Cursus Publicus: Transportation in Ancient Rome

F. K. DeVos

VER since that great revival of in- with discretionary powers and its con- E terest in Antiquity, the Renaissance, fiscatory setup gradually making it into an put the study of the ancient Mediterranean unbearable burden to every city, village world high up on our Western curriculums, or home situated within its network would younger generations have absorbed- more almost seem to call for a complete reversal or less willingly and with more or less of judgment. While the Cursus Publicus lasting effect- the fact that enlightened was conceived as a great plan and initially rulers used to improve mail, road and sea served a useful purpose, its rapid cor- transport systems. In times of civil ruption has been such as could well justify strife or poor leadership on the other hand, the argument that it actually evolved students were and still are told today, into a public curse. In other words, the communications deteriorated, the capital desirable end did not warrant the alto- city remained without contact with the gether iniquitous means used to attain it. distant provinces, piracy and highway And the means were all the more unjustified robbery thrived and chaos threatened to since they finally were to lead to exactly engulf both the body politic and economic. opposite r esults. In this connection much is made, na- turally, of the Roman Cursus Publicus, O understand the full significance of the first organized system of mail the T Augustus' introduction of the Cursus world has ever had. And rightly so, for Publicus in Rome, it is helpful to examine in a world where rumour often constituted the general setup, both technical and the only news and messengers went on · economic, of transportation as it had de- foot through beast and brigand infested veloped in the Mediterranean world before country to reach their- destination, or the first emperor founded his famous State never be heard from again as chance would Mail service. have it, this institution founded by the As in the history of philosophy, Greece first emperor, Augustus, undoubtedly fill- also played a disproportionately large-part ed a great need. in the history of technical improvement in But, beneficial though this Cursus Pub- means of transport. Compelled by the lieus was in its beginnings and however compartment-like division of their valleys, badly the Roman Empfre may have needed islands and peninsulas, they perforce con- a reliable system of Mediterranean-wide centrated their attention on maritime trade "special delivery" to carry instructions, and the perfection of seagoing craft. Tak- light freight or money at shortest notice, ing the two existing types of vessel used its increasing abuse by corrupt ·officials · by other peoples such as the Phoenicians, CURSUS PUBLICUS: TRANSPORTATION IN ANCIENT ROME the Greeks developed a cargo-boat, which Though less spectacular, progress on first appeared as a small tubby craft suit- land also constituted a tribute to the un- able for coasting only, and made it into a tiring inventiveness of a people that gave powerful ship carrying an enormous spread every opportunity to individual initiative. of canvas and adapted to heavy loads and To facilitate the passage of cartwheels long voyages while, for escort purposes, on their roads, Greeks put artificial rails they devised first the penteconter carrying in the ancient ruts, a practice which they a sharp ram (at the end of the Homeric may actually have learnt from neolithic period) and towards the end of the eighth Malta, while Etruscan roads were paved century the Corinthians added the re- at least in the cities, a custom later imi- doubtable trireme. Capable of holding tated by Rome. But greater progress up to 200 men, this beautiful man o'war was to be made in improving the tractive was made safe in the course of the seventh power of draft animals. Some time in the century when another Greek invented the fourth century an enterprising muleteer anchor. invented the hipposandal, a type of crude Meanwhile shore equipment and men shoe of metal, leather or hide which went a kept pace with progress afloat. Poly- long way towards protecting the animal's crates of Samos had boathouses built feet against the disastrous effects of hard, whereas Homerus' heroes had not known dry roads. Still not the ideal solution, them, being content to draw their shallow these hipposandals often got lost when craft on the beach at dusk. Piers and needed most. docks were improved and harbours built With the invention of · the horseshoe while the neolkos looked after docking. which became generally known in the When the ·straits of Leucas became Western Mediterranean countries during sanded up, threatening to force Corcyra- . the third century, still greater progress was bound ships to make a detour and stand made in making "horsepower" more ef- out to sea. the Corinthians deepened the ficient. Indeed, no more fundamental im- fairway. One of them, Periandros, provements were added until the inven- thought of cutting the Isthmus of Corinth, tion of an improved