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Personal Identification: Theory and Applications the Case Study Approach M01_STEA0735_02_SE_C01.QXD 9/19/08 12:59 PM Page 1 SECTION I Personal Identification: Theory and Applications The Case Study Approach n the summer of 1990, four male friends entered an abandoned farmhouse in Iowa, but Ionly three emerged alive. While one stood watch outside, two of the men shot their friend multiple times and threw his body into a well behind the farmhouse. It remained there until it was recovered nearly a decade later. Could the last moments of his life be interpreted from his mangled bones? In another part of the Midwest, an incomplete, disar- ticulated female skeleton was found scattered along a riverbank. Two women of the same age, height, and ancestry were missing from the area. How could experts determine whether the handful of bones belonged to one woman or the other? Could this also be a case of foul play? No matter in what morose scenario unknown human remains are recovered, every jurisdiction in the United States has statutes requiring a medicolegal investigation of the identity of the individual and the circumstances of his or her death. By virtue of their expertise in skeletal biology, forensic anthropologists may be called upon by law enforce- ment agencies, coroners, medical examiners, and forensic pathologists to assist in the recovery of human remains, conduct skeletal analyses for the purposes of identification, describe the nature and extent of skeletal trauma, and potentially provide expert testi- mony in a court of law. Forensic anthropological services are typically requested when human remains are decomposed, burnt, fragmentary, cremated, dismembered, fully skele- tonized, or otherwise unidentifiable by visual means. Scenarios in which a forensic anthro- pologist may consult include burials, structural fires, explosions such as the Oklahoma City bombing, mass graves, commercial and clandestine cremations, and mass fatality incidents. The most recent examples of large-scale forensic anthropological involvement are the recovery of victims of Hurricane Katrina and the identification of victims killed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (see Chapter 23). Increasingly, forensic anthro- pologists are also expanding their purview beyond the local landscape and working around the globe to identify soldiers missing in action and the victims of wars, human rights atrocities, and mass disasters, such as the Asian tsunami of 2004. Forensic anthropology is best defined as the application of anthropological and skeletal biological principles to medicolegal issues. The term medicolegal refers to the capability of medical science to shed light on legal matters, such as the identity of the deceased and the circumstances of death (Fisher 2003). Skeletal biology is the study of the human skeleton M01_STEA0735_02_SE_C01.QXD 9/19/08 12:59 PM Page 2 2 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS and encompasses several subdisciplines, including forensic anthropology and bioarchaeol- ogy, the study of past population behavior, health, and disease. Bioarchaeology adopts a population-oriented approach and typically involves the examination of human remains and artifacts from an entire historic or prehistoric cemetery. While forensic anthropologists typically analyze only one or a few individuals at a time, they must also be knowledgeable about the entire range of human variation. In fact, by virtue of their casework, forensic anthropologists directly contribute to our understanding of skeletal diversity among contemporary populations (Ubelaker 2000; Ousley and Jantz 2005). Forensic anthropological involvement in the medicolegal community begins with, and is based upon, an exhaustive case report including, as appropriate, documentation of the methods of identification, an accurate reconstruction of trauma that occurs at or around the time of death (perimortem trauma) as well as after death (postmortem trauma), and an estimate of the postmortem interval, or time since death. If a case goes to trial, this report becomes the core of the forensic anthropologist’s testimony. Once there is legal resolution, forensic anthropologists can publish a case study in order to share important new infor- mation or techniques with students and colleagues. With this in mind, the purpose of this volume is to utilize case studies to demonstrate the appropriate techniques, ethical respon- sibilities, and training involved in the practice of forensic anthropology in the United States today. The contributing authors provide comprehensive coverage of one or more cases, demonstrate the forensic methods utilized to resolve the case, and, when appropri- ate, offer personal insight about mistakes, pitfalls, and ethical issues related to their expe- riences. Ultimately, the case studies in this volume illustrate three principal themes—the roles and methods of modern forensic anthropology in local and international casework, the well-developed scientific methodology upon which forensic anthropological tech- niques are founded, and the multidisciplinary nature of forensic science. PROFESSIONALISM AND TRAINING IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY Although prominent anthropologists have practiced forensic anthropology since the 1920s and 1930s (see Kerley 1978; Komar and Buikstra 2008; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker 1990, 1999, 2000 for historical reviews), the profession was formalized in the United States in 1972 with the formation of the Physical Anthropology section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS). The AAFS is the primary professional organization of forensic science in the United States and currently consists of ten professional sections, listed below. As of this writing, there are over 300 members of the Physical Anthropology section. Criminalistics Odontology Questioned Documents Toxicology Jurisprudence Engineering Pathology/Biology Physical Anthropology Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences General Over the past few decades, many anthropologists have received specialized training in forensic methods in addition to their general anthropological education. This trend con- tinues today as more and more institutions are developing formal graduate programs or M01_STEA0735_02_SE_C01.QXD 9/19/08 12:59 PM Page 3 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS 3 programmatic emphases in forensic anthropology. However, since relatively few anthropologists find full-time employment practicing forensic anthropology exclusively, it is imperative that students maintain broad anthropological training. That is, specializa- tions that are unique to forensic anthropology, such as gunshot trauma analysis or facial reproduction, should enhance, not replace, an extensive education in the four fields of anthropology—linguistics, cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, and archaeol- ogy (Komar and Buikstra 2008; Ubelaker 2000). Archaeological methods are especially important in forensic anthropology, as is cultural anthropological theory, particularly in international work. A robust education in the social and biological sciences is also valu- able, and should include genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, evolutionary biology, criminal justice, and statistics. A well-grounded foundation in biological anthropology underlies the success of any professional forensic anthropology position, whether it is within or apart from academia. While most professional forensic anthropologists work in a university setting, nonacademic positions also offer many opportunities for those who are broadly educated. For instance, anthropologists at the Smithsonian Institution accomplish a considerable amount of foren- sic work (Grisbaum and Ubelaker 2001) and also conduct research in paleopathology, bioarchaeology, and population genetics (e.g., Owsley and Jantz 1994; Verano and Ubelaker 1992). Similarly, anthropologists from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command–Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC–CIL) in Hawaii apply their forensic anthropological and archaeological expertise to recover and identify U.S. soldiers and civilians lost in past conflicts as well as investigate local cases. A growing number of anthropologists are also involved in international human rights investigations (Steadman and Haglund 2005). Finally, some forensic anthropologists holding either masters or doctoral degrees now maintain full-time anthropological positions in medical examiners’ offices or crime labs. Clearly, broad-based experiences and education gained in both the natural and social sciences are important as the discipline continues to expand in new directions. MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTERACTIONS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE Forensic anthropology forms an integral component of an investigative team in the field, laboratory, and courtroom. For example, during the identification process, forensic anthropologists may work with police investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic pathologists, odontologists (dentists), molecular geneticists, radiologists, and fingerprint experts. New members are added to the team if a case goes to trial, including the attor- neys and a variable number of additional forensic specialists, such as ballistics experts, trace evidence examiners, and document examiners, each of whom testifies as to his or her scientific or technical findings. But how does forensic anthropological evidence become integrated with other physical, trace, and circumstantial evidence to make a legally compelling case? In most criminal cases, the initial responsibility falls upon the lead law enforcement investigator(s) to decide which consultants will have access to certain evidence,
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