POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Political Economy Analysis to Identify Champions for Freshwater Policy Change and Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
1 Disclaimer This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by ISET Nepal, NEF and Niti Foundation. The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.
Ajaya Dixit, Ashutosh Shukla, Anustha Shrestha, Binod Bhattarai, Kopila Wagle, Deep Narayan Shah (PhD), Hari Dhungana (PhD), Bijita Thapa, Anurag Pokharel, Sawar Basnet Thapa, Srimanjari Tamrakar, Yogendra Subedi, Ananta Tamang, Mohan Das Manandhar, Niraj K.C, Prakash Dev Pant (PhD), Rajan Karna, Rojen Bajracharya, Sreya Gyawali, Silanath Jha, Sudip Bhaju, Sujeev Shakya and Rabi Wenju. FINAL DRAFT
Political Economy Analysis to Identify Champions for Freshwater Policy Change and Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
Submitted to PAANI Programme DAI International USAID By ISET NEPAL, NEF, NITI FOUNDATION February 2020 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Political Economy Analysis to Identify Champions for Freshwater Policy Change and Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
Ajaya Dixit, Ashutosh Shukla, Anustha Shrestha, Deep Narayan Shah, Kopila Wagle, Hari Dhungana, Bijita Thapa, Anurag Pokharel, Binod Bhattarai, Sawar Basnet Thapa, Srimanjari Tamrakar, Yogendra Subedi, Ananta Tamang, Mohan Das Manandhar, Niraj K.C, Prakash Dev Pant, Rajan Karna, Rojen Bajracharya, Sreya Gyawali, Silanath Jha, Sudip Bhaju, Sujeev Shakya and Rabi Wenju.
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Acknowledgement
This study has been conducted by the consortium of the Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal, Nepal Economic Forum and NITI Foundation. We express our thanks to DAI International for supporting this study. We also express our deep thanks to Ms Nilu Basnyat, Dr. Narayan Belbase, Dr. Allen Turner, Mr Jeremy Keeton, Dr. Deepak Rijal, Mr Bhaskar Bhattarai and Mr Sanjog Sriwastav for their support throughout this study. This study would not have been possible without the support of river basin team leaders, watershed management specialists, citizen scientists of the 12 priority watersheds. We offer our appreciation to everyone participating in the FGDs, KIIs and other interactions. We express gratitude towards the participants from the 12 watersheds for taking part in the validation workshops in Surkhet, Nepalgunj, Dhangadi and Kathmandu and for providing useful suggestions. Finally, we would like to thank Mr Mukesh Sharma, Mr Akendra Joshi, and Mr Narayan Ghimire, for their support during the field visits.
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Table of Contents
1. The Political Economic Analysis...... 24 The Political Economic Analysis...... 24 The MKWR Basins...... 26 The Waterscape...... 29 Groundwater...... 33 Climatic Context...... 33 Climate Change...... 35 Water Development Context...... 38 Hydropower Projects...... 41 Development Programs...... 44 Government-Run Programs...... 46 Final Observation...... 46
2. The Conceptual Framework...... 48
Preamble...... 48 Framework...... 49 Study Methodology...... 51 Methodological Tools...... 52 Champions...... 53
3. River basins: State of art and Stresses...... 56 West Seti Watershed...... 56 Rara-Khatyad Watershed...... 62 Phoksundo-Suligaad Watershed...... 66 Tila Watershed...... 69 Middle Karnali Watershed...... 74 Jhimruk Watershed...... 79 Rangun Watershed...... 84 Thuligaad Watershed...... 87 Bogatan Lagam Karnali Watershed...... 91 Middle Rapti Watershed...... 94 Lower Mahakali...... 100 Lower Karnali Watershed...... 103 Stresses and Pressures ...... 108 Concluding Remarks ...... 116
4. Aquatic Ecosystem Analysis and Management...... 118 Introduction...... 118 Freshwater Ecosystems and Aquatic Diversity...... 118 Ecosystem Services ...... 128 Conserving Aquatic Ecosystems...... 132
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5. Local Knowledge and Practices on Conservation and Management and Use of Aquatic Resources...... 134 Introduction ...... 134 Identification and Relevance of ILKPs in the 12 Sub-watersheds of the MKWR Basins...... 150
6. Identification of Indicators of Freshwater Biodiversity and Freshwater Habitats...... 156 Background ...... 156 Objectives...... 157 Approach...... 158 Monitoring System: Proposed...... 162
7. Stakeholders and Champions...... 168 Background...... 168 Mapping of Tasks...... 168 Ecosystem Balance...... 170 Actors and their Influence and Outcomes...... 174 Stakeholder Mapping...... 175 Position of Stakeholders ...... 178 Freshwater Biodiversity...... 181 Champions...... 183 Capacity Assessment...... 188 Preliminary Capacity-building Outcomes ...... 189 Conclusion ...... 190
8. Methods and Practices of IWRM, for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation from Local to Basin Scale...... 192 Challenges to Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation...... 192 Challenges of Integration...... 193 Experiences with IWRM Processes in Nepal...... 197 Position of Water Sector Agencies vis-à-vis IWRMs...... 201 Way Forward : Operating an Integrative Practice ...... 205 Recapping the Intellectual Context...... 208
9. Process and Pathways for Addressing Existing and Impending Threats to Freshwater Biodiversity for Resilience Building...... 210 Introduction ...... 210 Application to Freshwater Biodiversity ...... 211 Gaps...... 214 Final Observation...... 215
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10. Freshwater Biodiversity in Nepal: A Review of Related Policies, Acts, and Regulations...... 218 Background ...... 218 Policy Formulation: Context ...... 219 Thematic Focus: Policies and Legislation ...... 226 Aggregate Mining ...... 226 Wetlands and Wetland Biodiversity...... 230 Terrestrial Biodiversity Conservation...... 234 Aquatic Biodiversity Conservation...... 238 Water Resources...... 242 Irrigation...... 244 Drinking Water and Sanitation...... 246 Hydropower...... 248 Road-Building ...... 250 Disaster Risk Reduction ...... 254 Climate Change ...... 257 Political-Economic Questions and Policy Implementation ...... 259 Final Observation ...... 262
11. Impact Pathways to Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation...... 264 Impacts ...... 264 Rivers as a Source of Construction Aggregrates ...... 259 Revenue vs Cost...... 269 Fresh Water Biodiversity Conservation...... 271
12. Conclusion and Recommended Methods and Practices for Conservation and Management of Freshwater Biodiversity...... 274 Conclusions...... 274 Recommendations...... 284 Final Observation...... 292
13. Policy and Institutional Arrangements to Facilitate Engagements of Champions in Paani’s Program...... 294 Desirable Future...... 295 Multiplicit of Views...... 297 Policy and Instituional Arragement...... 297 Facilitating Champions and CSOs Engagement...... 304 Final Observation...... 305
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14. Approaches, Methods and Practices to Build Capacity of Champions and CSOs to Support Paani’s Program...... 308 Introduction...... 308 Champions...... 309 Approach and Methods: Engagement Platforms...... 309 Building Capacity of the Champions and CSOs...... 310
15. Outreach and Media Engagement Plan for Champions...... 316 Introduction and Context...... 316 Analysis of the Media Environment...... 317 Analysis of the Local Media Environment...... 322 Recommended Outreach and Media Engagement Approach...... 329
16. Annexes...... 332
Abbreviation...... 366
References...... 373
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Executive Summary
Context This political economic analysis (PEA) examines the challenges facing freshwater biodiversity in Nepal’s Mahakali, Karnali and West Rapti (MKWR) river basins. It locates these concerns within the prevailing paradigm of water development and management highlighting the context of natural resources use in a fluid political and institutional processes in the region. In particular, the fact that the aspirations of the people in the basins for socio-economic development are rising at the very time that their exposure to climatic change is increasing leaves them vulnerable to a multitude of risks. The prevailing paradigm has influenced the narrative of Nepal’s hydropower development and is intertwined with the complexities emerging in the MKWR river basins, especially in those areas where plans have been made to invest in the development of large-scale hydropower projects. Because these projects are largely still in the planning, design and initial phases of construction, within the MKWR river basins themselves, many rivers and their tributaries are still flowing free. The planned hydropower and inter-basin water transfer projects in Nepal, however, are likely to change this context and will have implications for the MKWR river basins’ freshwater biodiversity.
Methodology The research team reviewed three literatures: those related to PEA, to indicators of freshwater biodiversity and to monitoring systems of that biodiversity. It also reviewed ongoing and past policies regarding natural resource management and interventions in the basins to understand the nature of the government’s focus. These reviews also helped explain issues related to freshwater biodiversity conservation, wetland biodiversity, capture fishery, aggregate mining, hydropower, irrigation, road development, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation.
Consultations with stakeholders in the 12 sub-watersheds of the basins helped researchers generate an overview of the use and management of natural resources. These consultations were key to understanding impact pathways on terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Focused group discussions held at the community level in each watershed revealed community-specific dynamics pertaining to natural resource use and management. Information related to communities’ perceptions of changes
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in terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, climate change, the effects of development interventions, and local-level initiatives in conserving and promoting freshwater biodiversity were documented, as were the roles of local knowledge, practices and institutional arrangements were assembled. This information were then used to identify those social groups that were excluded as well as the disadvantages (or advantages) to current natural resource use and management. Further inquiries helped us to unearth the reasons behind those advantages and disadvantages.
A total of 71 FGDs were held across the 12 watersheds; these, in addition to interviews with 114 key informants, helped us to expand the thematic issues and to substantiate the information on freshwater biodiversity obtained from the FGDs. Key informants included civil society leaders, functionaries of users’ organizations, elected representatives and officials in local government agencies. The findings were presented for feedback during validation workshops held in Nepalgunj, Surkhet and Dhangadi. About 150 local representatives from the 12 watersheds participated.
The PEA also identified “champions,” local-level individuals from formal and informal organizations at the local level who had contributed to or are engaged in furthering policies and practices in freshwater biodiversity conservation at the local, provincial/river basin scales. The identified champions were provided with capacity- building training on aquatic biodiversity conservation within the PEA framework. A draft resource book on freshwater biodiversity was presented and suggestions for improvement sought from the participants.
Findings Physical and Social Context: The sub-basins of the MKWR basins are spread across Nepal’s five climatic-physiographic regions, which range in elevation from the low-lying Tarai to the High Himal. The region is historically food-insecure and characterized by a low economic status and a rudimentary market system. The hills and mountain of the basins depend more on food imports than on local production. This dependence, some analysts argue, is more political than natural. It is attributed to poorly designed development and to the asymmetric relation between the Nepali state and the region. The significant social stratification and gender inequality pervasive in the region add to the developmental deficit and to food insecurity. Climatic and non-climatic hazards regularly cause disasters in the region and responses to those disasters are generally relief-oriented. For generations, seasonal and temporary migration has been the livelihood strategy of the inhabitants. The
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region’s full economic potential, including that which lies in tourism and terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity has not been fully explored. However, in the last few years, touristic development around parks and natural and wildlife reserves has gained momentum, especially in the form of homestays and rafting expeditions. Rara, Shey Phoksundo and Khaphtad national parks offer touristic attractions. The numbers of hotels and restaurants, the amount of vehicular traffic, the consumption of fossil fuel, and consumerism have gradually increased in recent times.
Waterscape: The MKWR river basins are characterized by high climate variability. The basins experience four distinct seasons. Spring, which runs from March to May, is warm, dusty, and dry. There are occasional rain showers in the late afternoons and early evenings. The summer, or monsoon, season is rainy, hot and humid, and lasts from June to August. Autumn, from September to November, is cool and skies are clear. Winter, which lasts from November to February, is cold, and westerly-induced precipitation brings rain and, at high elevations, snow.