yoke-in the thirteenth a task which was to prove beyond the art century, some 1600 years later- which of his contemporary engineers and was allowed the animal to pull its load without left to modern times for realization-. But putting pressure on its carotid arteries, the urge to avoid the storms off Cape thus allowing it to work much more ef- Melia and at the same time appreciably fectively. shorten the voyage from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean was so strong that, as a N this ever-evolving background of second best solution, a timber road (diol- I inventions, progress, trial and error, kos) along which the ships were dragged and private initiative protected and furth- on rollers was laid across the Isthmus from ered by rather democratic governments Lachaion (Corinth's harbour on the Ionean) whose functions were circumscribed, Rome to Kenchrai, in the Aegean basin. was to super-impose an organized system Carrying capacity of merchantmen also of state mail and-whether by co-incidence increased from 10 to 15 tons to some huge or not - development of transportation vessels of up to 360 tons (7,000 bushels) throughout the Rome-dominated Mediter- while river boats on the Euphrates and ranean world was to come to a standstill Nile measured between 200 and 300 tons. as from the very time of this initiative. Speeds too had improved considerably In setting up his postal and transport trebling from Odysseus' two knots t~ system - Cursus Publicus - Augustus Xenophon's description of a Milesian ship's studied the examph~s of many other syst- crossing between Lampsacos and the La- ems in Persia, Greece, Egypt and' early conian CQ~st (290 miles) at an average Rome itself. Main influence was no doubt speed of six knots, at the beginning of the exercised by the Egyptian liturgical (un- seventh century. After Alexander light- paid, feudal) system while every once and houses became quite numerous. ' again during its later course reforms were 10 PUBLIC AFFAIRS attempted along the Persian angareion in need of a long resting period with abund- (state financed) system. ant feed. The difference between Persia's ang- So apparent was the need for reform areion and Egypt's liturgia was due to the even before the Cursus had completed its inherent differences between the two coun- first centenary that Claudius' reign (41-54 tries. In ·a rugged land of desert high- A.D.) saw active preparation for its im- lands separating few fertile valleys and provement launched despite the Emperor's peopled with poor, proud herdsmen, a notorious levity. Four decades later, und- feudal system in which draft animals, er N erva, a coin was struck showing two vehicles, food and shelter ( or their equiva- mules unharnessed behind a cart of the lent in money) were to be contributed lo- Cursus Publicus symbolizing the freeing cally was obviously unthinkable. In of draft animals from inordinate command- Egypt, millenniums of pharaonic oppres- eering while the inscription reads 'To sion of a relatively prosperous peasant Italy's remission of vehiculation.' Italy population in the fertile Nile valley made actually needed lightening of the Cursus it a natural. At any rate, the Egyptian burden most because it had the densest system made quite an impression on Caesar road network in the Empire. Only a few when he stayed there in 48-47 B.C. andhis years later, Emperor Trajanus reserved successor Augustus adopted the Egyptian to himself the right to issue diplomata or liturgical principle while combining it with letters entitling their bearers to the use of an ancient Roman custom (evectio or Cursus Publicus facilities thus giving us the legatio libera) by which members of the first indication of the kind of abuse this Senate were allowed the privilege of re- state-run transportation setup had al- quisitioning carts and draft animals even ready led to. In this connection there for their own private travel. In the years exists an interesting record of a letter prior to creation of the Cursus Publicus written by Plinius to the Emperor and this custom was repeatedly altered. Con- explaining how he had given his wife a demning it as harmful to the people, Cicero diploma to travel to her father's deathbed restricted the evectio's duration to one and hoping that the Emperor will pardon year while Caesar extended it again to five him on account of this act of filial duty. years, until Augustus cancelled it alto- It is a typical incident well illustrating gether as he repla~ed the evectio system how this state-imposed people-supported with his newly created Cursus Publicus. system was not to be abused under penalty Basically a copy of the Egyptian feudal of severe punishment . . unless one could system whereby the entire burden was think of a good excuse or happened to be placed on the population dwelling in ter- the right official. minal cities and ports or along the roads, Hadrianus (117-138) too favoured re- the Cursus Publicus soon grew into an al- form but when his reign closed the area most intolerable impost as more and more of the Cursus Publicis was larger than roads (Vias) were opened up or linked to- ever before, perhaps due to his famous gether into an all Roman imperial net- propensity to travel about the Empire work. While a detailed account will be looking for public works. His successor, given below of its tech;nical, personnel and Antoninus Pius (138-161) went into the economic aspects, it may already be said by now popular act of promising allevi- that the Cursus Publicus had three major ation from the Cursus- something remin- drawbacks for the people living along its iscent of modern promises of lighter tax- encircling web; first, it offered no service ation-but little is known of his deeds in whatsoever to those forced to support it; this respect. second, draft and riding animals lent to it Thirty years later, after the military were very often away from the farm when anarchy had ended with Commodus' and needed most for agricultural work; third, Pertinax's assassinations, Septimius Sev- upon their eventual return these animals erus "wanting to ingratiate himself with were invariably in exhausted condition and the people, transferred the burden of ve- CURSUS PUBLICUS: TRANSPORTATION IN ANCIENT ROME 11 hiculation from the shoulders of the private time he paradoxically widened the group citizens onto the Treasury." But this of potential users by allowing an entire new drastic reform too was short-:lived-if it , class of people-Christian bishops travell- ever was carried out. Jurist Julius Paulus ing to and from their synods- to avail indeed lists the provision of Cursus services themselves of its advantages. as a general duty of which only soldiers and With J ulianus some of the most genuine teachers of liberal professions are exempted. reforms were carried out- this time ef- No doubt Caracalla (son and successor of fectively-although his successor Valen- Septimius Severus) had felt secure enough tinianus I was to cancel these along with to re-introduce the obnoxious Cursus as a the less well inspired innovations of the public rather than a treasury burden. famous pagan emperor. Trying · to re- lieve the burden of government generally, T the turn of the fourth century under Julianus naturally resolved to lighten that A Diocletian some measure of reform imposed by the Cursus. He restricted was put through but it turned out to be the right to issue travel documents to one of a technical rather than financial fewer officials except in certain urgent nature bringing no relief to the population. cases. He · deprived all property owners As before, fresh riding and draft animals of their exemption from service to the had to be supplied in exchange for ex- Cursus, thus lightening the burden on the hausted ones, night travellers were a local pitiful ones who had to share the work and , resppnsibility while in some instances, expense-a reform which hit the clergy mainly on deserted roads, travellers for- who had been exempted by Constantius aged miles away from the highway re- from all obligations in this connection. quisitioning without payment among dis- In 362 he cancelled the fast cursus (velox) tant settlements. Two reasons would seem as well as its horse supplying service on always to have prevented a real transfer the island of Sardinia where little need of it of the burden to the treasury: The Cursus had ever existed anyway; and at the turn constituted such a heavy burden that it of 362-363 he climaxed his reforms by in- would have ruined the State's finances augurating a truly fiscal service to be paid and throughout the Empire's history the for by the Treasury. Writing from Anti- tendency was constantly for taxes to be ochia to his praefectus praetorii Mamer- paid in kind rather than in money. All tinus who held sway throughout Italy, Diocletion did was try to remedy some Illyria and Africa, J ulianus ordered him of the worst abuses by personnel reform fo launch a discal cursus. Actually only while in the technical field he initiated certain restricted areas around Venice the division of the Cursus Publicus into a (!stria) ever benefited from this reform fast (velox) and a slower cursus (clabu- which was cancelled within a year of larius) for freight transport. His success- Julianus' death while some of his other re- or Constantinus (306-337) decreed certain forms took ten years to become undone. improvements for this newly created state It is quite clear that Julian wished to re- freight transport service, first of which lieve the economic plight of the rural was ordered in 314. population which was nearing total bank- But the old trouble, abuse of the privi- ruptcy and that he saw in the regular dis- lege by all who could bluff their way ruption caused by predatory operations through, seemed to stick with it. Only of the Cursus one of the worst causes of two years after Constantinus' death, his this rural decline. He was correctly con- successor Constantius bitterly complains vinced that a transportation system such about officials who so abused the Cursus as the cursus should be financed by those Publicus that he, the Emperor himself benefiting from it (state, officials and had ha~ difficulty