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Home , Inti, Mama Ocllo, Pachamama

The Survival of Inca Symbolism in Representations of The Virgin in Colonial

Carol Damian

Tawaniinsuyu. the "Center of the Four Quarters," was gods as well. Believed to represent the powers of nature, a the na~ the Inca g;,ve to their empire, their world. When host of locally venerated objects, known as huacas, might Francisco Pizarro and his army of 62 horsemen and 102 be anything from a mountain to an oddly shaped potato. foot soldiers destroyed that world in 1532, the empire The gods were worshipped on festival days relating to encompassed 350,000 square miles of what is now Peru, the agricultural cycle which was controlled by a special most of Ecuado~ and partS of , and . calendrical system under the supervision of the priests. Fes­ A theocratic society ruled by the divine Inca, called Sapa tivals were most impor1ant occasions for the people of the Inca, Tawanrinsuyu included scores of tribes. states, king­ empire, a welcome respite from daily travail and opportun­ doms and confederations conquered in the short period of ity for the nobility 10 display their splendid raiment. only 90 years. II was unified by a common language, reli­ Festivals were also the occasion for the "Cult of the gion, and administrative system with its capital at Cuzco in Panaca," a distinctive and unusual aspect of Inca religious the Andean highlands.' beliefs. Figure I, a drawing by Felipe Guaman Poma de The term Inca is now commonly used in three differ­ Ayala, an Amerindian author writing at the tum of the ent senses: as the title of the head of state; to describe seventeenth century to King Philip 111 of Spain, shows the members of the highest nobility, the members of the ruler's Inca mummy carried in procession on a litter or qui/la, a family; and as a generic name for the empire and its peo­ Spanish word meaning to haul or carry. This drawing is of ples. The family members of the Inca were in actuality the "Corpse Carrying Month" (Ayo MarC1Jy Qui/la). The "Cult only ones privileged to be called "Inca.• This nobility, called of the Panaea• was based on the concept of the immortality Ortjones by the Spanish because of the large earspools of the departed Inca and his eventual return. His wealth which distinguished their caste, traced their lineage from the and possessions remained with his mummy in his palace legendary first Inca, Manco Capac, who derived his posi­ under the care of retainers. The mummy was also assigned tion from the sun, . He called himself "Son of Inti," and a niche in the , the Temple of the Sun, and ven­ was the personification of the national cult of the sun. erated on holidays or taken out in procession. Legend claims Inti had instructed Manco Capac with Religious worship also involved penance, fasting, and Mama Huaca Ocllo as his wife/ sister to teach the people of the confession of sins. Confession was a source of priestly the earth to worship the sun and thus prosper.' power and prestige. Sin and unlawful conduct harmed the The Spanish Conquest would greatly alter this system community and the individual. Absolution involved bathing of belief and descent. After Francisco Pizarro conquered or ritual water. Offerings to the gods and the huacas were Peru, the Indians were required to accept two obligations: an automatic part of daily existence. and usually consisted they had to accept the King of Spain as ruler on behalf of of a libation of a small amount of com liquor (chicha) the Pope, and they had to allow the Christian fai th to be before any activity or special location. On festival days. preached. The effort to convert the native population to the mai,_e cakes made by the "Chosen" girls, cloistered virgins C.tholic religion was performed with incredible zeal and in the service of the priests, were also offered with the included the destruction of what the missionaries termed blood of the vicuna. and other small animals were the •graven idols" of the "pagan• Indians. sacrificed, and objects of gold and silver, cloth and pottery While it may appear that the wealth of Christian art were presented as tribute. Small children have been found, which was produced in the Andean Highlands in the seven­ surrounded by similar goods, atop high mountain peaks in teenth and eighteenth centuries demonstrates the success of sacrifice to the Sun God.' the mis~onaries in destroying or replacing the objects and The similarities between Inca religious beliefs and symbols of the pagan religion with those of Christianity,' ceremonies to those of Catholicism are apparent. Both were doser examination of these works, especially the representa• dominated by a high Creator god; both used fasting, com­ tions of the Virgin Mary, reveals otherwise. It is clear munion, penance; both made religion respected by pomp through the observation of numerous works of art that a and imposing richness. This certainly accounts for some of total destruction of Inca religion with its art and icon­ the ease of acceptance of Christianity. But, the factor which ography did not occur. most contributed to Inca acceptance of conversion was the It is not surprising that the Spaniards were profoundly all-encompassing anitude of religiosity which permeated conoerned with transforming Inca religious practices since every aspect of the Indians' daily existence. religion was the most impor1ant aspect of the Inca social, Given the pragmatic similarities and ceremonial em­ political and cultural system. It served the most noble and phasis, the Inca acceptance of the Chri.stian God was rela­ the most humble. The common person, respectful of the tively simple. Whereas, the missionaries may have originally power of the high gods, represented by the Crea­ seen the Inca practice of Christianity as a replacement for to~ Inti the Sun, Mama Quilla the Moon and the Inca gods and considered their conversion efforts suc­ the Earth Mother was also allowed by the Inca to worship cessful, in reality. the native peoples simply added the his own personal household gods, ancestor gods, and local Catholic God and saints, which they had grown to respect 11 and admire. to their own pantheon. Rather than offend the lary of deep significance. A prime example is the treatment Spaniards who were never hesitant to use force and vio, of the Virgin Mary in works by native artisans. The associ­ lence to achieve their goals, the long-subjugated Indian ation of the Virgin with native beliefs, in particular those of peoples, eager to please, utilized the holy personae of Chris­ Pachamama and Mama Quilla, and the special love of the tianity, in part at least, to masquerade their true beliefs. On Indian for her image are demonStrated in numerous paint­ more than one occasion. the mummified remains of an Inca ings. The native predilection for "statue paintings" is evident ancestor were found hidden beneath the processional