The basins receive an average annual rainfall of about 1,500 mm, 70% or so of which falls between June and September. Winter westerlies and pre-monsoon rainfall together account for the other 30%. Even in the lower Karnali and Mahakali basins, where the topography is flat, spatial differences in rainfall are noticeable. It is not uncommon, for example, for 10% of the annual precipitation to take place in a single day or for the bulk of three months of monsoon rainfall to fall in just 10 days. A storm of high intensity usually lasts for a short time and covers a small area, while low- intensity rainfall often covers a large area and lasts for several days.
This historic weather pattern, however, is changing. Days and nights are becoming hotter and dry periods are getting longer than they were in the past. The onset of the monsoon is latter, and, at high elevations, the amount of snowfall has decreased. The frequency of extreme rainfall events has increased, and so has the number of both hailstorms and thunderstorms. These changes are likely to affect regional hydrology as a whole and hydrology in the MKWR basins in particular, and the impacts of these changes are likely to cascade through water-based ecosystems. The changes can have serious social and economic consequences because they threaten food security, biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water and tourism, and will probably affect the agriculture, forest, livestock, disaster and health sectors adversely. The people of the region, accustomed as they are to steady weather patterns, will find it hard to deal with the variability, especially as the changes are likely to be both great and accelerated.
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Freshwater Biodiversity: The aquatic ecosystem of the MKWR river basins is determined by the spatial transition from an alpine to a tropical climate over a short latitudinal distance as well by the seasonal changes in climate that produce huge diversity in the region’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Within the MKWR basins, 92 lakes of different sizes are spread cross Nepal’s three physiographic regions—the mountains, the hills, and the Tarai. Among them are the Ghodaghodi, Rara, Shey-Phoksundo, and Rakesh lakes. These lakes support a great number of endangered, threatened, endemic and vulnerable species of birds, reptiles and fishes. Human activities, together with climatic variability, stress the region’s freshwater biodiversity. Tourism can enhance local livelihoods but, if it is left unregulated, will continue to create pressure in local ecosystems, lakes and rivers.
Rara Lake supports three endemic species of fish (Schizothoraxnepalensis, S. raraensis and S. macrophthalamus), while Phoksundo Lake has six types of macro-invertebrates: Betidae, Chironomidae, and some species of Oligochaeta, Polycentropodidae and Taeniopterygidae. The presence of Chionomidae and Oligochaeta indicates that pollution levels in the lake are increasing. Asala, kathyal, chiu, pate, satto, pande, sahar, rajbam, jalkapoor, goz, katle, rawa, thed, kathlaggi, karauwa, sebra maccha, bucheasala, asalasoal, chucheasala, kuero, gerara, oyara, kaloch, pangar, sueni, githi, geraj, rim machha, pointed- nose snow trout, blunt-nose snow trout, spotted snow trout, khurpel, chepti, chuche sahar, baghe, mada, ghawai, rahu, kabre, golden mahseer, Rara snow trout, and Nepali snow trout are among the key fish in the MWKR basins. Gangetic river dolphins and gharial and mugger crocodiles are other species in the area.
Fisher communities living on the banks of the rivers and lakes in the region report that local fish stocks and the diversity of species have decreased. Infrastructural developments such as barrages, dams and non-engineered rural roads have destroyed the habitats of aquatic species and had several negative consequences, particularly the stunting of fish growth and the intensification of diseases and parasite infestations. In most of the rivers and lakes in the region, the physio-chemical parameters of the water are within acceptable limits. However, in the Middle Karnali, Jhimruk and Middle Rapti rivers, concentrations of certain solutes are higher than they ought to be. Contamination is likely to increase unless social and economic safeguards are increased.
Stresses and Challenges: In the MKWR river basins, temperatures are rising, rainfall is becoming more erratic and snowfall, is declining. Local communities claim that thunderstorms and hailstorms are more frequent than they once were. These unanticipated changes in weather have altered the local hydrology and accelerated
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soil erosion, landslides and mass wasting as well as hazards such as drought, forest fires, and the spread of invasive species. Soil fertility is declining, as is the health of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. Non-engineered road construction, settlement growth and land-use changes are the dominant non-climatic stresses in the MKWR river basins. While both local populations and the government see roads as the foundation for overall socio-economic development road-building is often haphazard and environmentally destructive. In fact, many roads have seriously jeopardized ecosystem health, in part, by depleting spring water sources on a wide scale. Over time, these stresses and changes in land use and land cover have intensified and added to the challenges. The region is home to some endemic fish and aquatic animals, including Gangetic dolphins. Local communities like the Tharu, Sonaha, Raji, and Majhi practice capture fishery as their traditional occupation.
The building of major water infrastructures for irrigation and hydropower being has increased competition among and disputes over various water uses and threatened local ecosystems. Conflicts between humans and wildlife exists in some parts of the basins, and the use of natural resources has increased practically everywhere, partly due to inadequate regulation and ineffective implementation of the regulations that exist and partly due to the lack of livelihood alternatives. Destructive practices, including the use of explosives, poison and electricity, have reduced fish stocks. People have started using small-meshed nylon nets that catch small fish, even fingerlings, a practice that further reduces stocks. Fishing is done in all seasons without regard to periods of spawning and migration. Pollution from both point and non-point sources (untreated wastewater, solid waste, soil erosion and soil disposed of during road construction) is likely to threaten aquatic habitats and freshwater biodiversity. This threat will grow as settlements grow larger and denser. The consequences may be the irreversible degradation in freshwater biodiversity and the extinction of species. The mining of sand and aggregate from the rivers of the basins has increased as these materials are in high demand for the construction of roads, buildings and other infrastructures.
Knowledge, Policy and Politics: As is true in the rest of Nepal, the region is undergoing a political and governance transition. Nowhere is policy-making yet based on well-grounded evidence. Policies regarding the conservation and management of ecosystems and biodiversity are top-down, of limited practicality, and inadequately linked to local social and cultural contexts. In any case, they are poorly implemented. Policies are guided more by specific projects and/or international imperatives than by local demands and, in some cases, are not supported with any legislation whatsoever. Market forces are beginning to affect the stocks and services
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of ecosystems in significant ways. Price fluctuations in international and regional markets, for example, have a major influence on both the demand for and prices of medicinal herbs, and thereby affect livelihoods as well as ecosystem integrity.
Food consumption patterns are changing. People favour the import of fine-grained rice and instant noodles, finding these products tastier than traditional food crops such as maize, millet, barley, naked barley, and buckwheat. In many places of the basins, this shift has led to a decline in the use of local foods that provide nutritional security. Without locally rooted social and environmental safeguards, the new dietary preferences are likely to reduce agricultural biodiversity and cause further declines in freshwater biodiversity.
The rich biological and social diversity in the MKWR basins is supported by an array of indigenous and local knowledge and practices (ILKP). IKLPS are related to the use of natural resources, health, diet, the production of crops and livestock, agricultural water management and fishery. Capitalizing on their knowledge and practices, communities have adapted to the emerging challenges. These practices are deeply embedded in local culture, values and norms. In the absence of meaningful support from the state such knowledge systems are being rapidly eroded. Local and traditional knowledge can be used to identify indicators of freshwater biodiversity and serve as a foundation for the conservation and preservation of that biodiversity.
Power, Interests and Incentives: The Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation and its departments play a primary role in the use and allocation of water in the MKWR basins. The Ministry of Forest and Environment focuses on issues concerning terrestrial natural resources, including forests, and though forests are linked to water, this ministry has limited jurisdiction over water resource management. Moreover, its jurisdiction is limited to the execution and approval of EIAs and does not extend to making decisions about river conservation. Another agency with some interest to protecting water resource is the Ministry of Tourism, but, it, too lacks formally stated jurisdiction. The Central Fisheries Promotion and Conservation Centre is responsible for formulating fishery-related policies, regulations and standards and monitoring standards too. It maintains data and coordinates with institutions form the local to the international level to promote the exchange of information. Its power is limited, and the institution itself is overshadowed by other institutions.
The tourism sector has vested interest in protecting nature and aesthetics while promoting nature, the Himalaya, landscapes, and rivers. The tourism sector can also serve as an advocate for river conservation. Traditional social institutions like
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guthi, which are bound by pre-defined roles, are involved in the management of community-owned water sources like ponds and lakes. Guthi, however, are on the decline and face stresses. Thus, by default, local governments are concerned with various aspects of local water management. India also has an interest in the MKWR’s rivers, particularly in their large-scale regulation through the development of reservoirs, in order to secure downstream benefits.
The organizing of the legal powers of local, state and federal government bodies is key to determining the jurisdiction of decision-making. The federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over the use of rivers and their water. The newly created provinces are allowed to issue licenses for hydropower projects with capacities ranging from 3 MW to 20 MW, whereas local governments can issue permits for projects below 3 MW. Thus, by default, any project with a capacity greater than 20 MW falls within the jurisdiction of the federal government. That said, a subtle tension is brewing over these legal powers and it is not clear how will it play out. Because provinces and local governments have limited financial and technical capacities provinces and local governments, they are unlikely to become immediate players in this game. Even if local governments build their institutional capacity, it is unlikely that they will be in a position to increase their revenue base enough to fund hydropower projects on their own or even with private-sector partnership. Because they will need to borrow loans from external sources to fund for which they will remain dependent on the federal government. The context for the large-scale development of irrigation is similar. While constrained in their ability to develop hydropower and irrigation, local governments do have jurisdiction over keeping rivers and other water sources, including ponds and wetlands, clean by managing solid and liquid wastes. They also have authority to address disputes over the usage and distribution of drinking and local irrigation water.
With the rate of urban development increasing and demand for construction-grade river materials growing, the dynamics of the housing and real estate business sectors will impact freshwater biodiversity, especially as aggregate mining is a major contributor to government incomes. Thus, with the need to generate revenue in mind, governments may not be unbiased in their decision-making, to the detriment of the environment. In fact, all three levels of governments have prioritized infrastructure development over the environment and water conservation. The number of ministries and departments with physical infrastructure development in their portfolios exceeds the number working for the environment, adaptation to climate change and conservation. Nepal’s population, too, seeks to improve road connectivity and other infrastructures so that they get better quality services.
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Management for Resilient Freshwater Biodiversity: In the 1990s, the Nepali government proposed IWRM was proposed as a response to the fragmented sectoral pursuit of water development that had developed earlier. Translating the principle of IWRM into practice has faced major challenges and has not gained momentum at either the national or the river-basin scales. Everywhere, the main agenda has been large infrastructure development. That said, there are local examples of IWRM that can—and must—be emulated. The existence of a large number of FMISs and successes in community forestry across the country are examples of shared responsibility for and community custodianship of natural resources management. The area water management program in Mai Khola and the lake-basin water management of Begnas Lake in Pokhara Valley are other local examples. These models can help us devise localized integrated approaches to the management of water for freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR river basins. While there are sound reasons to adopt IWRM, there are limitations to its application as well. To succeed, it needs to be integrated with the idea of building the resilience of freshwater biodiversity through focusing on exposure, use systems, users and institutions. Building resilience is a continuous process, one involving action, monitoring and revision. It requires consideration of the following direct, consequential and cross-scale threats to freshwater biodiversity and efforts to minimize them.
Direct •• The use of explosive devices, electric current (generated by a portable set), and poison, which causes the large-scale destruction of fish and other aquatic life. •• Overfishing, which lowers stock •• Use of fine-meshed nylon nets, which catches fingerlings Consequential •• Loss of habitats and collapse of riverbanks due to the excessive mining of sand and aggregate. •• Water infrastructures (hydropower plants, irrigation systems and inter-basin projects), which divert water upstream and reduce flow in the stretch downstream of the diversion. •• Persistent discharge of organic and non-organic pollution into rivers. Cross scale •• The sediment load in river channels that comes from landslides caused by and from the disposal of material excavated during road construction. •• Increases in sediment load from upstream activities. •• Alterations in river flow due to the erratic precipitation associated with climate change.