finding some twent; state-run manufactures). Running against draft ammals on one of his own journeys the general tide, however, he was to (339). '!'owards the end of his reign he prove but a straw in the stream towards put considerable effort into a drive to curb totalitarianism and he and his work were this recurrent misuse although at the same soon engulfed. Already in 364, Valen- 12 PUBLIC AFFAIRS tinianus I allows his lieutenants to write while oxen were the normal tractive power travel permits and, in 381, Libanios men- for freight transport organized under Dio- tions that those officials entitled to issue cletianus as Cursus Clabularius. such documents are "very numerous" as The most common cargo on the different against the 1-7 to whom J ulianus had re- vehicles was comprised of urgently needed stricted the privilege. All that remained war materials, parchment and papyrus, of Julianus' reforms was the cancellation state revenue, express parcels of all kinds of the fast Cursus in Sardinia. and officials and their families. Gold and Under the following emperors Valen- silver as well as the express parcels usually tianus, Valens, Gratianus and Theodosius travelled by the fast Cursus Velox. These little change occurred. After the final bullion shipments were carefully regulated separation of East and West Rome follow- and a distinction was even made between ing Theodosius' death (395) decline of the those destined for the State Treasury postal system was rather rapid in the West ( metalla ad largiti9nes sacras) and those while the Eastern part continued relative- addressed to the Emperor's private treas- ly unchanged. The sacking of Ro_me by ury ( ad largitiones privatas). The fol'mer Alaric's Visigoths in 410 could not but were considered to be more urgent and less further undermine the Western empire's regard was therefore paid to the cart's whole administration including the Cursus capacity while the latter were shipped Publicus until upon arrival of tlie Eastern with less haste and more consideration Goths in Italy nothing but a scant mail for the vehicle's resistance. Consequent- and. high official travel service remained. ly the limits for these shipments were set In Eastern Rome, emperor Leo had can- at 500 Roman pounds of gold or 1,000 celled the Cursus Cla"6ularius (freight) pounds of silver and 300 pounds of gold and in 465 because the turn-over of draft ani- 500 pounds of silver respectively (a Roman mals particularly for this freight service pound being equivalent to about ¾ constituted an intolerable burden on the pound avoirdupois). population. That reform may also have Stations were mainly divided into two been in line with the then newly prevailing types, mansiones and mutationes. The tendency of a return to cash payments of former had lodgings and larger numbers taxes instead of in kind (adaeration). of animals and carriages and at the latter After this, few reliable data are available exhausted teams were exchanged for fresh though the trend was definitely toward ones during the day's trip. Distances be- disintegration of the whole Cursus on ac- tween stations varied between 20 and 30 count of its many uncontrollable abuses. miles for the stages and 100 to 150 miles Under Justinianus it was restricted severe- for the · larger ones which were usually ly except on the road to Persia where a situated in cities. On secondary roads war had to be fought but on all other roads (canales) where the Cursus Publicus was horses were eliminated and only donkeys not organized, travellers carrying neces- remained available. Later still the em- sary authority commandeered similar peror restricted t.he Cursus to himself and equipment from the local population. This his suite and usurpation became practically came to be quite a burden particularly impossible. In one form or another the on certain roads with a heavy tourist traf- Cursus Publicus subsisted in Eastern Rome fic. Cassiodorus is known to have freed until the fall of Constantinople (1453). one city of Cursus obligations because it was situated on such a popular highway. HILE no doubt variations did exist Each large station was provided with W between the equipment of one an average of 40 animals while the smaller postal and transport station and another stages where animals were baited during throughout the Roman empire, some gen- the day averaged 20. Each year aquarter eral characteristics may however be dis- of these "public animals" were replaced cerned. Thus as a rule horses were re- with younger ones and this operation was served for despatch riders, mules were referred to as "reparation of the Cursus used as draft animals for the fast carriages Publicus." All carts, carriages and other CURSUS PUBLIC US: TRANSPORTATION IN ANCIENT ROME 13 equipment belonged to the State and were from demanding hay on short notice when repaired at State's expense. They includ- it was scarce and then selling it at a higher ed for the fast Cursus the raeda, a four- price than that paid under State rates. wheeled' 1,000-Roman-pound carrymg. ve- Emperor Valentinianus applied this hicle, or