary and secondary research. These sketches began to converge towards a specific product concept that demonstrated form, function and features that would compete with existing products both in function and economic viability. The development of a balsa panel product for interior non- structural applications was chosen as an opportunity to compete with existing wood-based panels.

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7.3.2 Low-fidelity prototyping

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Figure 7.3 Initial low-fidelity prototypes

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The prototypes developed in the concept development stage were considered low-fidelity prototypes — despite the high quality — because of the minimal time invested into their production. Prototypes were generated with specialised machinery such as Computer Numerical Control [CNC] routers, which quickly generated tangible product concepts which were used to communicate ideas to industry practitioners for feedback and evaluation. Concept sketches were initially presented to industry practitioners, however tangible prototypes communicated better than sketches and discussions combined.

7.3.3 In-situ concept renders

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Figure 7.4 In-situ concept renders

Additional concept in-situ renders were generated to depict the form, function and features of balsa product concepts in the construction industry. This provided clarity as it demonstrated the flexibility of the balsa concept for use in interior environments. The forth render, which presented balsa used as a core material hidden behind other material skins, was considered important by industry because it highlighted that for markets and end users, who do not desire an exposed timber feature, they can still benefit from the use of balsa without having the material exposed – later fire property tests demonstrated that balsa is not acceptable as an exposed material because it does not meet the NCC.

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7.4 System-level design

“The system-level design phase includes the definition of the product architecture, decomposition of the product into subsystems and components, and preliminary design of key components. Initial plans for the production system and final assembly are usually defined” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 15). This product design and development process stage took the basic balsa panel product and further developed it through exploring product genetics (subsystems and components), assembly, installation, function and performance. As previously highlighted, balsa was suitable as a core component in timber composite panels because it is a vulnerable material, it has exceptional thermal properties, it naturally reflects sound and has poor fire performance. These sources of primary research influenced the system-level design development of an interior balsa paneling product for the construction industry.

7.4.1 Plywood veneers to protect balsa Plywood products are part of a quiet revolution occurring in residential and light commercial building practices. With low costs, good looks and superior structural performance real wood plywood products are being used creatively as exterior cladding, decorative flooring, interior wall and ceiling linings, and as a lightweight, but strong roofing substrate (EWPAA, 2013, p. 3).

Previous chapters highlighted the need to veneer balsa with a superior material to prevent damage. There is an abundant supply of materials that are currently used as sandwich veneers skins to house core component materials. Timber veneers, wood-based panels, polymers, metals and alloys are readily available. These materials differ based on strength, weight, cost, sustainability and availability. Considering balsa is a highly renewable material, in order to uphold its sustainable reputation balsa should only be veneered with another sustainable material. To be competitive in the construction industry cost is a large factor that influences the decision to use specific products. In addition, since balsa is incredibly lightweight so should be the sandwich skin. The performance of a balsa product should not be compromised by the choice in sandwich skin; rather it should complement the balsa core. This criteria of material parameters led to the decision to sandwich balsa with hoop pine plywood. Hoop pine is grown on certified plantations in Queensland, Australia. It has a density around 530 kg/m3, is yellow brown in colour and straight grained with a fine texture. It is a popular choice for general construction purposes, flooring, interiors, joinery and furniture in Australia. Hoop pine is also grown in PNG, although the most reliable sources are from Queensland, Australia. Compared to other commercial timbers hoop pine is classified as a medium to low strength timber and has acceptable fire properties which gives it a fire group number of 3 – depending on thickness and the substrate material it is veneered to. Depending on the country of implementation various other wood-based sandwich skin products could be considered for sandwiching balsa. Since the context of this research is PNG and Australia hoop pine plywood was chosen.

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7.4.2 Sketching (concept development) The following concept development sketches explored the notion of using PNG balsa as a core component to develop a lightweight panel for interior dwellings. The sketches typically explored how a balsa sandwich panel would be manufactured, how the product would be modular, how it would be installed, what system of additional materials were required to protect the balsa core and a preliminary consideration for the necessary tooling. Considering this information early assisted with the transition from concept development to the detail design stage. Product parameters and constraints were solved at best through concept development sketching and further refined in CAD later.

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Figure 7.5 System-level design concept improvement

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The sketches produced in this stage illustrate the product genetics from components, assembly and manufacturing techniques. Previous material testing informed the need to sandwich balsa between two superior material skins for protection. A tile concept was pursued, where the manufacturing of the product was manipulated to enhance the performance (acoustic and thermal) of the product outcome. Details such as the balsa grain direction, additional materials and the thickness of sandwich skins were considered. Particular attention was given to the modularity of the concept to ensure its suitability and flexibilty for the construction industry. Constraints and considerations were highlighted where solutions were thought out through sketch development. Tooling, production steps and installation were also considered and illustrated to prepare for protoyping. Sketches were not only used to communicate tacit knowledge to wider audiences but to prepare and document the intended prototyping proceedure for later product design and development process stages.

7.4.3 Low-fidelity prototyping

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Figure 7.6 Concept improved low-fidelity prototyping

Initial prototypes where developed to better understand the behaviour of balsa used as a tile concept. Typical material preparation, gluing, joinery, fixtures and aesthetics were considered to ensure the concept met the expectations and criteria that competitor products adhered to.

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Figure 7.7 Advanced concept low-fidelity prototyping

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The complexity of this developed product proved cumbersome through prototyping. By prototyping these concepts the difficulty of manufacturing and labour intensiveness was identified. Specialised equipment, tooling, manufacturing processes and labour intensive skills were required to manufacture these prototypes. Feedback was sourced through observing and interviewing industry practitioners. They noted that the complex nature of the product concept was a significant problem in terms of the cost to manufacturer because of the resources required to manufacture the product. It was further noted that the modularity of a product extends beyond the ability to install or implement the product into a market. For a product to be useful to various markets, a product in its simplest form must be desirable and flexible to all markets and not specific to individual consumers. In hind sight it was easy to over think and complicate design concepts. Having industry practitioners involved in the evaluation process offered honest professional insights that helped refine the concept at hand and ensured the commercial viability to manufacture, distribute and consume balsa products remained competitive.

Figure 7.8 Industry assisted low-fidelity prototyping

Industry feedback offered more than concept evaluation. Practitioners would offer insights based on experience to improve the manufacturing process and help deliver a product that was desirable to specifiers, builders, contractors, consumers and end users. The simplification of the balsa concept ensured its use extended beyond a single specific market and could further be implemented into future additional markets and industries.

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7.5 Design

The design, build and test stages of the product design and development process covered the detail design, testing and refinement stages. “The detail design phase includes the complete specification of the geometry, materials, and tolerances of all of the unique parts in the product and the identification of all of the standard parts to be purchased from suppliers” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 15). This stage typically generates production documentation detailing the final product, the tooling required, additional componentry purchases and the process plan. The materials, cost and performance are the critical product specification outcomes of this stage. The detail design stage also consisted of preliminary evidence as to why the product concept was developed in such a way. Evidence was primarily sourced through CAD, technical drawings, industry product software tests and computer concept renders. This evidence was used to substantiate the commencement of high-fidelity prototyping for final product testing.

7.5.1 CAD (detail design)

Figure 7.9 Solidworks CAD

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Figure 7.10 Solidworks engineering drawings

Product drawings and CAD files were used to define the product geometry prior to committing to high-fidelity and detailed prototyping. The use of CNC machinery to manufacture these prototypes meant CAD files where manipulated to suit commercial processes, industrial machinery and available tooling. The documentation of these considerations made it easier for industry practitioners to relate to and provide feedback on the product before it was prototyped.

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7.5.2 Software product testing

Figure 7.11 Industry software prototyping and testing (Marshall Day Acoustics, 2011)

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Product genetics were also tested using specially developed industry software. The details of a product could be entered into a program to estimate its performance based on the overall product system. Details around the program are not disclosed for copyright purposes. This form of evaluating a product, before committing to high-fidelity prototyping, was also a useful tool for justifying the design decisions made. A variety of product parameters such as the thickness of the balsa panel, the open area of perforations, the insulation used and the construction of the building which the panels are installed in were manipulated to determine the best possible product outcome.

7.5.3 Detail product renders

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Figure 7.12 Photoview realistic CAD renderings

Product renders highlighted the visual outcome of the final chosen concept. Computer generated renders highlighted the use of plywood skins to sandwich the balsa core, backed with an acoustic textile to enhance the acoustic absorption performance of the final product.

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7.6 Build

7.6.1 High-fidelity prototyping (testing and refinement)

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Figure 7.13 Industry assisted high-fidelity prototyping

Industry provided constant feedback on the development of the balsa interior lining panel concept. Previous prototypes were low-fidelity and scaled for portability. At the end of the system-level design stage industry stated to prove the concepts viability, full-scale prototypes needed to be produced to demonstrate what works and what requires refinement. Full-scale prototypes were manufactured using industrial glue and hydraulic press production lines and CNC machinery to cut profiles into the panels. Two types of concepts were manufactured: one concept was a sandwich panel consisting of a 3 mm hoop pine plywood skin on each side of the balsa and the other was a single 6.5 mm hoop pine plywood skin veneered to balsa. The behaviour of the panels was cumbersome. CNC manipulation demonstrated the tendency for balsa panels to bow. This was most evident with the single sided balsa/plywood composite. Industry noted that the unbalanced nature of this composite configuration caused the panel to naturally bow. The reason for manufacturing these two composites was to determine which concept was superior (cost to manufacture, rigidity, fire performance, thermal and acoustic values) before deciding on the final concept for production ramp-up.

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7.7 Test

“The testing and refinement phase involves the construction and evaluation of multiple preproduction versions of the product” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 15). This stage produced exact prototypes of the final product outcome. These prototypes were tested according to standards and industry demands to ensure the final product satisfied the market need. Product performance, reliability, longevity, and consumer satisfaction were typically measured to justify the appropriateness and commercial viability of the product outcome.

Two balsa concepts were developed in this doctoral research: a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided composite panel and a 3 mm sandwich composite panel (Figure 7.14). According to the EWPAA (2012, p. 9) hoop pine plywood at 6 mm thick and greater, has a fire group number 3. Additionally, veneers 0.6-0.85 mm of nominal thickness that have a density greater than 500 kg/m3 and are veneered to a minimum 6 mm substrate, such as MDF that has a density of 560-740 kg/m3, will achieve a group 3 fire number (Warrington fire, 2011, p. 8). This meant that a product with a hoop pine plywood finish surface 6 mm or greater could be used in commercial and residential buildings that permitted products with a fire group number 3. The same applied for a hoop pine veneer that was fixed to a substrate greater than 560 kg/m3. Since the average commercial density of balsa is 150 kg/m3 a hoop pine veneer, veneered to a balsa substrate would not meet a group 3 fire number. A review of the literature identified no existing knowledge of a fire group number for a 3 mm sandwich composite with a core density lower than 560 kg/m3. The idea of a 3 mm hoop pine plywood, a substrate and another 3 mm hoop pine plywood sandwich composite suggested that a total thickness of 6 mm hoop pine plywood (separated by a core substrate) could potentially have a group 3 fire number (testing required). The literature does state that the surface finish material must comply with the NCC fire group numbers, therefore a 3 mm hoop pine plywood would not meet the NCC. Fire testing is time consuming and expensive. For this reason full-scale fire tests — according to international standards — to prove the viability of a 3 mm sandwich composite panel was not conducted. Small-scale tests were however conducted to highlight the time of product failure between a 6.5 mm veneered single-sided balsa composite panel and a 3 mm veneer sandwich balsa composite panel. The Sound Absorption Coefficient [SAC] of the two balsa concepts was also compared to determine which concept delivered superior sound absorption.

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Figure 7.14 Two balsa concepts; 3 mm sandwich composite panel (left) and 6.5 mm veneer single-sided composite panel (right)

In addition to the two balsa panels previously introduced for product testing an additional concept was manufactured. This concept was a 6.5 mm veneer sandwich composite panel. This panel was rigid, strong and adhered to NCC fire requirements but it was heavy and cost double to manufacture compared to a 6.5 mm single-sided composite and the 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel. Despite the panel’s properties and performance, the added weight and cost meant the product was around the same weight as competitor products (>20 kg) and cost more to manufacture, proving that the commercial viability of such a panel was not commercially competitive. Prototypes and tests were therefore conducted to determine the optimal and superior concept utilising interior grade hoop pine plywood as balsa composite skins for a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided composite and a 3 mm veneer sandwich composite. The single- sided composite behaved very differently to the sandwich composite due to the natural tendency to bow.