litters, in the Virgin of Bethlehem, ca. 1780, by an anonymous and the practice persisted of removing inhumed bodies aniSt of the Cuzco School (Figure 2). This presentation of from Christian burial grounds to local ones next to graves the Virgin in a wide flattened--0ut triangular dress is a pecu~ of their pagan ancestors. Disguised within the elaborate iarity of the native artisans based on the popularity of robes of the Virgin Mary and other saints, huocas were dressed statues. The Virgin of Bethlehem stands more as a frequently found. statue than a painting. Unfamiliar with European painting Consequently, the missionaries were faced with the techniques representing three dimensions, the artist con­ task of destroying such native practices in addition to tinued the native tradition of decorative relief in the use of attending to the difficulties of conversion. In this effon. they flat two-dimensional patternings in the design of the Vir­ placed considerable emphasis on art for visual representa­ gin's costume and the planar approach to the physical body. tion. In a land where few priests spoke the language, the The profusion of ornamentation and tapestry detail is typ~ artist provided the means of communication. Religious art cal of the Cuzco School. and its artists were powerful instruments of spiritual con­ But what appears simply to be a lovely native interpre­ quest. The artist became the logical assistant to the priest. tation of a traditional Catholic subject is actually replete His function took on moral significance as he was entrusted with subtle symbols of ancient Inca beliefs. The flowers in with the visualization of the concepts of Christianity.' the vases below the Virgin, for example, are the nukchu, Through their own conquest before the arrival of the the lily of love or sacred flower associated with the "Chosen Spanish, the Incas had been the beneficiaries of many Women" or Mamaconas in the service of the Inca. To this highly advanced cultures which had preceded them: Paracas day, they arc strewn before the Virgin's litter on proces­ weavers, Nazca potters, Chimu goldsmiths. Mochica hydrau­ sional days, as they had been strewn before the litter of the lic engineers and Tiahuanaco builders. Taking advantage of Inca's mummy on Inca festival days honoring the "Cult of all the techniques they had inherited, the Incas ingeniously the Panaca." They are represented on numerous Inca ,-es­ incorporated them into an original style which manifested sels and textiles. One example is an Inca Votive Receptacle itself in building conStruction, textiles, pottery and gold­ with Mamaconas which is decorated with stylized female work. It was the responsibility of the missionary artist to figures holding birds and the nukchu lily (Figure 3). adapt this heritage to the art of Christianity. To the Spanish, the Virgin Mary stands at the top of Between 1630 and 1780, the abundance of art pro, religious devotion in Hispanic Peru. Her image was meant duced in Cuzco by and Indian artists, the majority to inspire love and goodness.' To the native people, on the of them anonymous, resulted in the formation of the so­ other hand, she was identified with Pachamama, Eanh called "Cuzco School of Painting." Cuzco was the site of Mother, and other nature , but especially she was the first Bishopric in Peru and of the first org;,nized related to the Coya (Queen), Mama OcUo, the wife/sister of schools. It was only natural that art schools would also be Manco Capac, the Mother of the Inca Dynasty, and the established in the former capital of the . The Mamaconas she taught to serve the Inca. Symbols of this Inca had gathered the finest craftsmen of TawantinsuJu, the relationship are clearly present in the Virgin ofthe Spindle, metallurgists of Chimor; the stonemasons of Pukara; the ca. 1760 (Figure 4), by an anonymous anist of the Cu,.co weavers of Huari, to embellish the capital city; the Spanish School, where the Virgin is not ju.St a young girl, but an quickly concluded that they could utilize the talents of these Inca princess; the curl on her forehead is an Inca symbol of craftsmen to transform the pagan city into a splendid one fenility; her very round face resembles the moon. She wears of Christianity. the royal I/auto, the band of Inca nobility, around her fore­ The Indian artist was taught to paint by Spanish head. She is posed with spinning implements and dressed in artists using Spanish, Flemish and Italian engravings and Inca finery, the illicla shawl held by a gold tupo pin, com­ other inexpensive print reproductions as examples.• Over bined with European style lace sleeves. The obvious delight time they adopted certain elements from each of these in ornamentation and decorative detail in the estofado sources to produce a style which was diStinctly their own. patterns of her garment, and the framing garland of flowers. Characterized by intricate rococo patterns tooled on gold are the result of a fanciful combination of Spanish Baroque leaf, European motifs reinterpreted by the Indian artist and and native traditions. The Inca Princess described in a described as estofado, and elaborate garments and jewels. Colonial painting of the seventeenth century by an anon)' the Cuzco School displays a naive and delightful elegance. mous artiSt wears the same costume, tupo pin and holds the The combination of the fantasy world of the Indian as he nukchu lilies (Figure 5). The Legend of Manco Capac states attempted to comprehend the new religion and its iconog­ that taught the Inca women to weave, and for raphy, and the realistic details of native flora and fauna the "Chosen Women" it became a special service to the which represented more than the natural world to a pan­ Inca. theistic believer, resulted in a flat design with rigid cha.ractcrs. Through its elegant estofado and ornate pattemings, Harking back to their heritage, the paintings resemble a Our Lady ofthe Victory of Malaga, ca. 1737, by Luis Nino textile more than a true representation of the physical world. of the Southern Cuzco School at Potosi in present-day To the casual observe~ the syncretic art style of Colo­ Bolivia (Figure 6), reveals the influence of the Cuzco School nial Cuzco and the Andean Highlands combines Christian in the Pan-Andean Highland area. In commemoration or a symbolism with native techniques. Upon closer examination. Spanish event, the Virgin stands beneath an elaborate however, the paintings also reveal an iconographic vocabu- European Baroque arch decorated in sculptural relief but 22 profuse with native designs and symbols. She also wears the occurrences in ceremonial processions.•) The faithful main­ flat triangular gown of gold and tapestry/ brocade of "statue tained a tradition of physically dressing Our Lady on spe­ painting,;," now so detailed that the Christ Child is lost in cial foas1 days, also changing her crown and jewels. This its patterns. The interesting semi