To differing degrees, all of the above factors have a profound effect on the MKWR basins’ freshwater ecosystems and social contexts. They intertwine with a) increases in exposure, b) the fragility of natural and human-built systems, c) the low capacity of marginalized users, and d) constraining institutions, all factors that reduce opportunities for promoting freshwater biodiversity. Building resilience needs systematic attention to all four of these factors.
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Way Forward Champions: This PEA expects that champions will play a constructive role in the pursuit of balanced development that includes as a primary objective the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. The champions would do the following:
a) Use a scientific approach to management and learn from the implementation of policies on the ground. b) Engage with those external groups and stakeholders involved in management and decision-making c) Consider the broad political context in which they are embedded.
Champions will advocate for the maintenance of balance in the waterscape, which is defined by the 12 watersheds of the MKWR basins, so that a variety of human needs, including that for aquatic biodiversity, can be met within the framework of IWRM. They will strive to ensure “non-polluted rivers in a balanced landscape for healthy aquatic biodiversity.”
Data and Networks: The focus must be on improving our understanding of hydrometeorological processes, including the monsoon, the snow system, droughts, extreme rainfall, flow regimes, and sediment processes by strengthening data- collecting systems.
Fish and Aquatic Habitats: The local community should be made more aware of the damages invasive species can cause to native species. Vulnerable fish species should not be harvested.
Resilience and adaptation: Approaches that rely on knowledge of local diversity and on the scaling up of good practices are needed so that freshwater biodiversity can be effectively conserved as circumstances change. Vulnerable and marginalized communities need to be provided with opportunities to take partake in eco-friendly businesses. Health and hygiene improvement programs will not only increase the income of beneficiaries but also build their self-esteem and improve leadership. By mainstreaming measures that address gender inequality and social exclusion, the social and political capital of communities will be built and they will be better able to bear future shocks.
Nature-based Development: To conserve freshwater biodiversity, the implementation of eco-friendly and green development methods must be mainstreamed in development. Doing so will require promoting green businesses, aquaculture, crop
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and livestock farming, grass and tree sapling plantation, turmeric cultivation, nettle collection, apiary, seasonal vegetable cultivation in greenhouses, and small handicraft industries among women’s groups and marginalized communities. The conservation of freshwater biodiversity will also benefit from activities such as the maintenance of water source quality, the mapping of aquatic species, the preservation of endemic fishes, and sustainable fish production and marketing. Targeted programs for uplifting the lives of fisher communities are equally important.
Participation: The conservation of freshwater biodiversity cannot proceed without the involvement of local communities as local people are the ones who use resources and are attached to them socially, culturally and emotionally. They are the ones who lose out when ecosystems degrade. Fisher and river conservation groups can help minimize the loss of aquatic biodiversity in the MKWR basin. Involving locals must incorporate a gender and social inclusion agenda and adopt GESI-sensitive approaches and interventions to management, monitoring and results-based reporting. This strategy must be supported by adequate resource mobilization, such that an enabling environment for partnership, mentoring and learning/sharing is created. Similarly, adopting participatory planning processes in decision-making will reduce gender gaps in the access to and control, use and management of resources. Participation can help empower women and excluded groups by giving voice to their concerns and making clear rights and responsibilities.
Monitoring: the monitoring of the physio-chemical and biological parameters of water must be enhanced so that we can better understand the quality and status of aquatic biodiversity.
Policies and Legislation: Given the role of freshwater biodiversity in sustaining the needs of human and ecological communities, the federal government should consider developing an umbrella policy on freshwater and aquatic biodiversity conservation. Such policies and legislation must allow room for local and provincial governments to frame their own policies, laws and regulations for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity with their jurisdictional boundaries. Equally important is developing regulations to ensure the effective execution of policies.
IWRM: the formation of local IMWR committees with a mandate to audit the water resources development programs of the concerned local governments can help ensure that the continuity of ecosystems and services are maintained. Where the boundary of a rural or urban municipality coincides with that of a watershed, the same committee can function at both the local and the watershed levels. If boundaries overlap, in
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contrast, a separate watershed-level committee can be formed. Local government representatives, civil society members, and individuals with proven expertise on fresh water biodiversity conservation must be included in such committees.
Promoting Stewardship: Stewardship underscores the sensible use of water and other natural resources with minimum negative externalities. Indeed, the 2015 Constitution has entrusted all governments with the reasonability to serve as custodians of natural resources. Measures are needed to translate this provision into actual action so that efforts will generate multiple positive results for women and marginalized groups.
Watershed and River Health: Local governments must select a set of minimum indicators and use them to collect data to assess watershed health. Local-level volunteers engaged in the collection of data should be provided with regular capacity building and technical support.
Regulation and Compliance: Improving regulation is necessary in four fronts. The first is the mining of construction-grade river materials. The second is e-flow release. The third is the reduction of point and non-point pollution sources and the fourth, the reduction of harmful fishing practices. Given that local governments have the power to issue mining licenses and regulate mining operations, an umbrella law that sets the principles, standards and practices for that mining is needed.
Improving Coordination: Nepal presently has 761 local governments with the authority to implement their own laws, plans and policies in the jurisdictions defined by the constitution. There is, however, uncertainty about how thethree levels of government and their ministries, departments and sub-division offices will coordinate. Uncertainty also remains about which authorities are responsible and what their responsibilities for the use and management of water resources consist. The lack of inter-agency coordination poses challenges to the management of local water resources and the efficient delivery of public services. A mechanism for promoting coordination among the different levels of governments needs to be developed.
Dissemination and Communication: Local communities must receive accurate information regularly and it must be tailored to meet their needs. FM stations, newspapers, mobile phones, the internet and social media platforms should be used to improve the flow and availability of information.
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Capacity-building: The approach to capacity-building must focus on empowerment and on minimizing over-reliance on outside experts to address freshwater conservation challenges. The capacity-building of champions, to name one body of key figures, is necessary to promote their ability to develop and shape their skill and knowledge and then to use the enhanced product to solve physical, social and economic challenges related to freshwater biodiversity conservation. Women and social excluded groups must be included in such activities so that both strategic and practical needs can be met.
Conflict Management: Conflicts do arise, especially with respect to natural parks and benefit- sharing. Stakeholders also disagree about how the water resources of the MKWR basin should be developed. For example, some will argue obstructive hydropower infrastructure should be built while others will argue that rivers should be allowed to flow freely? Resolving such conflict requires recourse to continuous dialogue stimulated by new information made available and interest.
Trust fund: Trust funds can be used to support conservation activities, benefit-sharing, and the monitoring and mitigation measures associated with the construction of dams. Affected communities could be supported in acquiring funds and in using them to plan and implement their own mitigation and development efforts. Trust funds could be also used in conjunction with other financial sources to practice monitoring and social auditing. The Paani program is already planning to establish such a fund and, with it, create new opportunities for conserving freshwater biodiversity,
Research and Documentation: It is necessary to provide funding for grants and activities supporting the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Conferences, workshops and dialogues on the aquatic systems of the MKWR basins need to contribute to the public discourse. It is also necessary to document and preserve indigenous and local knowledge about aquatic ecosystems.
Social Dialogue and Convening: The conservation of freshwater biodiversity requires a new journey in which governments; the private sector, especially that involved in the trade of heavy equipment, iron, steel, and cement industries and real estate; and communities must be continuously engaged. The key government agencies in this process are the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation; Water and Energy Commission; the Ministry of Forest and Environment; the Nepal Electricity Regulation Commission; and the MoFAGA, including their offices in provincial and
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local governments. The Independent Power Producers Association, Nepal; local communities; and other stakeholders also need to be systematically engaged. The convener of dialogue among these groups must not be an implementer but, at the same time, must possess adequate authority and mandate. The NNRFC could play such a role. As a mediator, it can provide suggestions to the federal, provincial and local governments about the conservation and management of natural resources as well as about the resolution of disputes.
Final Observation The conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins requires a multipronged approach which includes activities at all levels, local, national, and international. International-scale actions are needed to build knowledge that adds value to creative and constructive activism. It is necessary to engage the private sector and the construction industry in this approach, especially as they drive the demand that sand and aggregates be mined from rivers. Regulation of mining and other watershed-based activities should strive to maintain the health of watersheds and conserve freshwater biodiversity. Both supply and demand aspects must also be considered.
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1 The Political Economic Analysis
The Political Economic Analysis The use, development and management of water in Nepal’s Mahakali, Karnali and West Rapti (MKWR) basins are primarily under the jurisdiction of the state. This is true for all of South Asia, where the rise of the state bureaucracy began in the mid-18th century, when the colonial government in India began expanding irrigation systems by building barrages and canal networks.1 After building the Ganga barrage in 1854, the colonial state began building the Sharada Barrage to harness the water for (a) generating revenue, (b) maintaining administrative control, and (c) establishing and legitimizing the state as a social welfare entity that would respond to droughts by supplementing irrigation. The goals were combined with the approach developed in western United States in the early 19thcentury wherein productive water flow was defined as flow towards human settlements for generating services and commercial benefits. Flows towards deltas, wetlands, and downstream areas were considered unproductive and, as the paradigm evolved, the role of water in maintaining ecological integrity became a peripheral concern. Because British India adopted this approach to water management and knowledge production, the centralized bureaucracy dominated decision-making about the allocation and use of water resulting in systematic marginalization of local knowledge and practices.
The combination of the western American paradigm and colonial goals had an implicit plain-biased political economy outlook in Nepal and the MKWR region. Both the colonial enterprise and the Nepali state understood water resource (read hydropower) development in Nepal as something that should aim to export power to the large Indian market. Towards the end of the British rule in 1942, a memorandum issued by the Secretary of British India said, “There is one particular sphere of progress which seemed to hold out some hope and that it is in the development of hydropower in Nepal. Indeed, it may perhaps be said that Nepal has two important exports, one realized, namely soldiers, and the second perspective, namely electric power”.2
The implied intentions of this hydropower-focused approach were to reduce Nepal’s trade imbalance with India using revenue from sale of electricity to offset the deficit resulting from merchandise trade, develop connectivity and consequently also develop market in the respective locality. Discourse in India also suggested that
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Nepal would earn much-needed revenue to finance its development needsand even become prosperous by selling electricity. The potential role of hydroelectricity in increasing Nepal’s energy supply, security and productivity began to be considered in earnest only after the 2015 border blockade though this consideration had begun in 1990, when multiparty democracy was established, and was bolstered by Electricity Act (1992) that created space for private sector entry in power generation.
In 2019, Nepal had about 100 hydropower plants of various sizes with total installed capacity at around 1,000 MW. In 2018, these plants supplied 4,475 GWh of hydroelectricity to the Integrated Nepal Power System (INPS). Public and private sector agencies are building another 117 hydropower plants that will have total installed capacity of 3,370 MW. When the installed capacities of plants in the pipeline are included Nepal’s installed capacity is expected to reach about 4,562 MW in the future.3
The efforts discussed above have increased Nepal’s installed hydropower capacity but the overall energy-use still remains dominated by burning of biomass, mostly for cooking. Biomass constitutes 77% of the total energy consumed, and petroleum products another 12.5%. In 2018, Nepal imported fossil fuels valued at NPR 153 billion from India and both the cost and the share of fossil fuels in the mix are increasing. Use of hydroelectricity and other renewable sources like solar power, in contrast, account for just 3.4% and 2.5%, respectively. Till mid-2016 the INPS imposed daily brownouts of up to 16 hours. Later, after Nepal began importing about one-third of the electricity needed from India, the INPS was able to meet peak load requirements without brownouts4.
The development and operation of hydropower plants in Nepal face many challenges, including inadequate regulatory oversight and widespread non-compliance with environmental and social safeguards. This has resulted from the push to generate more power as a national priority. In addition, rivers face increasing degradation from unregulated extraction of river bed materials and pollution due to disposal of untreated solid and liquid wastes. These latter two aspects are threat to freshwater biodiversity.
The threat facing conservation of freshwater biodiversity in Nepal and in the MKWR basin is situated within the context discussed above. In addition, the following six stories reflect the marginalization of the Karnali region and serve as auseful precursor to this study on interventions that aim to achieve large-scale manipulation of rivers by building dams and barrages and transferring water between basins.
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These interventions will generate hydropower, provide irrigation and drinking water, and control floods and, in doing so, promote economic development. To succeed, however, the interventions must uphold the principle of sustainability enshrined in the Constitution and global Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) agenda: it must balance economic development with social development without compromising the natural environment.
Specifically, this study aimed to
• Identify potential champions within the parliamentary, legislative, and executive branches of the federal government. Provincial governments, district agencies, selected urban and rural municipalities, civil society organizations and the private sector that support or are likely to support or at least be open to considering the USAID Paani Programs approach to water resource management, and • Keeping these findings in mind, make recommendations for meeting the program’s objectives to reduce threats to freshwater biodiversity, and to enhance the resilience of human and ecological communities. Stakeholders were engaged in dialogues about balancing development and conservation in activities designed for the realization of these objectives, as an underlying propose was to also strengthen community-based and other local- level organizations as well as the private sector and higher-level departments and commissions in the process. This study has examined the role of institutions that seek to conserve freshwater ecosystems and promote social welfare.
The MKWR Basins The MKWR and the Karnali region is one of the least developed regions with low Human Development Index (HDI) (Mahakali: 0.43, Karnali 0.43. West Rapti: 0.46)5 outcomes compared to other parts of Nepal, mainly in terms adult literacy, life expectancy, malnutrition, access to safe drinking water, etc. Large parts of the region remain poorly connected by roads and therefore remain to be effectively ‘reached’. Development in the region has remained costly and governance weak, and this has directly affected delivery of basic services, resulting in high child and maternal mortality, low agriculture productivity, etc. that explain the widespread poverty. The following section highlights factors that have debilitated development of the region including some potential.
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Food Insecurity: The temperate climate and insufficient governmental efforts in the supply of agricultural technology to the farmers have made Karnali a food deficit region and thus dependent on food import (NPC, 2012). A deeper study by Adhikary shows that the dynamics is more complex. The Karnali region depends on food imports but the dependence is more political than natural, according to Adhikary (2012). “Many of the problems in Karnali owe to the exploitative relationship imposed by Kathmandu (the power center) over Karnali (a peripheral region treated as a colony). The feeling among Karnali people that they are in a subservient position, that rice is better than their local food, and that they need to depend on the bureaucracy for development originates from this relationship imposed by the ruling class for their political and economic interests.”
Social Stratifcation: Most of the hilly region of the MKWR regions are not connected or are in the process of being connected to the road network. The region is highly stratified and includes Matwali Chhetris (the Chhetris who consumes alcohol), high caste (Brahman, Thakuri) and artisan groups: tailor-musician (Damai), shoemaker (Sarki) and carpenter (Kami). They occupy different ecological niches and do not live in the same areas. Matwali Chhetris reside in the uplands, whereas, high caste (Brahman Thakuri) and artisan groups live in the valley. The region has high caste- based untouchability, and this directly affects the development and the outcomes for Dalits (Nepali, 2018). With eradication of malaria and the opening of the Tarai in the 1960s, some people from the MKWR regions have permanently migrated to the Tarai and lower valleys like Surkhet (Satya Shrestha-Schipper, 2009-2010).
Gender Discrimination: Karnali is a “backward” region from the HDI perspective. The constraints imposed on women are reflected in the illegal, but still widespread practice of chhaupadi, where menstruating women and women pre- and post- delivery are temporarily banished from their homes to avoid “ritual pollution.” The Guardian recently published an article about 21-year-old Parbati Bogati’s death in a “period hut” in Doti District6. She is thought to have died from smoke inhalation from the fire she’d lit to stay warm while sleeping in the small, windowless hut. This was the fourth such case in the year in Karnali. In addition, the representation and influence of women in politics and community leadership leaves much to be desired. The patriarchal nature of society and domestic drudgery continue to debilitate their human development.
Disaster Relief: Karnali’s isolation is also reflected in the inability of the Nepali state to respond to the impacts of geological and weather-related disasters such as frequent droughts, high intensity rainfall, and the occasional earthquake. Little has
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changed from 1966, when the late Dr. Harka Gurung wrote: “An earthquake on June 27, 1966 had rocked and greatly damaged parts of Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang and Bajura in the far western region. I had an opportunity of visiting Baitadi in August 1966 as a member of Red Cross relief team led by Ramesh Sharma. The immense problem of transportation within Nepal became clear when we had to circumvent 1,200 kilometers through India to reach Baitadi which is 480 kilometers west of Kathmandu.” (Gurung, 1980). Though access to and mobility within the region have improved, the Nepali state responds to the frequent major non-climate and climatic hazards in Karnali with little more than one-time relief (Dixit, 2016). It remains to be seen how the new 2017 DRR Act will be implemented and if it will change the manner in the response of the state.
Migration: In the MKWR region migration has been the livelihood strategy of the inhabitants for generations. Migration has been ‘seasonal’ and ‘temporary’ with people headed to the Tarai and India for work to improve their economic conditions. Some of them work as guards (chaukidar) and as laborers, generally at construction sites mainly in Northern India. Others migrate to Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh, and work as construction workers. Agricultural production and animal husbandry are not sufficient to sustain their subsistence and therefore people supplement their economy through seasonal and temporary migration. They send cash to their families and bring back food and cloth when they return on leave. They also travel to the north (Tibet) as a part of the livelihood strategy as well as to acquire household necessities, such as, salt, iron, tea, spices, sugar, clothing, etc., that are either not available or not produced in the region (Satya Shrestha-Schipper, 2009-2010).
Maoist Uprising. In 1996 the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) began its ‘People War’ from the Mid-West hills – the heartland of insurgency – and hill districts of this region (i.e. Rolpa, Rukum, Salyan, Dailekh, Jajgarkot Jajarkot and Dailekh districts. The rise of the Maoists in the region was an outcome of inequality, poverty, unemployment, underdevelopment, exclusion, corruption, bad governance and ideology. It brought major changes in Nepal’s political landscape and seriously affected the MKWR region and seriously affected its resources (Hachhethu, 2008; Thapa, 2005)
Economy and Market: The size of economy of region (Karnali Province 6 and Province 7) is small, 4.1 percent of GDP7. Following the completion of the Karnali Highway (H13), Mahakali Highway (H14), Seti Highway (H15), Bheri Corridor and Karnali Corridor and many other feeder roads few rudimentary markets in this region have emerged. This is leading to gradual construction of new concrete houses
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in evolving rudimentary markets. Remittance from overseas (not India) since the mid1990s, also contributes to these processes. The opening of road however has not increased domestic production of the region so markets only serve inbound good. The Karnali Province Government’s currently has allocated 36 percent for infrastructures in its annual plan and policy. Karnali Province government has proposed to develop urban settlement in Rakam of Dailekh on the bank of Karnali andChaurjhari of West Rukum close to Bheri River.
Unexplored Opportunities: The region has dense forest with high valuable export of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) and Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAP). The government has done too little to make local peoples get benefits from these products. Local people simply collect these plants from forest, provide them to traders from border town of India like Nepalgunj and Dhangadi at much less value. These traders process them in India and export to other countries at high price. Since the 1990s with support from donors’ has been made to develop value chain of these products but without improvement though Kapurkot, Salyan, and Chinchu and Surkhet in the region have been developed as market hub to trade local agro products as well as NTFP and MAP. Yet large scale exports of these products are unprocessed and sold with lower value addition.
The region’s tourism potential is yet to be harnessed for local development. The region is fit for adventure tourism like trekking, hiking, mountaineering and white water rafting Rara Lake of the region is situated at high altitude in the world and Kalikot-Pachal waterfall is Asia’s longest. The region lies on the route to visit Mt. Kailash, abode of lord Shiva and Mansarovar, holiest of the lakes. Both offer potential for religious tourism. The government however has not taken any initiative to develop touristic destination in the region and local are not able to take benefit which was also stifled by the Maoist armed revolution. The Karnali Province Government has proposed to establish Karnali Tourism Board that may create incentives for protecting rivers and their flora and fauna.
The Waterscape Geographically, the MKRW basins can be described as follows.
The Mahakali: The Mahakali is a boundary river between Nepal and India which emerges from glaciers along the boundary where Nepal, India and China’s Tibet Autonomous Region meet. As it flows south, the river is fed by tributaries that
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originate in both India and Nepal: Dhauliganga (1,357 km2), Gauriganga (2,300 km2), Sarju (4,019 km2), Lohawati and Ladhiya from India. Its tributaries in Nepal are the Chameliya (1,572 km2), Surnayagaad, Rupaligaad, Sirsegaad and Rangun. The Mahakali River debouches into the plains near the Purnagiri temple upstream of India’s Tanakpur town. Up to the Purnagiri, the basin covers about 14,922 km2. Of that area, 10,884 km2 lies in India and 4,038 km2 in Nepal. Between the Tanakpur and Sharada barrages, the Mahakali flows in Indian Territory. Downstream of the Sharada barrage, the river flows between Nepal’s Bhimdutta and Mahendranagar urban municipalities and Mahakali Rural Municipality in the regions of Chandani and Dhodhara before entering the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. In Uttar Pradesh, the river joins the Ghagara River, a tributary to the Ganga in Baharaich District.
The Karnali: The Karnali River drains Nepal’s western region east of the Mahakali basin. The river’s headwaters are around 5,000 amsl. Its major tributaries are the Humla Karnali, Mugu Karnali, Tila, Sinja, West Seti and Bheri. The West Seti River drains the western part of the basin while the Bheri River drains the eastern part. The West Seti meets the Karnali in Doti District and the Bheri meets it at Kunineghat, Surkhet District. The basin’s area at Chisapani in the Siwalik region, where the Karnali flows into the Tarai, is about 44,000 km2 (WECS, 2011). Of this area 41,890 km2 is in Nepal. The river’s upper regions are steep: slopes generally range between 15° and 45° and those in gorges are greater than 60°.The basin includes 1,361 glaciers with a total area of 1,740.2 km2 and an ice reserve of 127.72 km3. Glacier melt accounts for almost one-third of the annual stream flow of the Bheri River (World Bank, 2009). At Chisapani, the Karnali’s mean annual discharge is 1,337 m3/s. In the monsoon months, the river carries high sediment loads.
The West Rapti: The West Rapti originates in Nepal’s Mahabharat range west of the Dhaulagiri range at an altitude of about 3,500 amsl. The river drains the area west of the Kali Gandaki and southeast of the Karnali River basin. It is adjacent to the Babai River south of the Karnali Basin. The tributaries of the West Rapti which lie in Nepal are the Dundungad, Sibari, and Lungri, which join to form the Mari, and the Arun. At Cherneta, the Jhimruk River, which drains Pyuthan District, flows very close to the Mari River (only about 1.5 km away) but at higher elevation and separated by a range. It joins the Mari few kilometers downstream, where the combined water body is known as the West Rapti. Paddy is cultivated in the lower alluvial valleys of the West Rapti and its tributaries. The Arun Khola joins the West Rapti in Deukhuri Valley, from which point it flows through the Siwalik into Bhaluwang, Dang District, and crosses Nepal’s east-west Highway. Downstream of Bhaluwang, the West Rapti flows through Deukhuri Valley between the Dang and the Dhuhwa ranges. From
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Deukhuri, the river crosses into Banke District and then flows into Uttar Pradesh, where it joins the Gandak River near the city of Gorakhpur. The catchment area of the basin at the Kusum gauge station in the Tarai is 5,200 km2.