7.7.1 Product testing (Fire properties) Scaled balsa product burn tests were performed on the two balsa concept panels to determine which exhibits superior fire performance. Solid and perforated panels of each balsa concept panel were burnt to determine the rise in temperature over time until product failure (Figure 7.15).

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Figure 7.15 A solid and perforated balsa panel during a low-fidelity fire burn test

7.7.1.1 Introduction As highlighted in Chapter Six it is best to test the fire properties of a lining product at full-scale according to AS ISO 9705: Fire tests – full-scale room tests for surface products. Due to the cost of this test, low-fidelity product burn tests were conducted to identify the difference between a 3 mm veneer balsa sandwich composite panel and a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided composite. Small-scale tests identified obvious differences between the burn time and temperature rise of the sandwich and single-sided balsa composite panels.

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7.7.1.2 Test facilities and procedures Tests were conducted at Victoria University, College of Engineering and Science, Melbourne, Australia, in a controlled environment following a methodical procedure. Balsa product specimens were burnt with a propane gas torch at a distance of 50 mm from the heat source. Thermal couplers were inserted into the balsa product at various depths to measure the rise in temperature against time. The temperature recorded by the thermal coupler was recorded before the start of each test, every 20 seconds following and at product failure. Observations recorded product behaviour while testing was underway. Equipment used had been calibrated and was in current calibration (Figure 7.16). Prior to testing the maximum temperature of the propane torch was measured at 1100 OC.

Figure 7.16 Low-fidelity fire burn test apparatus

7.7.1.3 Sample 1 for testing Sample 1 was described as a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel. Two specimens were tested: a solid and a perforated panel with an open area of 20 per cent. Both panels where 19.2 mm thick, had a clear timber varnish surface and an acoustic fabric thermally bonded to the rear of the panel. Three burn tests were conducted on each specimen. Thermal couplers were inserted in the rear of the panel at different depths to determine the rise in temperature over time. Figure 7.17 highlights the various depths the thermal couplers were inserted at.

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Figure 7.17 Depth of thermal couplers inserted at the rear of the 6.5 mm veneer balsa concept

7.7.1.4 Sample 2 for testing Sample 2 was described as a 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel. Two specimens were tested: a solid and a perforated panel with an open area of 20 per cent. Both panels were 18.7 mm thick, had a clear timber varnish surface and an acoustic fabric thermally bonded to the rear of the panel. Three burn tests were conducted on each specimen. Thermal couplers were inserted in the rear of the panel at different depths to determine the rise in temperature over time. Figure 7.18 highlights the various depths the thermal couplers were inserted at.

Figure 7.18 Depth of thermal couplers inserted at the rear of the 3 mm veneer balsa concept 286

Product specimens were 200 mm2. Each specimen was divided into quarters and burnt three times using a different thermal coupler depth to measure the behaviour of the product in a fire scenario. The thermal coupler was placed directly in line with the heat source on each specimen for consistency. The depth of the thermal coupler varied between the single-sided and sandwich panels because measurements from behind the finish surface, centre of the balsa and 3 mm from the rear surface were deemed important. Particular attention was given to the temperature rise against time at the rear of the finish surface, considering the EWPAA states 6 mm hoop pine plywood and thicker has a group 3 fire number.

7.7.1.5 Results and discussion Table 7-1 to Table 7-4 highlight the recorded rise in temperature against time for the four specimens tested.

Table 7-1 Rise in temperature against time (6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, solid, 19.2 mm total thickness) Sample 6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, solid, 19.2 mm total thickness Thermal coupler depth (mm) 3 (rear of panel) 6.35 (balsa centre) 12.7 (rear of face veneer) Time (s) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) 0 19 18 18 20 19 18 18 40 19 18 20 60 19 19 27 80 21 23 46 100 25 30 82 120 31 38 99 140 39 48 109 160 47 58 143 180 54 68 215 200 65 81 346 220 - - 442

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Table 7-2 Rise in temperature against time (6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, perforated 20 per cent, 19.2 mm total thickness) Sample 6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel, perforated 20 per cent, 19.2 mm total thickness Thermal coupler depth (mm) 3 (rear of panel) 6.35 (balsa centre) 12.7 (rear of face veneer) Time (s) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) 0 18 18 18 20 18 19 19 40 20 20 20 60 21 22 22 80 29 (85 s) 26 29 100 - 29 529 120 - - 713 140 - - 808 (138 s)

Table 7-3 Rise in temperature against time (3 mm veneer sandwich panel, solid, 18.7 mm total thickness) Sample 3 mm veneer sandwich panel, solid, 18.7 mm total thickness Thermal coupler depth (mm) 3 (rear of panel) 9.35 (balsa centre) 15.7 (rear of face veneer) Time (s) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) 0 19 21 21 20 19 21 30 40 19 22 77 60 29 31 100 80 60 50 122 100 72 78 160 120 81 85 208 140 86 90 365 160 87 95 322 180 159 99 370 200 340 (190 s) 100 411 220 - - 449

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Table 7-4 Rise in temperature against time (3 mm veneer sandwich panel, perforated 20 per cent, 18.7 mm total thickness) Sample 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel, perforated 20 per cent, 18.7 mm total thickness Thermal coupler depth (mm) 3 (rear of panel) 9.35 (balsa centre) 15.7 (rear of face veneer) Time (s) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) Temperature (OC) 0 18 19 18 20 19 19 19 40 22 20 21 60 28 20 27 80 35 (93 s) 21 35 100 - 21 46 120 - 22 700 (110 s) 140 - 23 -

Temperature vs. Time (thermal coupler: 3 mm depth) 400

350

300 C) O 250

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Temperature Temperature ( 100

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Time (sec)

3 mm Sandwich composite solid 6.5 mm Single veneer solid 3 mm Sandwich composite perforated 6.5 mm Single veneer perforated

Figure 7.19 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth 3 mm

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Temperature vs. Time (thermal coupler: centre of balsa) 120

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C) 80 O

40 Temperature Temperature (

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Time (sec) 3 mm Sandwich composite solid 6.5 mm Single veneer solid

3 mm Sandwich composite perforated 6.5 mm Single veneer perforated

Figure 7.20 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth centre of balsa

Temperature vs. Time (theramal coupler: rear of front veneer)

900 800 700 C) O 600 500 400 300 Temperature Temperature ( 200 100 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 Time (sec)

3 mm Sandwich composite solid 6.5 mm Single veneer solid

3 mm Sandwich composite perforated 6.5 mm Single veneer perforated

Figure 7.21 Rise in temperature against time. Thermal coupler depth rear of front veneer

The data presented in the above three figures demonstrated the behaviour of the rise in temperature against time for the 6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel and the 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel. The 3 mm veneer sandwich composite solid panel generated the highest temperature at each thermal coupler position compared to the solid 6.5 mm veneer panel. Despite the higher temperature 290 developed during the test both balsa specimens typically failed at the same time. The time it took the heat source to penetrate through the 6.5 mm veneer was evidently longer than the 3 mm veneer. Once the heat source had burnt through the 6.5 mm veneer the balsa would burn relatively quickly producing small amounts of smoke while the heat source was present. Although the 3 mm face veneer burnt through quickly, on the other side of the composite the rear 3 mm veneer would slow the rate of penetration hence the time of failure was the same as the 6.5 mm veneer composite. Once the heat source was removed both samples began to produce white smoke.

The time of product failure for the perforated specimens was far sooner than the solid panels with the same thickness. The difference between the two specimens (6.5 mm and 3 mm veneers) was minimal. Both specimens typically failed at the same time, however it was noted that the sandwich composite would maintain its rigidity due to the support that the two 3mm veneers provided to both sides of the composite panel.

A key factor in this test was the design decision to veneer PNG balsa with hoop pine plywood for its sustainable, aesthetic and cost attributes. Balsa could be veneered with endless sandwich skins to produce premium strength and fire properties, however to maintain the sustainable nature and timber appearance of balsa, hoop pine plywood was chosen. Further tests were needed (full-scale and according to international standards) to consider the full implementation of balsa composite panels in the construction industry. AS ISO 9705 could be conducted on PNG balsa composite panels to determine if a 3 mm hoop pine veneer sandwich composite panel met NCC fire standards as a fire group number 3. The 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel was superior to the 6.5 mm single-sided panel in terms of rigidity, strength, tolerance and protection, however without meeting the NCC this product could not be used in the Australian construction industry. Tests to prove this concept did or did not meet the NCC would determine if the product could be implemented into commercial and residential buildings.

7.7.1.6 Conclusion This low-fidelity test demonstrated a difference in rise in temperature against time for two balsa composite panels: a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided panel and a 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel. According to the literature the 6.5 mm veneer panel adhered to the NCC fire performance requirements because the face veneer was a hoop pine plywood with a thickness greater than 6 mm giving it a fire group number 3. The tests conducted highlighted that the time to failure between the two composite panels is typically the same. The rise in temperature was however a key difference, where the 3 mm veneer sandwich composite generally produced higher temperatures. Further testing was required if the 3 mm sandwich composite was to be implemented into the construction industry.

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7.7.2 Product testing (Acoustic absorption) SAC tests were performed on the two balsa concepts to determine which exhibits superior sound absorption properties. The panel systems tested were balsa panels with an open perforation area of 20 per cent, tested with a 400 mm air-gap and 100 mm insulation installed to the underside of the panel in a reverberation chamber.

7.7.2.1 Introduction Testing was carried out in accordance with AS ISO 354-2006 “Acoustics: Measurement of sounds absorption in a reverberation room”. The weighted SAC (αw) was determined in accordance with AS ISO 11654-1997 “Acoustics: Sound Absorbers for Use in Buildings - Rating of sound absorption”. The equipment used to perform these test were calibrated at an accredited laboratory and were in current calibration.

7.7.2.2 Test facilities and procedures Tests were conducted at the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at RMIT in a reverberation chamber. The chamber complied with the standards used to determine the SAC of a test specimen. Random noise frequencies between 40-6300 Hz were delivered by three individual loudspeaker positions to excite the soundfield in the reverberation chamber. Four microphones mounted in statistically independent locations were used to measure the soundfield decays in the chamber. Ten sound decays were obtained at each of the twelve loudspeaker/microphone combinations, thus representing 120 decays for each frequency band. The microphone signal was relayed via a microphone amplifier, to a Bruel & Kjaer 3560 Pulse Multi Analyser System. The Pulse analyser was interfaced to a computer. A program running on the computer allowed the determination of the reverberation time from the sound decays in accordance with the standard. The measuring equipment was calibrated by an external laboratory and was in current calibration.

7.7.2.3 Sample 1 for testing Sample 1 was described as a 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panel (20 mm diameter perforations, 20 per cent open area). 100 mm Acoustisorb 1 insulation was installed to the underside of the panels with a 400 mm cavity. The panel composition was made up of Austral plywood Natural BB hoop pine interior grade 6.5 mm veneered to PNG balsa 12.7 mm with DECI-TEX P44 thermally adhered to the underside of the Panel. Panel dimensions 1200x2400x19.2 mm. The panel surface finish was an INTERGRAIN UltraClear Interior coating. The adhesive used to manufacture the product was AQUENCE KL 3055LV (known as DORUS KL 3055 LV), water based adhesive - based on polyvinyl acetate in aqueous dispersion; versatile cross-linking thermo-setting polyvinyl acetate adhesive designed for cold pressing, hot pressing or radio frequency gluing applications.

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A total of four 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panels were tested in the reverberation chamber at a height of 420 mm from the floor, housed in an MDF frame. Test sample dimensions were 4800x2400 mm, giving a total sample surface of 11.52 m2.

Figure 7.22 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panel

7.7.2.4 Sample 2 for testing Sample 2 was described as a 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panel (20 mm diameter perforations, 20 per cent Open Area). 100 mm Acoustisorb 1 insulation was installed to the underside of the panels with a 400 mm cavity. The panel composition was made up of Matilda veneer hoop pine plywood 3 mm thick veneered to PNG balsa 12.7 mm with DECI-TEX P44 thermally adhered to the underside of the panel. Panel dimensions 1200x2400x18.7 mm. The surface finish was an INTERGRAIN UltraClear Interior coating. The adhesive used to manufacture the product was AQUENCE KL 3055LV (known as DORUS KL 3055 LV), water based adhesive - based on polyvinyl acetate in aqueous dispersion; versatile cross-linking thermo-setting polyvinyl acetate adhesive designed for cold pressing, hot pressing or radio frequency gluing applications.

A total of four 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panels were tested in the reverberation chamber at a height of 420 mm from the floor, housed in an MDF frame. Tests sample dimensions were 4800x2400 mm giving a total sample surface of 11.52 m2.

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Figure 7.23 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panel

Both test samples were tested with a 400 mm air-gap on the underside of the panel with a 100 mm insulation (Acoustisorb 1). The 100 mm Acoustisorb 1 insulation was supported by 3 mm diameter steel formed into mesh with 50x70 mm rectangular sections at nominally 300 mm above the floor of the test chamber. The steel grid was supported by 280 mm in length MDF spacers. The perforated panels under test were butted up against each other as per a standard field installation. The base of the MDF test frame was taped to prevent sound penetration.

Figure 7.24 Balsa panel system installation 294

The position of the samples were placed in accordance to the standards used. Table 7-5 highlights the statistical data of the position of the sample in the reverberation chamber.

Table 7-5 Location of sample in the reverboration chamber Corner reference number X co-ordinate (m) Y co-ordinate (m) 1 -1.20 1.44 2 -20.1 6.17 3 -4.38 5.77 4 -3.57 1.04 Descriptor Diagram reference Length (m) Sample length 1 to 2 Diagram reference A” 4.80 Sample length 1 to 4 Diagram reference B” 2.40

Figure 7.25 Reverberation chamber test environment. Not to scale

7.7.2.5 Results and discussion

The mean reverberation times at each frequency for the empty room, T60e, the room with the sample installed, T60e+s, the SAC and the 95 per cent confidence interval are provided in Table 7-6 (sample 1) and Table 7-9 (sample 2). The results are rounded to 0.01. The 95 per cent confidence interval for each frequency is determined from the standard deviation of the reverberation times of the empty room and the room with the sample. The k factor used to determine the 95 per cent confidence interval is 2.201. The test conditions for sample 1 are given in Table 7-7 and for sample 2 in Table 7-10. 295

Table 7-6 SAC (sample 1) 1/3rd Octave Average RT’s for Average RT’s for SAC 95 per cent

Centre empty room room with (αs) Confidence

Frequency Band (T60e – s) sample Interval for

(Hz) (T60e+s – s) (αs) 100 9.683 3.353 0.55 0.08 125 9.43 2.836 0.69 0.08 160 9.749 3.164 0.6 0.07 200 9.755 3.228 0.58 0.05 250 8.719 2.859 0.66 0.05 315 8.311 2.652 0.72 0.04 400 8.517 2.693 0.71 0.04 500 7.465 2.413 0.78 0.03 630 7.046 2.299 0.82 0.03 800 6.387 2.188 0.84 0.03 1000 6.054 2.095 0.87 0.02 1250 5.348 1.994 0.88 0.03 1600 4.612 2.09 0.73 0.03 2000 4.028 2.067 0.67 0.02 2500 3.403 1.796 0.75 0.02 3150 2.787 1.553 0.82 0.04 4000 2.186 1.308 0.9 0.04 5000 1.841 1.265 0.76 0.04 The NRC of the sample calculated in accordance with ASTM C423-90A was: 0.75

Table 7-7 Test conditions (sample 1) Room empty Air temperature (OC) 20.2 Relative humidity (%) 46 Barometric pressure 0.7685 metre of mercury Room with sample 1 Air temperature (OC) 20.4 Relative humidity (%) 50 Barometric pressure 0.7575 metre of mercury

The weighted SAC (αw) of the sample determined in accordance with AS ISO 11654-1997

“Acoustics: Sound Absorbers for Use in Buildings - Rating of sound absorption” was: αw = 0.75

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The practical SAC is detailed in Table 7-8. These values have been determined in accordance with AS ISO 11654-1997 “Acoustics: Sound Absorbers for Use in Buildings - Rating of sound absorption”.

Table 7-8 Practical SAC for sample 1 Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

Practical SAC, αp 0.60 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.70 0.85

Sound Absorption (sample 1)

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6 ) s α 0.5

SAC ( 0.4 6.5 mm veneer single- 0.3 sided perforated panel

0.2

0.1

0 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7.26 SAC of 6.5 mm veneer single-sided perforated panel

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Table 7-9 SAC (sample 2) 1/3rd Octave Average RT’s for Average RT’s for SAC 95 per cent

Centre empty room room with (αs) Confidence

Frequency Band (T60e – s) sample Interval for

(Hz) (T60e+s – s) (αs) 100 9.683 3.26 0.57 0.09 125 9.43 2.698 0.74 0.08 160 9.749 3.025 0.64 0.06 200 9.755 3.158 0.6 0.05 250 8.719 2.803 0.68 0.06 315 8.311 2.58 0.75 0.05 400 8.517 2.656 0.72 0.04 500 7.465 2.429 0.78 0.04 630 7.046 2.254 0.84 0.03 800 6.387 2.151 0.86 0.04 1000 6.054 2.078 0.88 0.03 1250 5.348 2.153 0.77 0.03 1600 4.612 2.182 0.67 0.02 2000 4.028 1.994 0.7 0.02 2500 3.403 1.783 0.74 0.02 3150 2.787 1.529 0.81 0.02 4000 2.186 1.283 0.88 0.03 5000 1.841 1.205 0.77 0.05 The NRC of the sample calculated in accordance with ASTM C423-90A was: 0.75

Table 7-10 Test conditions (sample 2) Room empty Air temperature (OC) 20.2 Relative humidity (%) 46 Barometric pressure 0.7685 metre of mercury Room with sample 1 Air temperature (OC) 20.7 Relative humidity (%) 43 Barometric pressure 0.7724 metre of mercury

The weighted SAC (αw) of the sample determined in accordance with AS ISO 11654-1997

“Acoustics: Sound Absorbers for Use in Buildings - Rating of sound absorption” was: αw = 0.80

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The practical SAC is detailed in Table 22. These values have been determined in accordance with AS ISO 11654-1997 “Acoustics: Sound Absorbers for Use in Buildings - Rating of sound absorption”.

Table 7-11 Practical SAC for sample 2 Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

Practical SAC, αp 0.65 0.65 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.80

Sound Absorption (sample 2) 1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6 ) s α 0.5

SAC ( 0.4 3 mm veneer sandwich 0.3 composite perforated panel 0.2

0.1

0 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7.27 SAC of 3 mm veneer sandwich composite perforated panel

The tests revealed that the 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panel outperformed the 6.5 mm single-sided panel. The sample test parameters were identical apart from the overall panel thicknesses. A 0.5 mm difference in thickness between the two concepts demonstrated a superior acoustic absorption coefficient for the 3 mm veneer sandwich composite panels. Additionally, it was noted that the sandwich composite panels were easier to install because they were rigid and slightly lighter in weight (less than a kg lighter).

The tests conducted in this doctoral research have simply proven that balsa panels have acoustic value for use in interior environments as a lining product. Future tests could determine the acoustic absorption coefficient without insulation and insulation at various thicknesses, various air-gaps, balsa panels without acoustic fabric backing, various perforated open areas and various panel thicknesses.

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Contemporary interior lining panels are typically 16 mm in thickness. For a direct comparison to these existing products it would be necessary to highlight exact values of balsa panel performances at 16 mm.

7.7.2.6 Conclusion The need to demonstrate the acoustic performance of the balsa panels developed was imperative to proving the commercial competitiveness of this new balsa product against existing products used in the construction industry. The tests demonstrated that a basic balsa panel with a perforated open area, insulation and an air-gap can provide exceptional sound absorption. The tests compared two composite balsa panels to determine which product configuration was superior. The sandwich composite proved to be rigid, allowing for easy installation, incredibly lightweight and a superior sound absorber.

7.8 Production ramp-up

“In the production ramp-up phase, the product was made using the intended production system. The purpose of the ramp-up is to train the workforce and to work out any remaining problems in the production processes” (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2012, p. 16). Products developed in the production stage were sometimes distributed to customers for evaluation and final feedback. The focus of the production ramp-up stage in this doctoral research was treated differently to the outline given by Ulrich and Eppinger (2012). For industry this stage is the beginning of the transition to full production and staff training. In academia this stage was used to promote the product innovation to research and industry partners, potential investors and consumers. For this reason the product ramp-up stage aligned with Frayling’s (1993) research for design, where the product innovation communicated the embodied knowledge and benefits to the construction industry. Figure 7.28 presents the communication of the design artefacts to research and industry partners for final product feedback.

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Figure 7.28 Presenting prototypes to industry partners for product feedback

Future consideration to the full commercialisation and production of this balsa concept would require workforce training according to the intended production process. Consideration to the country of manufacturing, available technology, labour and skills would see the transition from final product and documentation to full product production.

7.9 Summary

This chapter has demonstrated the use of design practice throughout Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process. Design practice was used in this doctoral research to generate and communicate knowledge. Early research into the PNG balsa industry and existing literature identified design opportunities to develop new balsa products for the construction industry. Research-led industrial design practice informed the use of design skills to develop concepts for implementation into the construction industry. Design skills such as sketching, low and high-fidelity prototyping, CAD, and product testing helped develop a product that is competitive in contemporary markets already filled with alternative products. Design innovation was communicated through design developments and promoted the benefits of an interior lining balsa composite panel to the construction industry. Key findings such as material performance and product behaviour could only be identified through design practice. Physically prototyping ideas identified obvious problems with a concept and helped refine and evaluate the appropriateness of a product’s genetics. As previously highlighted, design practice, observations and interviews, material and product tests were conducted simultaneously and iteratively. The combination of these key areas of research were vital to the development of a final product outcome presented in Chapter Eight – Design Outcome. 301

Product design and development through to product testing and knowledge sharing was presented in this chapter. The contribution to knowledge by following Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) design process highlighted the thought process from developing broad design concepts to narrowing down to a select concept that was prototyped to learn the behaviour of balsa at scaled and 1:1 prototypes. This knowledge helped refine the chosen concept and through further material and product testing demonstrated a commercial opportunity in the construction industry.

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8 CHAPTER EIGHT: DESIGN OUTCOME

8.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the final product outcome developed through research-led industrial design practice. The previous chapters have demonstrated existing literature, primary research, the product design and development process and the use of design practice to synthesise and communicate new knowledge to wider audiences. The product outcome presented in this chapter is a sandwich composite panel veneered with hoop pine plywood and cored with balsa. The product branding, further testing, feedback and exposure through sustainable exhibitions and prestigious design awards are discussed in this chapter. A direct comparison to existing products is also presented to demonstrate the benefits of the PNG balsa product innovation to the construction industry to help generate international demand for PNG balsa industry.

The product outcome of this doctoral research was submitted to the International Green Interior Awards, Sydney, Australia (2015) and won 1st place for the student/graduate category. The product outcome was also shortlisted as a finalist in the 2015 Premier Design Awards, Melbourne, Australia. Sections of this chapter have been presented at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition in Brisbane, Australia (2015), presented and published at the agIdeas International Design Forum conference in Melbourne, Australia (2015), publish pending in the Journal of Design, Business and Society (2016), presented and published at International Association of Societies of Design Research conference in Brisbane, Australia (2015) and submitted as a business proposal to the Swinburne University of Technology Innovation Cup competition, (2014) and won 1st place.

8.2 Balsa-lation

Balsa-lation was the name given to the product design outcome of this research. The product name defined the product genetics; the material, PNG balsa and the function of the product, acoustic and thermal insulation. The suffix lation also represented the word revelation, which defines the new balsa product developed in a surprisingly innovative way. This demonstrated new facts that answered knowledge gaps that had hindered modern balsa product developments. The name also suggests that balsa is more than a model making material and had proven properties that are favourable in contemporary Australian construction applications.

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8.2.1 Product branding Figure 8.1 presents the product branding. The green component of the logo represents the combination of a lightweight and sustainable product (feather and leaf). The product design outcome was branded for promotional purposes when presenting the product at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition. This identity helped present the research outcome as a product, not a research concept. The promotion of the product was also substantiated with test results and product demonstrations. Presented in Chapter Five Figure 5.6 shows the initial public promotion of Balsa-lation at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition 2015.

Figure 8.1 Balsa-lation logo

The Sustainable Experience Exhibition is Australia’s dedicated sustainable building show. It is a sustainable building platform which highlights products, solutions and education around sustainable developments within the construction industry. Other than publicly releasing Balsa-lation for the first time at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition, the venue was also used to gather industry feedback on the final product development during the production ramp-up stage of Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process. The target audience at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition were architects, designers, specifiers, builders, homeowners and individuals dedicated to sustainable practice and developments within the construction industry.

