Centre for Advanced Study Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year The Myths about the Constitution It is a myth that Norwegian democracy rests safely on the Constitution from 1814. In reali- ty the Constitution does not protect central political rights such as the freedom of associ- ation, the freedom of assembly, the freedom to demonstrate and the right to strike. "In practical political life Nor- way protects human rights to a far greater degree than follows from the Constitution. Let’s hope that things continue that way," say the experts on the Constitution, Eivind Smith and Bj¿rn Erik Rasch.

Pages 4-5 The lions in front of the Storting are guarding Norwegian democracy and the proud Norwegian Constitution Ð which looks more like a little pussycat

Mathematics is older than the Greeks

"Pythagoras and the Gre- eks have been given undeservedly much of the credit for having invented classical mathematics. Many of their ideas can be traced back to anonymous Mesopotamian mathema- The Genius and ticians," says Professor Jöran Friberg (picture). the Grammar The proof is to be found in such places as on the School Teacher small tablets of clay in the The Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Sch¿yen Collection. Abel (right) became world-famous in 1824. Ludwig Sylow (left) is one among Norwegian Pages 4-5 mathematicians who assumed the mantle after Abel. Pages 2-3 Mathematical growth in Abel’s footsteps Niels Henrik Abel was one of the greatest mathematical geniuses the world has ever fostered, and this year’s 200th jubilee is being used to mark his achievement. It is not quite so well known that along the path Abel left behind him there was flourishing growth of considerable importance.

"You don’t have to open many textbooks in pletely but not managed to complete the writing. called Lie groups. They are to this day a cen- advanced mathematics before you come Sylow worked a great deal on interpretati- tral object of mathematical research and a across Axel Thue’s theorem, Sophus Lie’s ons and improvements of Abel’s works, and central aid in theoretical physics. groups or Ludvig Sylow’s theories. As a nati- was concerned with elliptical functions and In the 1890s he was ill a great deal. The on Norway was over-represented with out- theories of equations. But it was first and writer Bj¿rnstjerne Bj¿rnson took the initiati- standing mathematicians at the end of the foremost a publication from 1872, with des- ve to have a professorship established for him 19th century," says Geir Ellingsrud, who is a criptions of the three Sylow theorems within in Oslo, and in 1898 Lie moved home. But he professor of Mathematics at the University of group theory, which made him immortal. was at that time seriously ill with pernicious Oslo and a member of this year’s research Sylow was never given an appointment at anaemia and he died in the early part of 1899. group in mathematics at the CAS. the University of Kristiania, but remained a "Also Thoralf Skolem, Viggo Brun, Ernst secondary school teacher at Fredrikshald Axel Thue Selmer, Vilhelm Ljunggren and not least Sel- (Halden) for 40 years from 1858. He was (1863 Ð 1922) berg made important contributions to the Gol- granted leave to undertake a study tour to Axel Thue wor- den Age of number theory," says Ellingsrud. Paris and Berlin in 1861, to substitute for ked on number Broch in the period 1862-1863, and to edit theory, logic, A systematic development Abel’s works in co-operation with Sophus Lie geometry and Professor Jens Erik Fenstad in the Depart- from 1873 to 1877. In 1894 he was made a mechanics. He is ment of Mathematics at the University of doctor honoris causa of the University of most famous for Oslo agrees that Norway has fostered unusu- Copenhagen, and in 1898 the Storting nomi- his works on ally many outstanding mathematicians. "On nated him professor extraordinary with an arithmetical pro- both sides of the year 1900 we had many mat- emolument of 3000 kroner per year instead of perties of alge- hematicians who were right at the top of the his secondary school teacher’s pension. braic numbers, international research league, but on the other and theorems of hand we had no profession around them. The Marius the (un)solvability of Diophantine equations, great change came after the Second World Sophus Lie i.e. equations where the solution is a whole War, when a more systematic development (1842-1899) number. He is also famous for his pioneer was started. Today we don’t perhaps have Sophus Lie deve- work on what he called "Zeichenreihen" or many researchers in the forefront internatio- loped original "word problems". nally, but what we have got is a broad profes- and innovative Thue was known to go his own ways, and sion with points of impact in many areas of theories for he preferred developing his own ideas to Norwegian society, says Professor Fenstad. transformations making a study of other people’s works. He of geometrical became a teacher at the Institute of Technolo- Peter Ludvig objects (lines, gy in Trondheim in 1894 and in 1903 he Meidell spherical surfa- became Professor of Applied Mathematics in Sylow (1832- ces etc) and for Oslo. 1918) the integration of Thue thoroughly reformed the lectures on Ludvig Sylow ordinary and partial differential equations. He mechanics. It is said that he dictated his lectu- qualified as a was appointed as an extraordinary professor res, stopped at the nearest comma immediate- teacher of scien- at the University of Oslo in 1872, and in 1886 ly the time was up, and carried on from there ce and mathema- he became a professor in Leipzig as the on the next occasion. tics in 1856 and famous mathematician Felix Klein’s succes- became a pupil sor. The point of departure for Lie’s works Thoralf Albert Skolem of Ole Jacob was his own and Klein’s idea that geometry (1887 Ð 1963) Broch, who star- and analysis ought to be built up around the Thoralf Skolem published as many as 177 ted him off on concept of group, as Galois had built up his papers in the course of his long career. The Abel’s works. Sylow became extremely con- theory of algebraic equations. Lie made a stu- most important of his works were done within cerned with an unfinished Abel manuscript on dy of differential equations from this point of logic and Diophantine equations. the theory of equations, and he gradually docu- view and built up a general theory of "trans- Skolem obtained his doctoral degree in mented that Abel had solved the problem com- formation groups" or what have since been 1926 for a work on integral solutions of cer-

