A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation Between Latin America and China
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A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation Between Latin America and China Julie Michelle Klinger Journal of Latin American Geography, Volume 17, Number 2, July 2018, pp. 46-83 (Article) Published by University of Texas Press For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/701023 Access provided by Boston University Libraries (15 Aug 2018 19:16 GMT) A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation Between Latin America and China Julie Michelle Klinger Frederick S. Pardee School of Global Studies Boston University [email protected] Abstract Key words: Latin America, China, outer Scholarship on Latin America-China rela- space, satellites tions has focused predominantly on trade agreements, commodity exports, invest- ment, migration, and, to a lesser extent, Resumo geopolitical implications for the post-Cold Estudos sobre as relações entre a China e a War world order. Entirely absent from re- América Latina se concentraram principal- search on Latin America-China relations mente em temas como acordos comerciais, is the question of outer space cooperation, exportação de commodities, investimentos, despite the centrality of outer space-based migração e implicações geopolíticas para a technologies to the very sectors and rela- ordem mundial pós-Guerra Fria. A questão tions that have proven so generative for da cooperação espacial ficou completamente Latin America-China scholarship and pol- ausente nas pesquisas sobre as relações sino- icy engagement since the turn of the mil- -latino-americanas, apesar da centralidade lennium. Bilateral outer space cooperation das tecnologias do espaço para esses setores between China and Latin American coun- e suas configurações que estimularam pes- tries dates back to 1984, while multilateral quisas acadêmicas e envolvimento político engagements by all parties shaped the dawn desde a virada do milênio. A cooperação bila- of the space age in the 1960s. As such, this teral na área do espaço exterior entre a China collaboration is an important antecedent to e os países latino-americanos começou em what is generally considered the “new” or 1984, enquanto as relações multilaterais entre “contemporary” geography of Latin Amer- esses países já havia definido o início da era ica-China relations. Drawing on archival espacial na década de 1960. Assim, essa cola- research, legal documents, and interviews, boração é um antecedente importante para this article presents a brief historical geog- aquilo que se geralmente considera como raphy of Latin America-China cooperation geografia “nova” ou “contemporânea” das re- in outer space research, development, and lações sino-latino-americanas. Com base em policy. pesquisas de acervo, documentos legais e en- trevistas, este artigo apresenta uma breve ge- 46 A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation ografia histórica da cooperação entre China was placed in Patagonia because it sits direct- e a América Latina na pesquisa, desenvolvi- ly south of Washington, D.C., and can there- mento e política do espaço exterior. fore spy on the geostationary satellites that serve the U.S. East Coast (Rotberg, 2017). Palavras chave: Latina, China, espaço, Others alleged that the base could be used to satélites interfere with communications and electron- ic networks. Still others worried that the po- tential dual use “could implicate [Argentina] 中国与拉丁美洲国家关系的学术研究 in a future military conflict between the Unit- 主要关注于贸易协定、大宗商品出口、投资、 ed States and China” (Dinatale, 2014). While 移民，以及较小程度上冷战后世界秩序的 the nature of the limited coverage of this de- 地缘政治影响。尽管外太空技术在各个领 velopment is a typical discursive response 域和关系中处于中心地位，而这些领域和 to reports of developments in China-Latin 关系已被证明能够有效促进拉美国家和 America space relations, the Neuquén base is 中国自2000年以来的学术和政策参与，但 but one manifestation of the evolving phys- 中拉关系的研究却完全未涉及外太空合作 ical and political geographies of outer space, 的问题。中国与拉美国家之间的双边太空 which involve both terrestrial and extraterres- 合作可追溯至1984年，而双方各党派的多 trial spatial transformations and is driven in 边合作在20世纪60年代就已形成了太空 part by cooperation among Latin American 时代的黎明。因此，双边太空合作是一个重 countries and China. 要的先行者，是拉丁美洲与中国关系“新地 With 13.5-meter and 30-meter steerable 理”或者“当代地理”的重要前提。本文基于 parabolic antennas, Neuquén is the largest 文献研究法，法律文件和选择性访谈，简要 ground tracking base outside of China and 展示了中国和拉丁美洲国家在太空合作 the second Chinese base in the Americas. 研究、发展和政策方面的历史地理学背景。 