Visitors at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition were genuinely interested in Balsa-lation. Architects and builders were predominantly impressed by the lightweight nature of the product and the sustainable attributes such as carbon storage, the use of natural materials and the consideration of using non-hazardous glues and acoustic fabrics. An emphasis was placed on empathy towards the need to assist the PNG balsa industry, particularly the smallholders who are affected by the lack of international demand for balsa. Most people at the Sustainable Experience Exhibition support helping developing countries and communities less fortunate than those in western society and emphasised that the ethical and moral need for balsa products would be a great commercial attraction of utilising balsa in the construction industry. Additionally, questions about the performance of Balsa-lation were asked, ranging from acoustic absorption, thermal values, weight, fire properties and termite susceptibility. The most frequent question however was ‘how much does Balsa-lation cost per square metre?’ 304

8.2.2 Product design outcome Balsa-lation is an interior lining product that utilises balsa as a core substrate material in sandwich panels. This product offers a sustainable alternative to unsustainable MDF and polymer foam interior wall or ceiling linings. A Balsa-lation panel weighs one-third of a MDF panel, exhibits low TC values of 0.033 W/mK and delivers a NRC of 0.80 αw, making it a desirable material for green and lightweight construction whilst delivering a premium level of comfort for residents.

The use of balsa in interior dwellings is an innovative application that could potentially transform the building and construction industry by offering one of the lightest commercial timbers available for interior fit-outs. Having a low TC of 0.033 W/mK, balsa acts as a natural insulator, which provides a thermal barrier separating unwanted exterior temperatures from interior dwellings. The open area perforated into Balsa-lation panels also allows for sound absorption, up to 0.80 αw, reducing unwanted reverberations common in contemporary high-rise concrete constructions.

Unsustainable MDF panels currently dominate interior linings in the construction industry. Balsa- lation has undergone rigorous material testing according to global standard test methods to determine its TC (ASTM D5334), SAC (AS ISO 354), mechanical strength properties (ASTM D143), fire performance (AS NZS 3837) and termite test methods as outlined by the Australian Wood Preservation Committee and AS 3660. Design prototyping in conjunction with material tests led to the development of a superior performing product that is competitive — and in some cases superior — than existing thermal and acoustic interior lining products.

The introduction of Balsa-lation in the building and construction industry sets out to provide a truly sustainable alternative for an industry dominated by unsustainable products. The major benefits of introducing Balsa-lation panels in interior environments over competitor panels are:

- The only sustainable core material to derive from a natural and renewable resource - Up to two-thirds reduction in product weight compared to competitive products - Superior TC 0.033 W/mK

- High NRC values of 0.80 αw - Flexible design patterns and finishes - The socially responsible consideration and support to developing communities in PNG

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Figure 8.2 presents the design research outcome installed into a commercial office (Vault Industrial Design). The following quote is from the Director of Vault Industrial Design:

The balsa panels installed in our showroom not only look amazing, but create a warm and inviting atmosphere for employees and clients. The panels have drastically improved the room’s acoustics, eliminating the unwanted echo and have increased the thermal comfort (Loutit, 2015).

The Vault Industrial Design office had poor acoustics which make speech difficult in the space due to the large reverberation times. This office space was used as a real commercial test to substantiate the performance of Balsa-lation outside a controlled laboratory environment.

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307

Figure 8.2 Final design outcome – Balsa-lation

8.2.3 Product testing Environmental data was recorded before and after the installation. Figure 8.3 and Figure 8.4 shows the office interior before and after to the installation of Balsa-lation. Small-scale measurements recorded the acoustic reverberation times of the Vault Industrial Design office using a smart phone app (Sound Balance by Smith, 2015) to record quantitative data. It is however acknowledged that the level of scientific rigour of this test is lower than previous tests conducted in this thesis. “The app is meant as an aide to estimating material requirements for a room, but is not meant to replace the services of a trained professional consultant” (Smith, 2015). The purpose of this recorded data was to demonstrate an improvement of acoustic performance within the environment. Full-scale room testing according to international standards is expensive therefore simple preliminary measurements were conducted to present data that proved in room acoustics improved after the install. The preliminary data obtained through this low-fidelity testing demonstrated an improvement despite the obvious enhancement in speech clarity within the space. Future testing of a full scale Balsa-lation commercial fit-out could be tested according to Australian Standards as a post-doctoral project. Figure 8.5 identifies the five positions within the Vault Industrial Design office where the reverberation time was measured. Table 8-1, Table 8-2, Figure 8.6 and Figure 8.7 presents the data obtained through the Sound Balance smart phone application at each position before and after Balsa-lation was installed.

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The reverberation time (s) was recorded at each position by popping a balloon three feet away from the smart phone when prompted by the application. All calculations were automatically calculated conforming “to ANSI and ISO standards for computing RT60 time, and for applying the specified material absorption coefficients” (Smith, 2015).

Figure 8.3 Before and after Balsa-lation installation (view from the main entrance)

Figure 8.4 Before and after Balsa-lation installation (view from the rear of the dwelling) 309

Figure 8.5 The five positions used to measure the reverberation time

Table 8-1 Absorption coefficients measured at each position (before Balsa-lation) Frequency (Hz) Corrected Corrected Corrected Corrected Corrected Final RT60 RT60 RT60 RT60 RT60 average (-1, 1.2) (-2.7, 2.7) (-1.2, 3.6) (-2.9, 5.3) (-1.5, 6.9) (s) Overall RT60 (s) 0.85 1.16 0.97 0.96 0.87 0.96 63 1 0.99 0.8 0.98 0.76 0.91 80 1.03 1.01 0.85 0.85 0.73 0.89 100 1.03 1.01 0.85 0.85 0.73 0.89 125 1.06 1.02 0.9 0.72 0.69 0.88 160 0.97 1.04 0.89 0.85 0.83 0.92 200 0.97 1.04 0.89 0.85 0.83 0.92 250 0.89 1.05 0.87 0.98 0.97 0.95 315 0.87 1.01 0.87 0.87 0.9 0.90 400 0.87 1.01 0.87 0.87 0.9 0.90 500 0.86 0.97 0.86 0.76 0.84 0.86 630 0.77 0.95 0.93 0.86 0.74 0.85

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800 0.77 0.95 0.93 0.86 0.74 0.85 1000 0.69 0.92 1 0.95 0.65 0.84 1250 0.83 1.3 1.08 1.04 0.84 1.02 1600 0.83 1.3 1.08 1.04 0.84 1.02 2000 0.97 1.68 1.16 1.13 1.02 1.19 2500 0.93 1.74 1.06 1.05 0.97 1.15 3150 0.93 1.74 1.06 1.05 0.97 1.15 4000 0.89 1.8 0.97 0.96 0.92 1.11 5000 0.84 1.66 0.85 0.92 0.91 1.04 6300 0.84 1.66 0.85 0.92 0.91 1.04 8000 0.8 1.52 0.73 0.88 0.9 0.97

Absorption coefficients (before Balsa-lation) 2

1.8 (-1, 1.2) (-2.7, 2.7)

1.6 (-1.2, 3.6) (-2.9, 5.3)

1.4 (-1.5, 6.9) 1.2

0.8

0.6 Reverboration Reverboration time (s) 0.4

0.2

1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz)

Figure 8.6 Absorption coefficients before installing Balsa-lation

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Table 8-2 Absorption coefficients measured at each position (after Balsa-lation) Frequency (Hz) Corrected Corrected Corrected Corrected Corrected Final RT60 RT60 RT60 RT60 RT60 average (-1, 1.2) (-2.7, 2.7) (-1.2, 3.6) (-2.9, 5.3) (-1.5, 6.9) (s) Overall RT60 (s) 0.71 0.48 0.57 0.7 0.66 0.62 63 0.89 0.5 0.64 0.76 0.87 0.73 80 0.83 0.47 0.64 0.78 0.77 0.70 100 0.83 0.47 0.64 0.78 0.77 0.70 125 0.77 0.44 0.63 0.8 0.68 0.66 160 0.76 0.43 0.61 0.71 0.7 0.64 200 0.76 0.43 0.61 0.71 0.7 0.64 250 0.76 0.42 0.6 0.61 0.72 0.62 315 0.74 0.44 0.59 0.65 0.65 0.61 400 0.74 0.44 0.59 0.65 0.65 0.61 500 0.73 0.46 0.57 0.69 0.59 0.61 630 0.67 0.46 0.52 0.71 0.62 0.60 800 0.67 0.46 0.52 0.71 0.62 0.60 1000 0.6 0.46 0.48 0.73 0.64 0.58 1250 0.68 0.53 0.55 0.74 0.67 0.63 1600 0.68 0.53 0.55 0.74 0.67 0.63 2000 0.77 0.59 0.63 0.75 0.7 0.69 2500 0.75 0.71 1.31 0.74 0.35 0.77 3150 0.75 0.71 1.31 0.74 0.35 0.77 4000 0.72 0.84 1.99 0.72 0 0.85 5000 0.7 0.75 1.74 0.72 0.8 0.94 6300 0.7 0.75 1.74 0.72 0.8 0.94 8000 0.68 0.65 1.48 0.71 1.61 1.03

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Absorption coefficients (after Balsa-lation) 2 1.8 (-1, 1.2) (-2.7, 2.7) 1.6 (-1.2, 3.6) (-2.9, 5.3) 1.4

1.2 (-1.5, 6.9)

0.8

0.6 Reverboartion Reverboartion time (s) 0.4

0.2

1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz) Figure 8.7 Absorption coefficients after installing Balsa-lation

Absorption coefficients (before and after Balsa-lation)

1.40

1.20

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

Reverboration Reverboration time (s) Final Average (After) 0.20 Final Average (Before) 0.00

1/3rd Octave Centre Frequency (Hz)

Figure 8.8 Average absorption coefficients before and after installing Balsa-lation

According to the final average reverberation times calculated evident in Figure 8.8 the Balsa- lation panels reduced the reverberation time by an average 0.26 seconds in the Vault Industrial Design office. This change in reverberation time eliminated the unwanted echo development due to the Balsa- lation panels absorbing sound at various frequencies. It must be noted that a full analysis of this preliminary data is beyond the scope of this doctoral research. A full-scale room test according to international standards and in collaboration with professional acousticians would demonstrate the full product performance and environment improvements where Balsa-lation is installed. 313

8.3 Competitor products

Balsa-lation was developed for interior environments in the construction industry. This market is already crowded with numerous products, materials, systems and technology. To stand above the competition and to achieve specifier choice the benefits of Balsa-lation must be documented and promoted. The Balsa-lation panels installed into the Vault Industrial Design office consisted of ethically sourced materials, components, manufacturing processes and practices used by associated companies.

The first and most important material used in this application is ethically sourced PNG balsa from The PNG Balsa Company Pty. Ltd. According to the Australian Dangerous Goods Code balsa is classified as a non-Dangerous Good. It is non-toxic to the environment and is a natural material susceptible to the process of biodegradation when disposed of in designated landfill. There are no special precautions for transporting and normal handling is safe when good hygiene, ample ventilation and clean working environments are practiced. Further to this, transportation efficiencies are increased due to the lightweight nature of the material compared to current competitor MDF products. The balsa growth cycle is rapid, growing to heights of 40 m in five years. At five years old the tree must be harvested to reduce the loss of merchantable timber to natural decay. Balsa is grown on rotational crops in PNG to maximise annual yields and financial returns to smallholders. Balsa is harvested manually without large machinery. It is felled by chainsaw, de-barked using available branches to jimmy the bark off the timber and is carried out by human-power. The timber is then transported to a local mill where it is processed into lumber and kiln dried in makeshift shipping containers fuelled by balsa-off cuts and saw dust produced at the mill. Once the lumber reaches 12 per cent MC the lumber is glued together to produce large end-grain blocks using a Henkel Pty. Ltd. versatile water based, cross-linking thermo-setting polyvinyl acetate adhesive. According to Safe Work Australia this adhesive is not classified as hazardous. The Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail also classify the substance as a non-Dangerous Good. The balsa end-grain blocks are then either sliced into panels of end-grain balsa and sanded smooth or sold as raw end-grain blocks to commercial markets.

