Vol. 31, no. 2 april 2007

Human Stories and the Mission of God

mericanauthorelberthubbardiscreditedwiththecom- be reminded of their trespasses. one of turkey’s most prominent A ment that “life is just one damned thing after another.” armenian voices, dink enraged turkish nationalists in october But even if this were true, who can function in everyday life 2005 by writing about the slaughter, exile, and disappearance with such a cynical outlook? rather, we need to find ourselves in from asia minor of nearly two million armenians between 1915 some narrative, for each human being is, quite literally, “words and 1923. Because the official government report admits to only made flesh.” Without stories—stories about ourselves, about our Continued next page families and ancestors, about our social groups, tribes, nations, and religions—therecan be no self-consciouslydistinctive humanexistence.storiesareintegraltohumanidentity,providing one with a sense of location vis-à-vis everything and everyone On Page 59 Thinking Missiologically About the History of Mission Stanley H. Skreslet 66 czarist Missionary contact with central Asia: Models of contextualization? David M. Johnstone 73 In the Shadow of the Missionary captain: captain James Wilson and the LMS Mission to the Pacific Kirsteen Murray 77 Maori and Mission Sisters in New Zealand Since 1865: changing Approaches Susan Smith 82 World’s Religions After September 11: A Global congress. Montreal, Quebec, September 11–15, 2006 Frances S. Adeney else. it is our participation in these stories that makes us “we” 84 My Pilgrimage in Mission and the rest “they.” Personal and communal identity means Willi Henkel, O.M.I. participating in the selective common memory of a uniquely 88 The Legacy of Melvill Horne delimited group. Suzanne Schwarz the precise shape, content, and interpretation of historical recollection can be highly controversial and is not easily con- 90 Noteworthy trolled. some people and groups stubbornly insist on versions 95 The Legacy of Yohanna Gowon of memory that are viewed as seriously distorted, deliberately Musa A. B. Gaiya falsified,orevenpotentiallythreateningtothepreservationofthe 99 Book Reviews social status quo. the recent assassination in istanbul of hrant dink—editor-in-chief of Agos, a bilingual turkish andarmenian 110 Dissertation Notices weekly newspaper—is a reminder of how loath a people are to 112 Book Notes war-related“relocations”andsome“untowardincidents,”hewas ers of their own and often of their nations’ self-serving stories. charged under article 301 of turkey’s penal code with insulting But there was more at work, for within their stories lay at least turkish identity and was given a suspended sentence. dink, but the seeds of a more humble self-awareness that would one day not the memory of turkish atrocities, is now dead. enable their heirs to both see and acknowledge, without rancor sadly, this tragedy is not exceptional. human beings expe- or defensiveness, the deficiencies of their spiritual forebears and rience and interpret events so variously that their stories must, yet to learn from them. it seems, always be in conflict. since our stories are inevitably robert smirke’s commemorative painting above, with its incomplete, one-sided, and only partially true, the custodians of highlystylizeddepictionof“civilized”missionariesandpartially more self-flattering narratives must do their utmost to silence or clad tahitians, speaks volumes more than could have been real- discredit alternative versions. as George orwell famously ob- ized at the time. to the modern eye, the picture symbolizes the served,“thenati onalistnotonly doesnotdisappro veofatrocities crude, ethnocentric propaganda of a bygone era, revealing little committed by his own side, but he has a remarkable capacity for of what actually happened, but much about the sensibilities of not even hearing about them.” the missionary supporters for whom the picture was crafted. the question posed by stanley skreslet in his lead essay despite such distortions, the story brought by these flawed mes- (whether there is a missiological approach to the history of mis- sengers was grasped by the tahitians, to such an extent that now, sion), then, is as natural as it is legitimate. one understands at two centuries later, some 85 percent of the inhabitants of french oncethathewillmakeacaseformissiologicalhistoriography—for Polynesia embrace the christian story as their own. recorded memory, that is, in which christian mission occupies a special place. the accompanying articles hint at the ecclesiasti- so,canhistorybereadmissiologically?can missionaries,with cal and national diversity of missionaries whose imaginations their self-interested participation in what they regard as God’s were animated by the common conviction that they were part mission, be trusted to produce coherent, persuasive, significant of a story much grander than themselves or even than their history? skreslet provides a thoughtfully affirmative response to great nations. to their minds, this conviction laid upon them the this question, and the other essays in this issue lend modest but inescapable necessity of replacing indigenous stories with their compelling support to his contention. for christian scholars, at inherited understanding of God’s redemptive work in the world. least, history is not simply “one damned thing after another.” it went without saying that when the “heathen” were invited to —Jonathan J. Bonk take their place as active participants in this story, they should eagerly do so, with gratitude. not surprisingly, whether it was front cover: The Cession of Matavai to Captain James Wilson, by robert smirke, catholic mission sisters in new Zealand, orthodox missionar- ra. the painting was commissioned by the directors of the london mis- ies in central asia, or Protestant missionaries in africa and the sionary society in 1798 to commemorate the grant of land to build a mission Pacific, all reveal themselves in retrospect to have been prison- in tahiti. cWmPa.

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58 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 Thinking Missiologically About the History of Mission Stanley H. Skreslet

s there a missiological approach to the history of mission?1 of texts at our disposal. the documents so avidly produced by I Prompting this question is the fact that the history of mis- missionaries and their sending agencies in the past can assume sion is no longer the special preserve of those who support and an inordinate degree of authority for us today simply because participate in missionary activities. now a growing legion of they often are the only written sources for this history we now scholars is being drawn to the study of mission history, among possess.3 this imbalance in the record is a serious methodologi- whom we find specialists in politics and economics, marxists, cal problem to be negotiated and overcome, which explains why feminists, historical anthropologists and other kinds of social investigators of every kind (including missiologists) are eager historians, and americanists as well as researchers focused on to recover lost voices and to retrieve the contributions of lesser- non-Western societies, not to mention religious historians of known actors in the history of mission. material evidence of every stripe who make it their business to study the world’s indigenous missionary activity, oral history, and other forms of burgeoning collection of faith communities and traditions. all nonliterary self-representation are among the means available to these and more have found in the history of christian mission scholars to recover more of what may otherwise be missing from a virtually inexhaustible supply of data with which to fuel their what we know of the history of mission. filling in the gaps is not various research projects.2 the whole story, however. equally important is the fact that such missiologists who study the history of mission share many techniques can enable the living legacies of earlier missionary overlapping concerns with these other scholars, not the least of efforts, the new communities of faith that came into being as a which is the requirement to practice good historical technique. result of christian mission, to participate more directly in the some common aims likewise drive much historical work on writing of what is their history too. missions today, and missiologists may find themselves working anotherareawheretherequirementsofcompetenthistorical alongside other scholars who are also seeking to understand the practice arebound toapplyequallytomissiologistsand their dynamics of cultural and religious change, the emergence and counterpartsinrelated fields concerns the wayin which the diffusion of modern ideas, the art of apologetics, and the conduct environmentof mission is studied. moreand more, missiolo- of interfaith dialogue, plus the nature of the church and its place gistsare striving toassemble “thick” descriptions of interfaith in the world. mutual interests are thus a part of what needs to be encounter and christian witness, rather than simplytranscrib- discussed in connection with the question posed above. But this ing stories of heroic missionaryaction. as Karl marxfamously essay also goes on to address the more difficult issue of particu- put it,individuals maymake theirownhistory,but theymust larity: do missiological investigations add anything distinctive do so in circumstances notof their ownchoosing.4 this point to these other scholarly efforts? means taking intoaccountlarge-scale social patterns of which the missionaries themselves mayhavebeen onlyvaguelyaware. common concerns itmeans asking about the waysinwhich factors like geography, economics, organizational theory,and politics notonlyinflu- With respect to methods, missiologists have no special set of enced missionarychoices but also perhaps shaped evangelistic procedures to apply to the problems of history. they must fol- outcomes. itmeans seeking tounderstand howmissionaries low the same rules of evidence that pertain to everyone else could havebeen unwitting agentsoffar-reaching but sometimes who studies the history of mission or indeed any other kind of subtle changes in culturesnottheir ownbyreason of birth. history. if widely recognized scholarly standards of verification missiologistsasagroupcontinuetoresistthe urgetoexplain in history are ignored, then accuracy suffers, and what purports mission exclusivelyin secular terms (moreonthis below), but to be description or analysis slides instead into the category of theyaremorelikelythan ever beforetopayheed towhatthe mere speculation about the past. therefore missiologists, like eminentegyptologistJan assmann has called the hidden face other historians, must be concerned about what (if anything) of history:“historyhas twofaces, one turned towardus, the constitutes an objective fact, about how material evidence can other averted. the face turned towardusisthe sumtotal of event be used to buttress or disprove the claims of texts, about the and remembrance. itis historyrecalled bythose involved in it, problems of agency and causation in history, plus the need to as shapers or witnesses, doers or sufferers. the hidden face of differentiate between perceptions of an event and the historical historyis notwhatwehaveforgotten, but whatwehavenever event itself. remembered, those productsofimperceptible change, extended no scholar has all the evidence that he or she would like for duration, and infinitesimal progression thatgo unnoticed byliv- solving the conundrums of mission history. the data are always ing contemporaries and onlyreveal themselves tothe analytic fragmentary. the memories we have are faulty and sometimes gazeofthe historian.”5 contradictory. the archives are not only incomplete but skewed. on the matter of archives, missiologists working today who spe- Distance and Perspective cialize in the history of mission are challenged as scholars by the fact that foreign missionaries dominate the accumulated reserve at first glance, missiologists do seem to face at least one special problem of interpretation when functioning as historians of mis- Stanley H. Skreslet is F. S. Royster Professor of Christian Missions at Union sion. many more of them, i suspect, will have previous or current Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education in Rich- missionary service in their résumés than is true for the rest of the mond, Virginia. Previously a faculty member at the Evangelical Theological history profession. is this a disability, a reason to discount the Seminary in Cairo, Egypt, he is the author of Picturing christian Witness: scholarly output offered by missiologists who study the history new testament images of disciples in mission (Eerdmans, 2006). of mission? i would argue that we have here a slightly different april 2007 59 permutation of a persistent scholarly dilemma. historians have What Thinking Missiologically Does Not Mean long argued over whether participants or more detached observ- ers are better placed to write accounts of the past. Participants Beforeconsideringwhatmightconstituteamissiologicalperspec- have the advantage of direct personal experience, which could tive on the history of mission, it could be helpful to clarify briefly be a means to access otherwise poorly documented aspects of what i believe is not implied in this way of looking at things. as the events in question or to gain a “feel” for the time and situa- suggested above, the goal of mission history is not to celebrate tion one is attempting to describe. But detachment can serve a missionary heroes. i say this knowing full well that the record is purpose too, especially if it enables researchers to avoid telling replete with examples of extraordinary dedication and cultural their stories in ways that inflate their own importance. sensitivity, faithfulness, and creativity on the part of christian the larger question at issue here concerns the different ways missionaries in a variety of very difficult circumstances through scholars more generally relate to their subjects. missiologists are theages.mypointisthatmissionhistoryasapartofthediscipline by no means the only ones obliged to examine their motives for of missiology cannot be fully realized as a form of devotional writing history. Biases and partisan concerns threaten to intrude literature focused on the figure of the missionary. nor should it every time historical questions are posed and answered, since be reduced to a kind of cheerleading for “our side” in the global no researcher can begin to work without them. in this respect, competition of religions. sound practice in missiology closely resembles the habits of the reasons for caution here are essentially two. the first, good history. confessional commitments must be scrutinized, already noted, is that individual missionaries always operate in to be sure, but so must all other forms of personal, institutional, specific social contexts, and so the circumstances within which they act must be considered in order to appreciate the totality of theireffectsonothersandtheirsurroundings.atoo-narrowfocus To be avoided is the on the person of the missionary may obscure the importance of crucialsituationalfactors.second,honestmissiologistswillread- misconception that mission ily admit that the historical record is full not only of courageous history is an unvarying story triumphsandself-sacrificebutalsooffaults,miscalculations,and transgressions—by more than one kind of ethnocentrism and of missionary initiative by every manner of unfaithful self-interest. if mission history is followed by indigenous made to serve an apologetic purpose, its integrity as a science is undoubtedly put at risk. Put more positively, a mature field of response. study will reward the investigation of both success and failure, because each of these aspects of missionary experience can shed light on the deepest questions of meaning that mission history or ideological loyalty. complete objectivity is certainly beyond inevitably raises. it follows that missiology is not primarily about our grasp, but a measure of transparency regarding intentions producing “insider” histories for the purpose of stimulating en- and interests can be achieved. only so may our historical work thusiasm for contemporary missionary challenges. nor should hope to earn any degree of lasting respect from present and practical considerations (e.g., a desire to know “what works” in future generations. mission) be allowed to dictate how missiologists approach the afinal common expectation that missiologists necessarily history of mission. share with other students of mission history concerns the written another limitation to be avoided is the misconception that results of their research.as robert frykenberg has demonstrated mission history is an unvarying story of missionary initiative so well, the discipline of history is exceedingly complex. 6 the sci- followedbyindigenousresponse.suchanassumption—thatfor- enceofhistorynotonlyhasadistinctivemethodologyandlargely eign missionaries acted, but natives could only react—grounded agreed-upon rules with which to evaluate evidence, but it also is much historical writing on the modern Protestant missionary practiced as a form of philosophy insofar as it prompts delibera- movement until quite recently, which led to no end of West- tion over questions of language, perception, human experience, centric treatments of mission history.amissiological perspective and the nature of social change over time. in addition, history on the history of mission must be broader. the movements and is an art. that is to say, it has a creative element, which leaps to decisions of expatriate actors are certainly part of what we want the fore as soon as it becomes time to present to the public or to to know, especially at the beginning of any new effort to preach the profession what one has learned about the past. christ where that name is virtually unknown. But no mission- in this latter respect, we may mention three requirements of ary undertaking can be sustained unless indigenous enterprise goodhistoriography.first,one’swrittenaccountmustbecoherent, asserts itself as more than just a reaction to what other, more in the sense that a logical interpretive argument is constructed fully self-aware subjects are doing. as a rule, the earlier a com- on the basis of plausible data supported by reputable sources of munity moves beyond foreign control, the more successful and authority. second, it should be persuasive, which means putting deeply rooted any new expression of christian faith is likely to forward a case that is not just credible but that can move readers become. missiologists are accustomed to see in this moment of to agree with the author’s conclusions, even when alternative transition an indispensable act of faith appropriation, on a par explanations are given a fair hearing in the presentation. Perhaps with every other attempt to claim the story of God in Jesus as a the most daunting test of history’s contemporary narratives community’s own, reaching all the way back to the first genera- is posed by the question of significance. at the end of the day tion of Gentile christians. will anybody care? Probably not, if the product of one’s labors amissiologicalreadingofmissionhistoryalsomustresistthe is presented in dull, uninteresting discourse. missiologists, no temptationtoaffectanomniscientpointofviewwithrespecttothe less than any other historian of mission, would do well to reach processes of world evangelization. in other words, missiologists for prose that sings if they would hope to create and hold an must admit their inability to attain a God’s-eye perspective on audience for their work. the history of mission. methodologically, this constraint means

60 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 giving up the use of providential frameworks for interpreting to theological differences. in others, the defining issues are more the past, which is not always an easy thing to do, especially if contextual and social. oneaffirmsabiblicalmandateforchristianmissionandbelieves, on the whole, missiologists are not different from other as i do, that the church properly responds to the nature of God’s historians when it comes to reckoning with the multifaceted Word, which wants to be known, by giving forthright witness character of christian mission. the interdisciplinary demands of to its truth in the world. the danger here lies not in having such history weigh equally on all who would hope to study the record convictions but in letting them overrule the demands of sound of missionary action. as the scholar of comparative religion eric historiographical practice by subordinating one’s account of sharpe has phrased it, “the ideal missionary historian will be to mission history to a theological point of view. What andrew some extent a social, political, and economic historian; a geogra- Walls has to say about church history applies equally well to pher, ethnologist, and historian of religions; as well as a christian missiologists who might hope to write the history of mission: historian in the more usual sense.”9 adifference arises, however, “the church historian cannot present bad history under the plea in the way matters of faith are typically treated by missiologists that it is good theology.”7 when compared with their treatment by other scholars of mis- as Paul Kollman has noted in his just-published disserta- sion history. simply put, the ethos of missiology encourages its tion on slave evangelization in east africa, it is also possible practitioners to take spiritual realities very seriously, even when to subject the writing of mission history to a telos that does not the researcher does not share the same worldview as those whose claim a divine origin for itself.8 his example is the postcolonial history isbeing studied. thus,itisnotthecustomof missiologists nation-state in africa and how, in particular cases, scholars of tobracketoutoftheiranalysesfactorsofreligiousconviction.this africanchristianityhavecasttheirstoriesofmissionprimarilyin is the extra variable that often distinguishes the historical work terms of whether the foreign missionaries involved either helped of missiologists from that produced by many secular historians or hindered the new national entity to come into being. or the and most social scientists. secular end in view could be a conjectured phase of higher de- alook at two studies of mission will serve to illustrate the velopment in the history of humankind, such as a post-christian point. the first is a pioneering work of historical anthropology future for hyperindustrialized societies in the West. in any event, produced in the 1990s by a pair of distinguished university of whether religious or secular, it is quite possible for an ideological chicago ethnologists, John and Jean comaroff. their massive criterion to undermine the quality of scholarly judgments, espe- study of nonconformist British missions among the southern cially if ideology is allowed to govern the selection of evidence tswana in the nineteenth century, Of Revelation and Revolution, or in some other way constrict the interpretive freedom of the interprets these activities within a larger effort to colonize much mission historian. Good missiological technique with respect to of southern africa in the name of Great Britain. the professed mission history will not allow a hoped-for outcome to dominate aim of the authors is to show how agents of the london mis- historical method by guiding the research process to a premature sionary society and the Wesleyan methodist missionary society conclusion. functionedas“harbingersofamoreinvasiveeuropeanpresence” that eventually sought to dominate the tswana in every possible The Missiological Angle on Mission History way. 10 according to the comaroffs, the missionaries’ special preparative role was to shape the collective consciousness of the What does a missiological approach to the history of mission nativesinadvanceofdirectimperialrule,tocolonizetheirminds, entail? my argument is that missiologists bring to the study of as it were, by contriving a new conceptual reality for them that mission history several important investigative habits or ways owed as much or more to post-enlightenment values as it did to of thinking about mission that, when taken together, define a distinctive point of view. i do not propose that missiologists are the only scholars who attend to each of the elements to be dis- Good missiological cussed. nevertheless, in the aggregate, i believe we can identify anapproachtomissionhistorythatgrowsoutofandisintimately technique will not allow related to the field of missiology as it is now conceived and prac- a hoped-for outcome to ticed. my essay concludes with a metaphor that suggests how missiologists may be thought to look at the history of mission dominate historical method when it is approached as an integrated whole. by guiding research to Amultivariable approach. We may begin by noting that missiology a premature conclusion. is, at its heart, relentlessly multivariable. how could this not be the case? christian mission is a global phenomenon. Given the history of mission over the past two centuries especially, it the christian Gospel. in this way, the missionaries became not is now normal for the church to find itself in conversation with only “vanguards of imperialism” but also “human vehicles of a the broadest possible array of religious traditions and living hegemonicworldview,”whosecivilizingaxioms“theypurveyed cultures. these engagements take place across the full spec- ...in everything they said and did.”11 trum of human experience, ranging from the cognitive to the Of Revelation and Revolution is aformidable scholarlyproj- material, with the result that the theory and practice of mission ectthatsuccessfullypresentsadeep, thick studyof missionary are not easily separated. adding to this complexity is the fact encounter in aparticular time and place, which also sheds con- of christian diversity. multiple approaches to outreach are to siderable lighton larger issues, like the relationship of modern be expected from a worldwide christian community that has missionstoeuropeanimperialism.studentsofnineteenth-century no organizational center or universally shared philosophical missions ignore this work attheir peril. nevertheless, one can framework. in some cases of missionary encounter, competing findblindspotsinthemethodologyused.severalanthropologist priorities and disagreements over methods may be traced back critics, for example, havetaken the comaroffs totask for reduc- april 2007 61 ing the southern tswana toinertvictims of colonial schemes by my engagement with the histories of the Bible women so far, i effectivelydenying them anysignificantcapacity todetermine have tried to present a secularized view of their work. i delib- their ownhistorical fateasapeople.12 arelated concern arises in erately have not dwelled too much on either their faith or their the wayin which the religiousbehavior of the tswa na is inter- attempts to convert other women to christianity. yet the primary preted. the comaroffs reportthatthe southern tswana began motive for their becoming Bible women, for their inadvertent toconverten masse tochristianity bythe end of the nineteenth transgression [across caste boundaries] was their faith. and the century. 13 But whatexactlydid conversion mean in this context? primary purpose of their visits to other women’s houses was to Whydid the tswana embrace christianity?mostof the interpre- communicate the message of the gospel.”16 tivechoices put beforethe reader arenotverygenerous. they avery personal reason lay behind the decision to introduce include religiousnominality,anawkwardimitation of colonial the factor of faith into sebastian’s scholarly discussion of mis- social behavior, an attempttoappropriatebyreligiousmeans sion history. as she explains, her own grandmother was a Bible the practical and pecuniaryadvantages of aforeign civiliza- woman in india long before this article was conceived and writ- tion, an inadvertentcooptation intothe neweconomic order, ten, and so she asks: what moved my grandmother and so many agrasping after the whiteman’s power.unqualified respectis other native christian women to share the story of Jesus with reserved for the notion thatthese african christians, through their neighbors in the day-to-day context of indian village life, sometimes over the course of a lifetime? By raising such a ques- tion, sebastian has chosen to pitch her researcher’s tent squarely To think missiologically on missiological ground. Without resorting to a providential framework to explain the workings of history, she has neverthe- about the history of less allowed the realm of faith to begin to receive a measure of mission means to practice the same consideration so freely given by countless academics to the realm of sight. as historian mark noll has observed, this a form of critical empathy is what missiologists do. they operate somewhere between the with one’s subject. “functional atheism of the academy” and the “functional gnosti- cismofsendingchurches,”whichcanblindthosechurchestohis- torical realities.17 thus, to think missiologically about the history twentieth-centuryindependency,eventuallycame topractice of mission means, in part, to practice a form of critical empathy “a humanistfaith, afaithcentered on inspired social action.”14 withone’ssubject.adegreeofempathymakesitpossibletoresist Perhaps. But when none of the proffered explanations seems to the strong modern urge to dismiss— with a comtean wave of the match upwithwhatthe principals involved had tosayabout hand— religious convictions as unimportant. 18 at the same time, their own motivations, missiologists will want to ask: are these a willingness to be critical commits one to a methodology that is the onlyoptions? suitably rigorous and scientific. for purposes of comparison, a glance at some recent work by mrinalinisebastianonnineteenth-centurymissionsinindiamay Abias toward the dynamic. related to the persistently multi- prove instructive.15 as an indian feminist scholar of religion and variable disposition of missiology is its particular interest in the culture,withaparticularinterestinpostcolonialliterarycriticism dynamic character of christian history. that is to say, there is and subaltern studies, sebastian wants to read old missionary an inbuilt bias in missiology to concentrate on those points in texts in new ways, just as the comaroffs have done. like them, christian history where the community acts less like a custodian she wants to understand the corruptive influence of colonialism of tradition or repository of settled answers to familiar questions on european missionary action in the modern era. she does not thanasasourceofenergyforfreshengagementsoftheGospelwith stop there, however, preferring instead to go on to ask what past the world. missiologists are drawn especially to circumstances evangelistic encounters may have meant to the natives whose of change within christian history. efforts to plant the church stories were captured and represented in missionary narratives. where it has not previously existed obviously qualify, as would in particular, her article on how to read missionary archives anystruggletounderstandtheGospelstoryinnewculturalterms. from a postcolonial feminist perspective nicely illustrates the missiologists also have a special affinity for those parts of the kind of methodology that could support or complement a fully christian story where conversions into the community, growth, missiological approach to the history of mission. development,andcriticalself-examinationareconsiderednormal in her essay, sebastian focuses on the native Bible women aspects of church life rather than the exception. who worked for the Basel mission in india. she shows how their the effect of these biases on a missiological approach to work was obviously shaped, if not distorted, by Victorian-era mission history can be profound. missiologists have learned, for missionary ideas about “the christian home” that only partly example, that mission history is not simply a matter of extension rested on Gospel values. acommitment to feminist concerns and expansion from metropolitan centers to distant peripheries. pushes sebastian to explore the liberative potential of missionary thus, they do not expect missionaries to function as mere chutes education for women in india, which connects to her primary through which liquid concrete from abroad is poured into forms topic insofar as these native missionaries, that is, the Bible wom- fashioned out of local materials. truly missionary encounters in en, promoted literacy through their activities. she also considers history are intense moments, full of unpredictability but also of the possibility that the Bible women were among the earliest promise. old certainties about what is essential to christianity examples of professional women in india, thereby investing their may be tested and found wanting in these engagements. new work with emancipatory significance. up to this point in her understandings of Gospel truth sometimes emerge out of inter- essay, about three-quarters of the way through, i see sebastian culturalandinterreligiousexchange.inanyevent,whencontem- tracking very closely with the approach of the comaroffs, albeit porary missiologists reflect on mission history, they are likely to not at the same level of detail. But then a turn in her investiga- look for evidence of christianity as a movement rather than as a tive strategy comes, which sebastian describes as follows: “in set of institutions or a collection of fixed doctrines.

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An approach that is both local and global. next to this interest in mission in the scriptures. should we not expect the exegetes to the dynamic character of the christian tradition is a strong ten- be influenced by the habits of their guild as they examine the dency within missiology to think about mission history in both biblical materials pertaining to mission? likewise for social sci- local and global terms. the local side of this equation receives entists and other specialists who for one reason or another are attention whenever issues of contextualization are brought into drawn to mission-related topics. it would be strange indeed if focus. as Werner ustorf has observed, the christian faith is by they went about their work without paying heed to the salient nature “fides semper inculturanda,” and nowhere is this qual- trends and critical research needs that beg for attention in their ity more apparent than in the history of mission when multiple particular academic patch. contemporary contexts are studied side-by-side.19 the idea of in the case of missiology, the other items on our disciplinary translation is another means by which missiologists explore the agenda certainly include questions about how christian mission local dimensions of christian outreach. By translation i mean fits into an increasingly pluralistic world, about the means of not only the rendering of scripture into new languages but also outreach most likely to be effective and faithful in our era, about the creation of vernacular christianities that make sense within the perennial interface of theology with culture, and about the the context of their particular cultural settings. special vocation of mission service. missiologists who study the global dimension of missiologyis expressed in ava- the history of mission need not subordinate their investigations riety of ways. one thinks hereofthe geographic development to any of these topics, but an awareness of the implications our of christianity intoatrulyglobal religion, and also about the historical research might have for these and other questions of birthofaworldwide ecumenical movementin the heydayof pressing concern to students of mission is appropriate. When modern Protestantmissions. less often appreciated, perhaps, is one puts the study of mission history into such an intellectual the wayin which the historyof mission itself is stamped with context, it then becomes possible for the history of mission to the indelible mark of global inte rconnectivity.manyeighteenth- function properly, in my view, as a foundation for other work centurychurchgoers in the West,for example, eagerlyawaited in missiology. 23 the latestnewsoftheir ownmissionaries but also began topray ferventlyfor the spread of the Gospel byothers.20 acting on the A Riverine Perspective same impulse, the missionarysocieties founded justbeforethe turn of the nineteenthcenturysoughtnewwaystoshareintel- to conclude, we may imagine the history of mission as a river, a ligence gained from around the world among themselves and great flow of ideas, events, personalities, and human encounters toinform the public of their act ivities, hence the creation of th e taking place over time. theologically, its headwaters could be missionarymagazine atabout the same time.21 mostintrigu- identified in the nature of God, the one who sends the son and ingly,wefind far-flung modern-era missionaries trying tolearn the spirit and in other ways has sought to be known by human- from each other despitethe challenges of geography,while also kind. historically, the beginnings of christian mission might be thinking about their work in increasinglyglobal terms. Jennifer traced back to the earthly ministry of Jesus or the occasion of selwynhas provided awonderfulexample of this phenomenon Pentecost, with roots in the story of israel. Where does the river in her recentstudyof earlymodern Jesuitmissions in naples.22 of mission history end? anatural terminus, the particular body of water into which this rushing confluence empties, lies beyond the power of physical sight. yet, we do have a scene of cosmic The history of mission itself consummation described in the Book of revelation (7:9− 12; 22:1− 5), with the river of the water of life flowing unceasingly is stamped with the from God’s heavenly throne, around which persons from every indelible mark of global tribe, tongue, and nation stand praising God and the lamb. it is our lot to live downstream, but somewhere before the interconnectivity. end of the story. this is the only location now available for those who wish to study the history of christian mission. But where exactly do we stand to engage this history? missiologists will not as she shows, the Kingdom of naples became akind of prov- be content to helicopter in every now and again to take a bucket- ing ground within the Jesuitsystem for would-be missionary ful of water to nourish some parched ground of scholarly labor candidates tothe newWorld. coincidentally,theoristsinthe located far away. nor can we rely on satellite imaging alone, even society of Jesusconsidered howcertain techniques and ideas though a distant point of view can yield valuable insights. learned in one place could be adapted for use elsewhere. in to adopt a missiological perspective on this history implies astriking conceptual move, Jesuitsassigned tonaples in the a choice to live close by one’s subject, taking into account all the sixteenthand seventeenthcenturies came torefer totheir mis- elements of approach described earlier.along the strand one can sion field in southern italyas “ourindies” or the “indies down feel the force of the river, its dynamic aspect, so powerful that it here.” this is language thatclearlypointstoaglobalized project can cut new pathways through rugged and resistant landscape. of evangelization. if a turn is taken at navigating the rapids, direct experience may teach the same lesson, but with greater urgency. awillingness Missiology as a scholarly context. finally, a missiological approach to range far and wide within the watershed will bring to light to the history of mission is inevitably affected by and related to the rich complexity of a multivariable and extensive riparian everything else that missiologists study. in other words, the rest environment. en route one can begin to appreciate how various of what is encompassed by the term “missiology” forms a special features of the natural world may have shaped the river’s course scholarly context for studies of mission history undertaken by through time, while also giving thought to the human engineer- those who would call themselves missiologists. missiologists ing projects that either succeeded or failed to widen the water’s are not unique in this respect. their situation is parallel, for reach. an enduring interest in the local and global dimensions of example, to that which obtains for biblical scholars who study mission pushes the missiologist further to think about this river