2 Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year tain algebraic equations and inequalities. Then he was a resear- cher at the Chris- tian Michelsen Institute in Bergen from 1930 to 1938, after which he became a professor in Oslo. When he reached the age of retirement in 1957 he was for a couple of years Visiting Professor at Notre Dame Uni- versity in the United States. His works in logic broke new ground (inter alia the "Skolem-Löwenheim Theorem"), and his results with respect to Diophantine equati- ons and the "Skolem-Nöther Theorem" in algebra are outstanding. His commitment to his work led among other things to his being commissioned to write about Diophantine equations for the German Springer-Verlag’s series Ergebnisse der Mathematik, and to- gether with Viggo Brun he edited the second impression of Eugen Netto’s Lehrbuch der Kombinatorik.

Viggo Brun (1885 Ð 1978) Viggo Brun is best known for his work on prime number theory, but he also made a great contribution within continued fractions, generali- sations and combi- natorics. Among other things he developed a famous sieve met- hod, which he later used to develop two hypotheses in number theory that had previ- ously been considered impossible to prove. One of these hypotheses had been formulated by Goldbach and stated that every even num- An outstanding number theorist ber can be written as a sum of two odd prime numbers. Atle Selberg (born 1917) is considered appointed a professor in 1951. The sieve method has been taken further by to be one of the world’s most outstanding Selberg is also famous for his elementary among others Gelfond in Moscow and Atle number theorists of all times. His most proof of the prime number theorem, with its Selberg at Princeton and it has shown itself to famous work is his elaboration of what is generalisation to prime numbers in a random be very effective. Brun was also interested in known as Selberg’s trace formula. Selberg’s arithmetical series. When Selberg’s collected the history of mathematics, and in 1952 he doctorate from 1943 with amplifications on papers were published in 1989 and 1991, the found the lost manuscript of Abel’s Paris dis- what is called the Riemann zeta function critics were in agreement that the author is a sertation in a library in Florence. remained for at least 30 years as the most out- living classic who has exerted considerable in- He was made a professor at the Norwegian standing work within its field. fluence on his subject for more than 50 years. College of Advanced Technology in Trond- Selberg took his doctoral degree at the Uni- heim in 1924, and in 1945 he moved to Oslo versity of Oslo and became a research fellow where he worked until he reached retirement in 1942. In 1947 he married and moved to the age in 1955. He was academically active until USA to study at the famous Institute for Sources: Bent Birkeland: The Mathematics Teachers at the University of Oslo he had reached the age of 90. Advanced Study at Princeton. There he was Jens Erik Fenstad: Thoralf Albert Skolem – A biographical sketch

Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year 3 Mathematics is older than the Greeks Today’s youngsters who are fed up with school can take com- fort in the fact that it was much worse in Mesopotamia 3000 years ago. "Then things were really tough," says Jöran Fri- berg, a professor of mathematics. He can also prove that Pyt- hagoras and the Greeks have received undeservedly much of the credit for having invented classical mathematics.

Professor Friberg is one of perhaps four or study, and most of them are Old Babylonian five researchers in the whole world who can tablets of clay from the period 1900-1600 BC. read and understand Old Babylonian mathe- "The classical works in Babylonian mathe- "The Sch¿yen matical texts. It has taken many years to learn matics were published by Otto Neugebauer Collection con- the art, but now his studies are giving him Ð between 1935 and 1945. The Sch¿yen Collec- tains almost as and us Ð a unique insight into daily life in tion contains almost as many mathematical many clay tablet ancient Mesopotamia. The document collec- cuneiform texts as the whole of Neugebauer’s texts as all the tor Martin Sch¿yen has given the researchers works, and it is nothing short of sensational classical works approximately 300 previously unknown that such a large collection is being made from 1935-1945 mathematical texts to available," says Professor Friberg. together. It’s Roughly half the mathematical texts in nothing short of the Sch¿yen Collection are simple multi- sensational that plication tables, but the other half provide such a large col- an excellent survey of the school conditi- lection is being ons prevailing approximately 3000 years made available ago in what today corresponds to Iraq. to researchers," "The mother tongue in the region was says Jöran Akkadian, which was a Semitic langua- Friberg. (Photo: ge. But schoolchildren also had to learn Bjarne R¿sj¿) "Woman to be exchanged for woman and horse" Suhapriya must have been quite a woman, according to a trading contract found in the Sch¿yen Collection. The point is that approximately 1800 years ago two gentlemen, Lyimkeya and Rutraya, agreed on an exchange: Lyimkeya would barter Suhapriya for anot- her woman Ð and a horse. And the horse was an extremely valuable animal at that time.

Lyimkeya and Rutraya drew up a Braarvig. pretty detailed contract, which The old contract probably suggests that this must have been stems from a place in the area an important deal. Here it says that today constitutes Pakistan for example that Lyimkeya must and Northern India, and it is provide another woman as com- written in the Late Sanskrit dia- pensation if he fails to honour lect Gandari. The script is called the contract. And if Rutraya bre- Kharoshti and the "deed" is a aks the contract, he must provide little wooden plank with a lid on. another woman Ð and another This treasure belongs to that part An agreement from the other end of the scale: This copperplate horse! In any event the trouble- of Martin Schøyen’s document states the conditions concerning the Huner King Toramana’s dona- maker is liable to 70 strokes of collection that was transported tion of a stupa to a community of Buddhist monks. (Photo: CAS) the cane," says Professor Jens out of the Bamiyan area of