FIGURE 1: THE MKWR BASINS
N
Mahakali River Basin
Karnali River Basin
West Rapti River Basin
0 210 420
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TABLE 1: PERCENTAGE OF DISCHARGE OF THE RIVERS IN DIFFERENT SEASONS
Discharge % River basin Winter Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Chisapani 7.15 9.10 71.95 8.22 Jalkundi 6.46 3.66 74.06 15.98
TABLE 2: MEAN FLOW AND OBSERVED MINIMUM LOW FLOW FROM 1963-2006
Station No. Station Name Average mean Flow amount Year of minimum flow (m3/s) m3/s flow 250 Karnali Chisapani 567 88.70 February,1980 270 Bheri 396 40.80 April, 1977 265 Thuli Bheri 189 21.90 Februrary,2000 269.5 Bheri 337 73.80 March, 2006 225 Sinja 21.5 3.08 March,1997 220 Tila 48.1 9.49 April,2004 215 Humla Karnali 350 45.70 March,1981 251.5 Bauli Gad 5.04 0.45 June,2006 260 West Seti 300.5 27.70 March,1967 360 West Rapti 141 0.79 May,1968 339.3 Jhimruk Khola 27 0.76 April,1980 120 Chameliya 53.9 11.20 March,1975 169.8 Surnaya Gad 8.74 0.24 June, 1966
(Source: DHM)
The rivers hydrology follows the monsoon but with some difference. In the Karnali at Chisapani 72% flow occurs in the monsoon. The West Rapti River has similar share, at Jalkundi it is 74% of the annual. The pre-monsoon flow is 9.1 and 3.66% respectively for the Karnali and West Rapti rivers indicating the rainfall fed character of the latter. It is interesting to mention that the lowest recorded flow in the tributaries of the MKWR Rivers could be small percentage of their mean flow. This data shows that the changes in low flow of the river can have consequences on the aquatic lives though much in-depth study need to understand this interdependence.
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Groundwater Like the rest of Nepal’s Tarai region, the lower regions of the Karnali and Mahakali rivers and to certain extent West Rapti rivers also have groundwater aquifers. In the Tarai, groundwater recharge occurs through the direct infiltration of rainfall, the subsurface inflow of streams which enter the area and seepage losses and lateral recharge from the Bhabar zone. The large grain size of the soil in the region facilitates the direct percolation of surface water to the water table. The exact boundaries and area under Bhabar and the main area of recharge for the Tarai are not known though this zone is considered to be the primary area of recharge of the Tarai’s deep aquifers. To cite one illustrative study, Duba (1982) estimated that about 33.6% and 22.2% of rainfall percolates to the water table in the Bhabar zone and Tarai plains respectively. Many small rivers and rivulets that originate in the Chure range that flow on the surface north of the East-West Highway disappear at some point and re-emerge a few kilometers south of the highway.
In the Tarai, people use both deep and shallow tube wells. Numerous privately- owned shallow tube wells are used for irrigation, and hand pumps are used to meet drinking water needs. The government has installed over 30,168 shallow tube wells, and estimates that there are another 25% of that number that are privately owned. The government has installed 264 deep tube wells. A deep tube well discharges 40 lit/s; a shallow, 8 lit/s. On average, deep tube wells are operated for 1000 hours a year; shallow tube wells, 720 hours. While data on the domestic and industrial uses of groundwater is not available, it is assumed that a total 1,268 MCM groundwater is extracted while the recharge is 2,479 MCM that leaves balance of 1,211 MCM indicating adequate reserve in the aquifer (Table 1 annex).8 It is also true that the shallow aquifers of the region face arsenic contamination.
Climatic Context The MKWR basins are characterized by very high climate variability. The basins experience four distinct seasons. Spring, which runs from March to May, is warm, dusty, and dry. There are occasional rain showers in the late afternoons and early evenings. Summer/monsoon season is rainy, hot and humid, and lasts from June to August. Autumn, September to November, is cool and skies are clear. Winter lasts from November to February, is cold and has occasional westerly-induced rainfall. The mean summer temperatures in the lower MKWR basins range from 27°C to 30°C and from 3°C to 6°C in the hilly regions. In the winter, the mean temperatures in the Tarai, range from 15°C to 18°C, but the mid-hills are chilly -- 0°C to 6°C and at
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high elevations. Mean temperatures drop to below -3°C. Temperatures in the lower MKWR basins reach a maximum of 46°C in the summer. Relative humidity is lowest in May, when it may reach 60%, and highest in January, when it may be as high as 90%.
The basins receive an average rainfall of about 1,500 mm, but meso-level influences mean that while north of the Kanjiroba and Dhaulagiri ranges the annual rainfall is just 500 mm, the mid hills receive about 2,000 mm. About 70% of the total rainfall falls between June and September. Winter westerlies and pre-monsoon rainfall together account for the other 30%. While the actual distribution of precipitation depends on orographic differences and varies greatly, the data in part reflects the location of meteorological stations. Even in the lower Karnali and Mahakali basins, where the topography is flat spatial differences in rainfall are noticeable. It is not uncommon, for example, for 10% of the annual precipitation to come down in a single day or for the bulk of three months of monsoon rainfall to fall in just 10 days. A storm of high intensity usually lasts for a short time and covers just a small area, while low-intensity rainfall may cover a large area and last for several days. This historic pattern, however, is changing.
FIGURE 2: PRECIPITATION VARIABILITY
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Climate Change While this report aims to capture the larger processes that govern the changes in human-ecological systems in the MKWR basins in light of two recent global and regional climate change assessments, it is useful to highlight the risks that climate change poses upfront. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report 1.5 made public in 2018 suggests that the average global temperature rise must be limited to within 1.5°C above the preindustrial average by 2030 if a dangerous climate future is to be avoided. In January 2019, the Kathmandu- based International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) published “The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People,” which suggests that even if global warming is limited to 1.5°C by the end of the century, the Himalayan region will warm by around 1.8°C. The report declared that if temperatures rose 1.5°C, glacier volumes in the Himalaya region would decline 36% by 2100. Under a business-as-usual scenario, in contrast, that decline would reach a whopping 64%.9
These two analyses suggest that the MKWR basins face serious risks due to changing dynamics. Though the paucity of micro-level data sets and lack of systematic studies makes it impossible to make direct correlations to climate change, the trends are clear: springs are drying and both snowfall and the base flow of many snow-fed as well as rain-fed rivers are declining. These dynamics already amplify the vulnerabilities of the basins that could worsen as climate change progresses. The Paani Project is well placed to highlight the risks and to begin discussion on new pathways to minimize the risks. It can also use the conservation of fresh water biodiversity as a rallying point toward the larger goal.
Temperature Increase: Analyzing the consequences of a high concentration of greenhouse gases in the Ganga Basin, Mirza and Dixit (1997) found that the mean annual temperature would rise on average by 2.7°C by 2100 but that there would be high regional variations. The study could be used to make predictions about Nepal, but with limited confidence because of the paucity of data and the inability of the model to consider the specific effects of the Himalaya Mountains. A 2003 analysis indicated that there would be a significant and consistent increase in temperatures in Nepal between 2014 and 2030 and beyond to 2050 and 2100 and that these increases would be greater in winter not summer (Agrawal et al., 2003). Later studies confirmed this prediction and found that temperatures would increase more in western and central Nepal than in the east and that the greatest increases would be in the western mountains (NCVST, 2009).
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Within Nepal, temperatures in the High Himalayas are increasing at a faster rate than those in the Tarai plains (NCVST, 2009; Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2012). McSweeney (2010) suggested that the temperature is likely to have increased between 2°C and 5°C by the end of the century. Kulkarni et al. (2013) estimate that the annual average temperature for central and eastern Himalaya, a range which covers all of Nepal, will rise by 1-2°C between 2011–2040; by 1-3 °C between 2041–2070; and by 3-5°C between 2071–2098. Between 1961 and 2005, the average annual temperature increased at the rate of approximately 0.05°C/year (FAO, 2014). This increase is higher and more rapid than the average global increase. A recent analysis showed that the average annual mean temperature rise may reach 0.92-1.07 degrees Celsius by 2045 and 1.30-1.82 degree Celsius by 2065). The temperature will go up by 1.72-3.58 degree Celsius by 2100. These studies are clear: in a warming world temperature rise in the Himalayas will be higher than the average global temperature increase.
Precipitation: According to the MoPE (2004), total precipitation will increase by 20%, but while monsoon and pre-monsoon rainfalls will increase, winter showers will decrease and there will be marked regional variations (Karki et al., 2011; Gautam et al., 2013 and FAO, 2014). It is clear that monsoon rainfall patterns are changing but there is no certainty about what the new pattern and volume will be. The monsoon season is becoming shorter and the dates of onset and cessation have shifted, making the season begin later and end earlier. In addition, the instances of short periods of heavy rainfall events have increased and westerly rainfall during winter has become weaker (Devkota, 2014; Gautam, 2013). In 2019 a new pattern emerged: an unusual westerly rainfall suggested that the pattern is more erratic than thought and that it has shifted south. Though the average amount of annual precipitation has not changed significantly, pockets of increasing and decreasing rainfall demonstrate that regional variations in the distribution of rainfall across the country are high (FAO, 2014). The average annual precipitation is predicted to increase in both the short- and the long-terms, by 2-6% and 8-12%, respectively. Total rainfall is predicted to increase by 11-23% though pre-monsoon rainfall is predicted to decrease 4-5% in the medium term. The post-monsoon season will experience the highest increase in rainfall: 6-19% in the medium term and 19-20% in the long term. The likely changes in precipitation are less clear than those regarding temperature and climate models suggest more uncertainty.
Local Perceptions of Changes: To assess people’s perceptions of climate change, researchers asked local people to reflect on the changes they had witnessed in temperature and precipitation over the past 10 years in each of Nepal’s four seasons: pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. Seven observations were mentioned:
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• Days and nights are hotter than in the past, • Dry periods are longer, • The onset of the monsoon is later, • Snowfall has decreased, • The frequency of extreme rainfall events has increased, • The intensity of extreme rainfall events has increased, and • The number of hailstorms and thunderstorms has increased.
Consequences of the Changes: These changes are likely to affect the regional hydrology of the MKWR basins and their impacts are likely to cascade through water-based ecosystems and have serious social and economic consequences. Two outcomes are especially important: temperature and precipitation. The changes may also affect aquatic biodiversity and we will discuss these impacts in Chapter 3.
Temperature: Temperature rise show consistent trend. The continued emission of greenhouse gases globally will push up the rate of temperature rise over all land masses, but particularly over the Himalayan region. As consequence, the snowline will shift upward, resulting in consequences that could exacerbate those due to precipitation. The rise in temperature will mean that summer daytime temperature in the Tarai and the low river valleys of the Siwalik and the Mahabharat ranges will become very hot. Nights will not cool down much and humidity will increase, bringing daytime temperature to 37oC. Most people cannot remain unprotected in the open in such temperatures for more than six hours because the human body cannot release heat fast enough to cool down making both heat strokes and even death highly likely. Already, the lower Karnali and Mahakali are hotter than in the past. In 1980, Bardiya’s temperature was higher than 32oC for about 184 days. In 2017 the number was 211 and, according to models; it could reach 236 days by 2060.10
Precipitation: More erratic precipitation will bring many changes. In high elevations, rainfall may replace snowfall, thereby lowering seasonal snow and ice storages. The resultant decrease in melt water production will prolong the period during which downstream flows are low. At the sub-basin and watershed levels of the MKWR basins, these changes will affect sub-processes such as infiltration, inter-flow, percolation and groundwater flow, all of which are dependent on topography, geology and vegetation. Most rain that falls on the steep-sloped mountainous sub- watersheds of the basins turns into surface run-off; it is flat, terraced land that makes the greatest contributions to recharge. If the total amount of rainfall remains the same and that same volume comes in a shorter monsoon period, rainfall events are likely to be very intense. As a result, run-off will be concentrated and flash floods common.