64 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 as a kind of huge interconnected ecosystem with many different in the refreshing water. evidence of life so abundant cannot fail microenvironments. finally, in our mind’s eye, it is impossible but to remind one of the fundamental significance of this history, to ignore the lush vegetation and diverse wildlife that crowd the not only for the rest of missiology but also for the present and riverbank, with each species finding both strength and vitality future of the christian tradition as a whole. Notes 1. this essay is based on stanley h. skreslet’s inaugural lecture as 17. marka. noll, “the Potential of missiology for the crises of history,” f. s. royster Professor of christian missions, union theological in History and the Christian Historian, ed. ronald a. Wells (Grand seminaryandPresbyterianschoolofchristianeducation,richmond, rapids: eerdmans, 1998), p. 112. Virginia. 18. on the merits of empathy for the study of religious history more 2.iwish to thank historian heather J. sharkey for her careful reading generally, see richard elphick, “Writing religion into history: the of an earlier draft of this article. case of south african christianity,” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 21 3.rachela.rakotonirinaidentifiesa ndaddressessomeoftheproblems (1995): 1–21. ogbu Kalu’s comment on the importance of respecting associated with missionary-stocked archives in her article “Power faithcommitmentswhen trying towritethe global historyof andKnowledgeinmissionhistoriography:aPostcolonialapproach christianity is also pertinent here: “it is difficult to tell the story to martyrological texts on madagascar, 1837–1937,” Studies in World of the church by rejecting its essence.” see Kalu, “clio in a sacred Christianity 5, no. 2 (1999): 156–76. Garb: telling the story of Gospel-People encounters in our time,” 4. richard J. evans, In Defense of History (new york: norton, 1999), Fides et Historia 35 (2003): 27–39. auguste comte (1798–1857) was a pp. 160–63, paraphrases marx’s dictum and situates it in a larger french social philosopher who theorized that academic disciplines discussion about society and the individual. had to progress through religion and metaphysics before reaching 5. Jan assmann, The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of their fulfillment in scientific positivism, at which point knowledge the Pharaohs, trans.andrew Jenkins (new york: metropolitan Books, associated with these earlier stages of social development would 2002), p. 3. become irrelevant. ironically, comte never completely let go of his 6. robert e. frykenberg, History and Belief: The Foundations of Historical own religious sentiments, choosing instead to channel these into a Understanding (Grand rapids: eerdmans, 1996), esp. pp. 253–60. more scientific “religion of humanity” that he thought would one 7. andrew f. Walls, “eusebius tries again: the task of reconceiving day replace catholicism. and re-visioning the study of christian history,” in Enlarging the 19. Werner ustorf, “mission and missionaryhistoriographyin Story: Perspectives on Writing World Christian History, ed. Wilbert r. intercultural Perspective: ten Preliminary statements,” Exchange shenk (maryknoll, n.y.: orbis Books, 2002), p. 18. 31 (2002): 210. 8. Paul V. Kollman, The Evangelization of Slaves and Catholic Origins in 20.intercontinental concerts of prayer on behalf of christian mission Eastern Africa (maryknoll, n.y.: orbis Books, 2005), pp. 9–11. wereundertakenasearlyasthemid-eighteenthcentury,spearheaded 9. eric J. sharpe, “reflections on missionaryhistoriography,” by figures like John Wesley, James erskine, and Jonathan edwards. International Bulletin of Missionary Research 13 (1989): 76. onthisdevelopment,seestuartPiggin,“theexpandingKnowledge 10.Jean comaroff and John l. comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, of God: Jonathan edwards’s influence on missionary thinking vol. 2, The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier (chicago: and Promotion,” in Jonathan Edwards at Home and Abroad: Historical univ. of chicago Press, 1997), p. xvi. Memories, Cultural Movements, Global Horizons, ed. david W. Kling 11.Jean comaroff and John comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, and douglas a. sweeney (columbia: univ. of south carolina Press, vol. 1, Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa (chi- 2003), pp. 270–74. cago: univ. of chicago Press, 1991), pp. 36, 310. 21. an influential model for this new kind of church periodical was 12.intheirintroductionto DialecticsofModernity,pp.35–53,thecomaroffs provided by the Evangelical Magazine, published in london from offer a spirited rebuttal of their critics. 1793. By 1796 the Missionary Magazine had made its appearance 13.ibid., p. 107. What follows in the next few sentences is a very compact in edinburgh. the Connecticut Evangelical Magazine and New York summary of the argument presented in this second volume of the Missionary Magazine, the first american examples of this genre, comaroffs’ project. followed in 1800. 14. ibid., p. 114. 22.Jenniferd.selwyn,AParadiseInhabitedbyDevils:TheJesuits’Civilizing 15. Below i highlight mrinalini sebastian, “reading archives from a Mission in Early Modern Naples (aldershot, eng.: ashgate, 2004). Postcolonial feminist Perspective: ‘native’ Bible Women and the 23.in Transforming Mission (maryknoll, n.y.: orbis Books, 1991), david missionary ideal,” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 19 (2003): Boschillustrateshowhistorycanoperateinthiswayformissiologists. 5–25. see also sebastian, “mission Without history? some ideas in this seminal book, Bosch’s reading of the history of mission (as for decolonizing mission,” International Review of Mission 93 (2004): a series of partially overlapping paradigms extending back to the 75–96. new testament era) clearly influences his exegetical stance, while 16. sebastian, “reading archives,” p. 22. also shaping his approach to the theology of mission.

april 2007 65 Czarist Missionary Contact with Central Asia: Models of Contextualization? David M. Johnstone

ears ago i asked field-workers from the central asian began penetrating the open steppes and occupying muslim soil. Y republics of the former union of soviet socialist repub- ivan’s first major contest was to attack the crumbling tatar power licswhytherewasnotgreatercooperationwiththerussianortho- still entrenched on the banks of the Volga. in 1552 he led two dox church in attempts to establish indigenous churches among campaigns in which he captured Kazan and “brought the whole the muslim peoples of these regions. their immediate reply was Volga basin down to the caspian sea into the russian empire.”8 thattheorthodoxweretooheavilyenmeshedwithczaristimperial in 1554–55 the tatar stronghold of astrakhan was overthrown, policies.1 orthodox involvement would be too great a liability. and by 1581 the conquest of siberia was under way. 9 memories of orthodox priests marching before the czar’s armies elsewhere,acenturyearlier,theottomanturkshadstormed were still too vivid for many central asian muslims. andfinallyconqueredconstantinople(1453).afterthisorthodox the czars had pursued aggressive expansion projects; the loss, there developed among russians the popular view that orthodox church acquiesced to the imperial will. this was a muscovite russia was to take responsibility for the leadership simple interpretation of history. yet was it fair to condemn and of orthodox christendom. the grand prince of moscow began so completely dismiss such an enduring church community? to be seen as the agent of God on earth. muscovite russia was despite the long history of enmity between russians and to have a vital place in the history of christendom: “two romes their muslim neighbors, there were also high points in the his- have fallen, but the third stands fast; a fourth there cannot be.”10 tory of russian orthodox relations with the muslims of central the notion of divine favor encouraged subsequent princes to call asia. although the Western church knows little of these ven- themselves “czar,” the equivalent of the Byzantine basileus and tures, russian orthodoxy in fact has a rich missionary heritage.2 the roman caesar. this action further advanced the assertion that there have been instances of great courage, passion, and cultural moscow had become the third rome.11 sensitivityinorthodoxattempts tobringtheGospeltothemuslim ivan iV became the “militant representative of the idea of peoples. i outline here some of the context and features of these sacred autocracy.”12 the true czar was to be the “preserver of missionary endeavors. the holy orthodox christian faith ...[keeping] vigil over the christ possessing people.”13 this assertion implied that all clergy Historical Background were to subordinate themselves to the sovereign’s will and, by insinuation, made the czar responsible for the ultimate care and russia’s long history of interaction with islam began with the direction of both church and nation. mongol conquests of russian territory (ca. 1240). it was from this newposture of the statecame intodirectconflictwith this period that the russians and europeans knew mongols as the churchin1568. atthis time, Philip, metropolitan of mos- the tatars (or sometimes “tartars”).3 over time, the mongols, or cow(1566–68), publiclyrebuked ivan for his ongoing killing the Golden horde, became predominately muslim, and thus the and oppression of innocentpeople. Philip’s call for repentance words“tatar”and“muslim”becamesynonymousintherussian was perceived as adirectchallenge tothe czar’s authority. mind. the russians endured as tatar vassals. occasionally they Within sixmonths ivan had Philip deposed, imprisoned, and rebelled, but most of the time they acquiesced, for they knew that murdered.14 destruction awaited any act of disobedience. one of the severest blows to the russian orthodox church eventually devastation was unavoidable. it arose not in came from Peter the Great (1682–1725). Peter believed that the response to disobedience but due to the tatars’ ferocity. timur head of the church, the patriarch of moscow, “posed a serious the Great (1336–1405), or tamerlane, conquered central asia obstacle to his vast reforms ...of russian life.”15 upon the death and dreamed of restoring the glory days of islam. as a fanatical of the patriarch in 1700, Peter did not convene a council in order muslim he longed for the destruction of the infidel, eventually to elect a replacement. Within a few months he dissolved the wreaking havoc over much of the land lying between china and ecclesiastical courts and bureaucracy. after decades of maneu- the mediterranean.4 his trademark became great pyramids of vering and scheming, in 1721 Peter established the Reglament, victims’ skulls that he built outside the towns he vanquished.5 or the holy directing synod.16 in establishing the synod, Peter Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries the Golden asserted that “as the supreme sovereign, [he] had the divine hordedividedintonumerousprincipalities,eventuallybecoming authority for establishing and correcting the faith, and therefore the separate ethnic groups known as the crimean tatar, Volga he undertook to put order in the russian church by the pres- tatar, uzbek, Kazakh, and other peoples.6 during this same ent statute.” as czar, he believed that he was to have “absolute period, the russians began to centralize their strength and to control, or jurisdiction, over all spiritual interests.”17 assert their own military prowess.7 not until 1480, however, appointments to ecclesiastical positions were decided by could they finally cast off the tatar yoke. from out of the ashes power politics and had very little to do with the spiritual condi- of tatar occupation arose muscovite russia. tion of each candidate. catherine ii (1762–96) appointed men to With ivan iV (1533–84), known as the terrible, there was a the position of procurator of the holy synod who were openly reversalofthetrendoflosingterritorytothetatars.russiantroops hostile to christianity. she appropriated vast tracts of monastic and church lands. more than half of the monastic houses were closed, and the number of monks was strictly limited. When David M. Johnstone is Associate Dean of Students at George Fox University, bishops rose up in protest, many were defrocked, imprisoned, Newberg, Oregon. His research has focused on non-Western Christianity and or murdered.18 cross-cultural dynamics.

66 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 Beginning of Orthodox Missions (1550− ca. 1800) domination of the church by the state in forcing it to be a “civiliz- ing” factor in the newly colonized regions.28 from the sixteenth century the russian empire became more as- in 1773 catherine adopted a new policy toward the muslims sertive and expansionist. the conquest of Kazan and astrakhan of her empire.29 trying to avoid rebellions, she sought to win opened the door to localized evangelism among the people of the goodwill of her muslim subjects. reversing earlier imperial siberia by exceptional men.19 history begins to identify pioneer policies, she had new mosques built, and benefits were no longer missionaries who initiated work among the tatars and their kin. offered to new christian converts.30 this change led to a mass it was difficult work that encountered (1) the cultural diversity exodus of superficial converts back to islam.31 of numerous languages, lifestyles, and belief systems; (2) the eugene smirnoff identifies the period from 1756 to 1824 as a vast barren lands of siberia; (3) the nomadic life of the tatars; (4) period of stagnation for russian missions.32 missionaries lacked the rigors of the climate; (5) the hostility of a conquered people; knowledge of the indigenous languages, and new converts were and (6) the depression and frustration of long periods with little enticed by rewards of money or exemption from taxes.33 mission- success.20 despite these obstacles, these pioneers persevered in ary efforts lacked an overall organizational structure and there presenting the Gospel. was no coherent theory to guide their endeavors. in 1555 Bishop Gouri was sent to work in defeated Kazan. in nine years of labor, Gouri saw “thousands of tartars” converted Nineteenth-century Missionary Ventures to christianity. 21 his methodology was to teach in both church and home, build monasteries and churches, establish schools, in 1828 the holy synod of the russian orthodox church became and provide refuge and protection to the oppressed. his associ- quite concerned about the apostasy that was widespread in ate and successor, Germanus (d. 1569), who had been taken cap- regions where the government was using “christianization to produce russification.”34 Konstan- tin P. Pobiedonostsev (1827–1907), chief procurator of the synod, wrote toward the end of the nineteenth century: NS

SIBERIA the conversion of the tartars and natives tothe orthodoxfaith en Moscow Kazan UNTAI masse having been only outward and ceremonial, did not at first present MO any difficulties. ...the efforts of the River Kiev Governmentfor the confirmation MO Ekaterinoslav ALTAY

V IA of the faith was limited to outward Volga UNTAI Astrakhan URAL measures of prescripts, rewards and L DA NS punishments. meanwhile, in the MO Crimea course of time mahometanism grew BlackSea Caspian Khiva Ta shkent stronger in the tartar settlements, KuchukKairnarje Sea Bukhara withafullydevelopedsystemofdog- Constantinople Kokund matic teaching, and with a complete organization of clergy and schools

Mapby near mosques; the spirit of fanatical GlobalMappingInternational www.gmi.org propaganda increased under the influence of intercourse and contact with the central-asian centres of is- tive by the crimean tatars, knew their language and faith well.22 lam. afalling off en masse of the old-baptized tartars commenced, Germanus is said to have “dedicated his life to the conversion they having nothing in common either in spirit or custom with the 23 of the tartars.” orthodox church, but, on the contrary, being connected in both russian expansion into the crimea and central asia linked with the ordinary conditions of the mussalman population.35 conversion with colonization. converts were extended favor and benefits by the government. 24 asystem of bribery was estab- lack of interest on one side, compounded by muslim growth on lished that was not conducive to creating mature believers. un- the other, caused the holy synod to become concerned. it thus der Peter the Great, church initiatives were placed under state began appealing for missionaries. restrictions. in 1685 Peter endorsed the extension of a mission to the chinese, as well as encouraged the establishment of further MakariiGlukharev. one of the mostunlikelycandidates was ma- missions to muslims.25 some have suggested that his encourage- karii Glukharev(1792–1849).36 although he seemed physically ment was “politically rather than religiously motivated.”26 Peter unsuited for anyfrontier missionarywork, Glukharevchose to was in the process of building a buffer zone between russian ter- go toaparticularlydifficultregion—the mountainousterrain of ritory and the threats from the ottoman empire.as he expanded thealtairange.Bornthesonofadevoutparishpriest,Glukharev into the southern steppes, missionary work was used as a way excelled scholasticallyall his life. his outstanding recordpro- to assimilate and penetrate the new regions. vided him withentrance intothe ecclesiasticalacademy.in1817 in 1743, under orders from elizabeth (1741–62), 418 of the he took aprofessorship atthe ekaterinoslavseminary,and in 536 mosques in Kazan were destroyed. “in 1744–1747, 838 con- 1821, atthe age of twenty-nine, he became rector of Kastroma versions from islam were reported, and in 1748–1752, 7,535.”27 seminary. 37 the circumstances of these conversions are suspect, for in the While at the seminary in ekaterinoslav he encountered reigns of elizabeth and catherine ii, there was an increasing monks who were disciples of Paissy Velitchkovsky (1722–94), april 2007 67 of moldavia. Velitchkovsky was notable in initiating a major he himself had been prepared by taking university courses in spiritual revival within the russian church in the hesychast natural science, anatomy, and botany. 48 tradition.38 Glukharev’s encounter with this movement was a on the field, Glukharev was very cautious in admitting the major crossroads for him. resigning his position as a rector, he nomadic tribesmen to baptism. this was a time when rewards withdrew into the monastic community at Kiev. not finding were once again extended both to new converts and to the mis- enough seclusion at this place, he gradually moved further into sionary who performed many baptisms. Glukharev was not the deserts.39 it was there that the 1828 appeal from the holy interested in prizes or in numbers.49 over the course of thirteen synod found him. years he baptized 650 adults.50 yet Glukharev saw baptism as responding quickly, Glukharev was in the altai mountains only the start of his responsibilities. as smirnoff explains, “he of southwestern siberia by 1830. 40 his team drew up a compact, constantly maintained that ‘the work of conversion only begins modeling itself on the early christian community in Jerusalem: with baptism’ and therefore took even more care of a convert “let it be our rule that we should possess everything in common, after baptism than before.”51 money, food, clothes, books and everything else, and let this be Because of the hostility of unbelieving family and neighbors, a means of facilitating our inspiration towards unanimity.”41 Glukharev established christian settlements for the new con- this goal has been described as being “an apostolic rather than verts, with hospitals and schools also being founded under his initiative. By the turn of the century there were “25,000 converts, 188 christian villages, 67 churches with services entirely in the When preaching proved to vernacular languages.”52 thealtai mission continued to flourish under the oversight of Vladimir Petrov and other successors.53 be inadequate, Glukharev By Zernov’s estimate, “twenty-five thousand of the forty-five set out to become a servant thousand inhabitants of the altai region became christians.”54 makarii Glukharev was a man of stature equal to many of to the nomads. the great pioneer missionaries of the Protestant movement. his courage, tenacity, and creativity enabled him to impact a region that was not only spiritually a challenge but also physically harsh a monastic ideal.”42 the unanimity of vision displayed by this and merciless. he followed wise missionary principles that were small team became part of their strategy for reaching out to the widely emulated by others. Glukharev was a man with a passion tribes of central asia. for God and longed to see his own people, the russians, reach- initially they spent their time learning the languages of ing out to those around them with the Gospel. unfortunately, he the warlike, nomadic tatar, Kalmyk, and other tribespeople. came to realize that “the russian masses were only superficially Glukharev himself soon began to master the telengut dialect, christian, and therefore inadequate for the great apostolic task the most prevalent conversational language of the region.43 he God had in store for them.”55 also busied himself translating the scriptures and portions of the liturgical books in order to perform services in the vernacular. 44 Nikolai Ivanovitch Ilminskii. ayounger contemporaryof traveling for many months at a time, he frequently visited the Glukharev’s, nikolai ilminskii (1822–91) had a penetrating ef- nomadic villages. his simple approach was “to preach to large fect on russian orthodox mission strategy. though more of a gatherings about the main events of salvation.”45 yet there was scholar than a field-worker, he did not shy away from the dy- little response from the altaic tribesmen. Glukharev later wrote: namics facing those trying to reach the muslims of russia. as “a faint-hearted missionary would have concluded that these a theorist, linguist, orientalist, and layman committed to and people were not ready for christianity. Who am i to judge a supported by the established church, he outlined principles for people’s unreadiness toreceivethe universal faithinJesus cross-cultural evangelism that appear to be amazingly relevant christ, who shed his blood on the cross and tasted death for all to the modern period. men and for their salvation? no people exist among whom God as early as 1847 he began to reflect upon the principles he does not recognize his own; there are no depths of ignorance or later formulated and developed. at this time he began to trans- darkness which the lord cannot penetrate.”46 late portions of scripture and other liturgical works into the col- convinced of his call and determined to persevere, Gluk- loquiallanguagesofthetatars.56 thepreviousyearhehadgradu- harevsetouttochangehismethodology.Whenpreachingproved ated from the ecclesiastical academy of Kazan and was offered to be inadequate, he set out to become a servant to the nomads, the position of professor of oriental languages.57 unfortunately, especially in the areas of medicine and hygiene. in this manner the local archbishop questioned his loyalties and suspected him Glukhareveventuallyintroducedthesmallpoxvaccinationtothe of islamic inclinations. ilminskii was dismissed and headed for altai peoples. in terms of hygiene, he not only taught through the frontiers, where he took up a clerkship. this position enabled words but also modeled what was important. By going into local him to improve his growing linguistic skills and deepen his homes and doing the cleaning himself, he began to demonstrate knowledge of languages used among the muslim peoples.58 theverytheologyofmissionthathevalued.“tosweeptheflooras ilminskiicontinuedhistranslationwork,havingbeenchosen ahumbleservantistoidentifyoneselfwithchrist,tobearwitness to be part of a committee translating the russian scriptures and to him in a way which is more authentic than speeches.”47 liturgical books into tatar. the committee’s underlying principle in 1839 he published a volume outlining his theology and was to eschew use of the local vernaculars and to translate into a incorporating some of his ideas on missionary training. this literary language indebted to qu’ranicarabic.59 in 1851 he set out document, Thoughts on Means of the Most Successful Expansion of for the near east in order to perfect his knowledge of arabic. he the Christian Faith Among the Jews, Mohammedans, and Heathens in resided for many months in constantinople and lebanon and the Russian Empire , charted his thinking on the creation of a mis- even enrolled clandestinely in a muslim university in cairo in sionary study center in Kazan. at this facility he recommended order to expand his knowledge of arabic and Persian.60 a program that included medicine, nursing, and agriculture. upon his return in 1853 and the publication of these newly

68 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 translated works, ilminskii realized that the intended objective cational system. Because of the needs for highly fluent teachers of the new scriptures would not be realized. he concluded that and priests, ilminskii recommended that indigenous educators the literary languages used by the tatars and their neighbors, and clergy be trained.74 these individuals would be brought in which were permeated with arabic words infused with islamic with the intention of replacing the russians as quickly as pos- meaning and qur’anic imagery, were inappropriate for commu- sible.75 in response to these needs, the missionary brotherhood of nicating the Gospel.61 in 1858 ilminskii wrote that “in order to st. Gouri was established in 1867 in order to publish the newly serve effectually for christian enlightenment of the tartars, the translated works and to establish schools.76 translations ought to be made in a language entirely comprehen- alongside his call for the use of the vernacular and the use sible to them, that is in a conversational language, because they of indigenous clergy and teachers, ilminskii set forth one more have no written language. ...in order to sever completely the radical principle of missionary work: each mission should work tie between the christianised tartars and mahometanism, the towardnolongerbeingreliantonrussianfundsandmissionaries. alphabet itself employed in question should be russian, adapt- as indigenous clergy were trained and the russians withdrawn, ing it to the tartar sounds.”62 the mission should learn to become self-sufficient. this was a ilminskii believed that creating a new written script for the strong challenge to the status quo, for the russian missionaries tatar languages would enable translators to use words that did tended to respond to the nationals “as children to be educated not lead the reader back to islam. he was convinced that “the as long as possible.”77 slow progress of the Gospel among the tartars was due to the ilminskii was able to see remarkable success. the schools use of the classical language into which both the scripture and opened under his direction were deemed of high enough caliber otherworksweretranslated.theycouldnotfolloworunderstand for the graduates to be accepted for ordination. forty-four tatar, them and, surrounded by masses of muslims, they lapsed.”63 ten chuvash, nine cheremi, and two Votiak were ordained in in the situation ilminskii faced, the liturgical services among his lifetime.78 the orthodox divine service was translated into the tatar were in slavonic. their scriptures were in a different tatar, which proved to be one of the most effective missionary but also unfamiliar language. compounding these factors was methods.79 the lack of any native tatar clergy. the tatar were, as stamoolis the movement initiated by ilminskii survived his death. writes, “ripe for muslim counterpropaganda.”64 many others successfully implemented his methodology, slow- once again ilminskii returned to central asia, and in 1861 ing the tide of converts toward islam.80 ilminskii provided a sign he was offered the chair of turkic languages at the university of hope in a time when the church was facing many problems, of Kazan.65 With others, he began laying out his strategic plans both at home and on the frontiers. for reaching the muslims of the russian empire.66 ilminskii’s first assertion was that a mission must preach to each tribe in its Other Orthodox missionary activity. orthodox monks and priests common conversational language. accordingly, the scriptures also penetrated other regions of the empire’s frontiers. in these and the orthodox liturgical books must be translated into the regions the work among muslims tended to focus heavily on vernacular of each people.67 education and the creation of “asylums” of refuge for orphans By using the colloquial speech of the tatars both in transla- and other oppressed individuals. the educational aspects of tion of the scriptures and in the liturgy, ilminskii set out to break each mission played a major role in their attempt to present the the link with islam. he produced a phonetic script easily acces- Gospel. according to smirnoff, “the entire history of russian sible by the common people.68 then, using russian characters, missions is in reality nothing else but the history of the christian he eliminated the use of arabic script. setting out to verify the instruction of the natives in russia.”81 impact and relevance of his thesis, he presented some of his new the establishment of the russian missionary society in vernacular translations to local tatar boys. they “understood his 1865 further consolidated the work of the orthodox church. it translation of the Gospel narrative of the Pool of Bethesda, and provided guidance and materials for the individual missions even corrected some of his expressions. awhite-haired old man amongst the baptized tartars, hearing the prayers in his native tongue, fell on his knees before the icon, and with tears in his By using the colloquial eyes thanked God for having vouchsafed to him at least once in his life to pray as he should.”69 speech of the Tatars in in his quest to produce high-quality material, ilminskii translation and in the liturgy, sought the direct aid of the indigenous peoples. “it is essential Ilminskii set out to break the that the final touches should be put to the translations, with the assistance of natives by birth, because a russian, as i know by my link with Islam. ownexperience,havingoccupiedmyself withtartartranslations for about thirty years, cannot know all the subtleties, shades and psychological depths of a foreign tongue.”70 he was not just try- and tried to awaken the interest of orthodox russians in their ing to create new and intelligible translations; his aim was “the church’s missionary enterprises.82 formation of a specific christian tartar language in opposition Part of ilminskii’s legacy was his emphasis on the prepara- to an islamic one.”71 tion of missionary candidates. in 1854 the Kazan ecclesiastical related to this literary strategy was the establishment of a academy created a missionary department. 83 it was a partial network of schools with lessons carried out in the indigenous fulfillment of Gloukharev’s dream for a missionary training languages of the tribes.72 from his near eastern experience and school.84 however, because the course of work was mingled with his intimate knowledge of tatar daily life, ilminskii discerned the general academic requirements of the institution, missionary that the strength of islam lay in its system of mosque schools, in preparation became unfocused and inadequate. in 1889, because which tatar and other muslim boys were taught the essentials of of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, Professor V. V. mirotvortzeff islam.73 his schools provided an alternative to the muslim edu- of the academy established a two-year missionary program. By april 2007 69 1897 it was meeting in the spao-Preobrajensky (“transfigura- ers, it is easy to imagine the challenges. to further complicate tion of our savior”) monastery in Kazan, forming a separate matters, the missionaries were responsible for the spiritual care educational facility. 85 of the russian congregants of their diocese as well. for instance, thenineteenthce nturywasahighpointforrussianorthodox the Kirghiz regions of semipalatinsk and akmolinsk had 2,853 missionary activity. in spite of the aggressive work by the czars orthodox congregants. of these, 2,503 were russian, while 350 of empire building, many desired to genuinely present and offer were indigenous to the region.89 these scenarios multiplied the the good news of christ to the unbelieving peoples of russia. burdenandtaxedthematerial,spiritual,andemotionalresources of the missionaries. despite these challenges, the orthodox mis- conclusions sionaries persevered and “laboured greatly and seriously for the enlightenment” of the peoples in the russian empire.90 the tenacity, perseverance, and courage of these orthodox mis- in evaluating the actions of the pre-revolutionary russian sionaries to central asia become even more incredible when we orthodox missionaries and strategists, one must remember that consider the obstacles they faced.86 first, the topography was theseconceptswerecreatedwithoutthecross-pollinationpresent unbelievably vast, with a climate to match its size. in some re- in the Western missionary movements of the same era. in the gions one missionary would be responsible for traveling circuits West, men such as henry Venn, rufus anderson, and later John of over 1,000 kilometers.87 they would journey in the extremes nevius, robert speer, and others provided much innovation in of freezing temperatures of the altai or in the scorching heat of missionary thinking and strategy. the orthodox were not a part the uzbek deserts. this itineration was part of their attempts to of this creative interaction. this fact alone makes men such as minister to highly nomadic tribes. the vast territories covered makarii Glukharev and nikolai ilminskii more impressive. by these nomadic tribes sometimes required the missionaries to the historical enmity between russians and many of the literally hunt the nomads by following their tracks. muslim peoples persists in certain regions. as tradition plays second, the diversity of languages and cultures posed a a major role in the russian orthodox worldview, however, the tremendous challenge. the numbers of muslim people groups orthodox should be encouraged to reflect upon alternate ways of within the russian sphere was (and still is) numerous. as a responding to muslims. as believers they should be challenged sampling, there were tatars, uzbeks, Kazaks, Kirghiz, Kara- to examine their heritage and emulate the kindness extended to kalpaks, uighurs, altai, and tajiks, all needing the presence of muslims modeled by Gouri, Glukharev, ilminskii, and others. indigenous churches. traditional enmity could be transformed through attempts to the third significant obstacle was specific to those working reflect christ’s character through reconciliation and grace. among muslims. muslim propaganda was highly organized and finally, we mustrecognizethatnon-russianscontemplating could become extremely violent. regions such as the caucasus work in the former soviet centralasia cannot remove themselves and the Khanate of Bukhara were especially strong, with highly fromcontactwiththeorthodoxchurch.Knowledgeofsignificant organized sufi movements and islamic training centers. While historical orthodox figures and their thinking will be of great martyrdoms among missionaries were rare, violence directed at assistance in developing relationships and appreciation for or- converts was always a possibility. 88 thodoxy. orthodox missionaries have blazed many of the trails the fourth major hurdle was the scarcity of mission stations, currently being penetrated by other field-workers. We would do resources,andmanpower.ifoneconsidersthatamongthe800,000 well to remain humble and learn the wisdom that these earlier Kirghiz, there were only nine stations with twenty-eight work- missionaries gathered from their journeys. Notes 1. oleg Kobtzeff, “ruling siberia: the imperial Power, the orthodox 8. Gary hobin, “appendix c: aBrief history of islam, with special church, and the native People,” St. Vladimir’s Theological Quarterly reference to russia and the soviet union,” in An Ethnographical 30, no. 3 (1986): 269–72. Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires (Westport,conn.: 2.anastasios yannoulatos, “discovering the orthodox missionary Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 764. ethos,” Martyria Mission: The Witness of the Orthodox Churches Today, 9. nadia diuk and adrian Karatnycky, The Hidden Nations: The People ed. ion Bria (Geneva: Wcc Publications, 1980), pp. 21–22. Challenge the Soviet Union (newyork: William morrow,1990), 3.fordiscussionoftheoriginofthename“tatar”andabriefexplanation p. 169. of the ethnic history of this group, see James G. nutsch, “tatars,” 10.nicolas Zernov, Eastern Christendom: AStudy of the Origin and in The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. Joseph Development of the Eastern Orthodox Church (london: Weidenfeld & l. Wieczynsk (Gulf Breeze, fla.: academic international Press, nicolson, 1961), p. 140. see also William-Kenneth medlin, Moscow 1976–2000). and East Rome: APolitical Study of the Relations of Church and State in 4. once when iwas withagroupviewing tamerlane’s tomb in Muscovite Russia (Westport, conn.: hyperion Press, 1981; orig. pub., samarkand, the Intourist guide related to us that in the early 1940s 1952), pp. 92ff. soviet archaeologists desired to open his tomb in order to verify 11.this notion of a third rome was revived in the early periods of the the authenticity of the remains. the uzbek people arose in great nineteenth century to provide a foundation for justification of the fear, cautioning the authorities that a curse lay upon the tomb that empire’spoliciesofcivilizingandchristianizingsiberia.seeKobtzeff, threatened to release tamerlane’s spirit, spreading destruction over “ruling siberia,” pp. 274–75. the earth. scoffing at this superstition, the archaeologists received 12.Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 143. permission from stalin himself. the day they opened the tomb, 13.medlin, Moscow and East Rome, p. 94. hitler’s armies invaded the ussr. 14. nicolas Zernov, The Russians and Their Church, 3rd ed. (london: 5. samuel hugh moffett, AHistory of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1, Begin- sPcK, 1978; orig. pub., 1945), pp. 59–61. nings to 1500 (san francisco: harpersanfrancisco, 1992), p. 486. 15. medlin, Moscow and East Rome, p. 216. 6. ira m. lapidus, AHistory of Islamic Societies (cambridge: cambridge 16. see ibid., pp. 216ff., for the details regarding Peter’s intrigue. univ. Press, 1988), p. 419. 17. ibid., pp. 219, 222. 7. John lawrence, AHistory of Russia, 7th ed. (new york: meridian 18. timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1993; orig. pub., 1957), pp. 88ff. Books, 1963), p. 127.