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Balsa end-grain panels require a protective skin to prevent denting and discoloration hence its commercial use as a core substrate material in sandwich panels. The veneer chosen for this new product application is an Austral Plywood Pty. Ltd. natural B-B Interior grade hoop pine plywood. Worksafe Australia classified this product as not a hazardous material. The product is certified to Super E0 formaldehyde emissions, which is the lowest emission rating obtainable containing hundreds of times lower than the Worksafe Australia eight hour time weighted average occupational exposure limit. The product also does not require special transport precautions. The plywood veneers are cold press glued to the balsa core using the same Henkel Pty. Ltd. adhesive that was used to manufacture the balsa end- grain panels.

At the rear of the balsa sandwich panel is a heat reactive adhesive coated spun-bonded acoustic fabric manufactured by L&L Products Aus Pty. Ltd. This product is noted as completely non-toxic and safe to handle without protective clothing or respiration apparatus. Additionally a thermal and acoustic polyester insulation by Tontine Insulation is used to improve the balsa linings performance from behind the panels. Tontine insulation is a highly recycled fibre based insulation that has no harmful volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, phenol, chloride, ammonia or ozone depleting potential that is 100 per cent recyclable. Finally, the pine timber frame erected for the product install is ethical and legally sourced Stora Enso timber that was not chemically treated and FSC certified.

Table 8-3 presents the total eco-costs (human health, exo-toxicity, resource depletion and carbon footprint) per euro/kg and the carbon foot print of associated materials and products currently used in the construction industry (Idemat, 2015).

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Table 8-3 Eco-costs of current construction materials and processes (Idemat, 2015) version V3.3 Process Total eco-costs Carbon footprint (euro/kg) (kg/CO2 equivalent) Materials, chemicals, organic Formaldehyde 0.60 1.09 Materials, construction, coverings Gypsum plasterboard 0.10 0.42 Materials, construction insulation Glass wool 0.47 1.44 Rockwool 0.33 1.18 Materials, construction, paints Acrylic varnish transparent (water based) 0.73 1.19 Materials, metals, non ferro Aluminium (primary) 6.82 20.22 Aluminium removed by drilling (CNC machining) 5.98 13.66 Materials, plastics, Thermoplasts Wood glue (polyvinyl acetate - PVA) 1.14 3.24 Materials, plastics, Thermosets Polyurethane (rigid foam) 1.01 4.61 Materials, wood, Class IV (5-10 years) Balsa (plantation) 0.39 0.82 Radiata Pine 0.21 0.53 Materials, wood, extraction Residual hardwood (wet) 7.38 - Residual softwood (wet) 4.62 19.55 Sawlog and veneer log, softwood, debarked, 5.15 21.09 measured as solid wood Sawnwood, beam, hardwood, kiln dried, planed 47.84 163.29 Materials, wood, products Bamboo (local China) 0.06 0.19 Fibreboard hard (800 kg/m3) 0.28 1.20 Particle board (600 kg/m3) 0.21 0.52 MDF (750 kg/m3) 0.25 0.85 Plywood Bamboo (approximately 700 kg/m3) 0.23 0.46 Plywood (600 kg/m3) 0.18 0.61

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The list of materials and processes presented in Table 8-3 highlight the cost (euro) per kg and carbon footprint for comparative purposes. Most timber-based products have a relatively low eco-cost by comparison to aluminium of polymer foams. The carbon footprint however is substantially higher for extracting timber — particularly kiln drying — in preparation for consumer markets. What is not highlighted is that the volume per kg for timber is much higher than other materials due to the lightweight nature of timber (especially balsa). Table 8-4 highlights the benefits of Balsa-lation compared to typical products currently used in the construction industry. Product details are a guide only. The information presented in the following table is a guide at best and is subject to change without notice.

Table 8-4 Comparision of Balsa-lation with existing products Product list (acoustic and or thermal interior lining products) Balsa-lation Description Sandwich composite cored with PNG balsa for non-structural, interior, acoustic and thermal application Product genetics Plywood veneer, PNG balsa core, acoustic fabric, acrylic varnish Manufacturing Balsa: planation harvest, sawn, planed, kiln dry, glue laminated, process sliced and sanded Plywood: plantation harvest, peel, kiln dry, laminate Sandwich panel: glue laminate plywood veneers to balsa (cold press) Acoustic pattern: CNC machining Sealant: Spray booth Acoustic fabric: heat activated acoustic fabric (hot press) Performance Balsa TC: 0.033 W/mK

NRC: 0.80αw (18.7 mm, 20 per cent open area) Fire group number: as low as 3 Weight 13.8 kg (solid panel) (1200x2400x16 11 kg (20 per cent open area) mm) Cost ($AUD/m2) For commercial and industry confidentiality the ($AUD/m2) is not released

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MDF Description Fibreboard, non-structural, interior, acoustic application Product genetics Timber veneer, MDF core, acoustic fabric, acrylic varnish Manufacturing Fibreboard: glue, press process Timber veneer: harvest, peel, kiln dry Veneer application: glue laminate veneers (hot press) Acoustic pattern: CNC machining Sealant: Spray booth Acoustic fabric: heat activated acoustic fabric (hot press) Performance TC: 0.2 W/mK NRC: various values up to NRC 1.0 Fire group number: as low as 1 Weight 34.6 kg (solid panel) (1200x2400x16 27.6 kg (20 per cent open area) mm) Cost (~$AUD/m2) 120-185 Plywood Description Plywood, non-structural, interior, acoustic application (hoop pine) Product genetics Plywood, acoustic fabric, acrylic varnish Manufacturing Plywood: plantation harvest, peel, kiln dry, laminate process Acoustic pattern: CNC machining Sealant: Spray booth Acoustic fabric: heat activated acoustic fabric (hot press) Performance TC: 0.13 W/mK Fire group number: as low as 3 Weight 25.3 kg (solid panel) (1200x2400x16 20.2 kg (20 per cent open area) mm) Cost (~$AUD/m2) 140

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Polyurethane Description Synthetic foam, non-structural, interior, acoustic and thermal application Product genetics Polyurethane, acoustic fabric Manufacturing Thermoplastic: polymer resins, heat extruded process Fabric: woven fibres Laminate: glue, cold press Performance TC: 0.03 W/mK NRC: various values up to NRC 1.0 Fire performance: poor (fire resistance by request) Weight 4.3 kg (solid panel) (1200x2400x50 mm) Cost (~$AUD/m2) 200 Sheet metal Description Sheet metal, non-structural, interior or exterior, acoustic application Product genetics Sheet metal Manufacturing Acoustic pattern: CNC machining/punch/laser cut process Sealant: powder coating Performance TC: 43.0 W/mK NRC: various values up to NRC 1.0 Fire group number: 1 Weight 33.8 kg (solid panel) (1200x2400x1.5 27 kg (20 per cent open area) mm) Cost (~$AUD/m2) 150 Product prices and performance values were sourced from existing literature and products available at market. Prices are an approximate value, are subject to change without notice and do not include freight. The identity of these products are anonymous.

Contemporary interior lining products are predominantly manufactured out of MDF. They are reasonably priced, dimensionally stable, readily available and offer a range of performances. MDF panels can be fire retardant, achieving a fire group number 1 and are typically veneered with a natural timber veneer or painted a solid colour. MDF linings are frequently ‘green-washed’ and used in interior construction, despite being heavy and containing formaldehyde's associated with health risks (Driscoll, 2014). For a product to be labelled ‘green’ consideration must be given to the impact it has on the environment, social culture and economics of an eco-system. Table 8-4 also compares similar products

319 manufactured out of plywood, polyurethane and sheet metal (steel or aluminium). The manufacturing processes and material sourcing are typical processes used by industry to manufacture interior lining products. The acoustic and thermal performances of each product can be manipulated through design to satisfy the specific requirements of an interior dwelling. Every environment requires different product specifications. A typical commercial acoustic lining product will have an open area of 20 per cent for sound absorption and will have an overall dimension of 1200x2400x16 mm. Interior lining products are normally used in a system of components to produce premium results. Product thickness, open area, the surface finish, air-gaps behind the product, insulation, installation, acoustic fabrics and the environment itself play an important role in achieving the desired outcome.

Tests conducted on Balsa-lation panels utilised a 12.7 mm balsa core because that is what was donated by The PNG Balsa Company Ltd. As previously highlighted further testing to determine optimal sound absorption was required to develop a range of Balsa-lation products. Additional testing on various veneers was also necessary to improve the fire group number of the current Balsa-lation product. A proper cost analysis of the product from material sourcing, manufacturing, post manufacturing to marketing was required to initiate the transition from product ramp-up to full production.

8.4 Design competitions

Highlighted in the introduction of this chapter, Balsa-lation was entered into international and local design competitions. Lin and Luh (2009) noted entering prestigious industrial design competitions is a way to gain feedback on new product developments. This is a method for validating the level of design innovation and to receive feedback from international experts (p. 197). Additionally, the intention of submitting the product outcome in design competitions was to gain market exposure, collect feedback from stakeholders in the construction industry, to measure the level of interest in the product and to determine the preliminary success of a new balsa product to help assist the PNG balsa industry.

8.4.1 2015 International Green Interior Awards Balsa-lation won first prize in the student/graduate category in the 2015 International Green Interior Awards. Australian Living developed these awards in 2012 to sit within their suit of platforms that facilitate and promote sustainable building practices.

“Balsa-lation is a wonderful and innovative product created by a student who is committed to making a difference in a community whilst considering the environment” (IGIA, 2015, para. 31).

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The Balsa-lation lining product innovation presented in the 2015 International Green Interior Award was an ethically thought-out product that encompasses the green attributes of each component used to offer a truly sustainable alternative to current dominant, unsustainable MDF products. PNG balsa products support farmers and developing communities in PNG, generating a future of sustainable livelihoods, economic growth and green products for non-structural applications in global construction and building developments.

Figure 8.9 Balsa-lation submission to the 2015 International Green Interior Awards

This award demonstrated a high level of consideration for the development of a truly sustainable product that offered assistance in the development of international demand for PNG balsa. Receiving the student/graduate award initiated product interest from sustainable product specifiers and sustainably minded consumers who desired the product for its ethical and moral PNG background story and sustainable credentials. In addition to communicating the PNG balsa industry problem, the award communicated the design research process and the contribution to knowledge through product form to reach a wider audience outside of academia, design and the PNG balsa industry.

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8.4.2 2015 Premier Design Awards Balsa-lation was shortlisted as a finalist for the product category in the 2015 Premier Design Awards. “The Premier’s Design Awards recognise and reward Victorian designers and businesses using exemplar design effectively and sustainably” (PDA, 2015, para. 3).

Balsa-lation is an interior lining product utilising balsa wood as a core substrate material in sandwich panels. This product offers a sustainable alternative to unsustainable MDF and polymer foam interior wall/ceiling linings. A Balsa-lation panel weighs one-third of a MDF panel and few people are aware that balsa is a natural resource grown on sustainable plantations in PNG. Balsa-lation exhibits low TC values of 0.033 W/mK and delivers noise reduction coefficients of 0.80 αw, making it a desirable material for green and lightweight construction whilst delivering a premium level of comfort for residents.

Figure 8.10 Balsa-lation submission to the 2015 Premier Design Awards

This award is designed to recognise the contribution the design industry generates for the Victorian economy. Almost 200,000 people are employed in design related roles, generating revenue of AUD$7.3 billion annually for Victoria, and an estimated AUD$204 million in design-related exports (PDA, 2015, para. 2).

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8.5 Summary

This chapter has validated the product design and development outcome of this doctoral research. The value of developing the product outcome presented in this chapter demonstrated how the work conducted in academia was useful to the PNG industry, the design community and the Australian construction industry. Balsa-lation acted as an exemplar artefact that communicated the design research process and the contribution to knowledge through embedded research findings in product form. A direct comparison to competitor products, which currently dominate interior lining markets within the construction industry, has been made. Preliminary product testing in a commercial office fit-out has demonstrated the premium performance and client satisfaction with Balsa-lation. Product branding separated this product design outcome from competitor products and highlighted that this product was beyond concept ideation and development and has real commercial value as a competitive alternative to current dominate and unsustainable products used in the construction industry.

International and Australian design awards were used to promote Balsa-lation and measure its early success. The competitions chosen for submission primarily emphasised sustainable design practice and developments. The Balsa-lation submission clearly outlined the ethical product design approach to assist the PNG balsa industry and the development of a sustainable product for the construction industry that was needed. Product innovation and academic research rigour substantiated the development process and the performance of Balsa-lation, thus utilising design as a vehicle to communicate new knowledge to society.