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These changes are, in turn, likely to exacerbate mass movement hazards where gradients are high. High-intensity rainfall will have the most devastating impact on fragile slopes and vulnerable riverbanks. Erosion, floods and landslides, all of which are already a serious concern in the basins’ sub-watersheds, are also likely to increase. As is the case elsewhere in Nepal’s hills, spring flows have begun depleting across the MKWR basins. This depletion of spring water sources is likely to become a silent crisis if large-scale corrective measures are not taken.
Cross-scale Implications: The impacts of changes in precipitation and temperature will threaten food security, biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water and tourism. The agriculture, forest, livestock, disaster and health sectors are likely to be adversely affected and people accustomed to steady weather patterns will find ithardto deal with climate variability, especially as changes are slated to be both great and accelerated (Dixit, et al., 2016).
Water Development Context The following sections present the context of interventions for irrigation, hydropower, multipurpose projects and flood control in each of the three river basins.
Mahakali River Basin Irrigation: The lower Mahakali basin has a long history of intervention for irrigation development. A plan to construct a barrage on the Mahakali (Sharada) and a network of irrigation canals supplied through it was first proposed in 1872. In 1910, the United Province Government (UPG) of Awadh made a formal request to the Nepali government to conduct a survey in preparation for building a barrage. Ten years later, in 1920, the UPG and the then government in Nepal, which was led by Rana Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher, signed the Sharada Agreement. The UPG gave 4,000 ha of land to Nepal in exchange for the land in Bhramadev Mandi and paid the Nepali government NPR 50,000. This agreement paved the way for the implementation of the Sharada Canal Project.
In 1924, the UPG sanctioned a revised version of the Sharada canal project. It comprised 4,000 miles of canals and distributaries to irrigate over 7 million acres in Awadh. Today, this canal system irrigates a net area of 1,462,000 ha in Uttar Pradesh. Later, the Sharada canal project was constructed to irrigate 1,522,000 ha of land in the region. The 1920 agreement allocated 230 cusecs of water from the barrage and
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provided for increasing that amount to at least 450 cusecs in the dry season and, if sufficient water were available, up to 1,000 cusec during the monsoon and used to irrigate land in Kanchanpur District. In the 1980s, the water allocated as called for in the treaty was used to develop the Mahakali irrigation project to serve land in Nepal’s Kanchanpur District.
Hydropower Projects: In India, hydropower projects were built in the Tanakpur, Dhauliganga, and Khatima Rivers; in Nepal, in the Chamelia River. In 1983, the National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC) of India began to construct the Tanakpur hydropower plant in the Indian section of the river upstream of the Sharada barrage. NHPC’s initial plan was to divert the water of the Mahakali at the Tanakpur barrage, generate 120 MW of power at the plant and divert the discharge from the tail race directly into the main canal of the Sharada canal project in Uttar Pradesh. The Nepali government protested against this provision, asserting that the diversion would violate the 1920 water-sharing agreement because the river reach between the Tanakpur and Sharada barrages would receive no water. The design was changed so the tailrace flow would be discharged into the main river upstream of the Sharada barrage, and the governments of India and Nepal signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to that end in 1991 and 1992.
Multipurpose Projects: The 1996 Integrated Mahakali Treaty (IMT) subsumed the 1992 MoU. The 1996 treaty calls for deriving hydropower and irrigation benefits by implementing a 315 m high dam as part of the Pancheswar multi-purpose project (PMP). The PMP is to generate 6,480 MW of electricity and provide irrigation water to 1.6 million ha of land in Uttar Pradesh and to 93,000 ha in Nepal. Nepal and India have not reached an agreement on how these benefits are to be shared, given the regulated water that India would benefit from.
Flooding: Local people claim that flooding, bank erosion, inundation and waterlogging in the lower Mahakali region have worsened after barrages and embankments were built. They believe that the structures built have blocked natural drainage routes, inundated agricultural land, and caused water logging. In addition, inundation and poor drainage had damaged electricity distribution pylons, roads, canals, and drinking water systems. Flooding had also prevented children from going to school made it difficult for sick people to access healthcare services temporarily.
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Karnali River Basin Irrigation: The basin has three large irrigation projects:
Rani-Jamara-Kulariya: The Rani, Jamara and Kulariya irrigation canals in Kailali District were three separate systems built by indigenous Tharu communities in 1897, 1904 and 1916 respectively. They were consolidated around 1922. The canals had a total command area of about 17,000 ha in the former village development committees (VDCs) of Baliya, Pathariya, Janakinagar, Durguali, Manuwa, Tikapur, Narayanpur, Dhansingpur, and Pratappur. The three systems are being integrated and upgraded to irrigate 14,300 ha (from 11,000 ha) with a USD 71.8 million loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The side intake has been built and the main canal is almost complete.
The Rani-Jamara-Kulariya irrigation canal is the largest irrigation canal built and managed by farmers in the Far-West and is testimony to 100 years of effort of the Tharu community. It is fed by the Karnali River, serves eight VDCs in Kailali District, and can irrigate 11,000 ha of land. The head work of this irrigation canal is 120m below the Karnali Bridge. Its total length is 8.875 km and its rate of discharge, 100 m311.
Bheri-Babai Diversion: The GoN is constructing the Bheri-Babai diversion project to channel irrigation water to the Babai irrigation system and to generate hydropower. The USD 100 million project aims to transfer 40m3/s water from Bheri to the Babai River under a head of about 150 m. Once complete, it will provide year-round irrigation to 51,000 ha of cultivated land in Bardiya and Banke districts. A powerhouse to be constructed on the bank of the Babai River will generate 48 MW of power. The tunnel was dug in April 2019, while remaining works are under progress.
Girijapur Barrage: The Girijapur barrage lies in the confluence of the Karnali and Geruwa rivers that form the Ghagara River in Uttar Pradesh, India. It irrigates parts of Uttar Pradesh and is linked to the lower Sharada canal.
Multi-Purpose Project: In the Karnali basin one multi-purpose project is proposed to be built.
Karnali Chisapani: In the 1950s, UNDP carried out a feasibility study of potential dams in the lower Karnali basin. It proposed building a 207 m high dam with an installed electricity generation capacity of 765 MW. This was followed by a new study by Japanese consultant, Nippon Koei, and two more were done by Snowy
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Mountains Engineering Corporation (SMEC) and Norconsult in 1975 and 1979, respectively. In the 1980s, a fourth consultant, the Himalaya Power Consultant (HPC), was hired to conduct a detailed study. It proposed a multi-purpose project with a capacity of 10,800 MW but was stymied when negotiations with India stalled. In the mid-1990s, the American energy company Enron sought a license to survey and build the project. Its request resulted in much debate in Nepal that ended after Enron’s bankruptcy. If the proposed reservoir is constructed, it will inundate 339 km2 of land and displace 60,000 people while providing downstream irrigation and flood mitigation benefits to Uttar Pradesh. The governments of Nepal and India have not resolved their differences over how benefits and costs should be shared.
Hydropower Projects The Karnali basin has the following three on-going and proposed hydropower projects.
Kalanga: A Nepali private investor is building the 38.46 MW Upper Kalangagaad, 15.33 MW Kalanga and 10.70 MW Sanigaad hydropower projects on this western tributary of the West Seti River. There also are plans to build an 8 MW and a 4 MW plant there.
West Seti: As originally designed, the West Seti project included a power plant with a capacity of 142 MW, but a French company later increased that capacity to 336 MW. In 1994, SMEC of Australia was given a license to develop the project. It raised the installed capacity to 750 MW, meaning its annual production would reach 2.8 billion units of electricity. SMEC’s was unable to finalize a power purchase agreement with India and its license was eventually revoked. The NEA, a government body, is negotiating with China’s Three Georges International Corporation (CTGI), a subsidiary of China Three George Corporation, to develop the project. If and when built, the project will inundate 20 km2 and displace 8,700 people.
Upper Karnali: This 900 MW project promoted by Nepal’s Ministry of Energy is proposed in the stretch of Karnali River as it flows past three districts, Surkhet, Achham and Dailekh. The project was licensed to India’s GMR but the company was not able to achieve financial closure. The Indian company had signed PDA in 2014 with a provision requiring it to complete financial closure in 2 years. GMR was not able to achieve the target and the deadline was extended.12 As per this agreement, 12 per cent of installed capacity (108 MW in monsoon season and 36 MW in winter season) have been earmarked as the share to Nepal at commercial rate. It will cost about NPR 116 billion to build and provide benefits valued at NPR 431 billion over a period of 25 years called jewel in the crown; this project has a long history and was supposed to be built with an installed capacity of 4,180 MW to meet various domestic
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power needs. Many in Nepal consider this agreement as a sell out to an Indian company and the agreement has fueled contestations between the two countries as well as locally. The company aims to sell the power to Bangladesh. Nepal and Bangladesh have signed a MoU to that end.
Flooding: Many sections of the basin along the river valley are prone to flooding and landslides. Some of the large-scale flood events that have impacted the area are described below.
2008: Between September 19 and September 21, 2008, Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur and the hill districts of Dang, Dadeldhura, Doti and Salyan faced torrential rainfall. Rainfall stations at Tikapur in Kailali District and Shantipur in Kanchanpur District recorded 282.7 mm and 249.9 mm of rainfall, respectively on 20 September. The high precipitation caused widespread flooding that affected 158,663 people (23,660) households in Kailali District and 30,733 people (5,961) households in Kanchanpur District. The floods destroyed 35% of the paddy crop. The construction of roads and irrigation canals perpendicular to the north-south flow of rivers exacerbated the impact of the floods.
2014: A weather system over the region from August 14-16, 2014, resulted in widespread flooding in the lower Karnali and Babai rivers. The floods led to death of killed 222 people and affected 34,760 families (173,800 people). Altogether 5,936 families (29,680 people) were displaced. More than 1,240 houses were destroyed and 435 were damaged. Roads, bridges, local markets, and transport vehicles were damaged, livestock was killed and crops and daily consumables were destroyed.
2017: Incessant rainfall from August 11 to 14 in 2017 led to widespread flooding across 35 districts of Nepal, 18 of which were severely affected. The lower Karnali river basin was also severely affected: The total loss was valued at NPR 1,341.6 million.
Flood Warning Systems: Community-based early warning systems have been installed at Chisapani in the Karnali River and at Chepang in the Babai River. Such systems have also been installed in Rangun Khola and Bauligaad. Community disaster management committees (CDMCs) have also been formed and other preparedness awareness and systems have been put in place. Gauge readers are provided with a cell phone and have been trained to record gauge data and transmit flood warnings. In 2014, this system had saved many lives.
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West Rapti Basin Irrigation: The basin has three irrigation projects
Sikta Irrigation Project13: The Sikta Irrigation Project uses water from the West Rapti River to irrigate a 42,766 ha command area in Banke District. The project area covers 34 erstwhile VDCs and parts of Nepalgunj municipality. The total project cost was USD 98.3 million. The headwork of the irrigation canal is situated in Agaiya, Banke District. The minimum discharge of the river is 8.5 m3/s; the maximum, 8,255 m3 /s.