70 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 “The PhD in Intercultural Studies program Ourfull-time Mission and Evangelism facultymembers include: trains students to be both theologically astute and Richard R. Cook, PhD anthropologically sensitive so that they can better apply Mission History and Global Christianity the Word of God critically in any human or cultural Paul G. Hiebert, PhD context. The faculty are all experts in their own right, Anthropology and Missiology and they contribute to the richness of the program not Harold A. Netland, PhD Religion and Intercultural Studies only by their theological insights but also by their years John W. Nyquist, PhD of significant intercultural experience. The diversity of Evangelism and Discipleship the students, both in terms of their cultural background Craig Ott, PhD and their cross-cultural ministry experience, creates a Church Planting, Contextualization James F. Plueddemann, PhD unique community where theological and missiological Leadership and Education thinking is forged in a highly stimulating context.” Robert J. Priest, PhD Anthropology and Intercultural Studies — Doctoral student How-Chuang Chua came to Tite Tiénou, PhD Trinity after four years of church planting work Theology of Mission, Ethnicity as a missionary in Japan.

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Contactour Office of Admission today: 800.583.6654 TrinityEvangelical DivinitySchool | 2065 Half DayRoad,Deerfield,IL60015 | www.teds.edu 19. Kobtzeff, “ruling siberia,” p. 274. “introduction,”inMartyriaMission:TheWitnessoftheOrthodoxChurches 20.david n. collins, “colonialism and siberian development: acase- Today, ed. ion Bria (Geneva: Wcc Publications, 1980), pp. 10–11. study of the orthodox mission to the altay, 1830–1913,” in The 44. Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 181. Development of Siberia: People and Resources, ed. alan Wood and r. 45. struve, “macaire Gloukharev,” p. 311. a. french (new york: st. martin’s Press, 1989), p. 58. 46. makarii Gloukharev, quoted in ibid. 21. though he was not writing for an academic audience, eugene 47. ibid., p. 312. smirnoffassertsthatmostcarefulattentionwasgiventodataverified 48. Gorodetzky, “missionary expansion,” p. 407. from “the reports of the chief Procurator of the most holy synod, 49. struve, “macaire Gloukharev,” p. 312. in the yearly reports of the orthodox missionary society, and the 50.florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 148; struve writes that it was 674 reportsofindividual missions and missionaryestablishments” over fourteen years (“macaire Gloukharev,” p. 312). ( AShort Account of the Historical Development and Present Position 51. smirnoff, Short Account, p. 18. of Russian Orthodox Missions [london, 1903; repr., Willits, calif.: 52.stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology, pp. 30, 31. eastern orthodox Books, n.d.], p. 11). 53.florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 149. 22.ibid. 54. Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 181. 23.Zernov, The Russians and Their Church, p. 60. 55. struve, “macaire Gloukharev,” p. 314. 24. nadejda Gorodetzky, “the missionary expansion of the russian 56. latourette, Expansion, 4:121–22. orthodox church,” International Review of Missions 31 (1942): 402. 57. By the end of his life ilminskii was able to speak hebrew, Greek, 25. c. samuel calian, “eastern orthodoxy’s renewed concern for latin, arabic, Persian, tatar, cherimis, chuvash, mordvin, Kirghiz, mission,” International Review of Missions 52 (1963): 35. yakut, and several other siberian languages. see Zernov , Eastern 26. James J. stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology (maryknoll, Christendom, p. 183. n.y.: orbis Books, 1986), p. 28. 58. latourette, Expansion, 4:122. 27. K. s. latourette, AHistory of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols. 59. stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology, p. 32. (london: eyre & spottiswoode, 1947), 3:76–77. 60.florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 153. 28. this role was to be maintained for the next century where the church 61. ibid.; Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 183. was seen as a practical administrator of the colonized regions. see 62.Quoted in smirnoff, Short Account, p. 33. Kobtzeff, “ruling siberia,” pp. 276–79. 63.Gorodetzky, “missionary expansion,” p. 408. 29. andrei a. Znamenski, Shamanism and Christianity: Native Encounters 64. stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology, p. 32. with Russian Orthodox Missions in Siberia and Alaska, 1820–1917 65. George robinson, “the mission of nikolai il’minskii, lay mis- (Westport, conn: Greenwood Press, 1999), p. 4. sionary of the russian orthodox church (1821–1891),” International 30.lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, p. 423. Journal of Frontier Missions 7, no. 3 (July 1990): 78. 31. collins, “colonialism and siberian development,” p. 54. 66. florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 154. one of ilminskii’s tatar 32.smirnoff,ShortAccount,p.15;Znamenski,ShamanismandChristianity, assistants won a large following through the use of the vernacular. p. 4. latourette mentions that this man banded his listeners together in 33.c. r. Bawden, Shamans, Lamas, and Evangelicals (london: routledge order to form choirs singing christian hymns ( Expansion, 4:122). & Kegan Paul, 1985), p. 244. 67. s. Bolshakoff, “orthodox missions today,” International Review of 34. stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology,p.29; collins, Missions 42 (1953): 277. “colonialism and siberian development,” p. 54. many clergy were 68. Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 183. actually supporting this apostasy; see Znamenski, Shamanism and 69. smirnoff, Short Account, p. 33. Christianity, p. 65. 70.ilminskii, as quoted in ibid., p. 34. 35. smirnoff, Short Account, pp. 28–29. 71. florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 153. 36. there seems to be some disagreement over makarii’s date of death: 72.Znamenski, Shamanism and Christianity, p. 63. stamoolis ( Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology, p. 28), Gorodetzky 73.stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology, p. 32. (“missionary expansion,” p. 407), and Zernov ( Eastern Christendom, 74. Znamenski, Shamanism and Christianity, p. 63. p. 181) suggest 1847, while nikita struve (“macaire Gloukharev, a 75. Bolshakoff, “orthodox missions today,” p. 277. Prophet of orthodox mission,” International Review of Missions 54 76. florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 145. [1965]: 314) suggests april 18, 1849. 77. Bolshakoff, “orthodox missions today,” p. 277. 37. struve, “macaire Gloukharev,” p. 309; stamoolis, Eastern Orthodox 78. Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 183. Mission Theology, p. 28. 79. florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 154. 38. Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 163. 80.Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 183. according to Johannes reimer, 39. struve, “macaire Gloukharev,” p. 310. the mordvin, the chuvash, and the cheremi are still considered to 40.Zernov, Eastern Christendom, p. 181. there seems to be some dis- be primarily orthodox in faith, though highly nominal ( Operation crepancy in the dates for the beginning of the mission. Gorodetzky Soviet Union: How to Pray for the 160 People Groups in the USSR (“missionary expansion,” p. 407) suggests 1828, while Georges [fresno, calif.: logos, 1988, 1990]). florovsky (“russian missions: an historical sketch,” in Aspects of 81. smirnoff, Short Account, p. 70. Church History [Belmont, mass.: nordland Publishing, 1975], p. 148) 82.Znamenski, Shamanism and Christianity, p. 60. agreeswithZernovinsuggesting1830.ithink1830ismoreplausible, 83.smirnoff, Short Account, p. 52. given the time needed between the initial appeal and the starting of 84. Znamenski, Shamanism and Christianity, p. 60. a mission. 85. smirnoff, Short Account, pp. 52–53. 41.florovsky,“russianmissions,”p.148;struve,“macaireGloukharev,” 86. see ibid., pp. 62–74, for his more detailed outline. p. 311. 87. ibid., p. 63. 42.florovsky, “russian missions,” p. 148. 88. collins, “colonialism and siberian development,” pp. 57–58. 43.this language learning was reflective of the priority that the ortho- 89. smirnoff, Short Account, p. 62. dox church has given to “indigenization of the faith.” see ion Bria, 90.ibid., pp. 69–70, 73.

72 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 In the Shadow of the Missionary Captain: Captain James Wilson and the LMS Mission to the Pacific Kirsteen Murray

n promoting its activities, the london missionary society infant Baptism” appeared.7 it was followed in november by I (lms) openly acknowledged the importance of the late haweis’s review of melville horne’s Letters on missions: addressed eighteenth-century enthusiasm for the adventures of captains to the Protestant ministers of the British Churches (Bristol, 1794). as cook, Bligh, and Wallis.1 What has received less attention is the a result, a corresponding committee was formed, which led to extent to which the mission emulated these great navigators. the foundation of the society on monday, september 21, 1795. the influence was so pervasive in the planning and execution this event was followed by three days of preaching attended of their first mission, to the Pacific, that captain James Wilson by 200 clergy, including anglicans, independents, methodists, actually dominated decision making, even on issues of doctrine and Presbyterians.8 and church government. it was also Wilson, a man who did not haweis presented the idea of a mission to the Pacific to the settle or even preach in the islands, who was the focus of lms first general meeting of the society in his sermon “a memoir on publicity at home, in particular through his book Amissionary the most eligible Part to begin a mission” (1795).9 an article for voyage to the southern Pacific Ocean. 2 Wilson’s leadership caught the Evangelical Magazine, “the Very Probable success of a proper thepublicmoodinBritainandengagedthePolynesians;ordinary mission to the south seas,” also in 1795, made a similar case.10 members of the mission, however, were left struggling to emerge haweis linked the duty to spread the Word of God with what from his shadow and to receive the respect of the society. he saw as cook’s timely and providential discoveries in the in Britain in the 1790s the case for mission itself was new. Pacific. haweis saw the south seas, of all the potential fields, as one argument advanced by the founders of the lms was that presenting the least difficulties and greatest chance of success. the recent voyages of exploration had providentially opened an the advantages he suggested included the climate, the settled entirelynewfieldbeforethemandissuedachallengetochristians life of the people, the simplicity of the language when compared whoremainedcomfortablyineurop e:“cookandothernavigators with the languages of india or china, and the absence of any have voluntarily exposed their lives in unknown tracts, in fields absolutist government that might persecute the missionaries.11 of ice, and in abodes of savages. our merchants venture into the thepeopleofthesouthseas,haweisbelieved,wouldhavefewer burning and frozen regions, and trade with men of every colour prejudices than those of china and india, where “civilization and clime, for uncertain riches. and are there not yet among us hath long obtained.”12 those in an uncivilized state would be numbers of ministers and pious youths, who would gladly fly more struckbythebenefitstobederivedfromthemechanicalarts to the ends of the earth, bearing with them the glad tidings of and trades and more easily convinced of european superiority salvation?”3 William carey had also made a reference to the new in all things, including religion. possibilitiesopenedbyProvidenceinhisEnquiryintotheObligation of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen. 4 James Wilson, Volunteer Mission captain Thomas Haweis and LMS Mission to the Pacific the lms found its equivalent to cook in the person of captain James Wilson (1760–1814). Wilson’s dramatic conversion and life one man particularly influenced by the publication of the voy- story provided a gripping tale of danger, escapes from death, ages was thomas haweis (1734–1820).5 haweis was educated and redemption. Wilson fought with the British army during at oxford and in 1764 became rector of aldwincle, northamp- the american War of independence and then served nine years tonshire. in 1774 he accepted a position as personal chaplain to with the east india company. While in india he was captured selina, countess of huntingdon (1707–91), a strong supporter of by hyder ali and, after a daring bid for escape, was imprisoned George Whitefield and founder of the countess of huntingdon’s in the black hole of seringapatam. after his release he continued connexion, a network of calvinistic methodist chapels. shortly service as a captain and, despite illness and further dangerous before her death, haweis persuaded the countess to fund a missions, accumulated sufficient resources to retire. throughout mission to tahiti. two missionaries were to travel with captain it all, Wilson remained fast in his irreligious opinions. While Bligh on his return there to complete the duties that had been living in england with his niece, however, he was converted to interrupted by the mutiny of the crew of the Bounty. haweis met an evangelical faith. he felt called to volunteer for missionary Bligh in london and persuaded him to carry two young men service after reading the Evangelical Magazine. from the college affiliated with the connexion, michael Waugh haweis did not know Wilson before receiving a letter vol- and richard Price.6 the missionaries were given a course of unteering his services in the Pacific. his skills and newfound preparation but in 1791 refused to sail without receiving epis- devotion seemed perfectly suited to the situation, and haweis copal ordination. it was denied by Bishop Porteous of london, saw him as “God’s man.”13 in 1801 haweis published a history and the project collapsed. of the christian church in which he devoted forty pages to a three years later haweis was responsible for one of the two narrative of Wilson’s inspirational life. aserialized account of pieces printed in the Evangelical Magazine that prompted the Wilson’s life based on the same source was published in 1802 by foundation of a missionary society in london. in september 1794 MethodistMagazine. 14 captainWilsonwasanaturalfigure around david Bogue’s “address to evangelical dissenters who practice whom publicity about the voyage could revolve; such a strategy was well suited to the tastes of the public. Kirsteen Murray, Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western the south seas were selected as a mission field, and on World, University of Edinburgh. september 28, 1795, the lms appointed a committee to inquire april 2007 73 into the best means of conveyance for an unspecified number social rank would not expect to have his passage paid when of missionaries.15 the possibilities before them were to obtain his wife was ill if he was unhindered in carrying on the work.25 passage for missionaries in a whaler, to charter a ship, or to buy While the missionaries were the social inferiors of the directors, one. the very same meeting, however, unanimously accepted captain Wilson was considered a gentleman. haweis’s version the offer of service from captain Wilson, which haweis had of Wilson’s life, for example, underlines the hardship he suffered put before the society amid the excitement of the first annual on the way to seringapatam, denied the company of his fellow meeting. in december Wilson set a proposal for the purchase of officers and chained to a common soldier. 26 a small ship before the board.16 it was eventually decided that the instructions for the mission emphasized the role of the the society would buy the Duff, a ship of 264 tons. captain. there were two sets of instructions to the missionaries: the outcome of the purchase of aship was the decision thata one printed by the lms in a pamphlet, 27 and another published substantial numberofmissionaries should be sent.Joseph hard - by haweis, which in parts agreed word for word with the of- castle argued thatasmall mission atsuch agreatdistance would ficial document. 28 the former recommended formation of a be too vulnerable todeaths in the party.hehoped thatasizable committee to be elected monthly on board ship and thereafter group, made upprincipallyof artisans, could be self-sufficient every six months, or longer if that was better suited to ideas of in the trades required tosupportacommunity and would givea government in the Pacific. haweis’s suggestions show a greater “completeexhibition of achristian and civilized community.”17 emphasis on fixed hierarchy within the mission. he urged that the missionaries would settle notonlyattahitibut also, if cir- the most aged preside in each location where a mission settled cumstances proved favorable, attonga and the marquesas. and also recommended a council of four or five elders to include the surgeon and captain Wilson. expectations of the Mission Work the instructions given to captain Wilson emphasized that he was responsible for the mission, not only for discipline on thecomposition of the large groupwas determined in partby board ship in temporal matters, but also “with full and complete those who were prepared to volunteer but also by definite opin- authority for the management of its concerns in relation to the ions about the best kind of men to send. haweis, perhaps as a voyage; but also to commit to your care and superintendence, result of his previous experience, did not favor the sending of duringthesameperiod,themoreimportantchargeofthemission educatedmenbutpreferredmissionariesoffirmfaithwhowould itself, and especially of those faithful brethren who accompany preach the simple message of christ crucified.18 the public ap- you therein.”29 the result of this emphasis upon the person of peals for missionary recruits stressed that “serious mechanics,” Wilson and the apparent distrust of the missionaries was that that is, sober and pious men, were required.19 thirty men were there was never a clearly defined authority over the mission from selected, five of whom were married. their occupations were within the missionary group. predominantly skilled manual work.20 Wilson’s role in decision making went far beyond choice of the ministers too had humble origins, and three received sites and division of stores. no decision had been made about ordination only as a result of their participation in the mission.21 who was to be a preacher before the Duff departed. on december afourth had been ordained in november 1795 in the countess 31, 1796, Wilson asked each of the men to preach in turn before of huntingdon’s connexion.22 the missionaries were all of in- him so that he could decide how to divide the missionaries.30 at the same meeting Wilson convened a committee of eight to draw up a code of church government and articles of faith for There was never a clearly the use of the missionaries at their destination, again chaired by himself.31 the decision of the lms not to favor any one form of defined authority over the church government had precluded any such instructions being mission from within the given in london. theologicaldebateensued,withtheresultthatrev.Jefferson missionary group. and mr. cock were accused of arminianism in January 1797.32 Wilson was called in and held a series of meetings, at which the men were examined and finally excommunicated on the basis ferior social status to the ministers and laymen on the Board of of his assertion that the directors’ theology was calvinistic.33 directors. Wilson, in contrast, had been “connected with us in the Wilson’s judgment overrode the views of one of the ministers direction of the affairs of the society” and was “fully appraised and settled a matter on which the lms board had refused to rule. of the design and nature of the expedition.”23 he acted as the directors had instructed him and preserved the the background of the missionaries chosen by the lms unity of the missionaries. lovett’s History of the LMS, written in was similar to that of the missionaries who had been used suc- 1899, actually celebrates this incident as a significant step in the cessfully by the moravians. haweis’s friend christian ignatius theological definition of the society. 34 the two were persuaded latrobe,secretaryofthemoravianforeignmissionsdepartment, to revise their views and were readmitted. the final version of advised that education was not an essential for a missionary and the code was signed by all on february 21. also calmed fears about the sending of wives into the mission field.24 the moravians were sent out under strict discipline and Initial Work in the Islands were expected to support themselves and to work to pay for their passage. the Duff arrived at tahiti on march 5, 1797. the settlement at it seems from the reactions of the lms directors to later tahiti of twenty of the missionaries, five of them with wives, events that they expected a similar degree of obedience and life- and two children gives further examples of the role of the mis- long service from their own agents. robert Bourne, for example, sionary captain.35 apattern of intercourse had already been received a rebuke for retreating to new south Wales because of established by other voyagers, according to which the captain of his wife’s illness. the directors noted that a man of far higher a vessel would take the leading role in meetings. it is therefore

74 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 not surprising that the focus of the chapter describing the arrival for a few days to see whether the mission party would be well is on meetings between significant island figures and captain treated. the ship then sailed for tonga and the marquesas, where Wilson.36 forexample,manemane,a“highpriest”frommo’orea, theremainingmissionariessettled.asplanned,the Duffreturned sought Wilson as a tayo, or friend, not Jefferson, the president to tahiti in July, and a final leave was taken on august4. While of the missionaries. the missionaries expected to soon receive supplies and further Wilson exchanged gifts with the highest-ranking tahitian recruits, it was to be four years before they had any further direct chiefs: tu and his wife tetua, and Pomare and iddeah.37 Pomare contact with the society. wasentertainedatdinneronboard.Wilsonreceivedpermissionfor the missionaries to stay and for them to use the “British house,” Mission Work Without captain Wilson a building that had been erected for captain Bligh in the belief he would return. in this type of negotiation the prominence of sailing away in the Duff, Wilson reported on the cordial and the captain was clearly useful. apparently deferential relationships he had witnessed. the Duff again, at a ceremony on march 16, 1797, captain Wilson and the missionaries had been amply supplied with pork and representedthelms.manemanemadealongorationnamingthe breadfruit during their stay. Work had been carried out on the gods, districts, and chiefs of tahiti and mo’orea and also naming mission house. furthermore, it appeared that the missionaries had received not only the house as a gift but also the produce and labor of an entire district. an engraving The missionary house and environs, Matavai Bay1797,showing ascene of mis- sionaries and tahitians in tranqu il cooperation, was printed in Wilson’s Missionary voyage. after the departure of the Duff the tahiti missionaries were forced to adjust their view of the relationship withtheislandersandappreciatetheir dependenceupongoodwill.anattack on four members of the mission, who were stripped naked, led to a crisis and the withdrawal of eleven to new southWalesinmarch1798.theirletter of explanation claimed that this inci- dent was the culmination of a series of threatsfromtheislanderstoseizetheir wives and property. 40 this was a bitter disappointmenttolmsandtohaweis in particular, who found it difficult to reconcile Wilson’s judgment with that of those who had withdrawn. courtesy of yale university divinity school library the division of the mission at this Missionary House and environs in the Island of Otaheite pointhighlightsafurtherproblemthat issued from reliance upon Wilson. the all the captains who had visited. he concluded with a “formal committeestructuresoutlinedintheinstructionsandtheleadthat surrender of the district of matavai: observing that we might the captain had taken in the decision making left the mission at take what houses, trees, fruit, hogs, &c. we thought proper.” at tahiti without an authoritative leader. the members of the mis- this time the missionaries believed that this was the “cession” of sion, who were a great distance from the lms board and all other matavai and that they had been given the territory. 38 sources of advice, were not prepared to defer to one of their own Previoustahitian experience was of beachcombers who had number. in the face of disputes, the group splintered. beenabsorbedintotahitiansocietyasspecialistsinvarioususeful in may 1798 the excitement that followed news of the safe tradesandofpartieswhohadlandedforshortperiodsfromships arrival of the Duff at canton led haweis to hope that one of the forrecuperation,preparationofprovisions,orscientificmeasure- directors would go out to the mission.41 instead, the lms relied ment. in the former instance individuals had deferred to tahitian for its information on interviews with returned missionaries and authority; in the latter superior arms and ample supplies of trade letters from samuel marsden, anglican chaplain in new south goodshadallowedthegroupstomaintaintheirseparateness.the Wales. the missionaries themselves were isolated both by the missionaries fitted neither pattern. the mission at tahiti had a infrequent contact with london and by the lack of understand- brief taste, while the Duff remained with them, of the generosity ing of their situation. it was not until after a wave of conversions and respect that the protection of a ship fostered. in 1815 following the victory of the christian chief Pomare ii at the tahiti missionaries were nervous about being left on the the battle of fei Pi—when the entire island of tahiti adopted island and attempted to persuade the whole party to settle with the christian faith, destroyed ritual objects, abandoned human themforprotection.captainWilsonandthemissionariesonboard sacrifice and infanticide, and showed enthusiasm for learning thought their fears ill-founded and suspected beachcombers of to read the Bible—that a deputation was sent from london to frightening them with false reports.39 the Duff departed first only examine the situation on the ground.42 april 2007 75 The Mission in Its Social context actually allow for transfer of land in this way, though it took some time for them to convince the directors in london of this the early coverage of the south sea mission drew on many of the point. comparison of preliminary sketches with the final paint- representations that had already been popularized by the pub- ing shows that the landscape has been deliberately created to lication of cook’s voyages and other material about the Pacific. conform to British imagination of the Pacific.45 the Polynesians the official account of the first mission appeared in 1799, under are classically posed, and the landscape is exotic and romantic. the lengthy title Amissionary voyage to the southern Pacific Ocean, the captain and his son are center stage, not the missionaries. performed in the years 1796, 1797, 1798 in the ship Duff commanded indeed, it was commissioned by the directors as a gift for Wilson by Captain James Wilson, compiled from the journals of the officers and and was to show the captain prominently “attended by some of the missionaries; and illustrated with maps, charts, and views drawn by the missionaries.”46 Mr William Wilson....it was placed firmly within the tradition of the voyages of discovery by an introduction compiled by samuel the timely offer from a pious and heroic captain became fused Greatheed that described previous european contacts with the with a particular reading of voyage literature that came to domi- islandsandanappendix“includingdetailsneverbeforepublished nate the planning of the south sea mission. the lms directors of the natural and civil state of otaheite.” the main narrative viewedWilsonasanequalwhocouldbetrustedtosupervisetheir was taken from Wilson’s journal, with additions from his son group of socially and educationally inferior missionaries. resort and a journal kept by the missionaries during the period when to a strong captain suited expectations at home and, indeed, in the Duff was away from tahiti at tonga. Wilson dominated the the south seas. the extent of Wilson’s success in fulfilling the events recorded in the narrative. he is seen to take the principal directors’ expectations, however, proved to be a flaw in the lon- role in negotiating with chiefs, touring the islands, and settling ger term. Wilson, a layman, exercised his authority in all aspects differences between the missionaries. Wilson’s view of the mis- of the mission, despite the presence of four ordained ministers sionaries is occasionally exposed, for example, in disapproving and a mission committee. reliance upon the captain as decision of their nervousness at remaining at tahiti or in questioning their maker and arbiter of disputes undermined the development of assessment of Pomare’s character. 43 internal leadership. the immediate advantages of the focus on the visual images of the islands were very similar to those the captain in publicizing the mission also had consequences. of the artists who had traveled with cook. the painting The it proved difficult for directors and public alike to reconcile the Cession of Matavai (1799; see front cover of this issue) came to narrative of the missionary voyage with the later accounts of the represent the mission to tahiti.44 it depicted a large crowd of missionaries themselves. misunderstanding between mission tahitians with chief tu and his wife in the foreground meet- field and london overshadowed the mission at tahiti until the ing a smaller party of missionaries led by Wilson and his son. conversions of 1815 and beyond. the missionaries later appreciated that tahitian custom did not

Notes 1. richardlovett, TheHistoryoftheLondonMissionarySociety,1795–1895 present time, 3 vols. (london: t. chapman, 1800), 3:401, and haweis (london: oxford univ. Press, 1899), p. 117. until 1818 the lms was Papers, vol. 1. known as the missionary society. 14. “memoirs of the leadings of Providence, in call of captain James 2.William Wilson, Amissionary voyage to the southern Pacific Ocean, Wilson to the Work of conducting the south sea mission,” Methodist performed in the years 1796, 1797, 1798 in the ship Duff commanded by Magazine, 1802, p. 173. Captain James Wilson (london: t. chapman, 1799). 15. thecommitteememberswerethomashaweis,JosiahWilson,Joseph 3.George Burder, “sermon ii. Jonah’s mission to nineveh: Preached hardcastle, and James steven. at rev. mr. seven’s meeting house, crown court, sept 22, 1795,” in 16. december 14, 1795, Board minutes 1, cWm archive, soas, london Sermons Preached in London, at the Formation of the Missionary Society, (hereafter cWm). Sept. 22, 23, 24, 1796: to which are prefixed memorials respecting the 17. hardcastle, Plan of disposing the first mission, addressed to the establishment and first attempts of that society ...(london, 1795), p. country directors, home office extra 1, cWm. 35. in same volume, see also sermons by david Bogue (p. xvi) and 18. thomas haweis, Missionary instructions: recommended to the serious atten- thomas haweis (p. 12). tion of all who areengaged in the great and important work of promoting the 4. Williamcarey, AnEnquiryintotheObligationofChristianstoUseMeans Gospel of Christ among the heathen (london: t. chapman, 1796), p. 9. for the Conversion of the Heathen, facsimile of the 1792 ed. (london: 19. religious intelligence, Evangelical Magazine, 1795, pp. 509–10. carey Kingsgate Press, 1961), p. 67. 20.niel Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South 5. autobiography, haweis Papers, vol. 1, mitchell library, sydney Seas, 1797–1860 (oxford: oxford univ. Press, 1978), chap 1. (hereafter ml). 21. the three men ordained were cover, eyre, and Jefferson. see John 6. arthurskevington Wood, “the failure of amission: 1791,” owen Whitehouse, ARegister of Missionaries and Deputations from Congregational Quarterly 32 (1954): 347. 1796 to 1877 (london: yates & alexander, 1877). 7. davidBogue,“addresstoevangelicaldissenterswhopracticeinfant 22.the fourth was thomas lewis (see ibid.). Baptism,” Evangelical Magazine, 1794, pp. 378–80. 23.Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. lxxxix. 8. thedirectors,“anintroductorymemorialrespectingtheformation 24. report on november 9, 1795, Board minutes 1, cWm. of the missionary society,” in Sermons Preached in London, p. xxix. 25. hankeyandormetomarsden,november14,1827,marsdenPapers, 9. thomas haweis, “a memoir on the most eligible Part to begin a vol. 4, ml. mission,” in Sermons Preached in London, pp. 161–84. 26. “memoirs” of captain Wilson, Methodist Magazine, 1802, p. 118. 10.“the Very Probable success of a proper mission to the south seas,” 27. henry hunter and edward Williams, Asermon and charge delivered at Evangelical Magazine, 1795, pp. 161–70. Sion-Chapel,London:July28,1796,ontheoccasionofthedesignationofthe 11.ibid., p. 170. first missionaries to the islands of the South Sea (london: t. chapman, 12.ibid., p. 165. 1796). 13.thomas haweis, An impartial and succinct history of the rise, declension, 28. haweis, Missionary instructions. and revival of the Church of Christ: from the birth of our saviour to the 29. Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. xliii.

76 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 30.Journal of William henry, south sea Journals 1, cWm. 39. Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. 76. 31. the committee included three of the four ordained missionaries: 40.only Jefferson, eyre, Bicknell, nott, lewis, Broomhall, and harris cover, Jefferson, and lewis. remained. 32.mss Journal [smith] from the Duff, W. W. Bolton Papers, vol. 20, 41. haweis Papers, vol. 3, ml. ml. 42.the deputation journal was published as Journal of voyages and travels 33.Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. 48. by the Rev. Daniel Tyerman and George Bennet, deputed by the London 34. lovett, History of the LMS, p. 49. MissionarySociety,tovisitvariousstationsintheSouthSeaIslands,China, 35. twoofthisgroupdidnotstayattahiti.nobbssettledintonga,where India, etc., between the years 1821 and 1829, ed. James montgomery ten single men were landed, and the surgeon Gilham returned in (london: fredrick Westley & a. h. davies, 1831). the Duff. of two men intended for the marquesas, only one, crook, 43.Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. 64. stayed; harris rejoined the larger party at tahiti. 44. robert smirke, The Cession of Matavai, canvas, 118 × 76 in. (1799), 36. Wilson, Missionary voyage, p. 56. livingstone house, london. 37. this exchange happened on June 10, 1797. see Wilson, Missionary 45. Bernard smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 2d ed. (new voyage, 69. haven: yale univ. Press, 1985), p. 146. 38. haweis to lms, august 1798, home office extra 1, cWm 46. July 23, 1798, Board minutes 2, cWm.