4 Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year Sumerian, which was in a way the compare a modern A4 sheet with a tablet of Latin of those times," Jöran Fri- clay weighing 2 to 3 kilos, so it’s self-evident berg explains. that they used small script and wrote in an extremely compact form," he adds. Complicated systems "But the first thing they had to Mathematics is older learn at school was cuneiform than the Greeks script, which was so complicated The clay tablets in the Sch¿yen Collection are that they had to spend many years among the oldest mathematical writings that studying it. At the same time they are known, but there is no question of their learnt a form of mathematics that representing the childhood of mathematics. was totally different from ours "Mathematics was developed before writing and based on the cardinal number was invented about 3300 BC," Professor Fri- 60 Ð in contrast to our system berg states. with the base 10. They also had to According to Jöran Friberg it is a misunder- learn a complicated measurement standing that Classical Greek mathematics system that resembled the Anglo- miraculously arose around 500 BC, invented Saxon system with feet and inc- by Pythagoras and a handful of other famous hes, and then they had to learn to mathematicians. "Classical Greek mathema- calculate with the different units tics is a continuation of ideas that can be tra- of measurement by means of ced back to anonymous Mesopotamian mat- comprehensive tables," says Pro- hematicians from the two preceding millen- fessor Friberg. nia. The Babylonian mathematicians could Incidentally the system using solve quadratic equations in a simple way the base 60 (the sexagesimal sys- with a geometrical method, they could calcu- tem) is not unknown in our day late the surface area of a sickle and other and age: there are still 60 seconds complicated figures, and they were altogether in a minute and 60 minutes in an pioneers in geometry and number theory," hour. "The system was extremely says Professor Friberg.

complicated, but on the other Jöran Friberg is a Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at Chalmer’s College of Technology in Gothenburg who has had Mesopotamian hand one could write large num- mathematics as his field of research since the end of the 1970s. At bers with few digits. That was no the present time he is working on interpreting and publishing a large number of the new mathematical cuneiform texts from Martin Schøy- doubt an advantage: You can en’s collection of documents at the National Library in Oslo.

Afghanistan five or six years ago. "The Afghan documents in the Sch¿yen Collection contain very many religious or philo- sophical texts, so it’s extra interesting to find such texts as this one. It’s not only in our days that it’s been difficult being a woman in Afghanistan," Profes- sor Braarvig points out. The Sch¿yen Collection also contains other contracts or agree- ments. A 1500-year old copper- plate measuring approx. 50 x 25 cm states for example that King Toramana in the Huna dynasty Professor Jens Braarvig’s eyes opened pretty wide when he found this document smack in the middle of a has donated a whole stupa (a collection of religious texts: An 1800-year old contract specifying how the woman Rutraya shall be dome-shaped cult building) to a bartered against the woman Cogaroae Ð and a horse. (Photo: Bjarne R¿sj¿) community of Buddhist monks Jens Braarvig is a professor of the History of Reli- in a place in the Afghanistan/ deal about the tolerance between that time," Braarvig emphasises. gion in the Department of Culture Studies at the University of Oslo and is heading the CAS group Pakistan area. "This says a good different races and religions at "Buddhist Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection".

Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year 5 The Norwegian Constitution Ð a symbol shrouded in myths Say "Constitution" to the average Norwegian and he or she will immediately think of the Constitution Day, the founding fathers, the flag, and Norway’s being one of the world’s best and most demo- cratic countries. "Yet in reality human rights have relatively poor anchorage in the Con- stitution," say the politi- cal scientist Bj¿rn Erik Rasch and the jurist Eivind Smith.