Praganna Irrigation Project14: This project has a gross command area of 6,684 ha on the right bank of the Rapti River in Deukhuri Valley and serves a population of about 31,700. It comprises of 18 farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMISs) with a total canal length of about 150 km. Each system has a different discharge capacity, command area and length. The 18 systems have been designed to be integrated into two major systems (one for Barahakhutti and the other for the rest under one project. The project aims to irrigate 5,800 ha of cultivable land in the Dang-Deukhuri valley using water from three rivers, the West Rapti, the Dolahi and the Kaudiya. The project has credit support of the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development and from the GoN. The local farmers have also contributed to the project estimated to cost NPR 403 million. The construction began in June 2002. Its dry season flow will be 6 m3/s (Irrigation Annual Booklet, 2073/74).
Hydropower: The basin has the following hydropower projects:
Jhimruk Project: The Jhimruk hydropower project (JHP) is a run-of-river plant situated in Pyuthan District. The Jhimruk River is diverted to the Mari River via a tunnel to gain a head of 200 m. The plant began generating 12 MW in August 1994. Butwal Power Company began work on the project in the late 1980s.
Proposed Projects: The Jalkundi storage project and the Bhaluwang dam (or, instead, the Naumure multi-purpose dam project) have been proposed for the basin. Both the Bhaluwang and the Naumure dams are parts of the GoN’s vision for developing water resources in the West Rapti basin. Nepal’s Department of Irrigation proposes diverting the Mari River through a 25-km tunnel to irrigate 40,000 ha of land in Dang District and to generate 86 MW. We do not consider these proposals in this study.
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Flooding: Flooding is a serious problem in Phatepur of Banke District as well as Nepalgunj Municipality, and also the villages which border Uttar Pradesh, India including Betahani, Holiya, and Binauna. In 2014, the Middle Rapti region and Dang valley also received major cloudburst and flooding that caused loss of lives and properties.
Development Programs The following project-based activities are being implemented in the MKWR basins.
Knowledge-Based Integrated Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrition (KISAN) project: This USAID-funded project was being implemented in 20 districts of provinces 5, 6 and 7 to increase agricultural productivity and improve nutrition by facilitating access to markets, and also to thereby increase the incomes of farm families and reduce poverty and hunger. The project implements climate-smart technologies to enhance productivity and profitability and provides training in business development skills. It also helps to build capacity for implementing the GoN policies and regulations designed for strengthening market systems.
Transboundary Rivers of South Asia (TROSA): This five-year project was launched in Nepal and also includes India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is working in four districts of the Mahakali river basin. Its objective is to promote policies and practices that protect the rights of riverine communities. It also aims to strengthen the capacity of river basin communities and societies to get their voices heard in decision-making about trans-boundary water resource management and in income generation. The activities include establishing early warning systems on Mahakali River basin and collecting information about the challenges, opportunities and good practices of riverine communities. The project aims to present the findings to the GoN for further action.
Small Irrigation Program (SIP): The Small Irrigation Project (SIP-Phase I) is being implemented in the four districts of Achham, Dailekh, Jajarkot and Kalikot in provinces 6 and 7. The program aims at increasing the incomes rural people, especially selected households of disadvantaged groups, derived from agriculture by increasing the percentage of farmland under irrigation. The program supports the construction of small-scale irrigation schemes and strengthens the capacity of both executing agencies as well as water users' associations in a socially inclusive fashion.
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Nepal Climate Change Support Program (NCCSP): This program was designed to implement the integrated management of agriculture, water, forest and biodiversity to ensure that the poorest and the most vulnerable communities in Nepal are able to adapt the effects of climate change through climate-resilient development. NCCSP developed 100 local adaptation plans of action (LAPAs) in 14 districts of the mid- and far-western development regions and provided the most vulnerable of groups access to climate-resilient adaptation support and clean energy technologies.
Suhara: This USAID-funded five-year project strives to improve health and nutrition of women and children in the first 1000 days after conception (until a child reaches two years of age). The project addresses issues such as water, sanitation and hygiene, anemia, reproductive health, menstrual hygiene, food diversity, and pregnancy health services. It recognizes the role a multi-sectoral approach can play in helping it reach its goal and supports the GoN’s Multi-sectoral Nutrition Plan and Hygiene and Sanitation Master Plan. Suhara has successfully reached more than 600,000 households with its integrated nutrition program.
Rural Village Water Resources Management Project (RVWRMP): This project works with local people and municipalities to achieve 100% access to safe drinking water supply and basic sanitation in villages in provinces 6 and 7. The project provides renewable energy, improved cooking stoves and improved water mills to the poorest of the poor. It also supports climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction, GESI and water resource governance. By the end of the project, nearly one million people are expected to have domestic water supply, basic household sanitation facilities and home gardens.
Hariyo Ban: This program aims to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and promote biodiversity conservation. The first phase of this program helped reduce carbon dioxide emissions and implement climate change adaptations in 29 districts in Tarai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL). It also helped the GoN in its efforts to conserve rare and endangered species, develop strategies and action plans, declare the Pokhara lake cluster a Ramsar site, and prepare a climate-smart management plan.
Government-Run Programs The following government-supported programs were operational in the West Rapti river basin.
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1. Rashtrapati Chure-Tarai-Madesh Conservation 2. Wildlife Conservation Program 3. Community and Leasehold Forest Program 4. National Forestry Program 5. Tree Improvement, Plantation and Private Forest Development Program 6. Settlement: The current year’s Plan and Policy of Karnali Province government has proposal to develop urban settlement in river bank of Karnali and allocated NPR 105 million.
Final Observation The MKWR river basins have diverse geographical, ecological and social milieu in which terrestrial, aquatic and human communities live in conjunction with the larger political context and the change dynamics, including geopolitical. Within this complexity the basins' waterscape—all forms of water in atmosphere, surface, soil and underneath the ground and their availability for different uses— fundamental to the life of human and ecological communities is available. The river basins are undergoing rapid changes. These manifest in the changes in stock and flow of the ecological resources, the use systems (both natural and human built), users and rules-in-use that mediate interactions among the resources, uses and users. The next chapter incorporates these interactions in the conceptual framework.
Notes
1 The British were also interested in trade of species, cotton and silk from India to Europe. 2 For details, see Gyawali (2003) 3 It is difficult to specify the completion date as hydropower projects face major time and cost overruns. 4 Add energy reference 5 Nepal in Data accessed on 12 April 2019. 6 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/feb/06/young-woman-dies-fourth-period-hut-tragedy- this-year-nepal 7 6.3 % of GDP (NRB, 2017). 8 Since it is difficult to demarcate the groundwater aquifers according to administrative boundary we take all four districts in the lower Karnali and Mahakali basins. 9 See Wester, et al (2019). 10 This based on Practical Action (2019) for details. 11 Irrigation Annual Booklet (2073/74) 12 The Himalayan Times dated 8th September, 2018, quoting Minister for Energy Barshman Pun. According to the report by Setopati dated 19th Sep, 2018, Promoter of the Upper Karnali Hydropower Project Grandh Mallikarju- na Rao (GMR) has applied for extension of the deadline for financial closure for the third time. IBN Spokesper- son Joint Secretary Uttam Bhakta Wagle told Setopati that GMR had applied for another extension a few days before the deadline expired. 13 http://www.gitec-igip.com/IDP-Nepal/SIKTA_MR/Main_report_frame.htm 14 http://geoceconsultants.com/briefs-of-projects-on-irrigation-drainage-and-flood-control/
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2 The Conceptual Framework
Preamble This study has considered political economy analysis (PEA) to be an integrated approach capable of capturing the dynamic interactions among the use, control, and allocation of water, policy-making and political power. In the 12 watersheds in the MKWR river basins, the study examined the dynamic interactions among climatic and hydrological variability, human behavior shaped by socio-economic contexts, social arrangements, environmental and human-built systems, institutions, and politics to assess the changing political economy of water in those basins. The PEA examined i) the distribution of power and wealth in a society with interest groups and political elites with competing claims to rights and resources and ii) the processes that generate wealth, and influence the choices made while negotiating the distribution of rights and resources individually or collectively. The PEA suggests ways to promote the conservation and resilience of freshwater biodiversity and integrated water resource management (IWRM) and to advance the inclusive social and economic development goals of the Paani Program.
The PEA examined the responses to water challenges of four groups of stakeholders: 1) agencies of the state (elected representatives at the local, provincial and federal levels; political parties and government officials at these levels; and donors, both bilateral and multilateral), 2) the private sector (independent power producers, suppliers and service providers, managers and operators, print media and television, innovators, and startups), 3) civic groups (academics, local leaders, associations, universities, research groups, INGOs/NGOs, CBOs, cooperatives, community radios), and 4) the marginalized (women, the vulnerable, the poor, and those indigenous groups that depend on fisheries). Depending upon its world view, perception of risk, and use of evidence, each group has different incentives and pursues different pathways to further its interests. It is our hope that champions (men and women who speak for rights of each group) will engage creatively in the policy space and exercise their resources, agency and power for resilient fresh water ecosystems and equitable society.
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Framework The framework the study has adopted builds on the principle of IWRM: it maintains that conserving freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR river basins requires balancing the use of ecological resources, use systems and the response of users as mediated by evolving institutions (rules, laws and regulations).
Details of these three elements are provided in Table1 and the interfaces discussed shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.
TABLE 1: DETAILS OF THE THREE ELEMENTS OF THE FRAMEWORK
Elements Description Ecological resources Physiography, climate, hydrology, land/soil, flora and fauna, Use systems: Ecological use Water and ecological resources needed byhuman, terrestrial and aquatic system communities. Human use system Hydro-engineering interventions to use water resources for irrigation, hydropower generation, flood control, water supply and sanitation, navigation, water-based touristic activities like rafting, extraction of mineral and non-mineral materials from riverine environments. Users The state and its agencies at various levels Householders, both men and women, and communities, fishing groups, civic groups (formal and informal) community-level collective action institutions. Private entities like hydropower developers, sand and gravel extractors/ contractors. Institutions Rules-in-use (formal and informal rules and customary practices).
FIGURE 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Efficiency sustainability Physiography, Climate, Practices Equity Hydrology, Land/Soil, Water Institutions Flora and Fauna sustainability Practices Institutions
Users x Ecological Resources Ecological Resources x Use System Ecological Resources
User Use System
Men/Women Community Ecological Use (Aquatic, Terrestrial) Civic Enterprise (Common Pool) Human Use (Hydropower, State Private Entities Irrigation, Water Supply, Sanitation, Navigation, Flood Mitigation) Users x Use System
Practices Institutions 49 Productivity Equity POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The framework uses insights from and a theoretical foundation built on research into human behavior (agency), governance (institutions) and systems dynamics. Promoting the integration of contextual understanding, scientific, social science and indigenous knowledge; and grounded experience, the PEA investigated the systemic and behavioral drivers of vulnerability, freshwater biodiversity and conservation in the three basins. The study has located the challenges of conservation of freshwater bio-diversity within the larger landscape of Nepal’s infrastructural development and increasing pace of urbanization. The PEA then identified points of entry for using the insights gained to promote conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the basins.
In the process, the PEA has aimed to empower poor and marginalized groups, building their adaptive capacity. Furthermore, it responded to the current concerns of vulnerable communities and addressed three critical challenges: (1) the gap between policies and local realities; (2) the need to improve people’s well-being by increasing access to basic services, and (3) enabling and directing freshwater biodiversity conservation practices. By fostering resilient systems managed by responsive agents within appropriate institutional spaces and policies, the PEA will help to address the needs of conservation of freshwater biodiversity, and marginal communities.