Maori and Mission Sisters in New Zealand Since 1865: Changing Approaches Susan Smith

etween 1838, when Bishop Pompallier and the first attitude of one catholic group, the mission sisters, toward maori B catholic missionaries journeyed to new Zealand (here- between 1865 and 2005. after nZ), and february 1865, when the first mission sisters ar- rived,1 significant changes in the country’s economic, political, Arrival of the Mission Sisters in 1865 and social landscape had occurred. these changes affected the mission of the catholic church, and therefore the work of the even though euphrasie Barbier, founder of the mission sisters, first mission sisters. initially, Pompallier had focused attention had emphasized foreign missions understood as the education on maori, who outnumbered the few europeans then resident of women and children, “above all in infidel and non-catholic in the country. the increase in settler numbers following the countries,”4 church authorities had already begun to shift from treaty of Waitangi (1840),2 however, meant significant changes mission toward maori to pastoral care of catholic settlers as a in the relation between maori and settlers. economic control of small group of mission sisters prepared to sail to new Zealand. resources, particularly control of land, was shifting from maori Bythetimethesistersarrivedin1865,priestswhohadpreviously tothe european settlers. the 1852constitutionactmeantthatpo- served as missionaries to maori were increasingly becoming litical power likewise passed to the settlers. the growing settler “preoccupied with meeting the needs of the largely irish settler need for land was resolved by two means: war and legislation, community.”5 both of which benefited the settler community at the expense this shift from a mission of evangelization to a mission of of maori. retentionisclearinthecommentsofBishopViard,catholicbishop the land Wars of the 1860s posed a challenge for the church, of Wellington (1850–72).as a young priest he was tortured by the given the change of loyalties that the prior influx of european thought of “thousands of savages who were lost and plunged settlers had caused. Whereas the first missionaries had directed into hell for lack of priests to instruct them.”6 By 1860, however, their ministry toward maori, the ever-growing number of set- the growing numbers of catholic immigrants meant that Viard tlers meant that priests now undertook ministry to the settlers. was seeking catholic sisters to staff schools for the children of t. s. Grace, a nineteenth-century commentator, stated that this catholic settlers in the Wellington diocese. some of this concern new focus did not bode well for maori: “the present is perhaps to concentrate limited church resources on catholic settlers was the most critical period of [maori] ...history. outwardly they influenced by the relatively small number of catholic maori in have embraced the Gospel, but ere there has been time for it to the diocese, although two important maori mission stations had become rooted and grounded in their hearts, colonization has been established at otaki and Pakipaki. the catholic population burst upon them with all the evils which in modern times it has inthedioceseconsistedofasmallgroupofenglishcatholicsfrom brought upon the different aboriginal races.”3 the land wars and the gentry class and a larger number of poorer irish immigrants.7 legislationthatfollowedworkedinfavorofthesettlerpopulation, some of these irish settlers, based in hawkes Bay, were attached and with few exceptions, the church’s policy likewise reflected a totheBritish14thand65thregimentsandengagedinwaragainst bias in favor of the settlers. in this article i examine the changing maori over land. it was the children of these settlers whom the mission sisters were to teach. unlike the irish immigrants in the united states, those in nZ tended to settle in a dispersed fashion Susan Smith, a New Zealander and a member of the Sisters of Our Lady of the among the numerically much larger Protestant population, a Mission, teaches biblical studies and missiology in the University of Auckland’s School of Theology. She is also involved in missiology courses with sisters of situation of pastoral concern to the hierarchy. her congregation in Asia. Her doctoral thesis was on developments in Catholic Viard was convinced that irish settlers “wished to have missiology since Vatican II. priests of their own nationality.” although “the french priests april 2007 77 had won the affection of the colonists,” Viard doubted whether ies were the advance party of cultural invasion.”15 he believes they would “retain it when the colonists were more numerous.”8 catholic schools were party to such “cultural invasion.” nevertheless, he was enthusiastic about inviting the french sis- it is difficult to assess the attitude of the first mission sisters ters to his diocese. in fact, there was no evidence that irish cath- toward maori. an examination of nineteenth-century mission olic settlers were concerned about french sisters teaching their sisters’ archives does not mention the settler-initiated wars children. l’abbé coulomb, the first biographer of euphrasie, with maori chief te Kooti and his followers that were raging reports that “before the end of the month [presumably march throughout the central north island when the first sisters arrived 1865] over fifty children, Protestants as well as catholics, were in napier. 16 What makes this omission even more remarkable attending the school.” so successful were the sisters that father was that many of the european pupils whom the sisters taught forest was obliged “to build a second school for the little girls in napier would have been the children of soldiers of the 14th of the better class.”9 and 65th regiments. however, euphrasie’s ongoing efforts to ensure that the Providence was adequately financed, along with Ministry to Maori. despite the sisters’ involvement in education father reignier’s decision “to hand over in perpetuity the entire of settler children, there was a generous response in 1867 to administration and direction of the Providence” to the mission father reignier’s request to take responsibility to teach in the sisters,17 indicate their commitment to the education of young Providence (later renamed st. Joseph’s maori Girls’ college),10 maori women. a vocational school for maori girls in napier. reignier, parish in 1901 eleven young maori girls began to board at st. priest of meeanee, conscious that the education of maori and Joseph’s school in opunake. in 1944 the school was relocated mixed-racechildrenwasneglected, had sought and gained financial assistance from the government to establish a school for such children. maria van der linden believes that the mission sisters “saw in this re- sponse a step in the right direction, for they felt their missionary voca- tionwascoveredonlybya‘genui ne mission’ when they worked with native people.”11 there were two categories of studentsattheProvidence:aminor- ityofgirlsfromthefamiliesofchiefs and a larger number of children of mixed parentage. as government policy required that maori be as- similated into the european settler culture, the sisters were obliged to followan english-language pro- gram. they did so, though with some misgivings. euphrasie wrote to father reignier that the sisters Maori Students, The Providence, Napier, ca. 1870 would ensure that students spoke english only, not maori. she pointed out, however, that “these to nearby Waitara. the house diary reports that in January 1944 childrencannotbeexpectedtoholdaconversationonanysubject “the first boarders began to arrive. the first pupil was Polly whatsoever particularly in a language like english so difficult for taputa, a young maid of twelve who had never been to school foreigners.”12 euphrasie required that the girls would “first of all before.”18 the school was closed in 1961 because government be trained to virtue, an enlightened, simple, solid and practical finances were not available to pay for a new building, and the virtue. ...care will also be taken to give the children a knowl - boarders returned to opunake, which in turn ceased to operate edge of the sciences, especially those which are essential to their two years later. in addition, throughout the first six decades of state of life e.g. reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic, etc. the twentieth century, mission sisters undertook to teach in par- the children will also be trained in crafts suited to women, e.g. ish schools situated in more remote parts of the country where knitting, sewing etc. they will help in the kitchen and in the dif- there were significant maori populations, and they often were ferent employments of the house so as to be trained in order and involved in catechetical camps for maori primary school pupils cleanliness and all that appertains to the domestic economy.”13 it during the school holidays. was unlikely that the sisters recognized the extent to which their mission was culturally conditioned and how this bias informed Attitudes. But what did such ministry say about the sisters’ at- the education they provided in the Providence. titudes toward maori? some insight may be gleaned from two catholic authorities approved such policies, which is theses written before World War ii. the first, by marjorie leach evident from a letter Bishop Pompallier wrote to maori chief te (sister mary florienne) in 1932, mentions “numerous stories of mamange in 1856: “you ceded the helm of the vessel to the White these early days [that] illustrate the ferocity, covetousness and people.”14 maori academic ranginui Walker argues that “the revengefulness of the uncivilized maori.” When ngati haua catholic Bishop Pompallier thought that maori were infidel new chief Wiremu tamihana (1802–66) converted to christianity, it Zealanders” and that “driven by such attitudes, the missionar- was “the result of conviction, not merely of custom, had a pro-

78 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 foundeffectuponhischaracterandprovidedhimwithastandard Relationship with Maori After Vatican II of conduct by which he scrupulously regulated all the actions of his life.”19 her thesis explores tamihana’s peace-making ef- Vatican ii (1962–65) taught that the renewal of religious life was forts during the troubled period of the land Wars of the 1860s. dependent on “a continuous return to the sources of all christian as tamihana’s death approached, she described him as “full life and to the original inspiration behind a given community,” of a pathetic melancholy, unselfish as he had ever been, one of as well as “an adjustment of the community to the changed nature’s noblemen, a true and simple-minded christian.” her conditions of the times” ( Perfectae caritatis, no. 2).24 this teaching thesis highlights her compassion for tamihana, coupled with allowed the sisters to reassess their ministry in nZ. for example, gratitudeforhisconversiontochristianity,butthereislittlecritical the 1966 Provincial chapter recommended that work with maori appreciationofthecultural,economic,andpoliticaldiminishment should be encouraged. the chapter report stipulated that “each experienced by maori as the settler population grew. 20 year some free places may be offered to maori pupils in our ellen murphy (sister mary simeon) completed a thesis on secondary schools. communities should visit and take a special Bishop Pompallier in 1932. in it she commended him for “the interestinsomemaorifamilies.arrangementstobemadeatlocal goodhedidamongmaori,notonlyinevangelizingbutinteaching level.”25 though it was possible to discern in the call for more themtheartofcivilization”(italicsmine).21 likeleach,sherecorded involvement with maori elements of a maternalistic approach, it that maori were thought to be “bloodthirsty natives.” though nevertheless also suggested a change in apostolic priorities and sympathetic toward the plight of maori in the face of increasing a recognition of the deteriorating situation of urban maori. numbers of settlers, she was accepting of the church’s right to the impact of the methodology of liberation theology was also significant,particularlyits insistence thattheologyhad to confront history with all its contra- dictions and injustices. in 1976 the new Zealand Bishops’ conference sought to assess the strength of rac- ist attitudes in the european catho- lic population, but even though the 1976 arbuckle report highlighted the reality of racism in the church, there was no effective follow-up.26 By the late 1970s, maori activist groupsbeganchallengingthedomi- nanteuropeansocietytoreassessits role in nZ’s history. Various maori andeuropeanactivistgroups,along with some church organizations, Maori Students, St. Joseph’s Maori Girls college undertook the difficulttask of Greenmeadows, 1940 educating the wider church about the history of maori land loss. the engage in ministering to “spiritual needs of the colonists” as controversy engendered in new Zealand by the 1981 visit of the the struggle for land further alienated maori from the church.22 springbok rugby team from racially segregated south africa Writing at a much later period, moana maniapoto-Jackson, a further conscientized some mission sisters as to the racist nature student from 1974 to 1977 at st. Joseph’s maori Girls’ college, of european society. stated that she did not think that “the nuns had a deep cultural understanding and there was only one maori nun there.” at the Biculturalism. Biculturalism, which is difficult to define, emerged same time, she comments that the sisters “emphasized maori as a movement by maori to assert their own cultural, ethnic, and culture—mainly through action songs and language.”23 material identity. furthermore, as maori are the tangata whenua, in 1950 the first young maori woman sought admission into or indigenous people, their culture has a greater significance the mission sisters, followed eventually by seven others. With than that of other ethnic groups who settled later in nZ. there is one exception, all entered religious life before 1965. two died at a maori culture, and there are other cultures, hence the expression relativelyyoung age, fourleft,and twohaveremained.anecdotal “biculturalism.” if nZ is to be bicultural, then honor and respect evidence suggests that before Vatican ii they were expected to fit are owed maori as the indigenous peoples. many europeans, intothedominantfrench/irishcatholicculture thencharacteristic however, because of their numerical superiority and cultural of mission sisters, often at great personal cost. from the 1980s dominance, found it difficult to accept maori claims in respect of onward, when the mission sisters moved toward biculturalism, biculturalism. Biculturalism meant that maori rejected the euro- therewasagreateremphasisonrecognizingtheculture andplace pean claim that maori were a minority ethnic group in nZ. of maori sisters in the community of the mission sisters. to encourage mission sisters to accept the bicultural nature this brief overview of the mission sisters’ relationship with of new Zealand, between 1982 and 1994 various Provincial maorisuggeststhatbeforeVaticaniithesistershadagenuinecon- leadership teams were responsible for several initiatives aimed cern about maori, but their attitude was probably best described at conscientizing them to this issue. first, mission sisters were as maternalistic. furthermore, they would not have recognized encouraged to participate in antiracism seminars initiated by the serious injustices incurred by maori through settler-initiated the conference of churches of aotearoa new Zealand. second, legislation that deprived them of land and a political voice and in 1987 the Provincial leadership team actively sought and ap- that seriously threatened their culture. pointed a maori principal to ha¯¯to hohepa (st. Joseph’s maori april 2007 79 Girls’ college). throughout its 120 years’ existence, mission for european catholics to meet, discuss, to learn and plan for a sisters had always served as principals in the school, but it was bicultural future.”29 marion Wood of the urban training centre apparent as 1990 approached that it was no longer appropriate for christian ministry inc. reported to the leadership team her for europeans to continue to administer a maori college. third, concern about the hui’s male, particularly clerical, domination in thatsame year,the Provincial leadership team decided to of the process and the lack of input from women. she believed send twosisters toruatoria, an isolated eastcoastmaori that there was no process that enabled european participants to community, while another sister was missioned to live and recognize the strength, often unconscious, of their own racism. work with maori at Kaikoura. fourth, one of the important she concluded that the process was essentially a top-down ef- awareness-raising initiatives was the decision to research land fort that would do little to foster understanding of the bicultural titles of congregation-owned land to see if it had been confiscated reality of nZ.30 from maori after the land Wars or had been bought at unjust prices. in 1992 the mission sisters recognized and apologized Work for justice. as the new millennium approached, mission for past injustices at a hui (meeting) with ngai tahu maori in sisters were less actively engaged in fostering biculturalism. on Kaikoura, and they donated money toward the establishment of the one hand, many maori now favored sovereignty rather than a ngai tahu archival resource. though the sisters had worked biculturalism; on the other, there was a lack of suitable personnel in a variety of tribal areas since 1865, a large number of houses to work with maori, and new congregational mission priorities had been established on ngai tahu land that had been purchased superseded earlier goals. however, when maori aspirations for by the first settler governments for very little. mission sister sovereignty were frustrated by the two major political parties, mary martin mccort, of tainui maori, described the hui: “the their policies galvanized mission sisters to become more active powhiri [welcome] in the whare nui [meetinghouse] proceeded politically. in 2004 they expressed this new commitment through with dignity, and was followed by prayer and exchange of gifts their participation in the fight to ensure that maori retained their out on the marae [sacred space in front of the meetinghouse]. We customary ownership of the foreshore (the part of the shore had brought a symbolic gift as well as the koha [gift of money]. between high- and low-water marks) and seabed. in the same this symbolic gift was a sapling from the oak-tree planted by year, some sisters met with maori and european activists as a euphrasie Barbier so many years before. for myself, as a person response to an important speech of don Brash, the leader of the from Pukekohe, there was a sign of unity too, in seeing the red parliamentary opposition, calling on europeans to close the soil of Pukekohe around the sapling being received and covered chapter on biculturalism in nZ. by the black soil of Kaikoura.”27 this survey of the changing attitudes of mission sisters in 1988 two hui were held at st. Joseph’s maori Girls’ college toward maori highlights the impact of Vatican ii and of church for promoting bicultural awareness in the catholic church. the teaching after Vatican ii that insisted that works of justice were meetings were attended by parish and diocesan representatives, as important as the more traditional works of charity. the meth- members of various national and diocesan groups interested in odology of liberation theology, with its emphasis on analysis of justice and peace, and representatives of the maori and Pacific historical, economic, political, and cultural realities, provided island communities. the meetings, which were not initiated by an important tool for mission sisters in their reassessment of the leadership team but were encouraged by it, received mixed their ministries. While the ecclesial dimension of mission was reactions as to their effectiveness in promoting biculturalism. still significant, it had come to mean more than a simple obedi- one journalist claimed that participants were being subjected ence to episcopal polities as mission sisters sought to reframe to “the process of forcible conversion [to biculturalism] remi- what mission to maori required in the light of conciliar teaching, niscent of the holy inquisition,”28 while manuka henare, maori emerging theological developments, and, most important, the executive officer of the catholic commission for evangelization, maori call for justice. Justice, and development, affirmed the hui as “an opportunity

Notes 1. Les Religieuses de Notre Dame des Missions (the sisters of our lady 7. see donald harman akenson, Half the World from Home: Perspectives of the missions), a catholic congregation of women, was founded on the Irish in New Zealand, 1860–1950 (Wellington: Victoria univ. by euphrasie Barbier in 1861 in lyon, france. the first overseas Press, 1990), pp. 66–85. in 1864 the irish-born population in new mission was to new Zealand. in nZ they are usually referred to as Zealand was 28,226, of whom 76.2 percent were catholic. mission sisters, a practice i follow here. 8. see Bishop Viard’s letter, July 3, 1858, to the marist superior general, 2.the 1840 treaty of Waitangi was signed by maori chiefs and the father favre, society of mary archives, rome. British crown. the meaning of the treaty has been contested since 9. a. coulomb, Life of the Very Reverend Mother Marie du Coeur de Jesus, its signing. maori believed it would strengthen their authority née Euphrasie Barbier, Foundress and First Superioress General of the and enhance their sovereignty. But once the settler population Institute of the Daughters of Notre Dame des Missions, trans.adaughter outnumbered maori, settlers tended to ignore the treaty. of notre dame des missions (mechlin, Belg.: h. dessain, 1914), 3.s. J. Brittan et al., eds., APioneer Missionary Among the Maoris, 1850– p. 121. 1879: Being Letters and Journals of Thomas Samuel Grace (Palmerston 10.innineteenth-centuryindustrializedfrancetheProvidencesprovided north, n.Z.: G. h. Bennett [1928]), pp. 17–18, cited in allan K. vocational training for poor women and orphans. father reignier davidson, Christianity in Aotearoa: AHistory of Church and Society in chose to adapt this model for maori girls and girls of mixed-race New Zealand (Wellington: education for ministry, 1991), p. 39. parentage. 4. Barbier, euphrasie, Constitutions of the Daughters of Our Lady of 11.maria van der linden, St. Joseph’s Maori Girls’ College, 1867–1990: the Missions, ed. sisters of our lady of the missions (letchworth, Nga¯¯Korero Mo Te Kura Maori¯¯o Hato Hohepa¯ (Palmerston north, n.Z.: england: sisters of our lady of the missions, 1936), art. 2. dunmore Press, 1990), p. 18. 5. davidson, Christianity in Aotearoa, p. 17. 12.euphrasie Barbier, letter to father reignier, october 1, 1873, in 6. lillianKeys,PhilipViard(christchurch:Pegasus,1968),p.16,quoting euphrasie Barbier, “Writings of mother mary of the heart of Jesus,” from “Viard diaries,” 1846–49, marist General archives, rome. vol. 2, “1871–1875,” trans. and ed. sisters of our lady of the missions

80 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 come inside – come as you are...

Come... to search out the deep things of God and to sit at the feetofJesus.

Come... willing to be transformed intothe image of Christ.

Come... to be challenged and encouraged by men and women who will be friends and colleaguesfor life.

Come... to be changed by the Word.

Come... to change the world.

Introducing newdegreesfor the 2007-2008 Academic year: doctor of philosophy • Biblical Studies • Evangelization Studies

1-800-2ASBURY.WWW.ASBURYSEMINARY.EDU

KENTUCKY . FLORIDA . VIRTUAL master of arts • master of divinity • master of theology • doctor of ministry • doctor of missiology • ph.d. (typescript), archives of the Province of aotearoa new Zealand, 19. marjorieleach,“Wiremutamihana:astudyinmaoristatesmanship” Petone (henceforth PanZ archives). (m.a. thesis, univ. of new Zealand, 1932), pp. 2, 8. 13.euphrasie Barbier, “regulation of the ‘Providence’ of our lady of 20.despite the cloistered lifestyle of the mission sisters, marjorie leach the missions, 1863–1865,” in euphrasie Barbier, “Writings of mother visited maori at ngaruawahia, morrinsville, and tauwhare, where mary of the heart of Jesus,” vol. 1, “1851–1870” (typescript), PanZ she spoke to descendants of tamihana. there is anecdotal evidence archives. that many maori came to her funeral (author’s conversation with 14. Bishop Pompallier’s letter to te mamange, June 25, 1956, printed mary martin mccort, r.n.d.m., of tainui, september 16, 1998). english translation in archives for the congregation for the 21. ellen murphy,r.n.d.m.,“the missionaryWork of Bishop Propagation of the faith, rome. Pompallier” (m.a. thesis, univ. of new Zealand, 1932), p. 24. 15. ranginui Walker, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End 22.ibid., pp. 20, 100. (auckland: auckland univ. Press, 1990), p. 85. 23.Jane tolerton, Convent Girls (auckland: Pengui nBooks, 1994), p .201. 16. acommemorative book records that te Kooti captured a banner 24. Walter m. abbott, ed., The Documents of Vatican II (london and that he used as a war flag, although that had not been its intended dublin: Geoffrey chapman, 1966). purpose:“itwastheworkofhandsdedicatedtopeace—thesistersin 25. Provincial chapter, 1966, p. 2, PanZ archives. catholic church law thenapierconvent.theyhadmadethescarletbannerasadecorative requires religious congregations to meet at regular intervals. these trophy for the chiefs of heretaunga, ngati Kahungunu, some of meetings are referred to as chapters. in the case of the mission whose daughters were pupils at the napier school. it was a tapering sisters, they occur at international, provincial, and local levels. pennant of red silk on which symbolic emblems were embroidered 26. see Geraldarbuckle and J. faisandier, The Church in a Multi-Cultural in white, a conical mountain represented new Zealand, a cross, Society (Wellington, 1976). christianity, a heart pierced by an arrow, the sufferings of the maori 27. sister mary martin mccort, r.n.d.m., “reflections on the Visit of people. When it was finished it was presented to Karauria, father thirty-five sisters to the People of ngai tahu at Kaikoura, 15august, of airini tonore, who as the wife of G. P. donnelly, was a frequent 1992,” PanZ archives. visitor to, and friend of the school” ( Sisters of Our Lady of the Missions: 28. ned haliburton, “Programming the faithful,” Zealandia, march 27, 125th Jubilee, 1865–1990, ed. the Jubilee committee [Gisborne, n.Z.: 1988, p. 17. GisborneHerald,1993],p.10).seealsoJudithBinney, RedemptionSongs 29. manukahenare,“indangerofcalumny,”Zealandia,march27,1988, (auckland: auckland univ. Press, 1995), pp. 132–33. p. 17. 17. Van der linden, St. Joseph’s Maori Girls’ College, p. 22. 30.see marion Wood, “report on 2nd hui Whanau, napier, 1988,” 18. house diary, Waitara convent (1944), p. 361, PanZ archives. PanZ archives.

World’s Religions After September 11: A Global Congress. Montreal, Quebec, September 11–15, 2006 Frances S. Adeney

orld’s religions after september 11:aGlobal Themes “Wcongress,” organized byProfessorarvind sharma and his colleagues atmcGill univ ersity,montreal, began on the theconferencerevolvedaroundfourthemesthatwerepresented fifthanniversaryof the terroristbombings of the newyork city inopeningplenarysessions,individualpapers,paneldiscussions, trade towers and the Pentagon in 2001.an international group and the concluding session. the first plenary session stressed the ofparticipants—includinghindu,Jain,muslim,Jewish,islamic, importance of (1) the search for commonalities among religions and christian scholars, religiousleaders, and laypersons—ad- seeking peace, especially in the political arena. the presenter, dressed the topic of religiouschange, especiallythe influence iranian lawyer and nobel Peace Prize laureate shirin ebadi, has of the terroristattacks on societies and their understanding of spent a lifetime seeking peace among religious factions in iran. religion. two other plenary speakers, his holiness sri sri ravi shankar the faculty of religious studies at mcGill university has and reverend didiji of swadhyaya Parivar, are leaders of new been active in sponsoring events and ongoing projects that bring religious movements. sri sri ravi shankar stressed (2) the unity leadersoftheworld’sreligionstogetherfordialogue.in1998they we can find in our common humanity. didiji focused on (3) the formulated the universal declaration of human rights by the importance of nonviolent, socially engaged religion. at the final World’s religions, which continues to circulate among religious plenary session, arvind sharma summarized the issues of the leaders and scholars. that declaration has been presented and conference, suggesting that the world congress could help move discussed at numerous conferences, including the Parliament of all religious persons toward (4) support for a universal declara- World religions in Barcelona in 2004, as well as the recent global tion of human rights by the world’s religions. religions, he said, congress, which devoted a number of panels and sessions to the are a negative force when they fight among themselves, but they topic of human rights and religion. can become a positive force when they work together. manyofthepresentationsconsideredtheconnectionbetween the political realm and religions. one topic receiving much atten- Frances S. Adeney is the William A. Benfield, Jr., Professor of Evangelism tionwashowreligionscouldfocustheirresourcesonimplement- and Global Mission, Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary,Louisville, Kentucky. She was a Presbyterian Mission coworker (1991–97), teaching in ing human rights and how they could work with other religions Indonesia, and is the author of christian Women in indonesia (Syracuse in this area. another was how interreligious debate could lead to Univ.Press, 2003) and christianity and human rights (SUNY Press, forms of just-war theory relevant for the current age of terrorist 2007). warfare.thespecificissueofhowtoprotectreligiousgroupsfrom

82 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 indiscriminateordishonestproselytizingalsoreceivedattention, to change one’s beliefs. another session explored the benefits as hindus and others are feeling pressured by the evangelistic that evangelistic meetings provide for christians as they tell methods of other religious groups. the story of their faith in the community. athird christian ses- sion, arguing that self-advocacy was practiced by all religions, christian Involvement outlined a program of “fair practices” for advocacy that every religion could follow. christians have discussed these issues in many settings. Bring- Whether presenting academic papers, working as a mis- ing their voice to this interreligious setting, though, provided a sionary, or doing a “tent-making” ministry in another country, witness that contributed to and balanced other views. harvard christians from West and east, north and south need to pay at- professor harvey cox presented a plenary on Pentecostalism in tention to the context in which they find themselves. especially which he outlined amos yong’s trinitarian view of christian since 9/11, there are settings in which verbal proclamation of witness.donaldPosterski,fromWorldVisioncanada,presented the christian Gospel can irritate or even provoke dissension or a christian view of evangelism. the interfaith commissionofthe violence among persons of different religious persuasions. care u.s. national council of christian churches (nccc) presented needs to be taken, especially in hindu and Buddhist areas, to twopanelsonthetopicofforgiveness—onefromthepointofview avoid giving any perception of aggressive evangelism. in mus- of ecumenical dialogue, the other, interfaith dialogue. lyndon lim or Jewish areas of the middle east, christians must work to harris, rector of st. Paul’s chapel at Ground Zero in new york understand the political and religious conflicts, which may color city, presented his plan for a garden of forgiveness at the site. views of christian presence and evangelism. in post-communist others who spoke outlined views of forgiveness and restitution areas of china and the former soviet union, christians need to from their respective traditions. Participants from the united be careful not to offend the house churches or put local citizens church of canada met with the nccc interfaith commission, in harm’s way. which held its biannual meeting in conjunction with the global second,christianmissioneffortsmusttakeintoaccountper- congress. they expressed appreciation for the christian presence ceptions of the importance of religion in the political arena. since and presentations at the world congress. 9/11, political tensions between the middle east and the united conferences such as World’s religions after september stateshaveincreasinglybeendescribedinhostilereligiousterms. 11 are becoming increasingly popular in our post-9/11 world. as the fear of terrorism becomes a part of life for many around at such events people from different religions can learn from the world, religions become implicated in these fears. Questions other traditions and can have their voices heard in a productive of the role of islam in terrorist activities and accusations against conversation around issues of religion, politics, and peace-seek- the united states, perceived as a christian nation, of abrogating ing. it was welcome to see a stronger christian presence at this the human rights of political detainees cannot be avoided by congress than was evident in 2004 at the Parliament of World’s christians. any idea of missionaries maintaining an apolitical religions in Barcelona. christian leaders, mission organizers, stanceinourpost-9/11worldcannotbesustained.christianmis- scholars, and laypersons concerned with how religion is affect- sionary efforts, however, can be made more sensitive to take this ing international relations participated in the give-and-take of charged political climate into account. missionaries can become dialogue at this event. christian scholars presented their views wellinformed,showingchristiancompassionwithhumilityand on many topics: just war, forgiveness, human rights, evangelism, respecting the complexity of sensitive situations. and self-advocacy. finally, the issue of war and peace needs to be analyzed with new eyes in our post-9/11 world. the congress presented Missiological Issues sessions on just-war theory and on peacekeeping in an age of terrorism. sessions were held on the religious bases of human as christians contribute to such events, missiologists and mis- rightsandonthelossofhumanrightsintimesofwar.forgiveness sionaries need to ask a further question: how does christian was discussed as a healing tool at Ground Zero, and gardens of mission need to change in light of 9/11 and the impact that forgiveness were proposed for other sites of conflict and terror terrorism is having on religions around the world? the answer around the world. christians spoke out on these issues at the involves three issues recurrent at the conference, issues that congress. But this is just a beginning. analyzing terrorism as a deserve the attention of missiologists: proselytism, religion and mode of war and developing ways to counteract it are not solely politics, and war and peace. the jobs of academic theologians. missionaries who are working the first issue, proselytism, received a good deal of attention in areas of conflict must address the particular issues of war and at the conference. the term was generally defined quite nega- peace on the ground where they are living and working. tively, especially in the numerous questions posed to christian the task of addressing these issues is not one for the timid. presenters by indian participants. in recent uses of this word, as these mission questions are asked, christians need to pray, “proselytism” involves either coercion or deception. christian discuss, devise new tools of compassion, and depend on the evangelism, islamic da’wah,and the Buddhistinvitation to power of God in communities and in the world to lead us in “come and see” need to be distinguished by proponents of these new directions. religions from coercive or deceptive “proselytism.” this task is crucial for christian missionaries, pastors, and academics as we as christians, we are called to be peacemakers. christian pres- move increasingly into a political climate charged with religious ence and participation in this conference furthered the cause of overtones. peace among religions, as well as contributing substantive ideas some christian sessions at the conference addressed this is- to the topics under discussion. the congress brought together sue directly. donald Posterski distinguished proselytism, which people of different religions, political persuasions, and cultures he defined as including manipulation, enticement, or coercion to around issues crucial to us all. as christian missiologists and get persons to change their beliefs, from christian evangelism, missionaries, we can take the next step by boldly addressing the which celebrates religious freedom and respects the basic right mission issues raised by the conference. april 2007 83 My Pilgrimage in Mission Willi Henkel, O.M.I.

was born on January 17, 1930, in Wittges, a German to my great surprise, i was asked in early 1966 to join the I village seventeen kilometers east of fulda, as the third of three-manteamofeditorsofBibliothecaMissionum andBibliografia four sons. my father, Karl, was a worker repairing streets. he Missionaria in rome: Johannes rommerskirchen, o.m.i., Joseph died in 1961, and my mother, mary, died in 1953. i received my metzler, o.m.i., and nikolaus Kowalsky, o.m.i., who died in primary school training at elters (1936–43). When i was a boy June 1966 at the early age of fifty-five. about twelve years of age, a Benedictine father of the abbey at st. ottilien tried to recruit me for their junior seminary. since i was Assistant at the Pontifical Missionary Library so young, however, my parents failed to give their agreement. thus i received my secondary school training in fulda at the returning to rome, i became a staff member of the oblate in- Winfriedschule (realgymnasiale aufbauschule, 1943–51). ternational house of studies and also an assistant (1966− 72) to during my secondary school i became familiar with st. rommerskirchen, who was the head of the Pontifical mission- Boniface, the apostle of Germany, often witnessing pilgrimages ary library. at the time the library was housed in the palace of to his tomb in the cathedral of fulda, especially during the first Propaganda fide, next door to the archives of Propaganda fide week of June. in my heart the wish arose to become a missionary. (now called the congregation for the evangelization of Peoples). near fulda, in hünfeld, was Bonifatiuskloster, a house of studies during my first year i enrolled in the school of library science of of the missionary oblates of mary immaculate, where oblates the Vatican library. in July 1967 i obtained the diploma in library studied philosophy and theology to be sent as missionaries in science. i also learned practical work in a library. many parts of the world. also in hünfeld is the tomb of robert When i arrived in rome, rommerskirchen was working on streit, o.m.i., the well-known founder of Bibliotheca Missionum, volumes 25–30 of Bibliotheca Missionum (1916− 74). i helped him who died in 1930. and metzler in the preparation of the indexes. at the same time i in april 1951 i entered the novitiate of the missionary ob- assisted him in collecting the material and preparing the indexes lates of mary immaculate at maria engelport, near treis-Karden, of the yearly Bibliografia Missionaria. i still remember quite well where i received my first oblate training. in april 1952 i was sent visiting major roman libraries each year with rommerskirchen to study at hünfeld. and metzler for the preparation of Bibliografia Missionaria, which made it possible to see firsthand the new publications. i became Student in Rome and Münster acquainted with special bibliographies, including the bibliogra- phy in the quarterly journal International Review of Mission. i also after being at hünfeld for only a few weeks, i was greatly sur- took into consideration the book references that appeared in the prised when, in 1952, my superiors sent me to rome to continue International Bulletin of Missionary Research. many missiological the study of philosophy and theology. in rome i lived in a com- journals carried book reviews, which were very useful. the ideal munity of one hundred students who came from all the parts of would have been to control every single reference, which later the world. it was only seven years after the end of World War on was easier to do with computers. ii, but i experienced a great fraternal spirit in that community. missionaries from all over used to speak to us about their mis- Director of the Pontifical Missionary Library sions. We students had the great opportunity of speaking and practicing several modern languages, especially italian, french, onJune1,1972,iwasappointeddirectorofthePontificalmission- english, and spanish. my first task then, however, was to study ary library of the congregation de Propaganda fide, a position philosophy at the Gregorian university. the lectures were given i held until 2000. since its founding in 1622, Propaganda fide in latin, and it took me a while before i could follow them well. possessed a library which from the outset included a good num- in June 1955 i received the licentiate in philosophy. i continued ber of books on the missions. in addition, the missionary pope the study of theology, again with the courses in latin, and took a Pius Xi (1922–39) wished to give a new impulse to the missions greater interest in these two disciplines. four years later, in June by planning a missionary exhibition in the Vatican during the 1959, i earned the licentiate in theology. i had already received 1925 holy year. he asked for a special book section on missions, priestly ordination on July 13, 1958. and streit was put in charge of its organization. Pius Xi asked havingcompletedmystudies,ioptedfortheoblatemission that “the greatest possible number of publications concerning in south africa. however, i was asked to return to my German the missionary apostolate and the catholic missions, those of province of origin. in 1960 i became a member of the oblate the past and those of the present, as well as those books which periodical Der Weinberg . soon its director, Bernhard Willenbrink, had any connection with the subject,” be gathered together. his o.m.i.,askedmetostudymissiologyattheuniversityofmünster appeal received a generous response, as close to 30,000 volumes, (1961− 64). for my doctoral dissertation, thomas ohm, o.s.B., written in many languages, arrived at the exhibit. the Vatican my major professor, proposed that i study the idea of conversion libraryandthePontificalurbancollege,aswellasmanyreligious in John henry newman. i completed the dissertation under the orders, sent rare and valuable books. “never in the history of direction of his successor, Joseph Glazik, m.s.c., and received the church and the missions had such a treasure of missionary the doctorate in february 1968.1 literature been assembled.”2 at the close of the missionary exposition, Pius Xi decided that the literary section should remain in rome as a center for Willi Henkel, O.M.I., is the former director of the Pontifical Missionary missionary research housed in the palace of the congregation of Library. Propaganda fide. (the section of missionary art was transferred

