Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:

Addie Card, 12 years. Spinner in North Pownal Cotton Mill. Girls in mill say she is ten years. She admitted to me she was twelve; that she started during school vacation and now would "stay". Location: Vermont. 1910. Asheville Art Museum, ​ ​ https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/301919?searchField=All&sortBy =Relevance&who=Hine%2c+Lewis%24Lewis+Hine&ao=on&ft=*& offset=0&rpp=20&pos=4. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Hine’s photographs spoke for themselves, exposing the horrific working conditions young children had to endure. Including this photograph of a young working girl and Hine’s other photographs, we hope to illustrate and draw upon emotion just like Hine wanted others to do when they saw his photographs.

An Amendment to the Constitution is Needed to Give the United States Power to Safeguard the Child Life of the Nation, 1924. VCU Libraries Gallery, ​ https://gallery.library.vcu.edu/items/show/82555. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

It was no easy task to reform child labor in America. Many pamphlets were created in order to protest for the legisaltion of child labor laws. This pamphlet, along with others, brought more attention to the large numbers of people and organizations that were fighting for child labor laws.

An Investigation into Child Labor. 15 Mar. 1906. National Archives David M. Rubenstein ​ ​ Gallery, http://recordsofrights.org/records/90/an-investigation-into-child-labor. Accessed ​ ​ 11 Dec. 2020.

An image of a letter written by Juliet Goodenow to Senator John C Burrows calling for an investigation into child labor. Goodenow describes child labor “as a means to an end, the abolishment of this national evil.” This letter showed us that others viewed child labor as a problem in society and wanted change.

A view of the Anatomy Building, Cobb Gate, and Botany Pond, all of which were complete by 1903. Ca. 1900. , https://www.uchicago.edu/about/history/. ​ ​ ​ Accessed 6 Mar. 2021. Hine studies briefly at the University of Chicago. We used an image of the university around the time that he went there to add visuals to our Early Life page

Boys Working in Cotton Mill. Ca. 1900. Britannica, ​ ​ https://www.britannica.com/story/the-rise-of-the-machines-pros-and-cons-of-the-industri al-revolution. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Hine captured roughly 5,000 photographs of children at work. These photographs like this one of boys working in a cotton mill, demonstrate the dangerous working conditions that children were subject to.

Child labor in Maryland oyster cannery. Ca. 1900. The Digital ​ ​ Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-aa07-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Pictured are children, with some adults, working in an oyster cannery in unsafe conditions. Hine’s photograph is so eye opening because many of the children in the photo look very young, maybe only five or six years old. We used this photograph to illustrate how impactful it was for Hine to take these photographs during his time.

Child Labor Standards Poster. 1914. National Archives David M. Rubenstein Gallery, ​ ​ http://recordsofrights.org/records/111/child-labor-standards-poster. Accessed 14 Dec. 2020.

This poster, like many of its time, was used to promote the idea that children under 16 should not be working full time jobs. Many wanted children under the age of 16 to be in school, as well as setting the minimum age for child labor to 16. This was more evidence that change was becoming an important topic in society.

Consitutional Amendment Banning Child Labor 1924. 23 Dec. 1924. National Archives David ​ ​ M. Rubenstein Gallery, http://recordsofrights.org/records/81/constitutional-amendment-banning-child-labor. Accessed 11 Dec. 2020.

In 1918 the US Supreme Court struck down a federal law regulating child labor. In 1924 Congress passed a constitutional amendment to regulate the number of hours children can work, however, the amendment never passed because the necessary number of states did not approve. This image of the amendment illustrates the struggle to abolish child labor.

“Child Labor in the Beet Fields of Colorado.” 1915. U.S. Capitol Visitor Center, ​ ​ https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/artifact/child-labor-beet-fields-colorado-lewis -w-hine-1915. Accessed 27 Jan 2021.

Hine documents what he witnessed in beet fields in Colorado. He notes the age of many of the children, often only six or seven years old, along with the harsh conditions that they face while working. We used this image of his documentation to show how Hine communicated the harsh conditions many children faced while working.

Fair Labor Standard Act 1938. 3 Jan. 1938. National Archives David M. Rubenstein Gallery, ​ ​ http://recordsofrights.org/records/110/fair-labor-standards-act. Accessed 14 Dec. 2020.

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 restricted child labor, except for agricultural and domestic labor. We included an image of this act to show the progression of the child labor movement -- a step closer to justice.

Early 1900s and Grounds, New York City Postcard. Ca. 1900. ​ HipPostCards, ​ https://www.hippostcard.com/listing/early-1900s-columbia-university-and-grounds-new- york-city-postcard/16536550. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Hine studied briefly at the University of Columbia becoming a trained sociologist. We used this image to add visuals when explaining Hine’s early life.

H.R. 8234, A Bill to prevent intersate commerce in the products of child labor. 17 Jan. 1916. ​ U.S. Capitol Visitor Center, https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/artifact/hr-8234-bill-prevent-interstate-comm erce-products-child-labor-keating-owen-act. Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.