The two professors have been asses- sing the Norwegian Constitution in the light of the constitutions of many other European countries, and they are now putting their fingers on a number of things that deserve attenti- on. This is because we surround ourselves with a host of myths about the Constitution, it turns out. "The Constitution contains very little information about how the poli- tico-economic system in our country functions, if we look upon the Consti- "One of the myths about the Constitution is that it is so difficult to amend, but in reality it has been tution as a textbook on how the state amended over 200 times since 1814. A drawback with such a myth is that it invites extremely "creative" is governed. Our assessment must be interpretation," say Professor Bj¿rn Erik Rasch (left) and Professor Eivind Smith. another if we think of the Constituti- on as a collection of rules of law concerning by dictatorial politicians who might undermi- tion in 1953, Iceland and Sweden have consti- how the state shall or may be governed. But ne the rights of the minority, so it perhaps tutions from respectively 1943 and 1974, Fin- also as a legal norm the Constitution has lost doesn’t matter that much whether their rights land got a new constitution in the year 2000, much of its practical significance. If you’re are protected in the Constitution. This is a and the Baltic states set in motion major pro- happy with a constitution that doesn’t mean kind of naivety we can permit ourselves on cesses in connection with the dissolution of very much in society, then the Norwegian account of our peaceful history. But we don’t the Soviet Union in the 1990s. Constitution is pretty good!" says Eivind have to travel far to find countries with a dif- Professor Smith and Professor Rasch see it Smith, who is a professor in the Department ferent view," adds Bj¿rn Erik Rasch. He is a as a problem that the Norwegian Constitution of Public Law at the University of Oslo and professor in the Department of Political Sci- is almost never discussed in the political the leader of the CAS re-search group "The ence at the University of Oslo and his special debate. "Our job as researchers is not to argue Constitution as a Legal Norm". interests lie in political theory, the theory of for a thorough reform of the Constitution, but "There are historical reasons for the fact democracy and the philosophy of science. to point to possibilities and problems. We that the Norwegian Constitution has develo- have among other things pointed out that it’s ped into a sort of national symbol more than a A flow of constitutional most certainly not so difficult to amend the practical tool in the development of society. amendments Norwegian Constitution, despite the fact that The majority of people in Norway believe for Norway has the decidedly oldest constitution the myth says the opposite. Indeed, it also example that we never risk being threatened in Europe: The Danes adopted a new constitu- turns out that the Constitution was amended