84 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 from the Vatican to the lateran, which led to the founding of the ously, the indexes had been prepared in italian every four years. missionary museum, now part of the Vatican museum.) the in 1986 i decided that the time had come for yearly indexes and necessary rooms for the library were provided by transferring for preparing the technical apparatus of the volumes in english, the urban college to the Janiculum hill. not italian. librarians robertstreit,o.m.i. (1875–1930), Johannes since these were the first years after the second Vatican dindinger, o.m.i. (1881–1958), and Johannes rommerskirchen, council, it was also a time of change in the concept of mission, o.m.i. (1899–1978), maintained a handwritten catalog (which whichnowseemedtorequireanecumenicaloutlook.thechanges still exists) of authors, subjects, and periodicals; they also offered in mission are reflected in the new categories and subcategories a special catalog of books in 540 non-european languages. this that we began using at BM, as well as in the new subjects covered richpatrimonyneededacontinuingupdating,whichiconsidered in the index. categories added included the following: to be my first task. after fifty years in the palace of Propaganda fide, the rooms canon law and human rights of the missionary library urgently needed renovation. at the ecumenical dialogue and mission, with a subdivision on same time urban university needed more space for its library dialogue with the Jews to satisfy the increasing needs of its four faculties: theology, history of mission, which entered a new era philosophy, canon law, and missiology. (from 1973 to 2000, i mission and atheism mission and cultures (anthropology, sociology) mission and development My overall goal was that mission and dialogue, with subdivisions on religions in general:Buddhism,chinesereligions,hinduism,islam; the Missionary Library be later, “african religions” was added an efficient instrument of the missionary missionary cooperation missionary research. missionary societies missionary spirituality pastoral topics: methods, evangelization, catechesis, taught latin american mission history at the university.) in light liturgy of these needs, cardinala. rossi, prefect of the congregation and theology of mission, which corresponds to the former also chancellor of urban university, proposed that the Pontifical “fundamental missionary doctrine” missionarylibrarybeunitedwiththelibraryofurbanuniversity also:variousnewtopics,suchasart,linguistics,massmedia, and that a new building be constructed on the campus of the medicine, and schools university that would house both libraries.3 the construction was finished in June 1979, and at the end additional categories deal with the continents and the mission of september the libraries were moved into their new premises. i countries, including the many new nations. the index of subjects was appointed director of both libraries. the official opening on soon included new themes, especially under theology: third october 1, 1980, was presided over by cardinal Joseph höffner, World theology, plus african, asian, latin american, and other archbishop of cologne, with the participation of a great num- local theologies. “inculturation” first appeared in the mid-1970s, ber of bishops who had come to rome for the synod of bishops replacing “accommodation” and “adaptation.” in the 1980s held that year. höffner interpreted the new library as a symbol liberation and the theology of liberation received worldwide at- of sciences, of peoples and cultures, and of salvation.4 the two tention.missiologistsnowfocustheirattentiononlocalchurches. libraries are housed on different floors and continue to maintain ecumenical initiatives in mission appear at the international their respective functions. level.5 church growth and statistics of mission receive increased my overall goal was that the missionary library be an attention.6 spiritual values of non-christian religions appeared efficient instrument of missionary research. this goal should as a discovery of Vatican council ii. be apparent even in the reading room, which contains a large BM indicates the context of radical social change. anew selection of bibliographies and dictionaries. an important item periodofdecolonizationbeganinthe1950s,resultinginindepen- is the Dictionary Catalog of the Missionary Research Library, a col- dent, single states. Pope Paul Vi took up the theme of develop- lection which is now located in the union theological seminary ment in his encyclical Populorum progressio (1967). “indeed, the in new york. political, economic and technical changes had social effects of aspecial grant made it possible to acquire 50,000 micro- inconceivable dimensions: misery and hunger, unemployment fiches. this acquisition includes much invaluable information and housing shortages, flight from rural areas and urbanization, from the council for World mission archives, 1775–1940; the dissolution of traditional systems and values etc. not to mention Wesleyan methodist missionary society (london); the imc/ new dependencies.”7 cBms archives; the Primitive methodist society, london; and the 1974 synod of Bishops in rome discussed the theme the catholic church in indonesia: archives of the archbishopric “JusticeintheWorld,”atopicofintensedebateduringthefollow- of Batavia/Jakarta, 1807–1949. ing years. it was presented in the apostolic exhortation Evangelii nuntiandi (1975) as well as in the plenary gatherings of the latin Bibliographia Missionaria american Bishops (celam) in medellín (1968) and Puebla (1979). many ecumenical conferences also dealt with justice and With my appointment as director of the missionary library, i the demands it makes on missionaries. Bangkok 1972/73 was became the person on the team who took over the major respon- especially important (a conference on mission and evangelism of sibility for Bibliografia Missionaria ( BM; in 1986 we changed the the World council of churches), as well as the Wcc assemblies title from italian to latin: now Bibliographia Missionaria). Previ- at nairobi (1975) and Vancouver (1983). april 2007 85 BMreflectsachangingtheologyofmissionworldwide.there support encouraged me to computerize the data of BM, which is now intense interest in the trinitarian aspects of mission as began in 1991. they are expressed in the missionary command of christ (matt. 28:19–20). christology is now presented in a missionary context. URBe: An electronic Network onecanfindanthropologicallinksbetweenmissionandthestriv- ings of human nature; missionaries should impose nothing that in January 1993 the library of the urban university joined the does not correspond to their own deepest human reality. anew roman electronic network urBe (unione romana Biblioteche awareness of dialogue arose in mission, and thus missionaries ecclesiastiche), which was officially inaugurated in may 1994.10 propose the christian message while respecting the free will of Withsomeextrahelp,mostofthedataofthePontificalmissionary non-christians. the role of missionaries is reconsidered in their library were put on computer. since the library offers material in service. Writers discuss local missionaries and their formation. many languages, a new catalog of topics was developed in order these changes and many more, as well as a mood of crisis at the to facilitate research. in 2004 we made 100,000 records available.11 endofthe1960sand1970s,weretakenintoconsiderationbyPope thisnumberincludesmanyarticlesthatwerepublishedinmulti- John Paul ii in his encyclical Redemptoris missio (1991). author works and in periodicals, whose authors sent them to the through BM i was able to establish contacts with many missionary library. as for the languages, the data of the chinese missiological centers. their publications opened my horizon catalog were the first ones to be made available on computer. it is and stimulated my work. i consider it a great privilege to have hoped that other non-european languages will soon follow. this been able to meet many persons whom i first knew from their work was made possible with the intelligent help of generous publications; some of them became close friends. in 1980 i hosted collaborators, to whom i am deeply indebted. their generosity an important consultation of invited specialists at the Pontifical helped the library to offer more user-friendly service. missionarylibrarytodiscuss“th estructuralproblem”inmission indecember2000marekrostkowski,o.m.i.,wasappointed studies, which is “of major concern in the electronic age of the as my successor, becoming director of the Pontifical missionary ‘new information superhighway.’”8 these and other concerns of library and editor of BM. With him arrives a new generation that “documentation,archives, and Bibliography” were studied and is more familiar with computers. i conclude with the wish that “sponsored by the international association for mission stud- iams and the internationalassociation of catholic missiologists ies (iams). this consultation was so successful that the entire may continue to give their benevolent attention and strong sup- iams came to rome for a major conference in July 1988.”9 this port to bibliographic work in the new electronic age.

Notes 1. my dissertation was published as Die religiöse Situation der Heiden changing times: on the occasion of the fiftiethVolume of und ihre Bekehrung nach John Henry Newman (rome: catholic Book ‘Bibliografia missionaria,’” editorial in Bibliografia Missionaria 50 agency, 1970). (1986): xiii. 2.Joseph metzler, o.m.i., “the Pontifical missionary library ‘de 8. Gerald h. anderson, “the role of Bibliogaphia Missionaria in Propaganda fide,’” in “de archivis et bibliothecis missionibus atque contemporary missiology,” in La missione senza confini. Ambiti della scientiae missionum inservientibus,” Euntes Docete 21 (1968): 349, missione ad gentes. Miscellanea in onore del r.p. Willi Henkel, O.M.I., ed. 352. marek rostkowski (rome: missionari oblati di maria immacolata, 3.Willi henkel, “die Päpstliche missionsbibliothek der Kongregation 2000), p. 433. anderson quotes from reviews of BM by harry e. fürdieevangelisierungderVölker,”ZeitschriftfürMissionswissenschaft Winter, o.m.i. ( IBMR 23 [1999]: 41–42) and J. masson, s.J. ( Nouvelle und Religionswissenschaft 75 (1986): 261–65. revue théologique 117 [1995]: 634) by saying that BM “is certainly [an 4. Willi henkel, o.m.i., “neue Bibliothek der Päpstlichen universität indicator of new developments and interests], but it is also a mirror urbaniana,” L’OsservatoreRomano (deutsche ausgabe, no. 42), of missiology, which shows more than a thermometer” (p. 432). october 17, 1980, p. 7. 9. anderson, “the role of Bibliographia Missionaria,” p. 433. 5. arnulf camps, “Ökumenische initiativen auf internationaler ebene 10.unione romana Biblioteche ecclesiastiche, Una rete informatica tra (iams, eatWot, WcrP),” Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und le Biblioteche Ecclesiastiche (rome: urBe, 2004), p. 33. Religionswissenschaft 75 (1986): 248–60. 11.iwouldliketomentionthattheentirebibliographyoftheInternational 6. david B. Barrett, todd m. Johnson, and Peter f. crossing, “missio- Review of Mission, from 1912, is now available online, which enables metrics 2005: aGlobal survey of World mission,” IBMR 29 (2005): researchbyauthor,title,topic,orkeywordsfromsome70,000records. 27–30. see anderson, “the role of Bibliographia Missionaria, p. 436. 7. J. Baumgartner, s.m.B., “one and the same mission throughout

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he following poem published in the Evangelical Magazine later predilection for missionary work. he was the nephew of T in september 1795 celebrated the formation of the inter- nathaniel Gilbertiii (ca. 1721–74), who, inspired by a meeting denominational missionary society and the new opportunities with John Wesley, introduced methodist preaching among an it presented for spreading the Gospel of Protestant christianity estimated three hundred slaves on his antiguan plantation.8 to the globe: horne was admitted on trial as a methodist itinerant preacher in the liverpool circuit in 1784 and subsequently preached in the o! that from Britain now might shine chesterandWolverhamptoncircuits.ordainedtotheministryof this heavenly light, this truth divine! the church of england in 1786, horne became curate of madeley till the whole universe shall be in shropshire following the death of John fletcher. 9 But one great temple, lord, for thee!1 horne’s arminian eschatology and acceptance of the Wes- leyan view of a world parish are reflected in his decision to the legacy of melvill horne (1762–1841), a contemporary of undertake a mission to the west coast of africa.10 in march 1792 William carey (1761–1834), lies principally in his role as a mis- horne explained to his parishioners that he was obliged “to sionaryadvocateandpublicistwhohelpedtofosterthisrenewed forsake all i hold dear, and to encounter all i esteem dreadful in phase of overseas christian expansion in the late eighteenth life, if peradventure, the wretched sons of bleeding africa may and earlynineteenthcenturies. horne’s Letters on Missions; be brought to flee for sanctuary under the wings of the God of Addressed to the Protestant Ministers of the British Churches, pub- israel.” horne’s correspondence with his parishioners indicates lished in 1794, stimulated extensive debate on the nature and that his missionary impulse was long-standing in nature. 11 his purpose of overseas missions and provided the main catalyst network of evangelical contacts included thomas coke, whose for the formation of the missionary society (later renamed the enthusiasm for overseas missions had been articulated almost london missionary society). although building on the work a decade earlier in his Plan of the Society for the Establishment of his continental predecessors, horne moved debate in new of Missions Among the Heathens (1783). coke had attempted to directions by calling for a pan-evangelical response to missions.2 organize a mission to africa in 1778, and the development in horne’s account of his experimental missionary praxis in sierra 1787 of the “Province of freedom” at sierra leone as a colony leone also offered guidance that informed the organization of for freed slaves revived his interest in an african venture. coke later missionary ventures to the south seas and africa. he was informed ezekiel cooper of horne in november 1791, writing regarded as an important source of intelligence by both the mis- that “we are going to send missionaries to sierra leone in africa, sionary society and the society for missions to africa and the where the english are establishing a very capital settlement. the east instituted by members of the established church (later company has chosen two chaplains. one of them is a zealous known as the church missionary society). the republication methodistpreacherofmyrecommendation.”12 theotherchaplain of Letters on Missions in america in 1797, 1815, and 1834 reflects was nathaniel Gilbert (1761–1807), who traveled out to sierra the popularity and continuing relevance of his work. an edition leone in advance of horne, his cousin.13 published in london in 1824 asserted that the book “at the time despiteaconvictionthathismissionwasdivinelysanctioned, of its first publication ...was eminently instrumental, in first horne expressed anxiety about the perceived trials that awaited kindling and extending the flame of missionary zeal that has him in africa. he compared his african mission to a descent into since that period spread so widely through our country.”3 the “burning-fiery furnace,” and this reference to daniel 3 may although Letters on Missions enjoyed a far wider contempo- have reflected his hope that he would emerge unscathed from rary circulation than carey’s celebrated Enquiry of 1792, horne theordeal.embarkingforafricawithoutanytrainingorpractical has received comparatively little attention in the historiography preparation, horne prayed that his work would be sustained by of missions.4 his work helped to erode contemporary prejudice “wisdom, patience and fortitude.” 14 When he sailed for africa in against missions and created a culture in which the moral im- July 1792, he expressed sadness at parting from his wife, nelly, perative to convert heathen nations became an accepted and and his infant son, edward.15 it was planned that they would respectablefeature ofreligiousactivityinmid-nineteenth-century join him after a short period. Britain.5 horne was aware of this changing climate of opinion. in a sermon preached before the church missionary society (cms) A Mission to Sierra Leone in June 1811, horne observed that missions, which were “at first treatedaswildandromantic,beginnowtobeconsideredfeasible, horne accepted the appointment as chaplain to the colony at as well as laudable.”6 sierra leone as a springboard for his missionary work. as one of the stated ambitions of the sierra leone companywas todif- Development of a Missionary Impulse fuse “european light, knowledge, and improvement” to afri- cans through “religious and moral instruction,” horne may have horne was born in antigua in 1762, and the family moved to expected a close and harmonious relationship between his mis- england following his father’s death.7 his family background sionary plans and company objectives.16 he intended to combine and early education in the West indies may have influenced his his duties as chaplain at freetown with a missionary role among thetemnepeopleofsierraleone.Priortohisdeparture forafrica Suzanne Schwarz is Professor of Social and Economic History, Liverpool Hope he considered the possibility that he would “go farther into the University. She has published edited editions of the Sierra Leone papers of country among the natives, build myself an hut, and try what Zachary Macaulay (Leipzig, 2000, 2002). living among them will do.”17

88 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 the court of directors of the sierra leone company provid- pious arminians” to “embrace with fraternal arms” and to con- ed John clarkson, superintendent of the colony, with a glowing centrate on making christians rather than converts to particular appraisalofhorne’squalitiesandhisanticipatedusefulnessinthe denominations.28 in the context of bitter sectarian division in colony. 18 horne was introduced to the settlers at divine service on late eighteenth-century Britain, this appeal for ecumenism in september 9, 1792, and preached to a “crowded congregation” in missions was groundbreaking and controversial. When the so- theafternoon.19 contrarytohisoriginalplans,hornewasrequired ciety best known as the Baptist missionary society was formed to take over all the duties as chaplain, as Gilbert had returned just two years earlier, it was asserted to the contrary that, “in the to england on company business. his cure included a number present state of christendom, it seems that each denomination, of european company employees and over one thousand self- by exerting itself separately, is most likely to accomplish the great liberatedslavesfromnovascotiadividedamongBaptist,armin- ends of a mission.”29 ianmethodist,an dcalvinisticmet hodistcongregati ons.horne’s in other aspects of his work horne made no claim to origi- entanglement in the fraught and highly politicized relationship nality. his writings were important in drawing attention to the between company officials and settlers weakened his influence, missionarypracticeandadvocacyofanumberofhispredecessors. particularly as he was openly critical of the settlers’ behavior. he recommended carey’s Enquiry to his readers, particularly as he complained to mary fletcher, widow of John fletcher, that “that gentleman has given to his precepts the force of example, he was required to be “an instrument of civil governm[en]t as by actually embarking in a mission to india.”30 in common with well as a minister of christ,” and “what with the religion and the politicks of the colony, i am ready to throw the business up in despair and to take a hasty leave of the place.”20 Horne’s writings caught the Within a short period of horne’s arrival at freetown, ten- sions arose between the demands of the chaplainship and his evangelical imagination missionary ambitions. in november 1792 clarkson complained and stimulated a number that horne neglected the instruction of the nova scotian preach- ers and spent too much time “amongst the natives who do not of initiatives to expand understand english.”21 horne felt constrained by the demands of missionary work overseas. regular preaching and complained bitterly that he was unable to itinerate among local africans. he became so demoralized that he managed to preach only one sermon to africans, through an carey, horne acknowledged the tradition of missionary work interpreter. this sermon, preached at signor domingo’s town at that was already well underway in continental europe.31 in par- royema in January 1793, was dismissed as futile by two contem- ticular, he highlighted the outstanding piety, perseverance, cour- porary observers, anna maria falconbridge and isaac duBois.22 age and self-sacrifice of moravian missionaries.32 When horne however, the publication of the sermon entitled “We Preach visited Bristol before his departure for africa, he was given a christ crucified” in the Baptist Annual Register of september copy of a. G. spangenberg’s Account of the Manner in which the 1795 was influential, as it helped to promote British evangelical Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren, Preach interest in the cause of heathen conversion in africa.23 By febru- the Gospel and Carry on their Missions Among the Heathen (1788). ary 1793 horne was convinced that he had been misled by his horne’s knowledge of moravian practice strongly influenced own enthusiasm and began to doubt whether he had the piety his views on the organization and conduct of missions, which is to sustain this “ apostolick warfare.”24 evident in his recommendation that missionaries should avoid contested points of doctrine and concentrate on preaching the Horne’s Missionary Advocacy Gospel of christ crucified. his argument that men “learned and unlearned” could contribute to the cause of missions reflected unfulfilled in his missionary ambitions, horne returned home moravian practice,33 but it was also a pragmatic response to the after fourteen months. although bitterly disappointed by the apathy of British clergy. although his Letters on Missions was failure of his mission, he used his experience to compose a series influential in fostering a missionary identity associated with ofninelettersadvisingprospectivecandidatesaboutthepurpose, the artisan classes, it was not horne’s intention to create such a design, and conduct of overseas missions. he was sanguine that narrowly defined identity. he wished to inspire missionary vo- an exposition of his dismal missionary record would support the cations among ordained ministers but conceded that “we must effortsof“menwiserandbetterthanmyself.”25 hismainintention be content, for one man of letters, to receive twenty, who have was to raise awareness of the urgency of the global commission no pretension to learning.”34 and promote an active missionary culture. he challenged the horne’s writings also sparked debate on the place of euro- lethargy of the clergy and their apparent indifference to the spiri- pean women in missions. drawing on his experience in sierra tual plight of heathen peoples. he berated his fellow ministers leone, horne was insistent that missionaries should be single, for their materialism and neglect of the apostolic commission. as married men “will always have it in contemplation one day to horne reiterated carey’s argument that a minister was a “ servant return to england.” he recommended intermarriage with indig- of God” and duty bound to preach wherever God commanded.26 enous women, as he considered that a local female convert could displaying a postmillennial eschatology, he argued that “latter play an active part in the conversion of indigenous populations ends of the world are fallen upon us.” he was optimistic that and withstand hardship better than a european woman.35 this preaching the Gospel would usher in an age when christianity recommendation met with little contemporary support. 36 was the faith of all nations and peoples.27 theoriginalityofhorne’smissionarylegacylayinhisappeal The Development of Voluntary Societies forinterdenominationalcooperationamongProtestantministers tofacilitatetheglobalspreadoftheGospel.heappealedto“liberal horne was an early advocate of the formation of voluntary soci- churchmen and conscientious dissenters, pious calvinists and eties, recognizing that they could provide a flexible structure for april 2007 89 the recruitment and support of missionaries.37 the main practical the shortage of candidates.42 this problem was still more acute legacy of his missionary advocacy can be traced in the formation for the cms, as they lacked a single candidate for missionary of the interdenominational missionary society in september service during the first decade of the nineteenth century. horne 1795. the reverend thomas haweis and other founder members accepted an invitation to become a country member of cms in of this society were impressed by horne’s plea for ecumenical 1800, a position that accorded more closely with his status as an cooperation.asrogermartinrecognizes,itwashorne’spowerful evangelical minister of the church of england.43 although he appeal that provided the key source of inspiration for the forma- had supported the interdenominational missionary society from tion of the society. 38 haweis corresponded with horne shortly its inception, the dominant influence of calvinistic dissenters in after his return fromafrica and approximately ten months before the society was at odds with horne’s increasing conformity with haweis’s favorable review of Letters on Missions appeared in the anglican church order and discipline.44 Evangelical Magazine in november 1794.39 the sermons preached horne expressed concern about the fragile support for mis- on the formation of the missionary society in september 1795 sionary work in the anglican church. in 1811 he used his an- echoed horne’s plea for a pan-evangelical response to mis- niversary sermon for cms to challenge the apathy of anglican sions.40 david Bogue’s sermonizing on the “funeral of bigotry” clergy and their failure to volunteer for service overseas. he encapsulated this new spirit of ecumenism. Bogue, struck by the was critical of the reliance on German recruits and pointedly innovativenature oftheinterdenominationalmissionarysociety, questioned, “have you, my honoured Brethren, in africa, or in claimed that “this is a new thing in the christian church.”41 the east, one english clergyman, who serves as amissionary ?” horne’s appeal in 1794 for recruits to come forward in large he contrasted their reluctance to volunteer with the enthusiasm numbers was predicated on the view that the “missionary spirit for missions displayed by the pious laity and was at pains to has not yet warmed the bosom of the church.” three years later, stress that the demands of the mission field necessitated the ser- when horne was appointed a director of the missionary society, vice of the most able men.45 hissermon“theunsearchablerichesofchrist”againemphasized horne emphasized the importance of developing a home Noteworthy Personalia Announcing PresidentGeorgeW. Bushawardedthe2006nationalhumani- aconference will be held november 22–24, 2007, in louvain, ties medal to historian Mark A. Noll and eight other distin- Belgium, to consider “research on the architectural staging guishedamericansfortheircontributionstothehumanities.at and spatial implications” of world christianity, with empha- a White house ceremony on november 9, 2006, the president sis on “missionary architecture and space not so much as a honored noll for his “academic concern [for] the interaction backdrop for the missionary encounter, but as an essential of christianity and culture in 18th- and 19th-century anglo- part of this encounter in itself.” Spatializing the Missionary american societies,” according to the national endowment encounter: The Interaction Between Missionary Work and for the humanities news report. noll is professor of history at Space in colonial Settings will focus on missionary work the university of notre dame and author of numerous books, of all denominations in colonial settings (1800–1960). Papers including America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham exploringnewmethodologieswillbepresentedfromthefields Lincoln (2002). When he taught at Wheaton (illinois) col- of architectural history, history, mission history, anthropol- lege, noll cofounded the institute for the study of american ogy, geography, and cultural studies. for details, visit www. evangelicalism. h-net.org/announce/show.cgi?id=153499, or e-mail Bram Steve Moore, founder and president of Keep Growing, cleys, department of architecture, urbanism and Planning, inc., lawrenceville, Georgia, whose background has been in Katholieke universiteit leuven, Belgium, bram.cleys@asro. young leader development with a focus on international min- kuleuven.be. istry, was appointed president of the evangelical Fellowship the Boston University School of Theology and Gordon- of Mission Agencies,atlanta. Paul mcKaughan, president for conwell Theological Seminary in november announced a nearly fifteen years, left the leadership position in december joint doctor of theology (th.d.) program in missiology. the 2005 to become ambassador at large. first students will be admitted for the fall 2007 semester. the on July 7, 2006, the Academy of ecumenical Indian degreesforthejointprogram,designedtoprepareprofessorsof Theology and church Administration, chennai, conferred a mission studies, will be granted by Boston university. faculty doctorofdivinityonDanielJeyaraj,professorofworldchris- will include dana l. robert, m. l. daneel, and Bryan stone tianity, andover newton theological school, newton centre, fromBostonuniversity,andtimothyc.tennent,PeterKuzmic,˘ massachusetts. the academy recognized his groundbreaking and moonjang lee from Gordon-conwell. robert, codirector research contributions to the study of the first organized Prot- with daneel of the center for Global christianity and mission estant danish-halle mission, in tranquebar, india. andover at Boston university, is an IBMR contributing editor. newton trustees promoted Jeyaraj, an IBMR contributing to addresswhathecallsthe“criticallackofscholarlywork editor, to full professorship. recording the historical presence and cultural contributions of christopher J. Anderson has been appointed methodist christianity in the region,” chief editor Roger e. Hedlund has research librarian at drew university, madison, new Jersey. been completing the Dictionary of South Asian Christianity. he was previously lecturer in history and religion at fairleigh aone-volume ecumenical reference work, the forthcoming dickinson university, madison, new Jersey, and union theo- publication (see www.dharmadeepika.org/dictionary/ logical seminary, new york city. dictionhome.html) will include contributions from catholic,

90 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 infrastructure to harness the support of those unable to volunteer ency. favorable reviews of Letters on Missions appeared in the forserviceoverseas.hepreachedinsupportofmissionsatnation- Theological Magazine in 1797, and the Christian Observer of 1811 al and local levels, and he encouraged his parishioners at olney characterized horne as an “able advocate of missions.”49 one of in Buckinghamshire and macclesfield in cheshire to make dona- theearliestpublicationsoftheamericanBoardofcommissioners tions to mission societies. recognizing that grassroots support for foreign missions in 1810 was ACollection of Letters Relative to could be cultivated through the home, he made a novel appeal to Foreign Missions; Containing Several of Melvill Horne’s “Letters on women to nurture future recruits by telling “the missionary story Missions,”andInterestingCommunicationsfromForeignMissionaries: to your little ones, until their young hearts burn” and “they cry, Interspersed with Other Extracts. 50 the transatlantic exchange of ‘shall not we also be the missionaries of Jesus christ?’”46 missionary intelligence is also reflected in the republication of horne was an enthusiastic advocate and publicist who in- horne’s anniversary sermon preached to the cms in June 1811.51 spiredanumbero fhiscontemporariestomissionary activism.his its inclusion in a work containing claudius Buchanan’s Christian preaching style was by all accounts engaging, impassioned, and Researches in Asia (1811) contributed to the wide circulation of challenging. his written legacy reflects his efforts as a publicist to horne’s ideas.52 alengthy and enthusiastic review in the Literary promotethecauseofmissionsatatimewhentheywereviewedin and Philosophical Repertory of april 1812 noted that “in some sec- some quarters as radical and politically divisive. 47 in the absence tions of our country, this sermon is already in high demand: it is of a developed missionary tradition in late eighteenth-century read with eagerness and its merits are duly appreciated.”53 Britain, horne’s writings caught the evangelical imagination even though horne’s own mission experience was limited, and stimulated a number of initiatives to expand missionary his writings strongly influenced the progenitors of missions in work overseas. the directors of the scottish missionary society the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. in an atmo- republished part of his Letters on Missions in 1823 as part of an sphere of growing millennial expectation, his writings appealed initiative to recruit candidates for missionary service.48 horne’s to a wide evangelical constituency in Britain and america. they influence was not confined to a British evangelical constitu- contributed to the emergence of a positive missionary culture,

orthodox,Protestant,Pentecostal,andindigenousindependent archives.imb.org/) include board meeting minutes of the then writersandeditors.innovember2006hedlund’scolleagueand foreign mission Board (1845–1979) and the board’s annual re- successor, Paul Joshua Bhakiaraj, was installed as director of ports to the convention (1846–1953).another archive provides the mylapore institute for indigenous studies, chennai, india, access to letters and reports by pioneer missionary to china which sponsors the dictionary and publishes Dharma Deepika: lottie moon (served 1873–1912) and to moon’s articles writ- A South Asian Journal of Missiological Research. ten for publication in the Home and Foreign Journal and Foreign Samuel Kobia, general secretary of the World council of Missions Journal. the african american heritage database churches and author of Called to the One Hope: ANew Ecumeni- contains transcripts of The Commission, Southern Baptist Mis- cal Epoch (2006), will speak on the theme “cooperation and sionary Journal, and Home and Foreign Journal articles from the the Promotion of unity,” april 27–28, 2007, at new college, board’searlymissionariestoliberiaandsierraleone(1846–61), edinburgh. the conference will be the latest event in a series including John day, Boston J. drayton, a. P. davis, and B. P. of meetings and consultations held in advance of the 2010 yates. the Periodicals database contains scanned images of centenary convention (visit www.towards2010.org.uk) in journals published by the foreign mission Board (1845–1900): edinburgh, which was the venue for the historic World mis- Southern Baptist Missionary Journal, Home and Foreign Journal, sionary conference of 1910. Papers presented at previous Foreign Missions Journal, and The Commission. conferences are available online (visit www.towards2010.org. the Boston university school of theology library is us- uk/papers.htm). ing an interactive Web site to make classic texts in missiology theeleventhannualcoalitiononSupportofIndigenous available. the Boston University Digital Research Archive MinistriesconferencewillbeheldJune11–13,2007,atWheaton christian Mission collection currently contains more than (illinois) college. the theme will be “Breaking tradition to 250 digitized books. View the index of resources at http:// accomplish Vision: from frustration to Joy in cross-cultural digilib.bu.edu/dspace/handle/2144/33; for information on Partnerships.” for details, visit www.cosimnet.org. the center for Global christianity and mission, visit www. theBritishandIrishAssociationforMissionStudies will bu.edu/sth/cgcm/. hold its 2007 conference July 2–5 at Westminster college and the United States catholic Mission Association re- st. edmund’s college, cambridge, with the theme “strangers centlyrelocated tothe hecker center,Washington, d.c. in our midst: migration and mission.” Timothy J. Gorringe, the uscma will hold its 2007 mission conference october st. luke’s professor of theological studies at the university 28–30 in austin, texas, with the theme “are not our hearts of exeter and author of Furthering Humanity: ATheology of Burning? spirituality of mission in the 21st century.” for Culture (2004), and Nicholas Sagovsky, canon theologian details, see www.uscatholicmission.org or e-mail meetings@ of Westminster abbey, london, and coeditor of Transform- uscatholicmission.org. ing Unjust Structures: The Capability Approach (2006), will be Viewthe Webdirectory, Sources for Research: Mis- among the speakers. for details, visit www.martynmission. sions and World christianity, at www.library.yale.edu/div/ cam.ac.uk/biamsconf2007.html. missionsresources.htm.suggestionstoaugmenttheWebsite’s the online archives databases of the International listings may be sent to martha lund smalley, yale divinity Mission Board of the Southern Baptist convention (http:// school library ([email protected]).