The Keating-Owens Act was the first legal push for child labor reform. While this act was later ruled unconsitutional, it paved the way for the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act, which made child labor illegal.

Italian Family Looking for Lost Baggage, . 1905. Asheville Art Museum, ​ ​ https://www.ashevilleart.org/art/italian-family-looking-for-lost-baggage-ellis-island/. Accessed 29 Jan. 2021.

Many immigrants were forced to work in labor intesive jobs because they were so poor. This image taken by Hine, depicts the worried emotions that many immigrants faced after arriving in America at Ellis Island.

Letter Opposing Child Labor Laws. 7 Apr. 1924. National Archives David M. Rubenstein ​ ​ Gallery, http://recordsofrights.org/records/87/letter-opposing-child-labor-laws. Accessed ​ 14 Dec. 2020.

This letter written to Senator Graham of Philadelphia by a businessman explains his opinion that child labor regualtion should be left up to the states because he -- like many others during the time, feared losing the young children he employed and barely paid. He also states that if children over the age of 16 didn’t work, the country would “be raising an inordinate amount of loafers,” showing the greedy beliefs of many businessmen.

Lewis Hine photographing children. Ca. 1910. U.S. Capitol Visitor Center, ​ ​ https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/congress-and-progressive-era/lewis-hine-exp osing-child-labor. Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.

Hine often disguised himself in order to capture the images of children at work. This is because many employers did not want the public to see the true nature of child labor.

Lewis Wickes Hine. Ca. 1900. Legends of American, ​ ​ https://www.legendsofamerica.com/20th-lewishine/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Lewis Hine and his camera is the first image shown on our website as you entire. We used this image and photograph reels to show how Hine used his camera to communicate the injustices millions of American children faced in the workplace in the early 1900s.

Mapping Child Labor Laws and Compulsory Education in early 20th C. US. 1935. UVM Blogs, https://blog.uvm.edu/mcope-childhoods/working-and-schooling-mapping-child-labor-law s-and-compulsory-education-in-early-20th-c-us/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021

In the early 1900s there were little to no laws or protections for child labor. This map shows by state if protections were in place or not.

One of the many children under twelve who work in the lint-laden air of cotton mills. Ca. 1900. The New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-aa1f-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Hine’s photographs depicted how child laborers often toiled with hazardous conditions and often only earned minuscule wages. Hine saw that changes had to be made so he used his camera to communicate to others what he saw first hand.

Overseer supervising a girl (about 13 years old) operating a bobbin-winding machine in the Yazoo City Yarn Mills, Mississippi. 1911. Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lewis-W-Hine. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

This photograph illustrates the pressure that was on children to complete tiring and inhumane tasks as they were forced to do so. Lewis Hine fought to relieve the pressure from young kids who should instead spend their childhood receiving an education.

Poster for the National Child Labor Committee. Ca. 1913. A&E Television Networks, ​ ​ https://www.history.com/news/child-labor-lewis-hine-photos. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

While child labor was booming throughout the Industrial Revolution, posters were often found over largely populated cities to advocate for The National Child Labor Committee and joing the fight against child labor.

Portrait of Lewis Hine. 1938. The Clark Art Museum, ​ ​ https://www.clarkart.edu/artpiece/detail/portrait-of-lewis-hine-(1). Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Hine is pictured sitting in a chair looking relaxed. We used this image because it was one of very few of Hine himself, due to that fact that he was often the one behind the camera.

Sadie, a Cotton Mill Spinner, Lancaster, South Carolina. 1908. Asheville Art Museum, ​ ​ https://www.ashevilleart.org/art/sadie-a-cotton-mill-spinner-lancaster-south-carolina/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Children worked long hours and were forced to complete tasks that were not obtainable for the young children. This image shows a task that a young girl was forced to complete which illustrates the horrors that children had to experience.

These Appalling Images Exposed Child Labor in America. Ca. 1900. U.S. National Archives, https://unwritten-record.blogs.archives.gov/2014/05/02/images-of-the-week-lewis-hine/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021

This collection of photographs all taken by the sociological photographer Lewis Hine, shows a variety of different tasks that children were forced to do at young ages. Many of these photographs speak for themselves, showing how awful child labor in America truly was.

Secondary Sources:

“Child Labor.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2021, ​ ​ https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/whp-1750/xcabef9ed3fc7da7b:unit-4-labor-an d-society/xcabef9ed3fc7da7b:4-1-labor/a/child-labor-beta. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

Child labor was a complex problem in the early 20th century due to the Industrial Revolution and newly created ideas on capitalism. This website helped us get a better understanding of why child labor was just a difficult task for Hine and the NCLC to reform during their time.

“Child Labor.” Wages and Hours Division , U.S. Department of Labor , 2021, ​ ​ www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/child-labor. Accessed 8 Feb. 2021.

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) was created with the purpose of ensuring a safe workplace, and well-being and educational opportunities for children. This law was vital to Hine and the National Child Labor Commitee because it protected children from being exploited in unsure conditions.