The additional stages of the product design and development process presented in this chapter such as branding, implementing a trial commercial fit-out and submitting the product into design competitions substantiated the initial commercial success of Balsa-lation. The knowledge contribution outlined in this chapter indicated the performance and value of Balsa-lation as an answer to the underlining research question. The research-led industrial design practice approach utlised the research methods to generate a design artefact that embedded the new knowledge contributions that communicated the use and value of PNG balsa in the construction industry.

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9 CHAPTER NINE: DISCUSSION

9.1 Introduction

This chapter will decipher the thesis chapters into the three stages of Frayling’s (1993) research into art and design model. A reflection of the methods and knowledge generated will be evaluated to demonstrate how design communicates a new contribution to knowledge. Moreover, the product design and development process by Ulrich and Eppinger (2012) will be discussed and aligned with the research model to demonstrate academic rigour, compared to a typical industry product design and development process. A case study will contrast the similarities and differences between the academic product design process demonstrated in this research and a product design process of an Australian small and medium- sized enterprise timber product manufacturer and distributor to the construction industry.

Sections of this chapter were accepted for publishing and presenting at the Design Research Society Conference in Brighton, UK (2016).

9.2 Reflecting on the research model

Early in this doctoral research an emphasis was placed on finding direct relevance between academia, industry and society through academic design research and industrial design product development. The need to find relevance between these professional environments is substantiated by the use of product design and development to generate commercially viable products for industries while generating a new contribution to knowledge through academic research. Frayling’s (1993) research model was chosen to direct the design research conducted in this research.

There is much discussion around Frayling’s (1993) research in art and design model. The purpose of including this discussion in this thesis was to highlight the various views that have resulted from the lack of definition given by Frayling. The following academics discuss Frayling’s (1993) research model as:

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- (Freidman, 2008, p. 156-157): into, by and for design – different name. - (Zimmerman, Stolterman & Forlizzi, 2010, p. 313): about, for and through design – different name and order. - (Zimmerman & Forlizzi, 2014, p. 169): into, for and through design – different order. - (Jonas, 2007, p. 4): presented a comparative study of the trinities of design research concepts presented by Frayling (1993), Findeli (1998) and Jonas (2004). The order of Frayling’s (1993) research model was restructured to suit Findeli (1998) and Jonas (2004) into, for and through – different order.

Cross (1999, p. 6) states that design research is - the investigation of human ability, the tactics and strategies of designing and the forms, materials and finishes which embody design attributes. “The whole point of doing research is to extract reliable knowledge from either the natural or artificial world, and to make that knowledge available to others in re-usable form” (Cross, 1999, p. 9). Cross (2001) additionally noted, “design makes science visible” (p. 52). Archer (1995) discusses the contentious topic of research through practitioner action. He claimed action research is a “systematic enquiry conducted through the medium of practical action; calculated to devise or test new, or newly imported, information, ideas, forms or procedures and generate communicable knowledge” (p. 11). Fallman (2007) stated, “In research-oriented design, the artefact is the product or primary outcome… It is quite obvious, however, that this conduct also generates various kinds of knowledge” (p. 198). Fallman (2007) supported this claim by emphasising that the artefact “takes on a much clearer and explicit role in what the designers stress as their contribution” (p. 198). This clarifies that the artefact is used as a tangible tool to visually communicate a contribution to knowledge.

Cross (1991, 2001), Archer (1995) and Fallman (2007), inadvertently have described the three stages of Frayling’s (1993) research into, through and for design. Cross (1991) emphasises that the point of research is to extract knowledge. Existing research into design must be reviewed to identify knowledge gaps and opportunities to contribute communicable and reusable knowledge to society. Archer (1995) demonstrates research through design by introducing research through practical action to test concepts and communicate knowledge. Fallman (2007) concludes by claiming the design outcome (artefact) generates various kinds of knowledge, however the main contribution to knowledge is stressed through the artefact (research for design).

Kuys et al., (2014) presents two industry linked research-led industrial design practice case studies that use Frayling’s (1993) research into art and design model. Kuys et al., (2014) study visually communicates which stage of the product design and development process aligns with Frayling’s (1993) three stages of research into, through and for design. By comparison to the previously discussed

326 literature, the visual communication of Frayling’s (1993) research model in Kuys et al. (2014) clearly helps the reader to understand what each stage of the design research model entails.

Frayling’s (1993) model of design research was used to guide the research and product design and development process used in this research-led industrial design practice project. The three stages of design research are summarised as:

- Research into design: Identifying knowledge gaps (problem finding and opportunity development). - Research through design: Generating knowledge through practice and reflection. - Research for design: Communicating knowledge embedded in design artefacts.

The following sections of this chapter visually communicate the three stages of Frayling’s (1993) research into art and design model. A student research photography competition runs annually at Swinburne University of Technology as an opportunity for research students to visually communicate their research to a wider audience. An emphasis is placed on aesthetics and communicating relevance to the specific field of research. Three photograph submissions taken each year since 2013 were used to summarise research into, through and for design.

9.2.1 Research ‘into’ design Chapters One, Two and Three were categorised as research into design. 25 per cent of this doctoral research project was project planning, problem finding, balsa research and opportunity development. The research question ‘how can research-led industrial design practice generate and communicate knowledge for PNG balsa?’ was key to justifying the need for design practice and academic research to rectify the current over-supply and under-demand for PNG balsa. This stage of the research was used to justify and direct the use of industrial design practice to generate knowledge and embed it into products to demonstrate academic research which has relevance to industry and society.

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Figure 9.1 “The Balsa Conundrum” 2013 photograph submission for communicating research into design (2nd prize)

Figure 9.1 communicates the research findings from conducting research into design – the financial hardship and stresses presented to smallholders dedicated to growing balsa for the PNG balsa industry. Design innovation and product development to target new markets that could benefit from the implementation of balsa products — such as the construction industry — was needed to generate demand for the PNG resource to ensure the livelihoods of smallholder’s, their family and community are sustained. A key point by industry stakeholders in the PNG balsa industry noted that the future of the PNG balsa industry relies on demand for the resource from new design products otherwise there is no continuing to grow balsa in PNG.

9.2.2 Research ‘through’ design Chapters Four, Five, Six and Seven documented research through design to demonstrate the process of research-led industrial design practice. 73 per cent of this doctoral research project was practice to generate new knowledge. That knowledge was embedded into the product design and development process to develop a commercially viable balsa product. Product testing and refinement was practised through many product iterations where industry practitioners were sourced to assist the development of Balsa-lation.

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Figure 9.2 “Designing a Balsa Revolution” 2014 photograph submission for communicating research through design

The intent of Figure 9.2 was to emphasis the design skills and methods used to generate and synthesis new knowledge for product embodiment. Research methods were not limited to the discipline of design. Research methods from humanities, science and engineering were used in collaboration with design to generate knowledge. Design was used as the tool to embed research finding into products. Design practice, testing and refinement iterations developed a connection between the methods employed, the research findings, industry feedback and the communication of new knowledge. The intention was to communicate new knowledge in product form so a wider audience could identify and understand the new knowledge, thus identifying the direct relevance of design research from academia for industry and society.

9.2.3 Research ‘for’ design Chapter Eight presented the design research and product design outcome of this doctoral research. Two per cent of the project was dedicated to communicating the contribution to knowledge through the design artefact. This does not mean that this stage of Frayling’s (1993) research model was less important. Since the design artefact communicated material, form, function and embodied research/knowledge/testing/refinement the relevance to industry and society was demonstrated. Additionally, comparative studies and environment product testing was used to highlight the superior properties of Balsa-lation over existing dominate interior lining products to prove its commercial viability.

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Figure 9.3 “The view up here: Research to Commercialisation” 2015 photograph submission for communicating research for design (1st prize)

Figure 9.3 represents the significant scale of this research outcome. The nature of the product was to offer an alternative interior lining product that is sustainable, lightweight and offered a solution for acoustic and thermal insulation in the construction industry. This product demonstrated the embedded contribution to knowledge by demonstrating various material properties that had never been tested or proven for PNG balsa. The ability to develop a commercially viable award-winning product for industry and society in academia also demonstrated how research-led industrial design practice could offer solutions to social and industry problems.

9.3 Reflecting on the design process

There have been many attempts by academics to model a satisfactory description of the design process as highlighted by; Wynn and Clarkson, (2005); Howard, Culley and Dekoninck, (2008); and Cross, (2008). “A key weakness of all the literature reviewed… is the difficulty of application to real design problems” (Wynn & Clarkson, 2005, p. 55). A comparative study to highlight the similarities and differences between the design process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise in industry and academia is presented in this thesis to substantiate that the design research conducted demonstrates academic rigour. The industry process and research findings were aligned with Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process and Frayling’s (1993) research into, through 330 and for design model to identify obvious discrepancies between the two. The purpose was not to detail the product outcomes developed by academia or industry, but to highlight key elements that affect the product design and development process.

9.3.1 Academic product design process As previously highlighted, Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product design and development process was chosen to direct and manage the design activities conducted to assist the development of a commercially viable product for the PNG balsa industry. This design process was also aligned with Frayling’s (1993) design research model. Figure 9.4 maps out the process model. The activities conducted in each process stage are listed. Process iterations and the general flow of information and product development are highlighted with black arrows. The time spent at each process stage is given as a percentage under the product design and development stages and the overall time spent on the type of research — into, through or for — is highlighted on top.

Figure 9.4 Product design and development process used in academia

Four key research methods were employed in this project: observations, interviews, material testing and prototyping. Observations and interviews were used extensively with industry practitioners to identify opportunities, gather industry tacit knowledge to inform the product design process and for feedback on the product being developed. Material testing was used to determine the properties of PNG balsa and prototyping was used to embed research findings in product form.

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Iterations typically reverted back one stage to reconsider new knowledge attained along the design process. A larger iteration between testing and refinement to system-level design was necessary to implement product test results into low and high-fidelity prototypes. These prototypes were used to communicate new knowledge to industry practitioners for product feedback in order to assist the product detailing and refinement process. Some iteration involved interviewing participants on multiple occasions to review feedback and other iterations were necessary to refine product genetics because of new research findings or product tests results.

Figure 9.4 also demonstrates the process breakdown using Frayling’s (1993) research into, through and for design research. Research into design was the planning stage of the process to identify research problems, market gaps and opportunities. A review of the literature, observations and interviews was first used to provide evidence that the research problem existed. The literature highlighted knowledge gaps and informed the need to conduct observations and interviews with industry practitioners to begin identifying project opportunities. The academic product design process heavily invested time in conducting research through design practice to develop new knowledge so it could be embedded into a successful product outcome. The majority of the design process from concept development to testing and refinement was categorised as research through design – almost three quarters of the project. Design skills such as sketching, low and high-fidelity prototyping, CAD and product testing were used to research through design to communicate new knowledge and ultimately to develop a commercially viable product outcome. Research through design was also used to generate new knowledge through process reflection and product evaluation. The remaining proportion of the project was dedicated to research for design. This area of research was used to promote the new knowledge contribution embedded into the artefact. Less time was spent on research for design because the focus of the PhD was to use industrial design practice to develop new knowledge and embed that knowledge into a commercially viable product. The communication of product manufacturing and detailed product specifications for commercialisation was not the focus of this project as it would be for an industry project. The manufacturing process was considered and documented in the production ramp-up stage, however the time spent on research for design was far less than research into and through design.

9.3.2 Industry product design process The product design and development process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise timber products manufacturer and distributor to the construction industry is mapped out in Figure 6. Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) design process and Frayling’s (1993) research model were deliberately not introduced to the research participant. Information was obtained through an in-context interview which lasted 40 minutes. General questions on the process of product development were asked to help the interviewee illustrate the process which the small and medium-sized enterprise uses.

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Figure 9.5 Product design and development process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise

Figure 9.5 was manipulated to align with Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) product development process so a direct comparison could be made with the academic process. The primarily purpose of the above process was to eliminate the risk of damaging company quality reputation and financial losses. The majority of resources are used early in the process to understand client expectations and what is needed to satisfy the brief. The following stages consider the variables which may affect the ability to satisfy the client and brief. Once the project constraints and considerations are addressed and the company is confident that the risk is eliminated the job is created. The remaining stages are work as usual – product manufacture and distribution.