april 2007 91 holding out the possibility that the collaborative efforts of mis- modernmissionarymovementwastoencourageaconcentration sionarieswithpiety,passion,andappropriatepracticalskillscould of missionary efforts on the west coast of africa. facilitate the global spread of christianity. horne was among the after the failure of his brief african venture, horne did not first generation of missionaries in the British phase of revival in attempt any further missions overseas, and for the remainder of his career he developed his missionary advocacy in conjunc- tion with a number of appointments in english parishes. his The originality of Horne’s dual commitment to heathen conversion at home and abroad is reflected in his parish ministries. his concern to promote “real” missionary legacy lay christianity is evident in his frequent sermonizing and pam- in his appeal for phleteering on issues of spiritual and moral reformation, and his support for the British and foreign Bible society reflects his interdenominational continuing commitment to missionary activity. horne, in com- cooperation to spread mon with charles simeon, developed an interest in the conver- sion of the Jews and in 1812 preached before the london society the Gospel. for Promoting christianity amongst the Jews.56 When he wrote Letters on Missions he found it necessary to refute a wide range of contemporary objections to overseas missions. By the time the late eighteenth century, 54 and Letters on Missions provided an of his death at ashbourne in derbyshire in 1841, the climate of instructional guide for early mission strategists. the directors opinion had shifted markedly with the emergence of a strong of the missionary society considered that horne had provided missionary consciousness in mid-nineteenth-century Britain. a valuable service by using his “painful experience” to draw horne was a key figure in promoting reform, and his “ passion attention to mistakes in the design and conduct of missions.55 a for missions” 57 ignited the missionary fervor of a number of his practical legacy of horne’s writings during this early phase of the contemporaries.58

Selected Bibliography Works by Melvill Horne 1812 The Great Commandment of Moses and Christ. Recommended to manyofhorne’spublishedworksareheldattheBritishlibraryandatthe Jews and Christians. ASermon Preached January 22, 1812, at the John rylands university library, manchester. horne’s correspondence Parish Church of St. Andrew Wardrobe and St. Ann, Blackfriars. with mary fletcher forms part of the fletcher-tooth archive at John london: Goakman. rylands university library. 1820 An Address Delivered by the Rev. Melvill Horne at a Public Meeting 1792 Letters from the Rev. Melvill Horne, Late Curate of Madeley, Salop; of the Macclesfield Auxiliary Bible Society Held in the Assembly Now Missionary at Sierra Leone, Africa, to His Friends at Madeley, Room of the Macclesfield Arms Hotel on Wednesday the 30th of Previous to His Departure from England. madeley: J. edmunds. August, 1820. macclesfield: e. Bayley. 1794 Letters on Missions; Addressed to the Protestant Ministers of the British Churches.Bristol: Bulgin &rosser.reprinted Works with Detailed Reference to Horne schenectady, n.y.: c. P. Wyckoff, 1797; andover, mass.: flagg martin, roger h. Evangelicals United: Ecumenical Stirrings in Pre-Victorian & Gould, 1815; london: l. B. seeley & son, 1824; Boston: light Britain, 1795–1830. metuchen, n.J.: scarecrow Press, 1983. & horton, 1834. ———. “the Place of the london missionary society in the ecumenical 1795 “a sermon by the rev. mr. melvill horne.” Baptist annual movement.” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 31, no. 3 (July 1980): register, september, pp. 249− 55. 283–300. 1808t. stackhouse, The Life of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, mason, J. c. s. The Moravian Church and the Missionary Awakening in to Which is Added, the Lives of the Apostles and Evangelists by England, 1760–1800. london: the Boydell Press for the royal the Rev. Melvill Horne, Minister of Christ-Church, Macclesfield. historical society, 2001. macclesfield: J. Wilson. orchard, stephen. “evangelical eschatologyand the missionary 1811 ASermon Preached at the Parish Church of St. Andrew by the awakening.” Journal of Religious History 22, no. 2 (June 1998): Wardrobe and St. Anne, Blackfriars, on Tuesday in Whitsun Week, 132–51. June 4, 1811, Before the Society for Missions to Africa and the East. schwarz, suzanne, “an evangelical clergyman and missionary ad- london: l. B. seeley. this sermon was reprinted on a number vocate: the career of the reverend melvill horne, minister of ofoccasions:Boston:samuelt. armstrong,2ded.,1811;Boston: christchurch, macclesfield.” Transactions of the Historic Society of samuelt. armstrong,3ded.,1811.thesermonwasincludedin Lancashire and Cheshire 153 (2004): 1–31. claudius Buchanan, Christian Researches in Asia, 2d ed. Boston: samuel t. armstrong, 1811.

Notes 1. Evangelical Magazine, september 1795, p. 392. raphy of missions has been challenged in recent literature. see Walls, 2.andrew f. Walls, “the eighteenth-century Protestant missionary “Protestant missionary awakening,” pp. 24, 29–30, 32–34. see also awakening in its european context,” in Christian Missions and a.christophersmith,“Williamcarey,1761–1834:ProtestantPioneer theEnlightenment,ed. Brian stanley(Grand rapids: eerdmans; ofthemodernmissionera,”inMissionLegacies:BiographicalStudiesof richmond, surrey: curzon Press, 2001), pp. 30–35; J. c. s. mason, Leaders of the Modern Missionary Movement, ed. Gerald h. anderson, The Moravian Church and the Missionary Awakening in England, robertt. coote,normana.horner,andJamesm.Phillips(maryknoll, 1760–1800 (london: the Boydell Press for the royal historical n.y.: orbis Books, 1994), pp. 246–47, 251. society, 2001), pp. 1–58. 5. andrew f. Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History: 3.melvillhorne,LettersonMissions;AddressedtotheProtestantMinisters Studies in the Transmission and Appropriation of Faith (maryknoll, n.y.: of the British Churches (london: l. B. seeley, 1824), advertisement. orbis Books; edinburgh: t. &t. clark, 2002), pp. 216–17. 4. the importance attached to carey’s Enquiry in the early historiog- 6. melvill horne, ASermon Preached at the Parish Church of St. Andrew by

92 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2

the Wardrobe and St. Anne, Blackfriars, on Tuesday in Whitsun Week, June Respecting the Establishment and First Attempts of that Society (london: 4, 1811, Before the Society for Missions to Africa and the East (london: t. chapman,1795),pp.172–73.theeditorofthe1824editionof Letters Whittingham & rowland, 1811), p. 35. on Missions noted that “the experience of missionary societies has 7. Vere langford oliver, The History of the Island of Antigua, One of the led them not to throw any impediment in the way of the marriage Leeward Caribbees in the West Indies, from the Earliest Settlement to the of their missionaries” (p. 104). Present Time, vol. 2 (london: mitchell & hughes, 1896), p. 82. 37. Walls,“Protestantmissionaryawakening,”pp.28–29;horne, Letters 8. Johna.Vickers,ThomasCoke:ApostleofMethodism(london:epworth on Missions, p. 40. Press, 1969), pp. 132, 149, 172. 38. roger h. martin, Evangelicals United: Ecumenical Stirrings in Pre- 9. John a. Vickers, ed., ADictionary of Methodism in Britain and Ireland Victorian Britain, 1795–1830 (metuchen, n.J.: scarecrow Press, 1983), (Peterborough: epworth, 2000), p. 164; donald m. lewis, ed., The pp. 42, 43, 46–47. Blackwell Dictionary of Evangelical Biography,1730–1860,vol. 1: 39. letter from the reverend melvill horne to the reverend thomas A–J (oxford: Blackwell, 1995), pp. 572–73; Minutes of the Methodist haweis, January 27, 1794, transcript of the letter formerly in the Conference, vol. 1 (london: Printed for the conference office, 1812), possession of P. e. h. hair. pp. 196, 206, 219, 229, 246. 40. Sermons, Preached in London, at the Formation of the Missionary Society, 10.horne believed that salvation was available to all people and he pp. vii, x. rejected calvinist views of the elect. 41. ibid., p. 130. 11.melvillhorne,LettersfromtheRev.MelvillHorne,LateCurateofMadeley, 42.horne, Letters on Missions, p. 26; Four Sermons, Preached in London, Salop; Now Missionary at Sierra Leone, Africa, to His Friends at Madeley, at the Third General meeting of the Missionary Society (london, 1797), Previous to His Departure from England (madeley: J. edmunds, 1792), pp. 134, 141. pp. 4–5. 43.acountry member was someone resident outside london who was 12.Vickers,Coke,pp.132–38,287–88;letterfromthomascoketoezekiel kept informed about society affairs. there was an expectation that cooper,november 21, 1791, John rylands university library, countrymemberswouldcontributetofund-raisinganddissemination manchester (hereafter Jrul) PlP 28/7/29. of information in their localities. horne to t. scott, april 22, 1800, 13.lewis, Blackwell Dictionary, pp. 439–40. church mission society archives, univ. of Birmingham, G/ac 14. horne, Letters from the Rev. Melvill Horne, pp. 26, 30. 3/1/20. 15. horne married ellin sawrey of chester on June 15, 1785. see st. 44. elizabeth elbourne, “the foundation of the church missionary John’s Parish register, chester, cheshire and chester archives and society:theanglicanmissionaryimpulse,”inTheChurchofEngland, local studies, P51/3/1; horne, Letters from the Rev. Melvill Horne, c. 1689– c. 1833, ed. John Walsh, colin haydon, and stephen taylor pp. 5, 15. (cambridge: cambridge univ. Press, 1993), pp. 252–53, 255, 258; 16. Substance of the Report of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone suzanne schwarz, “an evangelical clergyman and missionary Company to the General Court Held at London on Wednesday the 19th of advocate: the career of the reverend melvill horne, minister of October, 1791 (london: James Phillips, 1791), pp. 49, 50, 52. christ church, macclesfield,” Transactions of the Historic Society of 17. horne, Letters from the Rev. Melvill Horne, p. 28. Lancashire and Cheshire 153 (2004): 9–15. 18. e. G. ingham, Sierra Leone After a Hundred Years (london: seeley, 45. horne, Sermon Preached at the Parish Church of St. Andrew by the 1894), pp. 110–11. Wardrobe, pp. 36, 39–42. 19. J. l. hart, “diary of lieutenant J. clarkson r.n. (Governor, 1792),” 46. ibid., pp. 27–29. Sierra Leone Studies 8 (march 1927): 42, 44, 46. 47. Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process, pp. 215–18. 20.melvill horne to mary fletcher, June 10 [1793], Jrul mam fl 48. scottish missionarysociety, Address to the Friends of Missions, 3/13/7. Particularly to Ministers, Preachers, & Students in Divinity (edinburgh: 21. hart, “diary,” p. 112. andrew Jack, 1823), pp. 42–56. 22.christopher fyfe, ed., Anna Maria Falconbridge: Narrative of Two 49. Theological Magazine 2, no. 3 (Jan./feb. 1797): 237–39; Theological Voyages to the River Sierra Leone During the Years 1791− 1792− 1793 and Magazine 2, no. 5 (July 1797): 387–88; Christian Observer, Conducted the Journal of Isaac DuBois; with Alexander Falconbridge: An Account by Members of the Established Church 10, no. 7 (July 1811): 451–53. of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (liverpool: liverpool univ. 50.Printed in 1810 by Galen Ware, andover, massachusetts. Press, 2000), pp. 110, 178. 51. Wilbert r. shenk, ed., North American Foreign Missions, 1810–1914: 23.“asermon by the rev. mr. melvill horne,” Baptist Annual Register, Theology, Theory, and Policy (Grand rapids: eerdmans, 2004), pp. 3, september 1795, pp. 249–55. 5, 15–17. 24. horne, Letters on Missions, pp. vi–viii, 134; melvill horne to his 52.Wilbert r. shenk, “the legacy of claudius Buchanan,” International former parishioners at madeley, february 12, 1793, Jrul, mam fl Bulletin of Missionary Research 18, no. 2 (april 1994): 80, 82. 3/13/2. 53. Literary and Philosophical Repertory 1, no. 1 (april 1812): 34–38. 25. horne to his former parishioners at madeley, february 12, 1793. 54. andrew f. Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: 26. horne, Letters on Missions, pp. 16–19, 123–25. Studies in the Transmission of Faith (maryknoll, n.y.: orbis Books; 27. ibid., pp. 9, 11, 20, 23; stephen orchard, “evangelical eschatology edinburgh: t. &t. clark, 1996), pp. 160–72. and the missionary awakening,” Journal of Religious History 22, no. 55. Sermons, Preached in London, at the Formation of the Missionary Society, 2 (June 1998): 144–46. p. xvii. 28. horne, Letters on Missions, pp. 21–22, 60–61. 56. John c. Bennett, “the legacy of charles simeon,” International 29. Periodical Accounts Relative to the Baptist Missionary Society, vol. 1 Bulletin of Missionary Research 18, no. 2 (april 1994): 75. (clipstone: J. W. morris, 1800), pp. i, 1, 3, 8. 57. horne stressed that candidates must have “a passion for missions” 30.horne, Letters on Missions, p. xii. ( Letters on Missions, p. 80). 31. Walls, “Protestant missionary awakening,” pp. 32–33. 58. i would like to thank Kathryn ellis and andrew Walls for their 32.horne, Letters on Missions, pp. 34–36. horne may have developed an valuable comments on a draft of this paper. i am also grateful to awareness of moravian missions during his childhood in antigua. Peter forsaith, robert Glen, Brian stanley, and John Vickers for 33.mason, The Moravian Church, pp. 156–60. their helpful correspondence on horne. material held at the John 34. horne, Letters on Missions, pp. 62–65. rylandsuniversitylibrary,manchester,isreproducedcourtesyofthe 35. ibid., pp. 50, 65–67, 70–72. director and librarian, John rylands university library, manchester. 36. haweisarguedthatwomenshouldberecruitedtoassistinmissionary i am grateful to regent’s Park college oxford for permission to use work. see t. haweis, “amemoir on the most eligible Part to Begin a materials from the angus library. i am also grateful to the church mission,” Sermons, Preached in London, at the Formation of the Mission- mission society for permission to use the cms archives in special ary Society, September 22, 23, 24, 1795: To Which are Prefixed Memorials collections, university of Birmingham.

94 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 The Legacy of Yohanna Gowon Musa A. B. Gaiya

a yohanna Gowon (ca. 1880–1973) was one of the earliest of work. By the time Gowon was in his early thirties, he had dis- P ngasconvertstochristianity. 1 christiancontactwiththe tinguished himself among his peers. he had gained considerable ngaspeople(pluralngasmwa)beganin1907,whenmissionaries wealth, which is clear from his marriage to four wives. belonging to the cambridge university mission Party (cumP), Gowon was also committed to the traditional religion of an affiliate of the church missionary society (cms), arrived on his people. as a prince he could not do otherwise. (the proper a survey trip at Kabwir, one of the leading ngas cities. Kabwir spelling of his name is ngo-wong, i.e., one who was born “by is in central nigeria, in the Kanke local government area of the the grace of wong,” or on the occasion of the wong festival).4 he Plateau state. (eight years earlier, the ngas people had been is said to have been a great dancer at ngas festivals.5 he also brought under the control of the British colonial authorities in played ngas music using the molo, a kind of guitar. Gowon was their attempt to gain control of northern nigeria. the British a highly respected young man and a budding leader in his com- district officer had his residence in Pankshin, which was on a munity before his conversion to christianity. hill west of Kabwir. the leader of the missionary team was t. e. alvarez, who Gowon’s conversion at that time was the secretary of the cms niger mission. the party met the chief of Kabwir, Bewarang dimka. to determine the news of the mass conversion of ngas in Kabwir and tuwan the sincerity of these strange visitors and the genuineness of attracted the attention of Gowon. for one thing, the words of the their message, the chief sought the assistance of soothsayers soothsayers were not to be taken lightly. also, it was clear that (persons whom the ngas say have “the power of second sight”) there had been a power shift from the traditional rulers to the from tuwan, a neighboring village.2 led by their chief, Genka, colonialauthorities,whohadimposedindirectruleoverthengas.6 the soothsayers announced that the issue would be resolved by in addition, the missionaries themselves had made a favorable a yerkum (fetish bird) called kikik. if within the next three days impression on the ngas, for the foreigners had introduced clear this bird appeared at night and cooed, then the supposed Good improvements in the society. they had started a school that was news the missionaries had brought should be rejected. if it did attended by both the chiefs and the ordinary people. in 1921 they not, then the missionaries must have brought the message from builtamodernhospital,thefirstinnorthernnigeria.missionaries God, whom the ngas called nen. it was usual for the yerkum also sank wells, which meant that people no longer had to fetch to appear at that period of the year, but miraculously the bird water from the stream, which was sometimes contaminated. never appeared, and the ngas were ready to welcome the mis- it was the school that attracted the young Gowon to the sionaries. mission compound. the early teachers in the school were two With this breakthrough, alvarez and his team left to make missionary agents who had been recruited from Kpata, one of preparations to send other missionaries to the ngas people. hav- Bishop herbert tugwell’s stations near lokoja, on the confluence ing earlier opened a station in Panyam among the mwaghavul, oftheBenueandnigerrivers.onewasmosesogungbabiolubi, ngas neighbors to the west of Kabwir, missionaries arrived in a yagba from the ruling house ofafin, a carpenter by trade; about 1910 to open a station among the ngas. What happened later was the other, we know only that his name was abraham.7 these remarkable. Bewarang dimka and his household became friends two had learned enough hausa to be able to teach in it. these of the missionaries and began to attend a mission instruction young teachers, however, soon ran into trouble in adjusting to class. in addition, almost the whole of tuwan village, including ngas culture. they had taught the ngas to distance themselves chief Genka, was ready to learn the white man’s “secrets” (i.e., from their traditional background and to destroy objects of gain a Western education). traditional worship. in their zeal, the young converts once took the traditionalists in Kabwir could not reconcile themselves the law into their own hands. agroup of traditionalists, includ- with the newly found faith of their chief. When Bewarang no ing some dressed in traditional ngas wongmwa masquerade, longer agreed to perform the traditional rituals expected of once threatened some christian women. the christian young him, they petitioned the colonial authority in Pankshin to inter- men reacted by overpowering one of men and stripping him of vene—lest, so they threatened, there should be a breakdown of his costume. this action was highly sacrilegious and provoked law and order. since Bewarang was not willing to renounce his a hostile gathering of traditionalists from other ngas villages, newfaith,thedistrictofficerremovedhim.facingtherealdanger who prepared to march against the christians. except for the of assassination in Kabwir, Bewarang fled to tuwan. from then timely intervention of the colonial authorities in Pankshin, few on, tuwan became a refuge for ngas christians facing persecu- christians would have survived. tion in neighboring villages. there soon were other problems with these missionary at this time Gowon was a ngas prince in lur, a village near agents. moses was said to have been dismissed for immoral Kabwir. his father was Gofwan, the chief; his mother was not behavior and later died in Kaduna.8 the need arose, then, to remembered by the oldest person i interviewed.3 Gofwan had train ngas themselves to teach their own people the christian at least three wives and was wealthy, owning goats and cattle. message. as a result, the nascent school was expanded in 1914 he was a hardworking man who taught his children the value to train ngas evangelists. at this time Gowon became actively involved as a pupil, along with over seventy others. the training Musa A. B. Gaiya, a church historian and former Head of the Department of began with the anglican catechism. Religious Studies, University of Jos, Nigeria, completed a Ph.D. dissertation it was a major sacrifice for Gowon to attend this school, for in 1996 on faith missions work in the Middle Belt of Nigeria, with particular he did it against the wishes of his parents. they tried to dissuade reference to the Jos Plateau area. him, but he had made up his mind to give up his royal position. april 2007 95 the opposition from his parents was so intense that Gowon was the Gowons labored in virtually all the ngas villages—amper, forced to flee to tuwan, leaving behind everything he owned. he seri, Gugur, Krum, Garam, lungwa, and Pankshin (then known took with him only madbwir, the only daughter he had with his as ner). of all these places the most troublesome was amper. first wife.9 Gowon had previously lost one of his wives, and now here, Kuryan recalled, her husband was once slapped by an his other three wives refused to follow him. in tuwan Gowon onlooker who apparently did not want to hear the preaching. lived with an elder brother, dashwar, who through unknown But instead of retaliating, Gowon just smiled.17 despite this circumstances had also become a christian. opposition, the amper church eventually became one of the Gowon was baptized and christened yohanna (John) in 1914 strongest ngas churches. areport of the mission work here as and was one of the twenty-two candidates confirmed by Bishop supplied by cumP missionary charles Wedgewood is indica- tugwell in 1915.10 Gowon’s conversion resulted from several fac- tive: “the work at Per and in the surrounding districts has been tors, foremost of which was what Kalu calls the finger of God, going steadily ahead. it has been carried during the last nine or the direct action of the spirit of God.11 months entirely by african agents with very little supervision and reflects great credit on these men.”18 the evangelists used evangelist to His Own People biblical texts translated into ngas by Wedgewood: the Gospels of mark, luke, and John, as well as the first letter of John and in st. Paul’s anglican church in tuwan Gowon saw and fell in portions of the Psalms. also translated into ngas were two col- love with a young girl of noble birth, saraya Kuryan. she was the lections of old testament stories, the catechism, portions of the daughter of filibus and helen Goar, who were among the first Book of Prayer, a manual of christian teaching, a pamphlet on converts in tuwan. filibus Goar, from the royal family of Walta, marriage, and a primer. 19 later became chief of tuwan, between 1940 and 1948.12 Gowon By 1930 it was apparent that cumP could not maintain its and Kuryan were married in the church on april 26, 1923. this three stations on the Jos Plateau—at Panyam, at Kabwir, and marriage was ultimately blessed with eleven children: ibrahim, at Boi, north of Kabwir, the location of a third station recently Peter(bothdead),rachel,mary,yakubu,daniel,Bala(alsodead), opened by Wedgwood. difficulties arose as a result of a shortage Kande, moses, dauda, and ishaya. four of the boys later enlisted of european personnel and finances. therefore cumP, through in the nigerian army. one of them, yakubu, rose to become the its parent body the cms, approached sum (whose own stations nigerian head of state from 1966 to 1975. had almost encircled them) with the suggestion that this large Gowon’s decision to become an evangelist was partly as a field be transferred to the care of sum.20 resultofthedeathofdashwar,whohadbecomeoneoftheleaders the transfer was accomplished on april, 19, 1930. sum re- of the tuwan church. one day after leading the morning prayers ceived forty-eight communicants from the Panyam station and in the church, dashwar succumbed to a freak accident. he was one hundred from the Kabwir station, but none from Boi, the cutting down a dry locust tree when it fell on him, crushing him newest. 21 this matter of transferring mission oversight was not unique. for example, in northern nigeria sum (British Branch) had handed over to the united methodist and sum (danish The opposition from his Branch) its stations among mumuye and chamba respectively. 22 What was unusual in this case was the ngas reaction to this trans- parents was so intense that fer. they objected to it when they noticed the sharp difference in Gowon was forced to flee theology and practice between cumP, which was episcopalian, to Tuwan, leaving behind and sum (British Branch), which was more congregational. al- though measures were taken to smooth the transition by posting everything he owned. two anglicans to the stations—lowry maxwell to Kabwir23 and e. m. Webster to Panyam—the ngas were not satisfied. members oftheamperchurch,ledbyamosKwashi,thefatherofthepresent to death. this event deeply shook Gowon. he saw the fragility of bishop of the Jos diocese, walked about five hundred kilometers life and resolved to serve God fully for the rest of his life. soon to Wusasa, the headquarters of the hausa anglican mission, to after this experience, he and his new wife submitted themselves register their protest with Bishop alfred smith. But the transfer to be evangelists and were admitted into the tuwan evangelists’ was irreversible. many of the ngas evangelists took government school for further training beyond catechism. jobs rather than continue to work with the new mission.24 the new school provided a proper theological training in its the Gowons, however, continued to work with sum in own right, with some of the best teachers of the day, both euro- spite of the difficulties. one immediate complication arose from pean and african. instruction was in hausa, but students went the sum policy not to pay evangelists, in strict adherence to out to preach in their native languages. the Gowons thus had henry Venn’s formula of the three-selfs (specifically, that indig- to learn to read and speak hausa. hausa was becoming popular enous churches should be self-financing). the Gowons therefore among ngas because of nearby hausa settlements in chika and became volunteer workers. at lungwa in dawaki.13 students usually had one year of training the Gowons were posted to Garam, where yohanna served and then would go for two years of field experience.14 the ngas as a catechist to a new church. to supplement his income, he evangelists wore black cassocks and were called gofutadt’pmwa resumed his old profession, farming. Before long, however, (i.e., those who wore black gowns).15 they were transferred to Pankshin. this move was difficult for after the initial training Gowon’s first preaching site was the Gowons, for Pankshin was becoming a cosmopolitan town his home village, lur. his early converts were his cousins, who with little farmland. includedmwatachindaba,Gwomgwe,Wokshit,ngwaGompwel this was a critical time for the Gowons, for they now had (later christened Barnabas), and Gwongwel.16 mwata chindaba six children to take care of. they were faced with the decision later became a pastor in the church of christ in nigeria (cocin), either to take an appointment with the government or to retire established by the sudan united mission (sum), British Branch. and go back to lur. Gowon had shared this concern with his

96 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 friend William Gotom, a member of his church in Pankshin.25 it as corn, guinea corn, and millet. Gradually he transformed his was therefore a great relief when the Gowons received an invita- rocky land into a fruitful space. his hausa neighbors marveled tion from Bishop alfred smith asking them to move to the newly as they watched his incredible feat. as a result, Gowon became established missionary station at Wusasa, near Zaria.afew years famous as a great farmer and was given the name sarkin noma, earlier timothy Gotom, a cousin of William Gotom, had moved to Wusasa to work in the hospital. Perhaps from him the bishop learned of the Gowons’ predicament. Gowon, along with other the cms Wusasa mission had been granted permission to work among hausa traditionalists, the maguzawa, and it badly evangelists, took the Gospel needed african agents. thus in mid-1936 the Gowons with their into areas that were six children moved to Wusasa, Zaria, to begin evangelistic work among hausa. meanwhile, one of Gowon’s early converts, a prohibited to european cousin, Barnabas ngwa Gompwel, had made rapid progress. missionaries during the he had became a cook to one of the missionaries in tuwan. his intelligence became apparent, and he was sent to cms training colonial period. institute in Kpata, near lokoja. there he learned to read hausa and english. on his return sum made good use of him as an evangelist. he then moved to join the Gowons in Wusasa, where or chief of farmers. his eldest daughter, rachel, has inherited he later translated the new testament into ngas.26 this farmland.another unusual phenomenon was Gowon’s abil- ity to spin. in hausaland only women spin. But yohanna would Gowon as an evangelist to the Hausa spin, and Kuryan would weave the thread into ngas gwado, or traditional cloth. the story of the hausaanglican mission is well known.27 Gowon Gowon’s children best remember him for his unshakable and later Gompwel began to work in the newly established mis- faithinGod.rachelremembersthatherfathertaughthischildren sion stations of chafe and maska among the hausa. they also “the value of faith in God and destiny. he taught us the value of visitedotherhausavillages,suchasdustenWai,soba,andikara, honestyin ourdealingswithourfellow humanbeings.he taught all in the Zaria emirate. this was very helpful since colonial us the value of hard work and diligence in our daily endeavors. policy prevented white missionaries from preaching in hausa in general, we were encouraged to read the Bible regularly and villages. Before long, however, it became apparent to Gowon to obey and practice its injunctions.” she also remembers that that he was not becoming as fluent in hausa as he wished; in duringfamilydevotionsGowonwouldoftentellthem,“askGod addition he was getting older. for these reasons Gowon retired for everything, and he will grant you your request. never try to in 1940 at the age of about sixty. he returned to Wusasa to begin get material wealth in illegitimate ways. trust in God completely, a new phase of his life.28 and he will never fail you. he will reward you at last for obeying the Wusasa mission authorities had no specific work for him.” he never relied on charms, herbalists, witch doctors, or Gowon to do. the mission helped as much as it could, however, anything similar for protection or for help with problems.34 granting scholarships to four of his children and assigning him Gowon was tolerant of those who did not share his beliefs manual jobs from time to time. one of his jobs was to sink wells. and was well respected by muslims. one, mallam hayaki, said, Gowon was skilled in this craft, for he always seemed to know “GowonlivedanoutstandinglifehereinWusasa.hewaspatient. where to dig to find water. the eight wells currently in Wusasa he never fought with anyone.”35 archdeacon h. o. mohammed were sunk by him. in addition, he dug latrines,29 though he was said that in all the time he knew Gowon, he had never seen him never asked to clean them.30 he also dug graves and maintained angry. he was always jovial, very hardworking, never pompous, the mission’s cemetery. soon the news of Gowon’s skills spread, and always simple.36 and people outside Wusasa also began hiring him to sink wells Gowon never missed church. one of his enjoyments was for them. in 1989 the Wusasa old students association hon- singing;afavoritesongwas“onwardchristiansoldiers.”37 even ored Gowon posthumously for such service, granting him the in old age, Gowon would walk to the hausa villages around anniversary award for community development. 31 Wusasa to share his faith with muslims. e. umaru Julde, a fulani farming, though, was Gowon’s main job at this time, on pastor in Wusasa, once reminisced to rachel about the evan- which the family depended for its sustenance. Gowon often gelistic activities of her father in these villages. one day when prayedspecificallythatthelordwouldgivehimtheextrastrength Julde went to Kufena, he heard a native lament, “since mallam needed for this work. his son dauda says that after praying yohanna stopped coming to us to preach, no one has come. he that prayer, his father would work on the farm from morning to was the only one who used to visit us.”38 evening without showing any sign of exhaustion.32 he also had a team of helpers in his sons. after morning prayers the boys conclusion would go work on the farm before breakfast and then before they got ready to go to school. after school, they were back on Gowon died on January 26, 1973, a nonagenarian who “hardly the farm. the girls usually helped Kuryan at home with house ever went to the hospital for any treatment [or took any drugs] chores. it is therefore not surprising that the Gowon children all until the last two months of his life.”39 at his funeral service grew up to be hard workers. f. o. segun, the anglican bishop of the diocese of northern in Wusasa Gowon had requested a piece of land on which nigeria, stated that Gowon gave his whole life to God with an to farm but was given only a very rocky patch of land33 that overflowing heart, to the extent that he was able to reveal certain the locals considered to be the worst possible land for farming. aspects of God to others in several ways: “first, [by] his sterling Gowon, however, would carry in dirt from elsewhere, filling integrity which gives a glimpse of divine righteousness; second, in the spaces between the rocks and planting his crops, such by his purity which gives a glimpse of divine holiness; thirdly, april 2007 97 by his sympathy and fourthly by his tenderness. ...the work Gowon’s significance in the history of christianity in north- Pa Gowon did, the words he spoke, the character he built and ernnigerialiesintherolehe,alongwithotherevangelists,played the moral and spiritual influence he set in motion, would outlive in the christianization of what today is called the middle Belt of the stars.”40 nigeria.43 evangelists such as Gowon left a legacy of incultura- archdeacon h. o. mohammed described him as a saint. “as tion,fortheyconsideredthemselvestobemorehausathanngas, far as i am concerned, i have never seen any fault in yohanna’s nupe, Jukun, Kataf, or Bujju. their children can hardly speak life. that is why i call him a saint because of his tolerance. ... their mother tongues; some of them would prefer to be referred Gowon’s character and life were enough to convert people.”41 to as hausa. these evangelists were helpful in expanding the Gowon would have been shocked to see the level of later reli- frontiers of the church in hausaland; they took the Gospel into gious intolerance in northern nigeria, which culminated in the areas that were prohibited to european missionaries during the desecration of his tomb in Wusasa in 1987.42 colonial period.