“Cotton Mill Girl: Behind Lewis Hine’s Photograph & Child Labor Series.” Youtube, uploaded ​ ​ by TIME, 6 Jan. 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOIvdhmMaOE. Accessed 20 Feb. 2021.

One of Lewis Hine’s most iconic photographs was of a girl working in a cotton mill. TIME explains how Hine’s work contriubuted to child labor reform through legeslation. We used this video on our Legacy page to show how Hine’s communication of child labor through his photographs was progressive and monumental in child labor reform.

“Exploring Horrific Working Conditions 6-Year Olds Experienced During The Industrial Revolution.” Youtube, uploaded by Channel 4 Documentary, 28 Jun. 2020, ​ ​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PmHBqtLFss&t=24s. Accessed 20 Feb. 2021.

Cotton mills were common workplaces for children under the age of sixteen. This video explains, in-depth, the danger that many children faced while working in these mills. We used this video in our website to add a multimedia element to better show the impact Hine photographs had on child labor reform.

“Exposing Child Labor: The Photography of Lewis Hine.” ABA Journal, ​ ​ https://www.abajournal.com/gallery/child_labor/. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

The work of Lewis Hine was noticed by many including the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), an organizitaion accompanied by men and women concerened for working childeren. This resource provided us with the NCLC’s views and insight on Hine’s journey to bring attention towards child labor.

History.com Editors. “Child Labor.” HISTORY, A&E Television Networks, 27 Oct. 2009. ​ ​ https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/child-labor. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

The start of our research began with an understanding on child labor and what legislation looked like prior to Lewis Hine advocating for strict reform. This source allowed us to have basic knowledge on the timeline of child labor and how it evolved over time which overall proves the importance of Hine’s form of communication.

“Lewis Hine.” Encyclopedia Britannica. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Dec. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lewis-W-Hine. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

Lewis Hine held many important positions throughout his lifetime and career. This source presented us with an overview of his entire career as a sociological photographer. It also helped us to get a timeline of his career and when he accomplished certain achievements.

“Lewis W. Hine.” The J. Paul Getty Museum, ​ ​ https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/1566/lewis-w-hine-american-1874-1940/. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

In the beginning of our research regarding Lewis Hine, we looked into his his early life and what led up to his exposure of cruel child labor. This source provided us with basic background knowledge of Lewis Hine and his career being a trained educator, photographer, and journalist. Hine’s career is essential to understand because it is was allowed him the opportunity to capture the horrors of child labor.

“National Child Labor Committee Collection.” , 2021, ​ ​ https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/nclc/background.html#:~:text=Founded%20in%2 01904%2C%20the%20National,the%20Committee%20hired%20Lewis%20W. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021. The National Child Labor Committe’s mission was “promoting the rights, awareness, ​ dignity, well-being and education of children and youth as they relate to work and working.” Hine’s work for the NCLC was vital in communicating the horrors of child labor in a way that the public would respond to.

Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. “Child Labor.” Our World in Data, 2016, ​ ​ https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

This graph shows the trend of child labor percentages from 1880 to 1930. We use this graph to show how Hine’s photographs ultimately aided in child labor reform.

Freedman, Russell. Immigrant Kids. E.P. Dutton New York, 1980. ​ ​

Not only were American children working in factories and other areas, many immigrant children worked in them as well. This book showed photographs by Lewis Hine as well as basic information on where children worked and the ages that the children were. We used this source to prodive us basic information on child labor and to get an idea of Hines’ imfactful photographs.

Freedman, Russell. Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Agaisnt Child Labor. United ​ ​ Kingdom, Clarion Books, 1994.

Lewis Hine used his photographs to bring public attention to the social ills of child labor. This book uses Hine’s photographs as illistrations which helped to convince government officials to pass and enforce laws against child labor.

Says, Mia, et al. “Child Labor.” Social Welfare History Project, Virginia Commonwealth ​ ​ University, 16 June 2020, https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/child-welfarechild-labor/child-labor/. Accessed 9 Dec. 2020.

In order to understand the impact that Hine had on communicating the injustices of child labor we first must understand more about child labor. Throughout the website was a variety of useful information about the conditions that the children had to endure. It also laid out the legal aspect of child labor reform that took place in the early 20th century.

“Teaching With Documents: Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor.” National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives, 21 Feb. 2017. ​ ​ https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hine-photos. Accessed 23 Jan. 2021.

An overview of Hine’s work and life is laid out on this website. It helps us to better understand the impact that Hine had on child labor reform, along with some of the beilefs that Hine had about child labor.

Timeline of Key Events. 2018. UVM Blogs, ​ ​ https://blog.uvm.edu/mcope-childhoods/working-and-schooling-mapping-child-labor-law s-and-compulsory-education-in-early-20th-c-us/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2021.

We used this timeline of US child labor policies and legislations passed from 1813 to 1949. We used this timeline to show the large strides by not only Hine but other progressive thinkers of their time to advocate against child labor.