Figure 9.6 Product design and development process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise aligned with Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) and Frayling’s (1993) process models 333

Figure 9.6 presents the same data however the industry process was mapped using Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) design process and Frayling’s (1993) research model. While the iterations between the stages were unchanged some of the activities in the later process stages were merged or moved to another stage. Key to the success of the industry job was understanding the client’s expectations and the brief deliverables. An exceptional amount of time and resources are spent building a relationship with the client to develop trust between the two parties. The majority of the methods used in this process were used to justify the ability to deliver products to a client that are commercially achievable and economically beneficial to the manufacturer. Once a relationship was established between the client and the manufacturer the process typically proceeded by answering key questions identified as stages in Figure 9.5; Can we do it? What can’t we do? How do we eliminate risk? The concept development stage focussed on what the manufacturer could do. The system-level design broke the product down into components to identify what the manufacturer cannot do. If ‘what cannot be done’ is a significant process block, the manufacturer would go back to the concept development stage to reconsider other ways of satisfying the client brief. It is rare that a job would be rejected after the planning stage due to the amount of time invested in building a relationship with the client, however sometimes solutions cannot be found to solve a problem and the manufacturer must reject the job or they may risk tarnishing their reputation. The detail design stage considers how the manufacturer eliminates the remaining risk. The activities identified in this stage are key to ensuring the product is suitable for manufacturing, high quality products are achievable and the components/materials are reliable.

These first four stages of the product design and development process are considered research into design because the level of planning to ensure the manufacturing process runs smoothly is prioritised. The next stage, research through design is significantly smaller. This stage is the final checkpoint prior to manufacturing a client’s product. Material tests and pre-production trials are conducted to ensure quality. The final stage – research for design is considered the ‘no risk’ area. This stage is the procurement documentation of the job and the commitment to full production. The participant noted “this stage is our profession… to us this is easy, we do this every day. The hard part is eliminating the potential 97 per cent risk before you commit to production”.

The iterations illustrated in Figure 9.6 were recognised as constant feedback to the client to ensure the job remained on target. The process of product design and development continues as much as needed to satisfy the client and guarantee the job will be successful and profitable. Unforeseen constraints and considerations need to be rectified prior to committing to full production. If alternatives are available and the client is happy to reconsider or negotiate their original demands then the job continues. If materials or manufacturing techniques require additional research the process is reverted back to the start to ensure they are incorporated into the job. Once full production is committed the process becomes linear and the job is complete. 334

9.3.3 Contrasting the academic and industry product design process This section compares the academic product design process presented in this thesis with the product design process that an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise uses in industry. A comparison is made between the methods used at each stage, the time allocated to each stage, iterations between stages and the nature of the stage – into, through or for.

In the contexts discussed, both industry and academia have similar goals to develop commercially viable products through the use of industrial design. There are however clear differences between the two. Research methods employed by academics are used to answer research questions and knowledge gaps. Research methods also substantiate the need to practise design to embed knowledge into products. The methods used by industry practitioners are used to satisfy a client and their brief and are not directly used to inform practice. The methods used in the academic project were typical design research methods (sketching, prototyping, CAD and product testing). The purpose of the methodology was to generate new knowledge to inform the product design and development process and communicate new knowledge embedded into commercially viable products. Observation and interviews were used in almost every stage of the design process to gather product feedback. Material testing was practised early in the design process to inform concept development, and product testing was conducted later in the design process to justify the performance and competitiveness of the developed product. Moreover design prototypes were used to communicate ideas and observe industry interactions with the product. Knowledge was attained through practising design skills to develop a new balsa product that could not have been identified without physically executing an idea as a tangible prototype. Industry methods were less repetitive and did not seek external feedback to satisfy the clients brief. Industry practitioners contacted clients to reassure them that the planning and concept development would satisfy their brief deliverables. The methods used by industry are safe. Detailed research and material testing typically already exists or has been conducted by suppliers and clients. The relationship built early in the design process places a level of trust into the client’s ability to inform industry of what they want. Industry practitioners use their experience to overcome problems, offer alternatives, control the quality of the outcome and produce a quality end result. Research in industry is general and used to answer questions beyond the knowledge of the practitioners or to source materials and product components. The methods employed by industry are rapid. Fast turn over times are required to make profit compared to the slower academic pace, where methods seek knowledge generation rather than financial profit. Another difference between industry and academia is the dependence on commercial success. The methods and process of research and product development is the focus of academic research. If a product fails a contribution to knowledge still exists. If a product fails in industry time, financial returns, employment and brand reputation may be affected.

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A significant difference in the time spent on each stage of the product design and development process was evident. The obvious dedication to planning and relationship building early in the design process was noted in industry. This stage is imperative for industry as it dictates whether or not a job is accepted. By comparison the planning stage used in the academic project was to review the literature and identify opportunities, knowledge and market gaps. This highlights that the academic planning stage is used for problem finding whereas industry uses this stage for relationship building and identifying commercial viability. The concept development stage has similar goals. In academia the concept development stage required additional research to justify the appropriateness of early concepts, and in industry practitioners begin to consider the elements that are appropriate for concept development to satisfy the client’s demand. The system-level design stage is used to overcome early problems. Both professions use experience and tacit knowledge to justify the success of early concepts and to resolve problems.

The detail design stage was prominent in developing high-fidelity prototypes in the academic project. CAD and full-scale prototypes demonstrated the product genetics from materials, tooling, assembly and the quality control. Less time was spent on this stage in industry because of prior experience and existing relationships. The testing and refinement stage was imperative to proving the product functioned and was competitive for the product development process used in academia. Industry is well aware of what is accepted as ‘industry standard’, therefore they are aware of what clients/consumers minimum expectations are. For an academic who has less experience in timber products and the construction industry, comparative testing is required to determine the benefits of the new product outcome in order to prove it is viable. A similar time frame was dedicated to the production ramp-up stage. The academic process focussed on knowledge generation and the communication of that knowledge. While the manufacturing process is imperative to the success of a product developed, less time is dedicated to documenting how a product should be manufactured because industry will typically manufacture a product their way, which is determined by available facilities, experience and skills. The process of manufacturing for industry is everyday work and has been proven time and time again. The time spent documenting the production process was less of a concern to the academic project and experienced industry practitioners are already well aware of what works, what fails and how they will produce a client’s product, hence the small amount of time dedicated to this process stage.

The iterations presented in academia and industry are frequent and repetitive. As noted in the academic project, most of the iterations repeat from the testing and refinement stage back to the system- level design stage. Unlike the industry process the concept development stage is only reverted back to the planning stage during the early stages of the design process. Most of the interactions occur during the product testing, where new knowledge is fed back to the system-level design stage for product refinement until the desired product is achieved and then set up for production ramp-up. The iterations evident in the 336 industry process typically revert back to the concept development stage. This is because this is where industry knows what they can do. The system-level design stage is the problem stage. This is where industry identifies what they cannot do; hence the reject job is denoted with a circle arrow (Figure 9.6). The detail design stage often reverts back to the planning or concept development stage to offer alternative products to clients or to start the product development process again. Another iteration is from testing and refinement to detail design. This iteration is typically used to finalise product details prior to committing to production ramp-up.

The final variable is the nature of the activities conducted in each process stage. Frayling’s (1993) research into, through and for design was used to evaluate what the intentions of the activities at each stage were. The academic process used the planning stage to identify a research problem and opportunities. Historical product evidence, a review of the literature and preliminary methods were used to research into design to inform the need to practice design. Concept development through to testing and refinement were used to practise design to generate new knowledge and embed that knowledge into products. Production ramp-up was therefore used to communicate the embedded knowledge to a wider audience through the artefact. The nature of the industry process differed as the majority of the design process was used to eliminate risk by better understanding the constraints and considerations of the client and the brief. Only in the testing and refinement stage does industry use practice to research through design to demonstrate that the job is commercially viable. In a different approach to academia, research for design was used by industry to communicate the production process and value of the product, not to present a new body of knowledge.

The differences and similarities presented in this study are context specific to the case studies presented. Industry relies on relationships and reputation; they play it safe through experience and repetition and prioritise eliminating risk. Academia relies on finding problems worthy of design research, taking innovative risks and developing new knowledge that is embedded into commercially viable products. It is the intention that this study will offer a comparative model that can be used by industry and academia to compare other design processes used for product development.

This research measured the similarities and differences between the same product design and development process used in an academic design-based doctoral research project and an industry product design and manufacturing project. The methods used, time spent on each design process stage, process iterations and the nature of the activities were presented. This academic project differs to the industry project by focusing on new knowledge generation, where that knowledge is embedded into a commercially viable product. Industry focuses on maintaining a quality reputation and building relationships with clients. The majority of time is spent planning, identifying opportunities and eliminating risk in industry projects. Academic design-based projects, however, spend more time identifying 337 knowledge gaps and generating knowledge through research-led design practice so that new knowledge can be communicated through a design artefact. Moreover, the artefact complements the written component of any doctoral research project and is not intended to compete or replace the thesis.

9.4 Summary

This chapter has highlighted the product design and development process used in this doctoral research which was compared to the design process used by an Australian small and medium-sized enterprise timber product manufacturer and distributer. The value of mapping the product design and development process in this chapter demonstrated how the work conducted in academia differs from the process used in industry. It is the intention that the broader design community and various industries can see the value in this mapping process to identify the strengths and weaknesses of academic product development and offer insights to alternative approaches for design problems. Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) design process model was chosen to direct and manage the development of a commercially viable balsa product. Clear discrepancies were noted between the methods employed, the purpose of the methods, the time spent on each design process stage, iterations between the stages and the nature of the stage according to Frayling’s (1993) research model. The similarities and differences between academia and industry that define this doctoral research as academic research are highlighted:

Academia: - Research into design identifies knowledge gaps (problem finding and opportunity development) - Research through design generates knowledge through practice and reflection - Research for design communicates knowledge embedded in design artefacts - Driven by a social problem and knowledge gap - Research Methods are used to inform design practice - The planning stage is the largest, used to problem find, identify existing knowledge and identify opportunities - Design practice is structured, documented and reflected on to communicate tacit and new knowledge generation as a result - Iterations predominantly happen during the build, test and refinement stages - Most of the knowledge contribution is generated through design practice

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Industry:

- Research into design identifies client and brief demands (relationship building and opportunity development) - Research through design proves commercial viability - Research for design communicates production process and the value of new products - Driven by client demand and financial return - Research methods are used to satisfy client briefs, source materials and product components - Eliminating risk is prioritised to avoid financial loss and or damaging brand identity - Iterations revert back to client to ensure project remains on task - Limited resources dedicated to design practice because experience determines what works and what fails

The intention of this research is not to make the claim that academic research-led industrial design projects are superior to industry design projects or vice versa. The purpose is to emphasis that this doctoral research demonstrated academic rigour through systematic research enquiry and a methodical process to develop a commercially viable PNG balsa product to satisfy a social and industry problem while fulfilling knowledge gaps. The alignment of an academic research model with a generic product design and development process considered the end goal of both academic and industry design streams – to generate a commercially viable product and contribute new knowledge to society.

The models developed in this chapter detailed how the research question was approached in academia. The same was done in an industry context. The value of these models demonstrated the nature and attention given to each stage of the product design and development process. These models can help industry and academia to identify areas where risks can be taken and mitigated. They also highlighted the key methods and iterations between the stages of the design process. There is a push for industry, academia and government to collaborate and drive innovation to develop contemporary and future social solutions. By presenting these models government may be able to capitalise by prioritising funding opportunities to academia and industry where expertise is shown. For example, funding may be given to academia to develop innovative research-led concepts and funding could be given to industry to ensure innovative technologies or manufacturing processors are implemented and capable of developing new products developed in academia. Forest industries could also benefit from the models presented as it communicates the value-adding process through design, to wood and wood products along the supply chain. This could help the forest industry identify markets gaps which could help them be selective with supplying the market. Similarly, the broader design community could better understand the necessity of a synergy between academia and industry to optimise the expertise from both industries to develop a commercially viable product.

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10 CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSION

Research-led Industrial design practice was used to demonstrated academic rigour through design research and a generic product design and development process to develop a new balsa product and application for the PNG balsa industry. An investigation into the PNG balsa industry highlighted an over-supply and under-demand of the resource in international markets. This presented financial hardship to smallholders who have dedicated their time, land and available resources to balsa cultivation. Early methods of investigation identified a lack of market diversification and material knowledge. Various scientific test methods were conducted on PNG balsa to generate new knowledge used to inform design decisions and concept development. The material properties identified through testing helped justify the development of a sustainable, interior, non-structural, lightweight, acoustic and thermal lining product as an alternative to current dominant interior lining panels used in the construction industry.