I Alan lapiner. />rt-Columbian An of South Amtriea (New York: 6 "'Engra,..;ngs produced in Antwerp. where the prinling presses ..-.-ere in Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1976) 307. the service of Philip II of Spain. ..-.-ere especially influential . . . Dc\•Otional books. among 1hcm line editions of Nuncius, Plantin. and 2 Don Felipe Huaman Poma de AyaJa, Uutr 1b A King, trans. from Moretus with dra\lrfogs done by Collaert, Wierix, Goftzius and Sadler. Nw,;o corim{ea )' butn gobitrno, ed. Christopher Dilke (New York: E. P. Duuon. 19711) 9. along with copper c.ngraving.s . . . were $Cnl 10 America." Gloria In Exalsis-Ex.hibition Catalog. (New York: Cc-nlcr for lntcr•American ) George Kubler maintains "'such surviwls an: so few . . . and had become Relations. 1986) 25. ... symbolicaUy inen. Therefore, one must consider 1he art or lhe Colonia1 )talS in terms of cx1inccion... George Kubk-r. "On the Colonial 7 "'With the press.urt of the Counter Reforma1io-n, lhe imp0rtanoe of Extinction or tht Mocifs of Precolumbian Art," Srudits in Andtnt Mary as Mother of God was increasingly cmphasi.7.td. In Spain her cult Amtrlron and F.uropeon Art-The Collecrtd Ewys of G~ Kubler. grew 10 monumental proportions. .. Plll Kelemen, ~ruvlan Colonial ed. Thomas F. Rct$t (London and New Havc-n: Yale Uni\-ersi1y Prus. Painting- A Spe~ial F.xhibition (U.S.A.: Meriden Gra,.·urc Company. 198,S) 66. Ho..-.'C'\-tt, in his cs.say on "'The Quochua in the Colonial 1971) 23. World," Kubler states that after the Conquest ... 'lhe disruption in 1he 8 For 1he documenta1ion or idolatry and hidden idols. see Pablo 50Cial order . .. )dt the structure of Quechua religion relativc-.ly intact" (43~ 8ecall5C art and religion in Prccolumbian Peru arc ~rtuaUy inscpar• Joseph de Arriaga. /.Jz txtirpaciOn dt lo idolau;o tn ti PtriJ, 1621, Co~cci6n de Libros y Documentos Rcfc.rentes a la His1oria dcl PerU. ablt, lhcse Statements arc contradictory. F"urthcnnore. recent anthropo­ logical investigation rc\-eals a continuation of nati,-c Precolumbian ed. Horacio H. Urteaga and Carlos A. Romero (Lima: Sanmani. 1920) Second Series. vol. I: Huaman Poma de Ayala 69-89; R. C. rdig;ous practioes 10 this day. Personal rc:scarch in the Cuzco area Padden, Tht Hummingbird and the Howk (New York: Harper & confirmed this survh-al with its aocompanying a11.islic S)'mbolism and led Row, 1970) 246. 10 lhe subject of 1his paper and the author's doctoral dissertation. 4 Loren Mclnt)tt, "The Lost Empire of 1he IDC:31.., National Geog.rophk 9 Jeronimo Wic-rix, Entrada de CriMo en Jerusakn. c-ngraving No. 81 in "' (197Jt,733. lma.g~nrs d~ lo HiJ.ton'o £wmgiliea. fig, 110 in Jose de Mesa y Teresa Gisbert. Historio dt la Pin1ura Cu.:q~na. 2 vols. (Lima: Fundacion S F<-Jipc Cossio del Pomar, Ptruvian Colonial Ari: The Cuzco School of Augusto N. Wiese, 1982) \'OI. 2. This is one of numerous examples Painting. trans. Gcnero Arbaiia (Ne..-.· York: Wittenborn, 1964) 55. deli\-ered to the New World. Gloria In ExetlsiJ. 2S. 21 J/10B IEVIBR E • ♦ AAD( - - 11 I ··- ..- ... ~------·------. ·­ -- . . . • • .... ------:

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Figure I. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Cult of the Panaca, ca. 1600, page 256 in Nueva Coronica y Buen Gobierno (Codex Lo peruvien illustre) (Paris: lnstitut d' Ethnologie, 1936). 24 Figure 2. Virgin of Bethlehem, anonymous, Cuzco School, ca. 1780, Courtesy of Banco de Credito def Peru, photography by Sr. Daniel Giannoni.

25 •

Figure 3. Inca Vo1ive Receptacle with Mamaconas. anonymous. ca. 1400, Musco Regional de Cuzco. 26 Figure 4. Virgin of the Spindle, anonymous. Cuzco School. ca. 1760. Private Collection. Cuzco.

]7 Figure 5. Inca Princess, anonymous, Cuzco School, 16th century, Museum of Archaeology, Cuzco. 28 Figure 6. Luis Nino, Our wdy of the Victory of Malaga, Southern Cuzco School, Potosi, Bolivia, ca. 1737, Courtesy of the Denver An Museum, Denver, Colorado.

29 Figure 7. Ceremonial Knife or Tumi, anonymous, Chimor Civilization, ca. 1100-1400, Musco Oro del Peru, Lima.

JO Figure 8. Our Lady of Cocharcas under the Baldachin. Circle of Antonio Vilca, Cuzco School, ca. 1765, Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum, .b.cc. Number 57.144.19, Bequest of Miss Mary T. Cockcroft. JI