the carrus which was similar but throughout the Empire (365). with a capacity of only 600 R. lbs., both of Since taxes were often paid or at least which were drawn by 8 mules in summer shipped at the larger Cursus stations, and 10 in winter; the carpentum which these were equipped with weights (sex- carried passengers only and was drawn by tarii) and measures (modii), the latter of four mules and could be either two or four- copper or earthware, to ensure adequate wheeled while its capacity was restricted control of taxes paid in kind. This part to 214 R. lbs.; and the birota, a 200 R. lbs. of their equipment should not have con- carrying contraption drawn by three mules. tributed to the Cursus Publicus already The slow Cursus Clabularius used anga- doubtful popularity. riae, rather crude carts drawn exclusively by oxen. HE responsibility for the Cursus Pub- Although astonishingly little is known T lieus always rested with the Em- about the Cursus' organization on water, peror. But while at the beginning under it is generally admitted that in this field Augustus and his immediate followers this the State usually endeavored to make use principle was carried out in practice with of private cargo vessels plying the Medit- the Emperor's closest executive (praefectus erranean and the different rivers of the praetorii) in charge of checking on com- Empire of which many more were navi- plaints, claims and irregularities, later gated than today. Ferries and barge ser- centuries saw more and more decentrali- vices had to be rendered on the rivers and zation accompanied by a crumbling of the it is probable that coastal cities were com- original sense of responsibility. Also, the pelled to offer transportation services on a vital right to issue letters authorizing the feudal basis exactly as in the case of the bearer to use the Cursus' facilities did not Cursus on land. And yet, it would seem long remain restricted to the Emperor as if Rome's control of maritime transport alone. Rather did there develop a con- had never reached the totalitarian strangle- stant struggle on the part of several classes hold that it did succeed in getting on land of high imperial officials who were trying transport. Inherent differences between to gain this much coveted right (ius evec- the two may hold the explanation for this tionis f aciendae). different evolution-differences which even Key personnel on which depended the to this very day seem to be still at work entire operation of the Cursus was the making maritime transport a much less stations' staff. In charge was a manceps regimented business than, for instance, or praepositus, whose duty it was' to check railway transportation. on proper administration of travel docu- The story of feed hay for Curs us animals ments, maximum loads, exclusive use of is of some interest too because it again il- animals for Cursus purposes and to make lustrates how corruption crept in to the sure that the local population perform imperial bureaucracy responsible for its ad- their liturgical obligations in animals, hay ministration. Apparently, hay was sup- or money. The staff (familia) included plied by the citizenry as part of their policemen (stationarii), veterinaries (mu- feu~al duties (liturgi'a) but they were paid lomedici), stable-boys (hippocomi), cart- for 1t by the Treasury at a certain stabilized wrights (carpentarii), all called helpers rate, whereas the stables had to be built (apparitor~s) to the manceps. None of and mai_ntained by the people with only these jobs amounted to a sinecure and in the manure as a consolation prize. By the case of the apparitores, most of them the year 360 A.D. however, Anatolius were slaves attached to the Cursus publi- (the praefectus praetorii of Illyria) ordered cus for life (servi publici). There are re- that. hay would henceforward be supplied cords indicating that regulations had been at fixed dates to prevent Cursus officials desig·ned both to protect travellers against 14 PUBLIC AFFAIRS the familiarities of tip-minded Cursus em- the fifth century (403) a law shows that ployees and to protect these employees no way was left for the wealthy citizens of against ill-treatment and abuse by travel- provincial towns to evade the excessive lers. As for the station masters, the duties as station head which soon would popularity of their position may be judged engulf his en tire fortune. Besides, their from the fact that some possible candidates position between the people who had to left town, others became hermits in the supply animals, hay and sometimes lodg- desert and still others married slave girls ings, and travellers who were bent on in order to be disqualified and escape being abusing their privileges made their posi- appointed manceps for the usual term of tion most unenviable. And whenever war, five years. drought, civil strife or a plague impoverish- Originally, under the Republic, man- ed the people whose duty it was to support ceps had meant any contractor who ob- the Cursus Publicus, the manceps was tained a state contract after having sub- held responsible with his own