The research-led industrial design practice process employed in this doctoral research has demonstrated early commercial success of a new balsa application for the construction industry and the demonstration of a research model that aligns with industry design professions, while maintaining academic rigour to satisfy a social problem for a developing country and industry in PNG. The development of a balsa product backed by academic research and industry development has generated a new market for PNG balsa in an attempt to generate international demand to rectify the current over- supply of balsa in PNG. This is a significant contribution to knowledge by demonstrating a new application for PNG balsa that previously has been hindered by the lack of material research and design innovation. The ultimate goal of this doctoral research was to enhance the livelihoods of smallholders who dedicate their lives and resources to growing balsa for financial returns to support their family and community. A new innovative application for PNG balsa has the potential to generate global demand for the resource thus creating demand for smallholder balsa plantations which must be harvested after five years to prevent timber loss from rotting trees.

Balsa is an incredibly sustainable and renewable resource. Its rapid growth and fast rejuvenation cycle highlights various opportunities to satisfy international demand for new design applications. In recent times the construction industry has demonstrated empathy towards sustainable construction for future developments. Depleting resources and the lack of virgin materials for construction is an obvious concern. The implementation of plantation grown PNG balsa into the construction industry is an example of meeting contemporary demands and desires while preserving natural resources for future generations to enjoy. The development of a highly sustainable, lightweight alternative to current dominate products, which contain hazardous substances, derive from petroleum resources, are excessively heavy and are an

341 environmental concern at the end of their service life, reduces the demand for unsustainable products and changes consumer perspectives.

Although balsa is not a structural timber and is vulnerable in its raw state it is an ideal material as a core component in sandwich panels. This technology and application is not new knowledge or design innovation. Understanding why balsa is used as a core component, how it is used as a core component and what additional properties the material exhibits in this application is new knowledge. Due to balsa’s low density (150 kg/m3) the material is incredibly lightweight, delivers exceptional TC (0.033 W/mk) and offers sound absorption properties (0.80 αw, further tests will demonstrate superior results). Balsa unfortunately has poor fire properties, however since it is cored with superior sandwich veneers it can be used in almost any environment within the construction industry — depending on the fire group number of the veneer — and since balsa in not a structural material there is no need for excessive weight to increase strength. Unlike wood composites and engineered wood-based panels that are manipulated for strength, rigidity and efficient production the natural cellulose structure of balsa gives it its strength and rigidity. The production of balsa panels, unlike existing products, utilise the natural resource in its raw state rather than an artificial state such as MDF, which is typically developed as a post manufactured material containing adhesives resins to hold the product together.

MDF and synthetic polymer foams are detrimental to the environment to extract, produce, consume and dispose of. The design innovation of a balsa composite panel that is highly renewable, stores carbon emissions, and simply decomposes in landfill after its useful service life, is a much more sustainable alternative to current products widely used in interior environments in the construction industry. By promoting the design outcome of this doctoral research at sustainable building exhibitions and in both international and local prestigious design awards, real-world feedback and interest was measured from architects, project specifiers, builders, contractors and homeowners. The general consensus of the design outcome was that people are conscious about sustainability. Various representatives from the construction industry emphasised that the industry is determined to improve its current unsustainable ways. The obvious use of renewable materials that naturally exhibit insulation properties and are superior or equivalent to contemporary building products would reduce the demand for unsustainable products and become the future dominant product. This is clearly demonstrated in this doctoral research.

A real-world commercial fit-out was used to demonstrate the commercial value and viability of the design outcome. The commercial environment was tested before and after the installation of Balsa-lation to measure the performance of the balsa product’s insulation value. The results proved that Balsa-lation, a sustainable product, does not compromise on performance — rather it delivers premium results — and does not cost more simply because it is sustainable or organic.

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The PNG balsa industry’s reliance on contemporary markets to maintain or increase demand for balsa without innovating or considering new target markets is destined to fail. The evidence highlighted in this thesis indicated various market gaps. By following the same process demonstrated to develop the design outcome, Balsa-lation, industry and academic designers could further develop additional products and applications for other industries that require lightweight, insulating and above all sustainable product solutions. The purpose of this doctoral research was to demonstrate knowledge extraction and to communicate that knowledge explicitly and in product/artefact form for others to replicate the process to develop new products that are ethical and are needed to solve social problems.

A research-led industrial design practice model emphasised the need to substantiate why design practice was used to generate knowledge. Frayling’s (1993) research into, through and for design categorised this doctoral research into three segments. Research into design played the important role of problem finding, through identifying knowledge and market gaps, project planning and opportunity development. Research through design was informed by research into design. The majority of knowledge generated derived from practical experimentation. The physical manifestation of building, testing and refining the design outcome demonstrated how iterative the design process is and how the reflection and evaluation of product design and development helped generate knowledge and informed successful product development. Constant guidance from industry — who had nothing to lose but all to gain — proved invaluable. Industry professionals offered expertise through experience and tacit knowledge to improve the development and refinement of the design outcome. The final product presented as the design artefact communicates the value of design research and design practice to present the research and new knowledge contribution to a wider audience beyond industry professionals and academic researchers.

Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) generic product design and development process was used to direct the development of Balsa-lation. A comparative study between how this product design process was used in academia and industry was conducted to indicate academic rigour in this doctoral research. A significant difference was noted between the methods employed, time spent at different stages, iterations and the nature of the activities conducted according to Frayling’s (1993) research model. The methods used in this doctoral research were used to direct design decisions and inform design practice. Knowledge generation was synthesised to fulfill knowledge gaps and inform the development of a commercially viable product. New knowledge was embedded into a design artefact to communicate evidence of research, innovation and new knowledge. The design outcome presented in this thesis was developed and tested to the point of a production ramp-up.

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Key knowledge contributions exhibited in this doctoral research cover four areas; material; design; academic; and industry knowledge contributions:

Material contribution: PNG balsa: - Mechanical strength properties of PNG balsa - TC of PNG balsa - SAC of PNG balsa - Fire group number of PNG balsa - Termite susceptibility of PNG balsa Balsa-lation: - Preliminary fire properties of Balsa-lation - SAC of Balsa-lation Design contribution: Design process: - Research-led industrial design practice demonstrated how informed design practice leads to the development of successful and commercially viable products that are needed in contemporary industries while addressing social and industry problems - The importance of aligning societal problems with industry and academic research - The benefit of aligning an academic research model with an industry product design and development process - The difference between an academic and industry product design and development process for timber products in the construction industry Design practice: - Research-led industrial design practice demonstrated academic rigour and industry expertise to generate knowledge through product development - Design practice generated and communicated knowledge - Reflection on practice documented tacit knowledge explicitly in written and visual language - The design artefact was used as a vehicle to communicate embodied research, industrial design product development, material knowledge, product feedback/refinement and academic rigour

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Academic contribution: Theory: - Frayling’s (1993) model demonstrated the different categories of research into, through and for design of a research-led industrial design practice project - Ulrich and Eppinger’s (2012) generic industry product design and development process can be used in academic product development projects Industry contribution: - Balsa is grown in plantations and is highly renewable making it a desirable and ethical material choice - Balsa products are a fraction of the weight of existing products - Balsa naturally exhibits sound and thermal insulation properties - Balsa products demonstrate superior properties to existing thermal and acoustic building solutions

The research conducted in this thesis, the development of Balsa-lation and future balsa products inspired by this thesis could also directly impact the PNG balsa industry by: - Securing a source of financial returns for smallholders who grow balsa - Offer a high level of employment in the ENB Province - Promote PNG balsa as a quality and opportunistic resource - Justify updating ENB infrastructure to support industry growth

This thesis could also be used as an exemplar study that demonstrates the use of design to help other PNG resource focused projects — funded by Australian government organisations such as ACIAR — to incorporate design into the overall project so consideration and support is dedicated to design from the beginning.

Further testing is required to validate the use of other sandwich veneers to broaden the use of Balsa-lation throughout all interior environments within the construction industry. Full-scale fire room tests are required to prove Balsa-lation adheres to stringent building codes. A variety of commercial design patterns of Balsa-lation panels is required to offer a range of standard products for commercial and residential consumption. A thorough review of the recommended retail price of the product is also required to indicate the final price of Balsa-lation per square metre.

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This doctoral research demonstrated how academic research can find direct relevance to industry and social problems. Industries have problems – these problems can extend beyond the direct employment of individual people and present a greater challenge to the social order of a community. Academic design researchers offer a perspective of understanding broader complications relating to an existing problem by synthesising available knowledge to identify opportunities. Through a methodical and iterative process of design research and design practice this doctoral thesis has demonstrated the ability to develop a new application for the PNG balsa industry to assist the livelihoods of smallholders who rely on financial returns from balsa cultivation to support their lives, family and community. Research-led industrial design practice has demonstrated a model consisting of academic research rigour and industry product design expertise to develop a commercially viable product that is anticipated to assist the PNG balsa industry by developing international demand for the resource. By empowering smallholders who initiate the industry and supply balsa to large processors — who prepare the resource for international consumption — social order and financial returns will maintain and enhance the livelihoods of smallholders in the ENB, PNG balsa industry.

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APPENDIX

Ethics Clearance

SUNREC Project 2013/145 Ethics Clearance From: Sally Fried ([email protected]) Sent: Tuesday, 27 August 2013 1:33:53 PM To: Blair Kuys ([email protected]) Cc: [email protected] ([email protected]); Nathan Kotlarewski ([email protected]); RES Ethics ([email protected]); Christine Thong ([email protected])

To: Dr Blair Kuys, Dr Christine Thong, Design/Mr Nathan Kotlarewski

Dear Blair, Christine, and Nathan,

SUHREC Project 2013/145 New Product Development for Papua New Guinea Balsa to Improve Smallholder Livelihoods

Dr Blair Kuys, Dr Christine Thong, Design/Mr Nathan Kotlarewski

Approved Duration: 27/08/2013 To 23/04/2016 [Adjusted]

I refer to the ethical review of the above project protocol undertaken by Swinburne’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SUHREC). Your response to the review, as e‐mailed on 06/08/2013 with attachments, was put to a SUHREC delegate for consideration and your response to their feedback, as e‐mailed on 16/08/2013 and 27/08/13 with attachments, accords with the feedback.

I am pleased to advise that, as submitted to date, the project must commence in line with standard on‐ going ethics clearance conditions here outlined.

All human research activity undertaken under Swinburne auspices must conform to Swinburne and external regulatory standards, including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and with respect to secure data use, retention and disposal.

The named Swinburne Chief Investigator/Supervisor remains responsible for any personnel appointed to or associated with the project being made aware of ethics clearance conditions, including research and consent procedures or instruments approved. Any change in chief investigator/supervisor requires timely 361 notification and SUHREC endorsement. The above project has been approved as submitted for ethical review by or on behalf of SUHREC. Amendments to approved procedures or instruments ordinarily require prior ethical appraisal/ clearance. SUHREC must be notified immediately or as soon as possible thereafter of (a) any serious or unexpected adverse effects on participants and any redress measures; (b) proposed changes in protocols; and (c) unforeseen events which might affect continued ethical acceptability of the project. At a minimum, an annual report on the progress of the project is required as well as at the conclusion (or abandonment) of the project.

A duly authorised external or internal audit of the project may be undertaken at any time.

Please contact the Research Ethics Oﬃce if you have any queries about on‐going ethics clearance, citing the SUHREC project number. Copies of clearance emails should be retained as part of project record‐ keeping.

Best wishes for the project.

Kind regards,

Sally for Keith Wilkins, Secretary, SUHREC

28/08/2013 2:01 PM

Sally Fried

Research Administration Officer (Ethics)/EA to Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research) Swinburne Research Swinburne University of Technology SPS Level 1 PO Box 218 Hawthorn VIC 3122 Tel: +61 3 9214 8145 Fax: +61 3 9214 5267 Internal mail code: H68

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2015 International Green Interior Award

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Wordle

The following word maps highlighted the hierarchy of important words at the time of each candidature progress review. Every progress review was submitted to Wordle — an online word map generator — to visually communicate the hierarchy of words used in the written component of this design- based PhD. The most prominent word used throughout this doctoral thesis is balsa. Design, product, research, industry and PNG were highlighted as additional important words, which coincided with the structure of this doctoral thesis.

12-month confirmation of candidature

24-month progress review 364

36-month end of candidature

Word maps generated by Wordle (Feinberg, J., 2014).

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