6 Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year during the term of every parliament except extent regulate and protect human rights," of necessity be. Yet this conflicts with the pro- one in the last century. Altogether there have adds Eivind Smith. visions in the Constitution that the King has been over 200 amendments since 1814, which immunity and that Cabinet ministers can only is a lot compared with many other countries. Four signs of impact be impeached. The ministries have solved this There is a regular flow of amendments the Eivind Smith points to four or five factors that problem at the stroke of a pen by saying that whole time, while Germany, for example, and may decide whether a constitution gets a the Constitution must be interpreted ‘in the many other countries have a tendency to strong position or whether it will become light of our times’! In this instance it would- amend the constitution only in certain peri- weak and fall into disuse. "The age of the n’t have been difficult to amend the Constitu- ods," Bj¿rn Erik Rasch comments. constitution is a factor: One can imagine for tion Ð not one member of the Storting was example that an old constitution becomes fos- against the treaty, nobody would have voted The Constitution can be a tool silised in a positive sense, but it may also be against a constitutional amendment, and the "On the other hand many of the amendments that the state authorities in the course of time delay would have been moderate," says Pro- are not very important Ð the main structure is feel themselves more and more free in relati- fessor Smith. intact. Altogether it’s a problem in the reality on to the wording of the constitution. One can of Norwegian political life that one hardly also imagine that a constitution that’s difficult Political freedom of action talks about what we want the Constitution for. to amend will to a greater degree become the "All this becomes in practice a question of If one has a constitution that’s not taken seri- object of creative re-interpretations. A third evaluating how things are balanced. Most ously, one has at the same time abandoned a factor concerns the system for ensuring that people in today’s political community are per- tool for political action," says Professor Smith. the constitution is respected: A constitution fectly happy with an interpretation of the Both jurists and political scientists are on that’s not simply a political document, but Constitution that goes very far in the direction the whole in agreement that a constitution that can also be safeguarded by independent of political freedom of action. But perhaps the says how the state machinery shall be built bodies, has a stronger position than constituti- politicians on the left, who today greatly up, what bodies shall be found at the highest ons where the national assembly has the last appreciate the majority’s freedom of action, level in a state, and what competence these word. In addition it’s interesting to look at ought to think a bit about whether they would bodies shall have. "Another and perhaps more whether there are arrangements for indepen- want equally great freedom of action for a important side is that the constitution can dent advance review of statutes before they government based on an overall majority for contribute to protecting a number of funda- actually come into operation. In the case of the Party of Progress?" asks Professor Rasch. mental rights and values, and that it can to Norway we have in principle judicial review "Our Constitution doesn’t for example pro- some degree bind the state power and for of legislation, but in practice it is on the who- tect central political rights such as freedom of example prevent small political majorities le the Storting that has the final say. When it association, freedom of assembly, the free- from passing resolutions that infringe the comes to advance review, we traditionally dom to demonstrate or the right to strike. It rights of minorities. The vast majority of content ourselves with ministerial depart- doesn’t even contain a prohibition against European countries that have revised their ments," Professor Smith points out. punishment in the form of torture Ð only constitutions since the Second World War "All in all the Norwegian Constitution against torture as a means of extorting a con- agree on these principles," Professor Rasch doesn’t come out of these evaluations with so fession! The attitude is that most of us can’t comments. “In Norway we rather tend to look very much clout. But we must nuance this imagine using torture, so we don’t need such upon the Constitution as a museum exhibit or view, of course, because in several areas the a prohibition anyway. Such an attitude to the a symbol, and it will Constitution is practically indisputable. I have Constitution’s possible function as a political probably surprise for example never heard anybody say that we tool does at any rate deserve debate," adds many people can ignore the provision that Finnmark shall Eivind Smith. "But for Heaven’s sake: We that it does- have four seats in the Storting!" he adds. mustn’t forget that Norway in practice pro- n’t to any There is often a snag with myths, and the tects human rights to a far greater degree than great myth that it is difficult to amend the Constitu- follows from the Constitution. Let’s hope tion invites creative interpretations. "A fasci- things continue in that way!" nating example concerns Norway’s relations- hip to the treaty relating to the coming inter- national war crimes tribunal. The treaty lays The Constitution as a (legal) norm down a prohibition against giving heads of This research group is working on constitutions/basic Acts, their nor- mative character and impact in society. See also the account in CAS state special immunity, and this is how it must Newsletter No. 2 2001. Rokkan Prize to Huseby and Aalberg In January the researchers Beate Huseby and Ola Listhaug at the CAS from 1997 to 1998. Stein Rokkan (1921-1979), a pioneer and lea- Toril Aalberg were awarded the Stein Rokkan Much of their work on their dissertations was ding figure in Norwegian and international Prize for their dissertations within the field of performed during this period. The Norwe- political science, who among other things political science at the Norwegian University gian Social Science Computing Service was President of the International Political of Science and Technology in Trondheim (NSD) in Bergen instituted the prize in 1981 Science Association. Both Dr Huseby and Dr (NTNU). Dr Huseby and Dr Aalberg were in order to pay tribute to outstanding contri- Aalberg were mainly affiliated to the Depart- both members of the research group "The butions to research based on data provided ment of Sociology and Political Science at Basis of Public Opinion" headed by Professor through the NSD. The prize is in memory of NTNU when their work was carried out.