funds for the mitted the lowest tender on a road-build- proper functioning of the service. The ing job (manceps viarum). And it would only consolation was that after satisfactory seem to the reader of the twentieth century and ruinous service (5 years) they could that Rome might have developed a much obtain the title of perfectissimus and as better transportation and mail system if such become exempted from further ob- the Empire had continued on this judicious ligations towards the State (munera basis rather than introducing compulsion. Sf)rdida). Already Plutarchus offers the first ref- erence to a ·municipal magistrate being ITH the couriers and messenger- appointed station head and under Had- W officers who travelled by Cursus rianus the position has attained the doubt- Publicus an entirely different class of Cursus ful advantage of being an honourable officialdom is now to be studied. In the burden (onus) . By 365, more and more early days of the empire, frumentarii were notables having preferred exile or dis- the Imperial army's quartermasters whose honour to the appointment as manceps, very names still implied that originally Valentinianus set a precedent by ordering they had to check on adequate supplies that these station-heads should be re- of bread grains (frumentum). As early cruited · among lower municipal officials as the second century A.D., these frum- and in 377 these in turn were exempted entarii (as well as their colleagues, the while candidates were sought among pen- tabellarii) had already turned into spies sioned and retired officials. Five years and inspectors for their imperial master. later and following bitter complaints by While purportedly checking on the entire representatives of pensioned officialdom Cursus Publicus system's operations they to the Emperor, they were freed of this un- actually were supposed to keep an eye on welcome honour although it is not known any subversive activities throughout the who was supposed to replace them. This Empire and reported directly to the Em- obscurity however is of little consequence peror. This secret police gradually as- since three years later (in 385) the status sumed such confidential tasks that tabel- of 377 is restored calling for candidates larii-who usually were freed men or from among retired officials of various slaves- could no longer belong to it and services (veterani diversorum officiorum). were replaced in the third century with A rider was added prescribing that in case agentes in rebus, a meaningless title equiva- the incumbent had entered the clergy he lent to "officials with different missions." would remain exempt personally but his Like the frumentarii and tabellarii had fortune would be forfeited to the Cursus. done before them, these agentes in rebus All these reforms apparently did not of ten abused their functions- accusing in- work out too well since in 392 the munici- nocent people of subversive agitation in pal notables (Curiales) once again are the hope of being bought off and generally made subject to the burdensome appoint- blackmailing on a large scale throughout ment as manceps. And by the turn of the country. Diocletianus cancelled the CURSUS PUBLICUS: TRANSPORTATION IN ANCIENT ROME 15 frumentarii for this reason and the notable perial messages and carrying out secret reformer Julianus in turn dissolved the police missions. Investigation, inspection agentes in rebus who had replaced ~hem; and administration were mainly in the But here as in so many others of Juhanus hands of the higher-ranking agentes (du- improvements, the agentes were re-estab- cenarii and centenarii) while lower-rank- lished shortly after the Emperor's death ing biarchi, circi tores and equi tes did mes- mainly on account of their indispensable senger work (using the Cursus Publicus) services to the tyrants' police state. After and general police duties. that they became even more powerful than before their temporary dissolution. PECIAL precautions were taken to Originally comprised of retired members S try to ensure the impartiality of these of the Emperor's body guard (cohors pa- officials. Thus no agentes in rebus could latina), the corps of agentes in rebus (or ever be sent on a mission into his native agentes _ rerum) always showed certain or family's province and he was to retwn similarities with a military body although to Rome immediately after completing his it remained wholly separate from the army. task. If he overstayed his travel permit's Clothing too was of military inspiration: duration by up to six months he was set they wore the belt (cingulum) which on back five places on the seniority list while the Roman soldier held the sword, and a delay of up to one year set him back ten their coat (chlamys) originally was a Greek places, etc. Later on the absence had to soldier's tunic while the service they per- be justified to his superior or else the cul- formed was called militia. Later they prit was struck off the seniority list· alto- were grouped in a schola under the direc- gether. tion of a magister officiorum, a kind of Their numbers changed greatly