It was built to enable China to expand its 关键词：拉丁美洲国家，中国，太空，卫星 deep space exploration program. The limited news coverage was overwhelmingly alarm- Introduction ist, deploying the familiar tropes of China’s China’s satellite tracking and control center incursion into the United States’s backyard opened in the Quintuco region of Neuquén (Dinatale, 2015). This alarmist reaction stems Province in southern Argentina in April 2017. from an imagined geography of the Americas News coverage in the Americas, in any lan- as Washington’s enduring domain (Blasier, guage, was minor (Goñi, 2015). Constructed 1985; Cottam, 1994; Grandin, 2006; Living- and controlled entirely by a Chinese military stone, 2013; McSherry, 2012; Schoultz, 2009). detachment, it was leased tax-free to China Such reactions convey the impression that for fifty years with the approval of the Ar- these developments are an exception to the gentine Parliament in 2015. Although it is de- rule of U.S. hegemony in the region (Hakim, signed to track China’s robotic missions to 2006; Horta, 2008; Nolte, 2013; Paz, 2006). the Moon and Mars, some speculated that it Inaccurate as this may be, it is nevertheless 47 Journal of Latin American Geography reinforced by popular notions in the Anglo- research on outer space cooperation among phone world that Latin America has little Latin American countries and China. to no role to play in outer space affairs. But not only is the Neuquén base indicative of the new norm in China and Latin American Latin America, China, and affairs, outer space cooperation among the Outer Space in Context two regions goes back several decades (Del- Although there is some controversy over gado-López, 2005). the terms of Argentina’s lease to China, the Yet this relationship has been almost en- construction of the base in Patagonia is con- tirely ignored in social science scholarship. sistent with three key global developments: In this article, I argue that the geography of the planned, published, and treaty-compli- evolving China-Latin America relations can- ant expansion of China’s space program (SC, not be understood without considering the 2016b), which also has monitoring bases in role of outer space science, technology, and Namibia, Pakistan, Kenya, and aboard five policy. naval vessels (Kenderine, 2017); the plans Nor can global space politics be under- by the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Or- stood without considering the roles played by ganization (APSCO) and BRICS member Latin America’s and China’s space programs states — Brazil, Russia, India, China, South in national, bilateral, and multilateral engage- Africa — to collaboratively expand satel- ments. Drawing on archival research, legal lite and remote sensing capabilities across documents, and selected interviews, this ar- the global South (Declaration, 2017; TBP, ticle presents a brief historical geography of 2016); and a much longer history of placing Latin America-China cooperation in outer space-related infrastructure in South Amer- space research, technological development, ica by overseas governments and militaries and policy, and contextualizes this relation- (Blinder, 2017; Messeri, 2016; Redfield, 2001; ship within broader global and transnational Frutkin & Griffin, 1968). processes of “the production of outer space” Scholarship on Latin America-China rela- (Dickens & Ormrod, 2016) more generally. tions has focused on trade agreements, com- The first section contextualizes outer space modity exports, investment, and, to a less- in relation to more familiar domains of re- er extent, the geopolitical implications of search on China and Latin America relations. these relationships for the U.S.-dominated The following sections briefly review relevant post-Cold War world order (Wise & Quil- literature and examines the national, bilateral, iconi, 2007; Roett & Paz, 2008; Sargent & and international agreements that constitute Matthews, 2009; Gallagher, 2010; Jilberto & Latin America-China space cooperation, in- Hogenboom, 2010; Jenkins & Barbosa, 2012; cluding new multilateral institutional forms Gonzalez-Vicente, 2012; Farooki & Kaplinsky, in which Latin America-China outer space 2013; Ellis, 2013; Samanamud, 2014; Yue, 2015; cooperation takes place. The concluding sec- Gallagher, 2016). tion proposes productive areas for further Entirely absent from these rich bodies of 48 A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation scholarly and policy literature is the question entirely on the peaceful doctrines promul- of outer space cooperation between the two gated by mid-twentieth-century internation- regions. This reflects a broader trend within al treaties governing the use of outer space, the social sciences of overlooking the sig- the drafting of which was shaped by Latin nificance of the spaces and technologies of American countries (Gorove, 1979). Perhaps outer space in global — as opposed to US or the success of the treaty regime explains why Russian — political economy. Within the so- the satellite infrastructure so fundamental to cial science literature on outer space, neither contemporary life has been largely ignored Latin America nor China are given more than outside of specialist audiences: