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Shi'ite Higher Learning and the Role of the Madrasa-Yi Sulṭānī in Late

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Shi'ite Higher Learning and the Role of the Madrasa-Yi Sulṭānī in Late Shi‘ite Higher Learning and the Role of the Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī in Late Safavid Iran Maryam Moazzen A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Copyright by Maryam Moazzen 2011 Abstract Shi‘ite Higher Learning and the Role of the Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī in Late Safavid Iran Maryam Moazzen PhD Thesis 2011 Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto This dissertation explores the ways in which religious knowledge was produced and transmitted in Safavid madrasas, particularly in Isfahan, during the later Safavid period—from the reign of Shāh Abbās II (1642–66) to the end of Shāh Sulṭān Ḥusayn’s reign (1694–1722). It argues that Safavid madrasas functioned as multifaceted cultural centres that disseminated religious knowledge, preserved the Shi‘ite intellectual heritage, and played an important role in reconstructing, re-articulating, and contextualizing or contemporizing the past. Safavid madrasas, which were established thanks largely to the largesse and piety of the Safavid shahs, very often acted on behalf of the established political power. However, due to the flexible, inclusive, and personal character of Islamic pedagogy, Shi‘ite learning, like that of the wider Muslim community, could occur in a wide variety of places, from the houses of scholars to any mosque or shrine. After surveying Shi‘ite scholarship and its institutions from the early decades of Islamic history until the mid-seventeenth century, this study contextualizes the Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī, or Royal Madrasa, of late Safavid Isfahan within its political, social, and religious setting. This particular madrasa exemplifies the ways in which religious knowledge was transmitted in early modern Iran. By analyzing the deeds of endowment (waqfiyyas) of the Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī and ii other madrasa-mosque institutions built by Shāh Sulṭān Ḥusayn and members of the Safavid elite, this study sheds light on the organizing mechanisms and structures for such educational and charitable foundations. Based on the large number of extant ijāzas that were issued by Safavid scholars, and other primary sources, including waqfiyyas and autobiographies, this study reconstructs the curriculum of the Safavid madrasa and describes the pedagogical methods that Safavid scholars employed to transmit religious knowledge to their students. It also discusses the major problems facing Shi‘ite higher learning by examining the critiques of such scholars as Mullā Ṣadrā (d. 1635 or 1640), the Safavid philosopher, Muḥsin-i Fayḍ Kāshānī (d. 1679), a renowned traditionalist, and Muḥammad Bāqir Khurāsānī, known as Muḥaqqiq-i Sabzawārī (d. 1679), the Shaykh al-Islam of Isfahan and a prominent mujtahid. Finally it examines the life and career of Sayyid Mīr Muḥammad Bāqir Khātūnābādī (d. 1715), the first Safavid mullā-bāshī (head of religious scholars) and the first rector and professor of the Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī. iii Acknowledgements I am deeply indebted to my thesis supervisor, Professor Maria Eva Subtelny, for her insightful and discerning guidance. Her careful direction, rigorous academic standards, constructive criticisms, and sound advice have been indispensable for the formation of my ideas in this work. She continues to motivate me through her own exemplary scholarship. I would also like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the members of my thesis advisory committee, Professors Linda Northrup, Todd Lawson, and Sebastian Günther, for their tremendous encouragement, and thought-provoking suggestions. Each one of them has been very generous with comments and criticisms at various stages of the thesis, which challenged my thinking and substantially improved it. It was a privilege to have worked with such a distinguished group of scholars, all of whom contributed to my intellectual development in more ways than this thesis reveals. In particular, a special word of appreciation is extended to Professor Günther, who stimulated my initial interest in Islamic higher learning and educational institutions. I cannot thank him enough for his guidance. Even across the ocean, he always provided prompt and clear suggestions for my work and was invested in my success. To the external examiner, Professor Robert Gleave, one of the foremost experts on Shi‘ism and Shi‘ite higher learning, I owe many thanks for his constructive criticisms. A number of scholars of Islamic thought and Persian studies have answered queries regarding my thesis. Particular thanks go to Professors Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, Amir Hassanpour, Sajjad Rizvi, Rula Jurdi Abisaab, Mansur Sifatgol, Chad Lingwood, Mohammed Rustom, and Mahdi Tourage. I am greatly indebted to Mrs. Anna Sousa, Graduate Administrator ,and Ms. Jennie Jones, Undergraduate Administrator and Assistant to the Chair, at the Department of Near and Middle iv Eastern Civilizations. Mrs. Sousa, through her enduring attentiveness and selfless concern, removed every obstacle I encountered as a graduate student. My graduate studies were made possible thanks to funding from the University of Toronto, two Ontario Graduate Scholarships, and travel grants courtesy of the University of Toronto’s School of Graduate Studies, allowing me to conduct research in Iran. Last but certainly not least, my heartfelt thanks to my husband, Daryoush, and my son, Arash, for their endurance and patience, not to mention their sacrifice, throughout this adventure. This dissertation is dedicated to them. v Note on Transliteration and Style Arabic and Persian names, words, and book or article titles have been transliterated in accordance with the system employed by the International Journal of Middle East Studies, with the exception that no distinction is made in transliterating consonants shared between Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian terms that have entered the English language, such as madrasa, imam, shah, etc. have not been italicized unless they form part of a proper name. In the notes, bibliography, and text, I have followed the 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. IJMES Transliteration System for Arabic and Persian Consonants ṣ ص ’ ء ḍ ض b ب ṭ ط p پ ẓ ظ t ت ‘ ع th ث gh غ j ج f ف ch چ q ق ḥ ح k ك kh خ g گ d د l ل dh ذ m م r ر n ن z ز h ه zh ژ w و s س y ی sh ش Arabic and Persian Vowels Long Short Doubled iyy يّ ā a ا uww ّ وُ ū u و ī i ي vi Contents Abstract.................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iv Note on Transliteration and Style ......................................................................................... vi Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. vii Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 Research Methodology and Sources ..........................................................................10 Primary Sources ........................................................................................................11 a. Biographical Dictionaries, Autobiographies, and Bibliographies ................11 b. Ijāzas .........................................................................................................13 c. Deeds of Endowment (waqfiyyas) ..............................................................13 d. Chronicles and Historical Sources..............................................................14 e. European Travellers’ Accounts...................................................................15 f. Anthologies and Polemics...........................................................................15 g. Administrative Manuals and Chancery Literature ......................................17 h. Works by the Safavid ‘ulamā .....................................................................17 i. Miscellaneous Compendia ........................................................................18 Secondary Sources ....................................................................................................19 Chapter One: Shi‘ite Educational Institutions from Early Islamic History To Mid-Seventeenth Century.........................................................................27 Shi‘ite Learning during Its Formative Period ............................................................27 a. The Teaching Circles of the Imams al-Bāqir and al-Ṣādiq ..........................29 b. Qum, the Earliest Centre of Shi‘ite Scholarship in Iran...............................31 c. Shi‘ites in Baghdad ...................................................................................32 d. Shi‘ite Houses of Knowledge and Libraries ...............................................34 Shi‘ite Madrasas in Pre-Safavid Iran .........................................................................36 ‘Allāma al-Ḥillī and the Madrasa-yi Sayyāra .............................................................38 Higher Learning in the Early Safavid Period .............................................................39 Educational Institutions of Safavid Isfahan ...............................................................43 Chapter Two: The Madrasa-yi Sulṭānī and Its Administrative Structure ..........................74 Shāh
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