Selected Bibliography Works About Pa Yohanna Gowon ———. “Pa yohanna Gowon (d. 1973): his contributions tothe Gaiya, musa a. B. “conversion of the african: acase study of an ngas evangelization of northern nigeria.” m.a. thesis, univ. of Jos, Prince.” in African Dilemma: ACry for Life, ed. Kofi appiah-Kubi department of religious studies, 1990. et al., pp. 135 − 46. ilorin, nigeria: ecumenical association of third ———. APortrait of a Saint: The Life and Times of Pa Yohanna Gowon World theologians, 1992. (d. 1973). Jos: faB educational Books, 1998. Notes 1. “Pa,”anhonorifictermforelderlypersons,isoftenusedwithGowon’s 18. Lightbearer 14, no. 3 (1918): 44. name. the ethnic name “ngas” means “forthrightness.” colonial 19. Wambutda, Study of Conversion, p. 162. documents refer to this people as angas (plural angasawa), which 20.J. l. maxwell, Half a Century of Grace (london: sum, 1953), p. 172. is the hausa corruption of the name. 21. Wambutda, Study of Conversion, pp. 174–75. 2.daniel nimcir Wambutda, AStudy of Conversion Among the Angas 22.e. P. t. crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (london: Geoffrey of Plateau State of Nigeria, with Emphasis on Christianity (frankfurt: chapman,1979), p. 163; and John B. Grimley and Gordon e. robin- Peter lang, 1991), p. 34. son, Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand rapids: 3.one of Gowon’s children, dr.dauda Gowon, saysthathis eerdsman, 1966), p. 62. grandmother was fulani,butwe havenodirect evidence supporting 23.Jan Boer has noted that maxwell was in fact a British Presbyterian this claim. ngaswa lived together with fulani before the colonial layman but was ordained into the anglican ministry to meet the period. one lingering cultural influence is seen in the ngas rearing present need ( Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context: of cattle as do the fulani. ACase Study of the Sudan United Mission [amsterdam: rodopi, 1979], 4. Wong is a traditional masquerade. pp. 144–45). 5. interview with Kashaka lonji, the oldest man in lur (Gowon’s 24. these included amos Kwashi and William Gotom. birth place) when i visited there in 1990. unless otherwise stated 25. interview with mrs. William Gotom, Bukuru. all interviews were done in 1990. 26. musa a. B. Gaiya, “a history of the hausa Bible: 1980 edition,” 6. e.a.ayandele, “missionary enterprise Versus indirect ruleamong African Journal of Evangelical Theology 12, no. 1 (1994): 61. angas of Plateau state,” Bulletin of the Society for African Church 27. some of the best-known studies of hausa mission are crampton, History 2, no. 1 (1965): 74. Christianity in Northern Nigeria; e. a. ayandele, The Missionary Im- 7. diary of dr. G. t. fox, 1907–9, kept in theological college of north- pact on Modern Nigeria, 1842–1914 (london: longmans, 1966); and ern nigeria archives, Bukuru, 294. fox was the founder of the first W. r. s. miller, Reflections of aPioneer (london: cms, 1936). hospital. 28. until the creation of the Wusasa diocese in 1997, the problem of 8. Wambutda, Study of Conversion, p. 156. recruitinglocalevangelistsandtraininghausapastorswasacute,for 9. Bythetimeofmyresearch,madbwirhaddied,butimetherdaughter most of the children of the original evangelists had taken up other helen, now mrs. Paul Goar. madbwir also had a son named david, professions. interview with Bishop ali lamido, Wusasa, 2001. whom i never met. 29. interview with mallam hayaki, Kuregu. 10. Lightbearer 28, no. 4 (1931): 155. 30.interview with dr. dauda Gowon, Jos. 11.see ogbu u. Kalu, “Broken covenants: religious change in igbo 31. arewa house archive (n.d.), a 120, “the Wusasa community.” historiography,” Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft / Nouvelle 32.interview with dr. dauda Gowon, Jos. revue de science missionaire 46, no. 4 (1990): 311. some of the factors 33.a. m. locke, The Stable Door: Sketches of Child Life in Northern Nigeria leadingtoconversionarerationalones.themostinfluentialexponent (london: cms, 1935), p. 5. of rational explanation of conversion in africa is robin horton. 34. interview with rachel nur, Wusasa. see his “african conversion,” Africa 41, no. 1 (1971), and “on the 35. interview with mallam hayaki, Kuregu. rationality of conversion,” pt. 1, Africa 45, no. 3 (1975); pt. 2, Africa 36. interview with h. o. mohammed, abuja, now living in Zaria. 45, no. 4 (1975). 37. interview with mary dimka (née Gowon), Jos. 12.interview with Justice iliya Gofwen, Jos, 1998. 38. interview with rachel nur, Wusasa. 13.there were in fact a few ngas converts to islam; the best known is 39. Daily Times, lagos, february, 1973. the mohammed family from chika. 40. New Nigeria, lagos, february 3, 1973. 14. areport from 1918 states, “on april 1st we started with five 41. interview with h. o. mohammed. evangelists, four of whom had had a year’s training before going 42.musa a. B. Gaiya, APortrait of a Saint (Jos: faB educational Books, out for two years’ service” ( Lightbearer 14, no. 3 [1918]: 44). 1998), p. 83. 15. Wambutda, Study of Conversion, p. 164. 43.the middle Belt is a geopolitical area representing the christian- 16. interview with mwata chindaba, lur. dominated areas of northern nigeria. 17. interview with saraya Kuryan Gowon, Wusasa.

98 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 Book Reviews

For All People: Global Theologies in contexts; essays in Honor of Viggo Mortensen.

Edited by Else Marie Wiberg Pedersen, Hol- ger Lam, and Peter Lodberg. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. Pp. viii, 242. Paperback $24. the received wisdom is that publishers the second and largestsection is linkagebetween ecclesiologyand ethics arenotreceptivetoessaycollections entitled “challenges toecumenism and in Bonhoeffer,is an especiallyuseful and festschriften. eerdmans is tobe christian identity.” several essaysdeal overviewthathighlightshowcrucial commended for defying thatwisdom withthe impactof the globalization of Bonhoeffer still is for missional theology. with the publication of For All People. its christianityuponeuropeanchristendom the final section, “God challenging strengths far outweigh its weaknesses. it and interpretthe currentpassage of these the World,” includes three essays. one givesdeservedhonortoViggomortensen, nowlargelysecularized cultureswith of them—“images of christin latin whose own theological pilgrimage has illuminating overviewsand perceptive america,” byWalter altmann, who led him toengage the challenges of insights. Victor Westhelle’s essay,“is includes some fascinating artwork— globalization, an odyssey that led him europe christian? achallenge toa speaks clearly from the global south. from an academic focus upon ethics and Viking,”aswellasJensholgerschjørring’s several essaysinthe book would the philosophy of religion to a fruitful contribution, “churchidentity in the work well in class syllabi as introductions tenure as director of the department of nordic countries—an international tomissiological themes, for example, theologyandstudies atthe lutheran Perspective,” wereaparticular help tome schreiter’s“Globalization,Postmodernity, World federation, to his present place in preparingfor tworecentinteractions and the new catholicity” or de Gruchy as professor of global christianity and withthe churchofdenmark. mostof the on Bonhoeffer’s ecclesiology.the ecumenics at the university of aarhus. authors arelutheran (sixareactiveor authors themselves demonstratehow the book’s essays are grouped under formerfacultyataarhus),likethehonoree, the missiological discussion todayis three topics. the first, “Globalization as and theypresentalutheranism thatboth enriched byrepresentatives of all the challenge to mission and ecumenism,” engages and is challenged bythe world theological disciplines. although the demonstratesdiversebutcomplementary christianmovementinallitsdiversity.else book is dominated by first World voices, missiological approaches to the complex marieWibergPedersen’sessay,“l utheran it offers encouraging evidence of such reality of globalization. clear and basic ecclesiologies today—custodians of the voices listening hardand well tothe definitionsoftermsareprovidedbyrobert Pastor Guides tothe future?” provides global church. schreiter in his essay“Globalization, an especiallyhelpfulsurveyof the —darrell l. Guder Postmodernity, and the new catholicity.” progressiveand exploratorycharacter Johannes nissen demonstrates the ways of currentlutheran grappling withthe Darrell L. Guder is Henry Winters Luce Professor in which the encounter with globalization theologyandpracticeofthechurch.Johnde of Missional and Ecumenical Theology and Dean of uncovers new interpretive avenues into Gruchy’sessayonBonhoeffer’sSanctorum Academic Affairs, Princeton Theological Seminary, ancient biblical themes. Communio,inwhich he examines the Princeton, New Jersey.

concepts of Mission: The catholics and Protestants(including evolution of contemporary Voetius, Warneck, mcGavran, Kraemer, Missiology. nida, freytag, Vicedom, hoekendijk, and ruetti). oborji’s selection of Protestants is By Francis Anekwe Oborji. Maryknoll, N.Y.: fine. it is surprising, though, that he also Orbis Books, 2006. Pp. xvi, 240. Paperback gives separate sections to various roman $27. catholic encyclopedists (schmidlin, 1925; seumois, 1952; santos hernandez, 1961; nowadaysfewerafricanspublishdetailed nolongerholdamonopolyonsuchworks. ohm, 1962) but not to their Protestant studies restricted to african themes, and in their writings africans and other non- counterparts (schomerus, 1935; holsten, more are producing surveys and analyses Westerners are adding new perspectives 1953; Jongeneel, 1995–97). of missiologyas adiscipline. one of and sometimes surpass Western scholars the third part deals with ecumenical the first africans to do so was laurent in vitality and relevance. dialogue and with contextual theologies W. ramambason, aProtestantfrom oborji’s book has three partsand in latin america, asia, and africa. not madagascar ( Missiology: Its Subject- ten chapters. the parts deal with basic surprisingly, the section on africa is the Matter and Method [frankfurt:Peter issues, historical perspectives, and new largestone, withfocusupon african lang,1999]). although francis oborji, perspectives.eachiscoveredverybroadly, christologyand african ecclesiology. a roman catholic professor and priest taking into account roman catholic and the author rightly comments that “it is from nigeria, does not refer to the study Protestant concepts and developments in wrong to continue to regard africa as an by ramambason, his work can still be six continents. the second part discusses appendage” (p. 203). his study makes it comparedwithit.itisclearthatWesterners leading missionary theologians, roman possible to imagine that one day, whether april 2007 99 STUDY WITH sooner or later,Western missiological in the classroom, both editions could be publicationsmaybecomeanappendageto used together. what african and asian missiologists are  Jan a. B. Jongeneel THE BEST! writing. (already now their publications are sometimes more mission-minded and JanA.B.Jongeneel,acontributingeditor,isProfessor more engaging than Western ones.) Emeritus of Missiology at Utrecht University and this orbis volume is a reprint, with the author of Philosophy, science, and theology SENIOR MISSION SCHOLARS minorchanges, of an earlier edition of mission in the nineteenth and twentieth (rome and lagos: ceedee Publications, centuries(Frankfurt,1995–97;republishedin2006 Senior Mission Scholars in 2005). there is a new preface by William in the Missiological Classics Series in Bangalore, Residence at OMSC provide Burrows, and an index has been added. India). leadership in the studyprogram and are available to residents for counsel regarding their own mission research interests.

Fall 2007 Voting About God in early church councils. DR. KIRKLEY SANDS AnAnglican pastor and educator By Ramsay MacMullen. New Haven: Yale for more than thirty-five years, Univ. Press, 2006. Pp. 192. $30. Kirkley Sands is a priest and canon in the Diocese of the Bahamas and is the christian faithintrinsically macmullenwillremindusneverto assume the Turks and Caicos Islands. Since rational? this question has long figured that other religions have a monopoly of ordination in in interreligiousdialogue, and ithas things “evil and inhuman.” recently received considerable attention —alan Kreider 1968 he has in the press. ramsay macmullen, eminent ministered both yale ancient historian, sheds new light on Alan Kreider is Associate Professor of Church in the Bahamas this question in a disturbing book. HistoryandMission,AssociatedMennoniteBiblical and in London in Voting About God macmullen Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana. For twenty-six years he and Edinburgh. studies the churchcouncils between was a missionary in England with the Mennonite Heischair nicaea ( a . d . 325) and chalcedon (451). Board of Missions. of the School his focus is not on theology. rather, he is of Social Sciences and assistant interested in what seems to him to be the professor in the Department of irrationality, driven by fear and force, in Religion and Theology at the the way that the christian church in the College of the Bahamas. roman empire determined its doctrine. his concentration is novel—upon the or- Las casas: Kurzgefaßster DR. FRANK NOLAN, M.AFR. dinary bishops who were delegates at the Bericht von der Verwüstung der councils and whom the elite clergy arm- Westindischen Länder. Frank Nolan, M.Afr., ordained in twisted to vote for orthodox beliefs. his May 1958 as aCatholic priest by sources are also novel—the stenographic EditedbyMichaelSievernich.Frankfurt:Insel the Society of the White Fathers, record of the conciliar debates, which, as Verlag, 2006. Pp. 247. Paperback € 7.50. moved to Rome in 2006 to work in he demonstrates, were marked at times the society’sarchives of ce. Hewas by name-calling and fisticuffs, and which michael sievernich has edited in German amissionaryteacher with the White werebacked upbypopular riotsand the most famous book by Bartolomé de Fathers, also military thuggery. macmullen estimates las casas (1484–1566). in 1542 las casas known as the that25,000 people died as aresultof creed- publishedthisbook,whosetitleinenglish Missionaries al disputes. Who is to blame? macmullen is Short Report on the Destruction of the of Africa, at points to the christian educated minority, West Indies. he graphically described the St. Columba’s who,unliketheirpaganpredecessors,had unimaginably horrible atrocities of the College in come to believe fervently in supernatural spanish conquerors againstthe native powers. peoples of latin america. Based on his Scotland macmullen may idealize the pagan eyewitness account, he requested King (1962–66); in elitesoftheearlycenturiesofthechristian Philip of spain tohelp these nativepeo- Tanzania at Itaga Seminary,Tabora, era; they,aschristians experienced them, ples.theking,being“ajustpastor,”should (1966–71); and in Urambo Parish were quite capable of snuffing out lives savespain from future destruction by (1977–89). and sanctioning pogroms. furthermore, immediately saving the native peoples the supernatural realm, which mac- of latin america from annihilation at the Spring 2008 mullen seems to view as both illusory handsofspanishtyrants.to emphasizehis and destructive, mayattimes be bothreal urgent message, las casas incorporated Dr. Caleb O. Oladipo and conducivetononviolence.never- historical, biblical, legal, and apocalyptic Dr. Angelyn Dries, O.S.F. theless, macmullen’s studyof sources themes. he described how “the wolves, and narratives that christian historians tigers, and lions” (i.e., the armed spanish O VERSEAS M INISTRIES S TUDY C ENTER have ignored is troubling: if the christian conquerors) mercilesslydevouredthe Call (203) 624-6672, ext. 315, or visit faithisrational, whydid itscreedal “meek lambs” (i.e., the unarmed native www.OMSC.org (Continuing Education) statementsoriginateastheydid?notleast, peoples). spanish greed for gold and as we engage in interfaith conversations, material wealthwas so limitless that

100 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 they did not hesitate to eradicate the local Paul, the Gospel in a multicultural world, them in current trends of contemporary peopleasnonhumanswithoutdignityand social issues, suffering, spirituality, and christianity.such knowledge in turn worth.lascasasopposedthespanishand church and state relations. becomes abridge between pastand advocatedpeace,friendship,andharmony the book is easy to understand and present, facilitating the application of this with the latin americans. rich in content. italso provides study understanding of scripture into the life las casas’s gripping description of questions atthe end of each chapter. and mission of the church. the cruelty touched the heartsand minds overall, Called to Be Church is unique as it  Wagner Kuhn of his readers, notonlyduring his lifetime bringstogetherbiblicaltheologyandfresh butoverthecenturiesanduptothepresent. practical applications that are vital for Wagner Kuhn is Associate Director, Institute of itis notsurprising thathis Short Report God’schurchintoday’sworld.thebookis WorldMission,andAssociateProfessor,Department has been translated intosixty different mostly for pastors and theology students, of World Mission, Seventh-day Adventist languages.thereportshowshowlascasas but it should be used by lay leaders and TheologicalSeminary,AndrewsUniversity,Berrien protected the nativelatin americans and missionaries as well, since it will orient Springs, Michigan. worked for their liberation. his w ritings inspiretheir descendantseven todayto reclaim their identity.inthis sense he was areformer justas much as his German contemporarymartin luther was for the churchinwestern europe. sievernich’s edition,adornedwithillustrations,restores las casas’s legacyafresh. itreads well. —daniel Jeyaraj

DanielJeyaraj,acontributing editor,isthe Judson-DeFreitas Professor of World Christianity at Andover Newton Theological School, Newton Centre, Massachusetts.

A History of Christianity in Asia called to Be church: The Book of Volume II, 1500-1900 • Now in paperback. Acts for a New Day. SAMUEL HUGH MOFFITT By Anthony B. Robinson and Robert W. Wall. “A wonderful addition to any libraryofhistorical works. ..will expand the Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. Pp. xii, 286. understanding of ‘the Church’ as truly universal, transhistorical and multi- Paperback $20. cultural, and never again to be reduced to or confused with the Church of this book is an excellent read as it blends Christendom. This book is agift to us all.” —Anthony J. Gittens the experience of a biblical scholar and a 978-0-57075-690-0 paperback $25.00 pastor. the reader becomes fully engaged witheach of the fifteen chapters in a A History of Christianity in Asia continuousdialogue,firstas“interpreting acts as scripture,” then “engaging acts Volume I, Beginnings to 1500 for today’s church.” chapter 1 sets the SAMUEL HUGH MOFFITT context for the entire book as it keeps “A masterful historyand adelight to read. Few others have attempted such “interpreting”and“engaging”thetext—a kind of synopsis of the whole book’s main an ambitious historyofChristianity in Asia, and Moffett’ssecond volume ideas. it demonstrates that acts is a book should be eagerly expected.”—Journal of Asian Studies for a postmodern church—a book to be 978-0-57075-162-5 paperback $30.00 experienced! Called to Be Church is based on scripture’s assumption that God’s inten- A Muslim Looks at Christianity tion is to form a people, a community. this Essays of Mahmoud Ayoub • Faith Meets Faith Series assumption challenges the postmodern Edited by IRFAN OMAR culture, which emphasizes individualism and personal spirituality. acts is thus a Aleading scholar of Islam looks at Christianity and the potential for timely book because it shows that the Muslim-Christian dialogue and understanding. This valuable collection church’s greatest need is koinonia—to love includes asubstantial introduction by Ayoub to his study of Christianity one another, to offer our lives for the sake of the world, to be the body of christ. and Muslim-Christian dialogue. 978-0-57075-690-0 paperback $25.00 for reasons of practical purpose and brevity, only certain texts of acts were selected.theydeal withsubjectssuch as leadership transition and change, the At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS church’s mission, preaching, baptism, Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 community, conflict resolution, the holy AWorld of Booksthat Matter 1-800-258-5838 spirit, conversion and the experience of april 2007 101 Israel and the Nations: A Mission the second volume is a collection of Theology of the Old Testament. essays published in honor of John olley, an australian who devoted his life to ByJamesChukwumaOkoye.Maryknoll,N.Y.: old testamentscholarship, theological Orbis Books, 2006. Pp. 224. Paperback $28. teaching, and missionary practice. most of the contributors are australian, and Text and Task: Scripture and manyof the essaysspeak directlyto Mission. the australian context. the topics range widely, from the discussion of specific Edited by Michael Parsons. Milton Keynes, old testament texts related to the theme Eng.: Paternoster Press, 2005. Pp. 232. of mission, tolater (newtestament, Paperback £19.99. reformation, Barthian) use of such texts, and the application of a biblical theology When investigating abiblical text, exploringthemissiologicalmessageofthe of mission to the contemporary situation. confessedlychristian old testament old testament. among the many helpful Within the latter we should include the scholars like myself can never be satisfied insights he offers is a recognition that, as opening essay on the loss of ancestral withhavingparsedhebrewverbs,grasped was the case with israel, God invites us religion in ancientisrael and modern the literary beauty of the narrative, felt to the privileged role of being engaged in australia, and the concluding essays on the pathos of the psalmist, or appreciated God’s own mission of mercy to a fallen therecoveryoftheGospelintheaustralian the rhetoric of the prophets.an important world. While he writes as a catholic and church and the role of preaching in the aspect of our calling is to reflect on the his hermeneutic is based on traditional recovery of the church’s mission. While contribution the immediate text makes higher critical models, it is refreshing to all the essays are solid, provocative, and to the overall message of scripture and its see how seriously he takes the work of relevantforthenorthamericanscene,the implications for the life and mission of the evangelical Protestant scholars. essaybychristopherWright,“readingall church. these two volumes not only offer if thereisanything in the book scripture missiologically,” is alone worth a needful reminder of this obligation but thatdisappoints, itis the surprisingly the price of the book. also point their readers in directions they scant evidence of distinctly afrocentric these two volumes will take their need to consider. the first is written by a reflections. ashort paragraph at the end places among an increasing number of single individual; the second consists of a of chapter 2 creates anticipation for new works that seek to integrate serious bibli- collection of fifteen essays. two-thirdsWorldperspectivesonisrael’s cal study with the life of the ongoing James chukwuma okoye is a nigeri- missiontothenations.however,although mission and life of the church. an by birth and an old testament scholar Professor okoye has excellent command  daniel i. Block by training (oxford). he currently serves of the old testament, and although he has as associate professor of biblical studies written and spoken often on the subject, Daniel I. Block is Professor of Old Testament and at catholic theological union in chicago, there is little in the remainder of the book Ph.D. Program Coordinator,Biblical Studies, illinois. in Israel and the Nations okoye thatcouldnothavebeenwrittenbyanorth Wheaton College Graduate School, Wheaton, performs a wonderful service for us all in american scholar with european roots. Illinois.

New Religious Movements in the introduction to the ecclesial movements catholic church. in the roman catholic church, the book is helpful. in certain cases, however, some Edited by Michael A. Hayes. New York and of the information given is unreliable (for London: Continuum, Burns & Oates, 2005. example, some of the statements about Pp. 181. Paperback $25.95 / £12.99. holland made in the neocatechumenate essay). this book is the product of a series of about the founder, the members, and the —frans Wijsen lectures on mission and evangelization theologians of the movements. the essays offered during 2003− 4atst.mary’s are very diverse, with some being purely Frans Wijsen, Professor of Mission Studies at college, twickenham, england. the book descriptive and others giving an analysis Radboud University,Nijmegen, Netherlands, deals with the topic from the perspective of the context in which the movement worked in Tanzania 1984− 88. of ecclesial movements. in nine chapters emerged or a theological reflection on its the following movements are dealt with: foundation. they do, however, have a the international catholic charismatic common focus: the call of the second renewal services (charles Whitehead), Vatican council for holiness and an active the community of sant’egidio (mario apostolate,andthereforetheneedofanew marazzitiand austen ivereigh), the evangelization. Using Scripture in a Global Age: community of the Beatitudes (françois- the book starts with an introduction Framing Biblical Issues. Xavier Wallays), communion and lib- writtenbytheeditor,michaelhayes,head eration (Javier Prades lópez), schönstatt of the school of theology, Philosophy, By C. Norman Kraus. Telford, Pa.: Cascadia (Bryan cunningham), l’arche (christine and history at st. mary’s college, and Publishing House, 2006. Pp. 198. Paperback mcGrievy),neocatechumenateWay(Kiko ends with an index. unfortunately, the $19.95 / CA$29.95. argüello),sodalitiumcristianaeVitaeand authorsofthechaptersarenotintroduced. christianlifemovement(louisfernando it is difficult to assess whether and to for thirty years c. norman Kraus was figari),andthefocolaremovement(chiara what extent they write from an insider professor of Bible and religion at Goshen lubich). most essays include information or an outsider perspective. as afirst college, and he regularlyserved on

102 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 boards and in the foreign missions of the the other, there were the “catholicisms” their culture. nesvig’s essay focuses on mennonite church. he is known for his of the local indigenous communities that a college that was established to educate advocacyofjusticeandpeaceissuesandfor melded their specific cultural traits with indians for the priesthood. such training his work on understanding Protestantism iberian catholicism. spawned a debate in mexico and spain in the united sta tes, especiallythe in the first chapter, carlos eire sets over whether indians had sufficient anabaptist and evangelical traditions. the stage for what follows by offering intelligenceandethicalintegritytoreceive this book is a wide-ranging collec- a synoptic overview of the interchange holyorders. William taylor,using tion of his essays. they reflect his many between official and popular religion. the memoir of an eighteenth-century interests through the years, ranging from antonio rubial García next discusses franciscan, shows how even at this late changes in the self-understanding of howcertainindiancommunitieswillingly date some priests allowed their spanish anabaptistchurches tocontemporary accepted images of catholic saints that mind-settoimpedetheirunderstandingof issues that churches today face, issues of could be substituted for their own gods, indigenous christianity. essays by david nonviolence, and shaping an appropriate while rejecting others that did not fit into tavárez, edward osowski, Brian larkin, spirituality that is faithful to anabaptist traditionsyetmeetsthechallengesfaithful christians encounter today. the whole is framed in terms of living in a “global age”; Krausmeans especiallybythis term the technological challenges that globalizationhaslaiduponallofus.While there are forays into intercultural issues (with special references to his years in Japan), “global” here refers mainly to the enlarged world in which we now all find ourselves living. Particularly helpful to many readers will be his recounting the changes that believers and churches have undergone in the u.s. context over the course of the twentiethcentury.theseparatiststandsof these churches toward the world that they brought with them from central europe hadtoberethought,notonlyinthecontext of the new World, but also as american Protestantism itself evolved from rural to urbanrealities.twoessaysonpa cifismand nonviolence will be of special interest to many readers, since the tradition Kraus Here am I. represents has been the most fertile site for exploring nonviolent resistance in the “Send me!” american context. —robert schreiter, c.PP.s. Prepare to go with a —Isaiah 6:8 Robert Schreiter,C.PP.S., teaches theology at Master of Arts in Global and Contextual Studies the Catholic Theological Union, Chicago. He is from Bethel Seminary. general editor of the Faith and Cultures series for Orbis Books. Develop practical ministry skills and tools: NEW • relevant theology for cross-cultural ministry PROGRAM • understanding of the contemporaryworld and its needs • interdisciplinaryperspective • cultural dimensions of global and contextual ministry Local Religion in colonial Mexico. • accurate exegesis of cultural contexts • incarnational models for cross-cultural ministry EditedbyMartinAustinNesvig.Albuquerque: • contextualization of the Christian message Univ. of New Mexico Press, 2006. Pp. xxviii, • points of contact within other religious traditions 289. Paperback $24.95. Build biblical, theological, historical, cultural/contextual, and strategic Local Religion in Colonial Mexico consists foundations for communicating the Christian message across cultures, of an introduction byeditor martin whether overseas or among the growing ethnic populations within the U.S. nesvig, followed by nine longer, more specialized essays, mostly by historians, Traditional and distance degree programs available. and ashortconclusion bysociologist William christian. this lastwriter encapsulates whatthe previousessays http://seminary.bethel.edu attempttoportray:thattherewere Program is accredited by the Association 800.255.8706, ext. 6288 several“catholicisms”incolonialmexican of Theological Schools; pending accredi- catholicism. on the one hand, there was tation by the North Central Association the spanish catholicism of the criollos; on of Colleges and Schools. april 2007 103 Think on These Things: Harmony and Diversity nicole von Germeten, and Javier Villa- flores follow. all treat similar syncretic New Title religious themes. By Wisnu Sasongko the essays in this book collectively “I paint what I can see, what I can touch, offer valuable insights into how indians what Ican feel—a utopia of love and other members of the mexican expressed in the reality of life. All of underclassesfusedanimposed“universal that inspires me in my artistic way,” says catholicism” with their local traditions, Wisnu Sasongko, a graduate of the Fac- therebycreating arich, complex,and ulty of Fine Art, Institut Seni Indone- verydiverse popular catholicism that sia, Yogyakarta. This book includes “All met their needs. the book should prove Dreams Connected,” a28-minute DVD valuable to students of latin american about Sasongko and his art. religion and those involved in indian 96 pages and a DVD, $29.95 missionary work.  edward t. Brett

Edward T. Brett is Professor and Chair of the Department of History and Political Science, La Roche College, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Christ on the Bangkok Road: The Art of Sawai Chinnawong New Title Sawai Chinnawong, of Payap Univer- sity, Chiang Mai, Thailand, is known for portraying Christianity through a Globalization and the Re-shaping Thai graphic idiom. Sawai is an of christianity in the Pacific ethnic Mon whose Buddhist ancestors Islands. migrated to Thailand from Myanmar. Edited by Manfred Ernst. Suva, Fiji: Pacific His drawings and paintings, inspired Theological College, 2006. Pp. xx, 866. by traditional art from central Thai- Paperback $62. land, re ect a deep Christian faith. 80 pages, $19.95 anyone who knowsanything about thePacific islands will be awareof Look Toward the Heavens: significant changes in religious life that The Art of He Qi have taken place over the last generation or more in this little-understood, vast, HeQi, anoted contemporary Chinese island-dotted region of the world—and Christian artist, is a professor at Nanjing will welcome this timely publication. By Union Theological Seminary. He hopes any measure, it is a substantial book, 866 to help change the “foreign image” of pages about the impact of globalization on the religious landscape of the Pacific, Christianity in China through his art and, at and the product of nearly five years of the same time, to supplement Chinese art the careful research. under the leadership of way Buddhist art did in ancient times. editor manfred ernst, director of projects 128 pages, $19.95 and research at the Pacific theological college, the contributors, who span a A Time for My Singing: range of academic disciplines and church Witness of a Life traditions, have documented over three hundredinterviewsandprovidedrecords by Nalini Marcia Jayasuriya from government and church resources “Icome from aland of rich, ancient, and across fourteen Pacific countries. the diverse cultures and traditions. While I carry publication is supported bydetailed the enriching in uences of both West and East, references, bibliography, and index. I express myself through an Asian and Christian the book is divided into three parts. first, manfred ernst writes an introduc- consciousness with respect for all confessions tion on the historic rootsand recent of religious faith,” says Nalini Jayasuriya of Sri trends in Pacific religious allegiance, and Lanka. Her book offers richly diverse and evoca- on the nature and effects of globalization tive expressions of faith from an Asian perspec- and its impact in the Pacific. the second tive. Her reminiscences are included. part is a report of the studies done in the 128 pages, $19.95 fourteen countries, sixfrom melanesia (including two separate studies on fiji: Gifts from OMSC Publications one on christian allegiance and the other Overseas Ministries Study Center on non-christian allegiance), four from micronesia, and fivefromPolynesia. 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 this section is of particular interest as it Visit www.OMSC.org/books.htm or call (203) 624-6672, ext. 315 documentsmuchinformationthathasnot previouslybeenavailable.thefinalsection

104 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 comprisesasummarybyernst,whodraws in relation to the religions in the light of oneiswritteninclearandstraightforward conclusions from the case studies about theological developments in the wake of prose so that students for whom english the reshaping of christianity in the Pacific Vatican ii. aselect bibliography of books is not their first language should find it and likely developments in the future. and journals thatstudentswill need accessible. the result is an invaluable reference in order to pursue missiological study —Wilbert r. shenk book for all studentsand teachers of completes the book. christianmission.italsooffersachallenge, in addition toproviding afresh Wilbert R. Shenk, a contributing editor, is Senior especially to the mainstream churches of discussionofmissiologydesignedtoserve Professor of Mission History and Contemporary the Pacific, to recognize and to respond the needs of roman catholic seminarians, Culture, Fuller Theological Seminary.He tothe newand changing missionary this book is an excellent model of what previously served in Indonesia and as a mission context. a basic textbook in missiology ought to administrator.  randall Prior cover.suchaworkmustofcoursebehighly selective in order to keep it concise. this Randall Prior, Professor of Ministry Studies and Missiology at the United Faculty of Theology, Melbourne,workedforfiveyearsintheislandnation of Vanuatu and is actively involved in the ongoing RECENT BOOKS FROM EERDMANS Gospel and Culture in Vanuatu project.