Newsletter no. 1 May 2002 10th year 7 The Centre for Advanced Study

The Centre for Advanced Study (CAS) is an independent foundation with a board appointed by the Norwegian Academy of Science and The Sch¿yen Collection: Letters (NASL) and the Council for Universiti- es and Colleges. Prominent researchers from Norway and abroad are invited for one-year stays to engage in research in the Centre’s pre- A cultural and mises in Drammensveien in Oslo, where the CAS is housed in the turreted section of the Academy’s villa. political challenge Each year the Centre’s activities are organi- sed in three research groups, each with from six to ten members. The work of each group is Martin Sch¿yen’s unique collection of documents has been planned and organised around a common theme valued at approx. NOK 850 million, and it is attracting rese- and headed by one or more outstanding resear- archers from all over the world. At the same time the collec- chers. The groups are chosen from each of the fol- tion has become a great challenge to those working in the lowing three areas: field of Norwegian cultural policy, because Martin Sch¿yen The Humanities wants to sell the collection. But who actually owns culture? Social Sciences/Law Natural Sciences/Mathematics There is no legal doubt that Martin Sch¿yen The CAS is exclusively a basic research owns the collection and that he acquired its institution, where the participants have no other contents in a lawful manner. The question of obligations than their own research. The Centre cultural ownership has been actualised becau- for Advanced Study is administered by a per- se Martin Sch¿yen is considering selling his manent staff of three and was officially opened collection, and Bendik Rugaas, who is on lea- on 1 September 1992. ve from his post as head of the National Library, is among those who want to make The Board of the CAS: the collection part of the new Norwegian nati- onal library. Bendik Rugaas is at present Professor Aanund Hylland (chairman) Director General of the Council of Europe, Professor Jan Fridthjof Bernt (vice-chairman) but he is due to return to the National Library County governor Ann-Kristin Olsen in 2003. Martin Sch¿yen (left) owns a collection of Professor Kathrine Skretting In a debate held at the University of Oslo documents that represents a challenge for the Professor Bj¿rn Tysdahl Library under the title "Who owns culture?", Norwegian museum and library service. Professor Tore O. Vorren Rugaas argued in favour of the Norwegian Museum Director Egil Mikkelsen is among Secretary-General Reidun Sirevåg (observer, state’s purchasing the Sch¿yen Collection. those who are happy that the collection exists. Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters) The difficult right of ownership ties destroyed the famous Buddha statues in According to Professor Jens Braarvig the Bamiyan. A number of participants in the The Centre for Advanced Study question of the right of ownership to cultural debate, including John Herstad, the Director at the Norwegian Academy of Science treasures touches on a number of dimensions: General of the Norwegian Office of Historic and Letters Scientific director/editor-in-chief: Should cultural treasures be owned by private Monuments and Sites, supported returning Ole-J¿rgen Skog individuals or public institutions? Are such the collection to Afghanistan when the time Office manager: Unn Haaheim Hagen cultural treasures national gems or part of the was ripe. "Norway can’t be seen to be suppor- Drammensveien 78, N-0271 Oslo, Norway global cultural heritage of mankind? State ting an international capitalistic system that is Tel: +47 22 12 25 00 Fax: +47 22 12 25 01 institutions have in principle greater continui- draining impoverished nations of their cultu- E-mail: [email protected] ty than private individuals, but state owner- ral treasures," John Herstad argued. Internet: http://www.shs.uio.no/ The CAS Newsletter ship is no guarantee that valuables will be John Herstad’s views were countered by Editor: Bjarne R¿sj¿, Faktotum AS managed in a proper manner. "The most among others Egil Mikkelsen, the Director of Layout: Håvard Simonsen, Faktotum AS important point in my opinion is that the his- the University of Oslo’s museums of cultural English Translation: Patrick Chaffey torical landmarks are made available to rese- history. "It’s true that the Afghan part of the Printed by: Grafisk Senter Gr¿set AS archers and the public, and in that perspective Sch¿yen Collection was found in Afghanis- Circulation: 8500 (Norwegian) 1000 (English) Martin Sch¿yen has performed a great ser- tan, but that’s not where the objects come The CAS Newsletter appears twice a year and vice," said Professor Braarvig. from. There are hardly any Buddhists in is intended to provide information on the activi- The most heated debate about ownership today’s Afghanistan, but in Norway they in ties at the Centre and to promote closer contacts with the research communities. Articles in the concerned the up to 2000-year old "Dead-Sea fact amount to 15,000," Professor Braarvig Newsletter may be reproduced only with the Scrolls of Buddhism" that were transported pointed out. agreement of the editor. out of Afghanistan before the Taliban authori-

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