Missionaries of christ: A Basic course in Missiology.

By Paul Vadakumpadan, S.D.B. Shillong, India: Vendrame Institute Publications, 2006. Pp. 215. Paperback. Rs 150 (outside India, $10). STORYLINES FOR ALL PEOPLE C HAPTERS ON T HOUGHT,WORD, AND D EED G LOBAL T HEOLOGIES IN C ONTEXTS this fine book is designed as a textbook for an introductory course in missiology. For Gabriel Fackre Essays in Honor of Viggo Mortensen it is organized in twenty-one chapters for E DITED BY Skye Fackre Gibson E DITED BY Else Marie Wiberg Pedersen, use in roman catholic seminaries, yet it is “Like Gabriel Fackre himself, this col- Holger Lam, AND Peter Lodberg thoroughly ecumenical in spirit and tone. lection displays the winsomeness of a This is a book about the unique chal- the author devotes separate chapters to generous orthodoxy. . . . Taken as a lenges that religion, especially Protestant missiology and to orthodox whole, the book captures some of the Christian theology and the Christian missions and missiology. liveliest and most important theologi- the book starts with the question: church, faces in today’s changing “What is missiology?” it then moves to cal discussions of recent decades.” world. brief discussions of the world, mission — David Heim ISBN 0-8028-6086-9 ·250 pages ·paperback · semantics, the theological and canonical ISBN 0-8028-6082-6 ·276 pages ·hardcover · $24.00 dimensions of mission, and the catholic $39.00 understanding of mission, 1911–62. the APOSTOLICITY AND UNITY author has ausefulchapter on what THEOLOGYINDIALOGUE mission in india means today. over the E SSAYS ON THE P ORVOO C OMMON S TATEMENT past twenty years the secularist basis of T HE I MPACT OF THE A RTS,HUMANITIES, AND E DITED BY Ola Tjørhom indian democracy has been increasingly S CIENCE ON C ONTEMPORARY R ELIGIOUS T HOUGHT F OREWORD BY Archbishops K. G. Hammar challenged by communalism. aseries of Essays in Honor of John W. de Gruchy and David Hope eighteen questions is used to point up E DITED BY LynHolness “The fellowship based on the Porvoo the issues pertinent to any discussion of AND Ralf K. Wüstenberg Common Statement has already mission in india today. “I have learned a great deal from the proved to be a vast enrichment and a crucial for any discussion of cath- articles collected in this volume, each olic missiology are the official documents blessing to our churches as well as our of the church, beginning with the second dealing with the dialogue of theology world communions. . . . We would Vatican council and continuing with im- with another discipline. . . . I recom- like to recommend this book to all portantpapal documentsbypopes mend this book to theologians and who are concerned about the Porvoo Paul Vi and John Paul ii. mission the- theological students who want to fellowship as well as those who are ology in scripture and the meaning of expand their vision.” committed to visible unity.” evangelizationaretreatedinthreechapters. — Gregory Baum from the foreword three chapters explore the meaning and ISBN 0-8028-3916-9 ·312 pages ·paperback · dimensionsof“liberation”asatheological ISBN 0-8028-0969-3 ·250 pages ·paperback · and missiological theme and the place it $40.00 $30.00 ought to have in the life and witness of the church.thepenultimatechapterconsiders 2522 the Gospel-culture nexus in terms of the development of theories of inculturation. At your bookstore, or call 800-253-7521 •www.eerdmans.com the final chapter takes up evangelization april 2007 105 Mission and the Next the challenge posed by Mission and christendom. the Next Christendom is a pointer to the importance of intercultural and interfaith Edited by Timothy Yates. Sheffield, Eng.: Cliff dialogueand of anewmissionary College Publishing, 2005. Pp. 192. Paperback ecclesiologythatcan respond tothe £10.95. emerging global christianity. the volume ends with a valuable bibliography, which timothy yates and the contributors to the in europe today.should europe seek makes it an important book for courses on present volume insist that though Philip toescape the influence of the so-called contemporary missiology. Jenkins’s book The Next Christendom: nonwhitePentecostalism on awhite  francis anekwe oborji The Coming of Global Christianity (2002) continent?the christians from the south raises the specte rofchallenges f acing living in the Westcome withtheir deep Francis Anekwe Oborji, aNigerian diocesan priest, the christian mission and presence in religiosityandspirituality,oftentraditional is Professor of Missiology at the Pontifical Urban the contemporaryworld, itis notyet and conservative in nature.the meeting University in Rome. adoomsday.the eleven chapters are of Western liberal christianity withthis divided intothree parts: “the next newform of religiosity from the south christendom,” “issues for europe,” and will determine the shape of the coming “Global Perspective.” in the first part, the christendom. question of christendom as an unlikely the lastpartis concerned with candidatefor christianity’s future is critiqueandevaluationofthepostcolonial Jingjiao: The church of the east in discussed. the favored term now seems theology that has emerged from different china and central Asia. to be “world christianity in the age of cultural zones of the globe, but especially globalization.” even so, it is recognized as reflected upon by authors from the EditedbyRomanMalek,withPeterHofrichter. that global christianity is changing. how marginalized partsofthe world. the Sankt Augustin, Ger.: Steyler Verlag, 2006. do these changes influence conflict and chapter “the mission from the Periph- Pp. 701. € 65. peace, and what shape will theological ery: the theology of orlando costas,” by education for the emerging christianity allen yeh, provides an overview of the the thirty contributions in this volume take? (p. 61). tension existing between the christen- were for the most part presented in may in thesecond part,the authors battle dom of the past and the coming global 2003 at a conference entitled “research withthe struggle facing christianity christianity. on nestorianism in china” that brought

ACall forPapersfor the 12th Assembly of the International Association forMission Studies Budapest, Hungary August 16–23, 2008 “ Human Identity and the Gospel of Reconciliation: Agenda for MissionStudies and Praxis in the 21st Century”

The International Association for Mission Studies is concerned with academic re ection on the missionary practice of the church and on the future of its missionary calling. As such, it utilizes an interdisciplinary approach that includes theological disciplines, the humanities, the social sciences, and other academic  elds. Religion—Christian religion included—is often perceived as contribut- ing to con icts of identity, sometimes resulting in violent encounters.Onthe other hand, Christian faith  nds its fundamental identity in aGospel of reconciliation. What is the relationship between the different, even con icting, human identities and the Gospel of reconciliation? Is there a human identity that supersedes all speci c identities—national, religious, gender, economic, etc.? How can apparently con icting identities be reconciled? How can one achieve a wholesome self-identity that includes the possibility of change and transformative mobility? And what is the role of reconciliation as offered by the Gospel to the Christian community and by the Christian community? The 12th Assembly of IAMS will bring together scholars of different disciplines who will share their research and their evaluation with respect to such questions. It is hoped that a fruitful cross-fertilization can be realized that might stimulate further missiological research and set an agenda for future studies and ongoing praxis. It is also hoped that churches and other religious institutions might gain fresh insights from this assembly for their day-to-day work in a world where con icting identities seem to subvert reconciliation efforts. The goal of the Budapest Assembly will be to identify and explore ethnic, gender, political, and religious dimensions of hu- man identity as challenge, opportunity, and obligation for Christian churches in mission, from the vantage point of scholars whose academic disciplines intersect with mission studies. Papers from across a range of intersecting or vitally related themes—such as ethnicity, race, gender, violence, poverty, nationalism, religion, ecclesiastical tradition, and inner renewal—will be welcomed. Since the Assembly will be convening in Budapest, special attention will be given to issues of identity, reconciliation, and the church’s mission in Central and Eastern Europe.

Proposed topic with 150–300 word abstract is due by August 30, 2007. Papers due by April 1, 2008.

For additional details, contact: The Secretariat, Nijmegen Institute for Missiology (NIM), Postbus 9103, 6500 HD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands [email protected] www.nim.kun.nl

106 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 tosalzburg historians, theologians, bibliography (198 pp.), most of it on the Bevölkerungsentwicklung und sinologists,andarchaeologists.reflecting church of the east in china and in central Mission. thecontemporaryscholarshiponthisearly asia. strand of christianity that grew out of roman malek, s.V.d., directs By Klaus Wetzel. Nürnberg: VTR, 2006. Pp. antioch, spread eastward across central monumentaserica instituteinsankt 252. Paperback € 25.80 / SFr 47. asia, and reached china during the tang augustin. he is also the editor of dynasty, the editors of the book avoid the Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental demographic information describing pop- term “nestorianism” and opt instead for Studies, Monumenta Serica Monograph ulation growth and movement, urban- the expression “church of the east.” the Series,andCollectaneaSerica.Peterhofrich- ization, religiousaffiliation, ethnicity, missionaries from that church who came ter,professor of theologyand church and the like has long been of keen to china called christianity Jingjiao—the history at the university of salzburg, is interesttomissiologists. obtaining, luminous religion. the christian doc- a member of Pro oriente, a commission evaluating, interpreting, and discerning trine in the writings that have survived is thatorganizes periodic ecumenical the implications of such data, however, expressed in a vocabulary borrowed from consultations wit hthe churchofth e is acomplexundertaking, demanding Buddhism, taoism, and confucianism east. insight and skill if naive assumptions and but shows virtually nothing that can be this book is notfor the ordinary superficial conclusions are to be avoided. conclusively labeled “nestorian.” reader. it contains studies of inscriptions KlausWetzel,whoteachesattheakademie the material of the collection is in chinese, syriac, and turkic languages. fürWeltmission in Korntal, Germany, organized in fiveparts. the firstpart fourcontributionsareinchinese,andone and is amissiologist,mathematician, presentsdifferentaspectsofpastand is in German. the volume is an important and former missionary to indonesia, has current research on Jingjiao. the second contribution to the study of the coming provided German readers with a helpful discussesJingjiaoduringthetangdynasty, and presence of the luminous religion in guide for this task. especially the question of the authenticity china,aswellastoresearchinintercultural Wetzel does not seek to provide a of the documentsand the theology encounters. sourceofdemographic information in they present. the third part deals with  Jean-Paul Wiest the spirit of david Barrett’s Encyclopedia inscriptions and ruins from the yuan of World Christianity or similar works. dynasty, such as those in yangzhou and Jean-Paul Wiest is Research Director of the Beijing rather, his goal is to help the reader un- Quanzhou.Part4isdedicated tothe Center for Chinese Studies and Distinguished derstand, evaluate, and make appropri- church of the east outside china proper. Fellow of the Ricci Institute at the University of ate use of such works. in the first half the lastsection presentsanextensive San Francisco. of the book readers areintroduced to mission insurance Customized!

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april 2007 107 foundational conceptsofdemographic four specific topics of concern and their task of mission. typical pitfalls leading research, including adiscussion of implications for mission: population tofalse conclusions and inappropriate numbers in the Bible, mathematical growth, aids, population decline, and applications are exposed, with numerous formulasincalculatingdemographicdata, migration. Wetzel’s conclusions are both examples. asensible and nuanced ap- ahistorical overviewof demographic encouraging and sobering, particularly in proach is offered.the pages arerich research, and detailed descriptions light of the dramatic decline of Western with examples and illustrative tables in a of variousapproaches todescribing christianity. carefully outlined format and including populations. Particular attention is given this volume succeeds admirably in an extensive bibliography. Both novices tounderstandingandmeasuringreligious helpingthereaderunderstandnotonlythe and seasoned missiologists interested in affiliation and change. technicalaspectsofdemographicresearch demographicsandmissionwillprofitfrom inthesecondhalfofthevolumeWetzel but also the steps needed to unpack and a careful reading of this text. illustrates the use of sound methodology critically evaluate the usefulness of such —craig ott as he discusses, bywayof example, data and interpret its implications for the Craig Ott, Associate Professor of Mission and InterculturalStudiesatTrinityEvangelicalDivinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, previously ministered for over twenty years in Germany. He is coeditor of HAVE YOU DISCOVERED Globalizing theology: Belief and Practice in an THE IBMR EJOURNAL? age of World christianity (Baker, 2006).

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ferdinand Kittel was agifted and productivemissionary.hewas also a maverick. anyone acquainted with Jon The I NTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH is a vital miller’s Missionary Zeal and Institutional studytool for anyoneinterested in worldChristianity. Control (rev. ed., 2003; orig. title: The Social The journal has expanded its service to the missionary Control of Religious Zeal) will understand what, within the Basel mission, this trait community and scholars of world Christianity with the costKittel.yetwhilehisnearlyfourdecades establishment of an Internet-based, e-journal edition. The of work in south india are now almost e-journal contains the same in-depth feature articles and forgotten in the West, his contributions to the culture of Karnataka are widely timely book reviews, but in an easily searched and printed recognized. as a linguist, he is credited PDF format.When you subscribe you willreceiveane-mail with shaping the Kannada language and with a link to download or read the current issue online. withstrengthening the self-conscious identity of Kannada speakers. in defiance ofdirectivesfrommangaloreandBasel,he To use amajor credit card, visit www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html followed Paul’s words to the corinthians and select the e-journal (new or renewal) subscription link. that spreading the Gospel called for being When you receive the fourth issue you also will receive an a Greek to the Greeks, a Jew to the Jews, option for renewal. Consider giving the IBMR e-journal each someone weak to the weak, and someone poortothepoor.Whilethemissionrefused year as a gift to a missionary, student, or pastor. this maxim and marginalized Kittel, confining him to the mission press, such was his openness of mind, his command Every issue offers thought-provoking research If you prefer the Print Edition, visit of india’s languages and literatures, and and re ection. You will receive: www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html to pur- his spirit of cultural accommodation that • Reports on mission trends and conferences chase a subscription using a credit he left more of lasting legacy than fellow • Annual statistical updates on global card, call (203) 624-6672, ext. 309, missionaries who felt he was treading “on Christianity or mail a check payable in U.S. the devil’s own ground” (p. 11). • Pro les of current and past missionary leaders funds to IBMR, P.O. Box 3000 the dozen articles of this volume • Book reviews and notices Denville, NJ 07834. thatdescribe Kittel’s achievements Published quarterly by the conveyasense of his humble piety, Subscribers may read current issues online. OVERSEAS MINISTRIES his self-demanding competence, and Visit www.omsc.org/onlinehelp.html STUDY CENTER his comprehensiveunderstandings. 3Z83 his cultural hybridity,combining the sociocultural contexts of his time, both

108 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 in europe and india, was insufficiently materials not only to inform but also to identified as dominant factors (chap. 9). appreciated during his lifetime. scholars show the “processes of change” (p. 203) an appendix(pp. 209–15) briefly of Germany, india, and switzerland here at work in these cultures as noticeable notes also natural causation of diseases weigh his legacy, balancing his successes in a shift of identifying disease-causing known to the peoples studied, while the andhisfailures.theystressthei mportance agents. While witchcraft does not play bibliography(pp. 217–33)and ashort he placed upon regional epics and music arole for nomadic pastoralists, except index (pp. 235–37) conclude this scholarly in strategies for evangelization. for the recently for certain maasai (chap. 7), it has compendium. this volume best serves as convenience of readers, an abstract, in become the most important paradigm for an extended synopsis of its topic. english and in German, is appended to explainingdiseaseandmisfortuneamong  christoffer h. Grundmann each article. alist of Kittel’s works, both thesettledagriculturistsandwithinurban published and unpublished, is annexed areas (chap. 8), for which changes in Christoffer H. Grundmann is the John R. Eckrich to “Kittel in india” (pp. 127–28), by majan “social relations and status” (p. 202) and University Professor in Religion and the Healing mulla. the “wider political context” (p. 206) are Arts, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana. —robert eric frykenberg

Robert Eric Frykenberg has edited christians and missionaries in india: cross-cultural com- munication since 1500 (Eerdmans, 2003) and written oxford history of christianity in india 7;'-$*8&;#9 (Oxford, in press). +$)& &$<8

African Indigenous Religions and ;# 9$75' Disease causation: From Spiritual Beings to Living Humans. =;'';$# By David Westerlund. Leiden: Brill, 2006. Pp. viii, 237. Paperback € 73 / $99. even the title of this book by swedish -$#9&89"(;$#"< =;'';$# "#7 <8"78&':;% historian of religion david Westerlund is heavy going, which matches the text ;P) H#5C C6 ?0#9) ?CF()5C?= C0)636/2 24#/25#C265 as a whole. Based on evans-Pritchard’s #5( C0)2> ?)3+124#/) #? G2?265 3)#()>?: P) H#5C C0)4 thesis thatthe predominantmotif in C6 />#?9 C0) )??)5&) 6+ H06 H) #>) * C0) $6(J a religion is usually “to what sickness 6+ -0>2?C' C0) &644F5265 6+ ?#25C? * #5( C6 and other problems areattributed” F5()>?C#5( C0#C 25 C02? &F3CF>) C0) &0F>&0 2? C0) (p. 4), Westerlund compares concepts of 653J 25?C2CFC265 C0#C 0#? $6C0 C0) 4#5(#C) #5( disease causation and treatment, as well C0) 96H)> C6 $) # >)&65&2325/ +6>&) 25 ?6&2)CJ:< as respectiveinstitutions for problem solving, of fiveafrican peoples.after giv- 74=/24 -+* "+3&% 23( /#'5#+4 ing an ethnographic survey in chapter 1, 1+)$#,,)+ )$ ")(%+#%3.&)(3' 0&,,&)( the author discusses in detail five people groups. two are nomadic pastoralists: the san (Bushmen of namibia and Botswana, 2?&6G)> 06H B6( 2? 3)#(25/ J6F> &0F>&0 25C6 42??265 chap.2)andthemaasai(tanzania,chap.3); the other three are settled agriculturalists: " 25 J6F> &65C)IC: LFC0)> O)425#>J=? 86&C6> 6+ M252?C>J 25 thesukuma(tanzania,chap.4),theKongo -65/>)/#C265#3 M2??265 #5( L)#()>?029 9>6/>#49>)9#>)? 9#?C6>? +6> (democratic republic of congo, chap. 5), and the yoruba (nigeria, chap. 6). C0)636/2 3)#()>?029 +6> C0)42??265#3 &0F>&0 25 N6>C0 "4)>2&#: theauthorcompiledthisdetailedand excellently referenced comparison from a vastamountofpublishedandunpublished 0.,62 136.

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april 2007 109 List your Dissertation Notices PPP OSITIONS Ahn, Shin. Komakech, William. “From conversation to Transformation: “convergences and conflicts in a OOO PEN A Religious Interpretation of Yun comparison of Lwo [Uganda] Marriage chi-ho (1865–1945).” Tradition and contemporary catholic Ph.D. Edinburgh: Univ. of Edinburgh, Understanding of Marriage.” 2006. Ph.D. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Duquesne Univ., We are pleased to announce a 2005. new service for readers of the Burgess, John Hopkins. “Perceptions of God in the Particular: Nzimande, Makhosazana Keith. International Bulletinof A case Study of the Relationship “Postcolonial Biblical Interpretation Missionary Research.Afree list Between Spiritual experiences and in Post-apartheid South Africa: The of positions open in mission expressed Faith Among Members of a gvirah in the Hebrew Bible in the Birmingham church.” Light of Queen Jezebel and the Queen studies, interculturalstudies, Ph.D. Birmingham: Univ. of Birmingham, Mother of Lemuel.” and similar fields is now found 2005. Ph.D. Fort Worth, Tex.: Texas Christian on the Overseas Ministries Univ., 2005. Collins, Gwennyth. Study Center Website. “Women Academics and Ultimate Oha, Alphonsus Ngozi. concerns: Significance, Gender, Belief, “A Pastoral Program Promoting the Topost an opening, e-mail and Global Responsibility.” Transmission of Traditional Igbo Ph.D. Birmingham: Univ. of Birmingham, Values Among catholic Nigerian abrief description to: 2005. Families Living in the United States.” [email protected]. D.Min. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. Dingrin, La Seng. of America, 2005. “A Missiological and Theological Toread the current openings, critique of Lamin Sanneh’s Opuni-Frimpong, Kwabena. visit www.OMSC.org/ Destigmatization Thesis in the context “constructing Theology with African openings.html. of Burma at the Time of Adoniram Indigenous Resources: An exploration Judson, with Special Reference to into the Formation Patterns of Judson’s Tracts in Burmese.” Akan Traditional Leaders and Its Ph.D. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Theological Significance for christian Leadership Seminary, 2005. Formation in the Presbyterian council of Ghana.” Doyle, Sean Michael. Ph.D. Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana: “Synthesizing the Vedanta:¯ The Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, Theology of Pierre Johanns S.J.” Mission, and Culture; in association Ph.D. Edinburgh: Univ. of Edinburgh, with Pietermaritzburg, R.S.A.: Univ. of 2005. KwaZulu-Natal, 2006. Mission scholars and families are welcometoapply for ashort-term Eason, Andrew M. Sween, Maurice Alwyn. summer2007 residency at OMSC. “christianity in a colonial Age: “chinese Protestant Theologies of Salvation Army Foreign Missions Social Ministry in Nationalist Taiwan, from Britain to India and South Africa, with Special emphasis on the eden Invest your 1882–1929.” Social Welfare Foundation and Liu Ph.D. Calgary, Alberta: Univ. of Calgary, Hsia.” 2005. Ph.D. Edinburgh: Univ. of Edinburgh, 2006. SUMMER Graham, Stacey Rebecca. “The Dissemination of North African Tatu, Silviu. in research & writing. christian and Intellectual culture in “The Qatal//Yiqtol (Yiqtol//Qatal) Late Antiquity.” Verbal Sequence in couplets in the Conveniently located across from Ph.D. Los Angeles: Univ. of California, Hebrew Psalter, with Special Reference Yale Divinity School and its 2005. to Ugaritic Poetry: A case Study in renowned Day Missions Library, Systemic Functional Grammar.” the Overseas Ministries Study Hathorne, Mark Stephen. Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission Center provides comfortable “Building God’s city in Studies (Univ. of Wales), 2006. accommodations from efficiencies Wolverhampton: A Study of Local to three-bedroom apartments—at churches in Mission.” affordable rates. Ph.D. Birmingham: Univ. of Birmingham, the updated database, Researching 2005. World christianity: Doctoral Dis- sertations on Mission Since 1900, is E-mail Judy Stebbins, OMSC Hopkins, Mark. Director of Finance and Housing, nowavailable online. Go tohttp:// “Towards a Holistic congregational resources.library.yale.edu/ [email protected], or Assessment of church Health.” visitwww.omsc.org/summer.pdf. dissertations or www.omsc.org/ Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological dissertationscollection.html. Seminary, 2006.

110 i nternational B ulletin of m issionary r esearch, Vol. 31, no. 2 Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders September 10–14, 2007 How to Develop Mission and Church Archives. November 5–9 Ms. Martha Lund Smalley, research services librarian at Yale Understanding the Western Missionary Movement III: Divinity School Library, New Haven, Connecticut, helps mis- Western Missions Move into the Twentieth Century. sionaries and church leaders identify, organize, and preserve es- Dr. Andrew F.Walls, honorary professor,University of Edinburgh, sential records. Eight sessions. $145 and former director of the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western World, September 17–21 will present OMSC’s third Distinguished The Internet and Mission: Getting Started. Mission Lectureship series— ve lectures with In a hands-on workshop, Mr. Wilson Thomas, discussions. Consultationwith participants on Wilson Thomas Systems, Bedford, New Hamp- topics of interest. $115 shire, and Dr. Dwight P. Baker, OMSC associate director, show how to get the most out of the November 12–16 World Wide Web for mission research. Eight Diaspora African Missionariesinthe Bahamas sessions. $145 and the Caribbean in the Era of S lavery. Dr. KirkleyC.Sands, an OMSCsenior mission September 24–28 scholar in residence for the fall semester, chair Doing Oral History: Helping Christians Tell of the School of Social Sciences of the College Their Own Story. of the Bahamas, and associate priest, Holy Trin- Dr. Jean-Paul Wiest, director of the Jesuit ity Church, New Providence, unfolds the legacy Beijing Center, Beijing, China, shares skills bequeathed by members of the African diaspora. and techniques for documenting mission and Eight sessions. $145 church history. Eight sessions. $145 November 26–30 October 16–19 Learning About Mission from the White “Missions and Money” Revisited. Fathers in Africa, 1919–39. Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk, OMSC executive di- Dr. FrancisP.Nolan, M.Afr., an OMSCsenior rector, examines culturally-driven material mission scholar in residence for the fall semester,re- entitlements and their impact on missionary  ects on the experience of the Missionaries of Af- communications, relationships,strategies, ra- rica to address vital issues in mission today.Eight tionalizations, and integrity in contexts of gross sessions. $145 material inequity.Four sessions. $95 December 3–7 October 22–26 Islam and Christianity in Dynamic Encounter. Nurturing and Educating Transcultural Kids. Dr. J. Dudley Woodberry, dean emeritus and professor of Islam- Ms. Janet Blomberg and Ms. Elizabeth Stephens of Interaction ic studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California, International help you help your children meet the challenges outlines principles for Christian presence and witness within the they face as third-culture persons. Eight sessions. $145 Muslim community. Eight sessions. $145

January 7 to February 1, 2008 Student Seminars on World Mission Thy Will Be Done on Earth: Good News in Deed and Word O VERSEAS M INISTRIES S TUDY C ENTER Amonthlong survey of the Christian world mission, cosponsored 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 USA by 30 seminaries. Reduced rates for students from cosponsoring (203) 624-6672, ext. 315 [email protected] schools and mission agencies. Schools offer students credit for Visit www.OMSC.org (Continuing Education) one, two, three, or four weeks. for details and a brochure. For details, visit www.OMSC.org/january.html. Book Notes In Coming

Adeney, Frances S., and Arvind Sharma, eds. christianity and Human Rights: Influences and Issues. Issues Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2007. Pp. xi, 228. Paperback $24.95. The economies of Temple chanting Bessenecker, Scott A. and conversion in china The New Friars: The emerging Movement Serving the World’s Poor. Eric Reinders Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2006. Pp. 199. Paperback $15. The church in North Korea: Bliese, Richard H., and Craig Van Gelder, eds. Retrospect and Prospect The evangelizing church: A Lutheran contribution. Hyun-Sik Kim Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2005. Pp. xiv, 176. Paperback $18. catholic Missionaries and civil Crossley, James G. Power in Africa, 1878–1914 Why christianity Happened: A Sociohistorical Account of christian Origins Aylward Shorter, M.Afr. (26–50 c . e .). The Lausanne Movement: A Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006. Pp. xv, 232. Paperback $24.95. History and Assessment Davies, Paul J. Doug Birdsall Faith Seeking effectiveness: The Missionary Theology of José Míguez Bonino. Adivasi and Avarna communities Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum, 2006. Pp. viii, 225. Paperback € 23.50. in the History of christian Mission Robert Eric Frykenberg Elmer, Duane. cross-cultural Servanthood: Serving the World in christlike Humility. Violence and Mission Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2006. Pp. 212. Paperback $15. Alan Kreider Gospels, a Gospel, the Gospel: Hattaway, Paul. Where Is Jesus in All of This? Peoples of the Buddhist World cD-ROM. Geoffrey Johnston Colorado Springs, Colo.: Global Mapping International, 2006. CD-ROM. $24.95. A Reader’s Guide to Islam: A Johnson, Leonidas A. Survey of Post–9/11 Publications The African American church: Waking Up to God’s Missionary call. J. Dudley Woodberry Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2006. Pp. xiv, 150. Paperback $10.99. Possessions, Wealth, and the Kobia, Samuel. cultural Identities of Persons: called to One Hope: A New ecumenical epoch. Anthropological Reflections Geneva: WCC Publications, 2006. Pp. xiii, 144. Paperback SFr 16 / $13 / £7 / € 11. Sherwood G. Lingenfelter

Lundström, Klas. In our Series on the Legacy of Gospel and culture in the World council of churches and the Lausanne Outstanding Missionary Figures Movement, with Particular Focus on the Period 1973–1996. of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Uppsala: Swedish Institute of Mission Research, 2006. Pp. 388. Paperback. No price centuries, articles about given. thomas Barclay Martínez, Juan Francisco. George Bowen Sea la Luz: The Making of Mexican Protestantism in the American Southwest, hélène de chappotin 1829–1900. Pierre claverie Denton: Univ. of North Texas Press, 2006. Pp. xii, 196. $24.95. carl fredrik hallencreutz hannah Kilham Rowell, John. George leslie mackay To Give or Not to Give? Rethinking Dependency, Restoring Generosity, and lesslie newbigin Redefining Sustainability. constance Padwick Atlanta: Authentic Books, 2006. Pp. xxiii, 262. Paperback $16.99. Peter Parker James howell Pyke Smith, R. Drew, ed. Pandita ramabai Freedom’s Distant Shores: American Protestants and Post-colonial Alliances elizabeth russell with Africa. Bakht singh Waco, Tex.: Baylor Univ. Press, 2006. Pp. viii, 284. Paperback $29.95. James stephen Steffen, Tom, and Mike Barnett, eds. Philip B. sullivan Business as Mission: From Impoverished to empowered. James m. thoburn Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2006. Pp. 324. Paperback $14.99. m. m. thomas harold W. turner Van Rheenen, Gailyn, ed. Johannes Verkuyl contextualization and Syncretism: Navigating the currents. William Vories Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2006. Pp. vi, 343. Paperback $14.99.