The framework is helpful to promote practices that produce sustainable outcomes for human and ecological communities. It posits that more responsive institutions at all levels are capable of balancing the three active entities of the river basins: ecological resources use systems and users. The challenge is in identifying those organizations and individuals (and their groups) that could lead, design and steer changes in the processes (institutions, policies rules, and regulations) and practices in order to make existing interactions more sustainable.
Interactions among ecological resources, use system and users create three interfaces between ecological resources and use systems, i.e. the way ecological resources (land, soil, water, flora and fauna) are harnessed and usedby ecological and human communities, ii) between users and use systems, i.e. the way resources are harnessed, appropriated and used by diverse groups of users (the state and its agencies, men and women in households, communities, civic enterprises and private sector entities; and iii) between ecological resources and users, including those who practice sensible use (custodians and stewards) and abuse (degraders) of ecological resources. The PEA thus aimed to understand the dynamics of interaction (rules-in- use as well as losers and winners). It has also identified champions who could help change the policy space surrounding freshwater biodiversity through their existing and potential abilities and their roles in leading towards sustainable outcomes at
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the three interfaces. Individuals and their groups and organizations, both formal and informal, that the change processes and can benefit from them are defined as champions.
Study Methodology Coverage: This study covered 12 priority watersheds in the MKWR in provinces 5, 6 (Karnali Pradesh) and 7 (Sudur Paschim Pradesh). The three basins cover 53,800 km2 and are home to a population of 8,622,207 in 1,653,533 households, or 36.5% and 32.5% of total area and total population of the country, respectively. The priority watersheds cover 8,127 km2 or 15.1 % of the area and are home to 1,160,475 or 13.5% of the population of the three basins. Focused group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) were organized to understand both inter- and intra-watershed differences in natural resource management.
Approach The study involved a four-step approach as follows:
Step-1: Analysis of problem context and practices:
• Mapping and analysis of resources and their use and users • Analysis of structural context (demography, cultural context, historical legacy, politics, policy, knowledge and technology) • Analysis of institutions (rules-of-the-game, formal, informal and customary), and • Analysis of power, incentives, behavior and practices.
Step-2: Identification and mapping of champions.
Step-3: Capacitating champions (training and capacity-building).
Step-4: Making recommendations on mobilizing champions to lead a campaign designed to promote IWRM and freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins.
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Methodological Tools
The following methodological tools were used: Literature Review: Reviewing the literatures related to the PEA methodology, indicators of freshwater biodiversity, freshwater biodiversity monitoring systems, and engaging champions in natural resources conservation helped us develop our own methodology. Similarly, reviews of policies and ongoing and past interventions in the MKWR basins helped us to understand the nature of the government’s focus on natural resource management and freshwater biodiversity conservation, generally, and in relation to the eight thematic areas of the Paani program (freshwater biodiversity, wetland biodiversity, capture fishery, aggregate mining, sustainable hydropower, irrigation, road development, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaption).
Analysis and Synthesis of Data from Secondary Sources: We made use of data on population and demography, climate and hydrology, and livelihoods in the watersheds as well as information on the distribution of natural resources, forests, irrigation, hydropower development, and aggregate extraction and mining. District level data obtained from the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) included information on socio-economic characteristics, poverty, food security and human development and related it to the watersheds.
Participatory Inquiry and Analysis: We examined structural contexts and institutions and analyzed power, incentives, and the behaviors of diverse groups of stakeholders. A multidisciplinary team of professionals held participatory inquiries in all 12 watersheds to build in-depth understanding of the dynamics of local natural resources, the diverse stakeholders using and managing those resources, the institutional arrangements of use and the role of indigenous and local knowledge and practices. This information was used to assess connections between terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity as well as the pressures and stresses upon natural resources dynamics. These inquiries helped us identify practices in the action in the conservation and management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.
The following tools were used:
Stakeholders’ Consultations: Consultations with relevant stakeholders at the watershed level helped us to generate a broad overview of the use and management of natural resources as well as stressors on terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, and
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the impact pathways. This information helped us map stakeholders at the watershed level and categorize them according to power in and influence on the conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. This exercise helped us in identifying champions for the conservation of aquatic biodiversity. The consultations also provided a basis for locating hot spots where detailed inquiries using FGDs, PRA and physical and participants’ observation were done, as did the field-level staff of the Paani Program and citizen-scientists.
Focused Group Discussions (FGDs): FGDs helped us understand community- specific dynamics regarding natural resource use and management within the watershed. Information related to communities’ perceptions of changes in terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, climate change, the effects of development interventions, local-level initiatives in conserving and promoting freshwater biodiversity and the role of the local knowledge, practices and institutional arrangements were documented. That information was then used to identify the social groups that faced structural exclusion and deprivation as well as disadvantages (or advantages) in natural resource use and management. Further inquiries helped us to dig out the reason behind those advantages and disadvantages.
A checklist guided the discussions. It helped trigger exchanges between the study team and participants. A total of 71 FGDs were held across the 12 watersheds. Together they helped us understand both inter- and intra- watershed differences in natural resource management.
Key Informant Interviews: Interviews with 114 key informants helped us to expand the thematic issues of the Paani Program and to substantiate the information on freshwater biodiversity obtained from the FGDs. Key informants included civil society leaders, functionaries of users’ organizations, elected representatives and officials in local government agencies. The interviews helped to capture the processes that shape local contexts and could influence natural resource dynamics.
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Champions Identifcation and Profling: This step involved two stages. In the first, individuals and formal and informal organizations at the local level who had contributed to or had been engaged in furthering policies and practices in freshwater biodiversity conservation at the local, provincial/river basin or national levels were identified and a first-order list of potential champions of freshwater biodiversity conservation created. This list was extended using evidence in the media, personal knowledge and research and knowledge products and then narrowed down in consultation with Paani Program.
In the second stage, the identified champions were further assessed in shared learning dialogues (SLDs). This step helped further analyze evidence and leadership qualities and professed values, leading to preparation of a second list.
Capacitating: The Paani Program aims to create basin-sub-basin/watershed- and local-level institutional arrangements in which champions will engage to sustain IWRM and thereby promote the freshwater biodiversity conservation agenda in the MKWR basins. This arrangement is likely to be some kind of river basin/province/ sub-basin and watershed/local level organization that builds on existing institutional structures and heavily involves civic organizations.
A multi-stakeholder platform that works hand in hand with local, provincial and federal government agencies would be a useful approach. The champions will assume the roles of innovators, knowledge-brokers and advocates in order to exert pressure for policy and institutional reforms using the platform. By building the capacity of these champions, the Paani Program would create space for their engagement as well as a support system for their roles. The PEA study has provided inputs to this design.
Interactions involving the study team, Paani personnel, and key stakeholders and identified champions were organized at the sub-basin/basin/province and federal levels. These dialogues enabled researchers to inform champions about challenges that freshwater biodiversity faces as well as to build appreciation of the importance of freshwater biodiversity conservation. It is hoped that such champions will help identify a path (institutional arrangement and support system) for them to play a creative role.
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The study has suggested both the institutional arrangements and the processes needed to operationalize IWRM for freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins. It has also identified ways to help champions in producing desirable outcomes beyond the project period and has also provided a set of recommendations relating to building the capacity of champions and CBOs to carry out IWRM campaigns and engage the media.
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River basins: State of Art 3 and Stresses
In this chapter, we introduce each of the 12 sub-watersheds using insights from fieldwork, discussions, watershed reports and secondary documents. Following the discussion, we present in tabular form, the problems faced, cause of the problems and their impacts for each watershed. Subsequently, we present examples from on-going activities which provide a basis for further action to reach the goal of conserving freshwater. Finally, for each watershed, we highlight challenges that need to be addressed to balance conservation of freshwater biodiversity with development. Then we present the challenges to be overcome. Finally, for each watershed, we highlight challenges that need to be addressed to balance such conservation of freshwater biodiversity with development. We then identify pressures and stresses in watersheds that undermine the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. A summary of the indicators of each watershed, some of which are referred to in this chapter, are provided in Annex 2.
West Seti Watershed
Context The watershed mainly drains Bajhang District and is located within the Karnali River Basin. About 97% of the watershed is in the district and remaining 3% in Doti and Bajura districts. The watershed has a drainage density of 618 m/km2: total area 1,488 km², and total drainage length of 963 km. The elevation varies from 750 to 7,077 amsl (above mean sea level.) Seti Nadi, Kalanga Khola, Bauligaad,Tarugaad, Sunigaad, Talkotgaad,Jadarigaad, Bhayagutegaad, Listigaad, Ghatganga, Vidigaad, Ganaigaad are tributaries of the West Seti. The watershed has 10 rural municipalities and two urban municipalities. Each local jurisdiction is unique though they have few common features in terms of low human development and migration.
The average monthly temperature of the watershed varies from 12oC, in winter, to about 26oC in summer at lower elevations. The watershed has clear signs of climate change: winter precipitation (snowfall and rainfall) has declined and become erratic while average maximum and minimum temperatures have been increasing. About 90% of population has access to drinking water but depleting springs pose threat to the delivery of this basic service. In most cases, water is supplied through community taps while in Chainpur, the district headquarters, some private users buy water from
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adjoining sources. This is a new trend. The task of collecting water still rests with women. Drying of springs is a common issue almost across the district. Locals perceive that springs are depleting due to haphazard road construction, deforestation, lack of water source conservation, land-use changes,and erratic and low rainfall.
The basin has an area of 1,487.5 km2 and its land use is as follows: Forest and shrub occupy 51%, grazing land 15%, cultivated land 20%, river/stream 2%, and barren land and rocks 13%.The major forest types in the watershed are mixed hardwood forest 53%, sal forest 1%, pine forest 18%, sisau forest 1%, Banjh forest 20%, Himalayan fir 4%, and deodar 3%.A total of 217 species of birds, 18 species of mammals, 567 species of flowering plants including 4 endemic, and 15 species of butterflies have been recorded in the area. Major fishes found in this area are Asala (Schizothorax sp), Kathyal (Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis), Chiu, Pate, Satto and Pande. Pande fish is found mostly in the irrigation canals (Paani, 2018).
The total population of the basin is 195,159 of which 48%is male and 52% female. The major ethnic groups residing in this watershed area are Brahmin, Chhetri, Thakuri, Dalit and Janjati. The Brahmin/ Chhetri / Thakuri group comprises 72.76%, Dalit 20.75% and Janjati 2.0%. Most of the communities are engaged in farming and produce crops and vegetables such as rice, nettle, wheat, maize, mustard and marsi (Local variety of rice) for household’s consumption. Most of agriculture is rain fed except in valley bottoms where land is irrigated but far water management is poor. In some communities, farmers still use natural compost instead of chemical fertilizers. This may be changing with penetration of roads and markets. Bajhang has high seasonal labor migration to India, which is also a historical trend.
Solid waste disposal is an emerging water quality threat in headquarters like Chainpur and new ribbon settlements. In rural settlements away from the rivers, disposal is a challenge but could be minimized through enforcement of local regulation. In Khaptadchanna, rural municipality where Paani had assigned citizen scientists, community representatives said that they need to work with gaunpaalika and use the learning of the citizen scientists. They also recognized the need to develop procedures for maintaining local data base of water quality and other aquatic resources in the ward offices. Though there is no specific agreement to this end between the scientist and the rural municipality, it is an action rural municipality must pursue. In this rural municipality farmers use organic fertilizers. Many settlements in the West Seti watershed have been declared Open Defecation Free (ODF) zones. The local said the practice of untouchability was decreasing, and 99% of girls attended school.
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Few in the communities said that poison, bomb and electric current were not used to kill fish. But others said, these practices continue. People said that fish stocks have been depleting but had no idea of the quantity depleted, and there was no systematic data based to verify this. Further, locals said that river flows were decreasing while sedimentation had increased. Both water flow and river level declined with the onset of winter. The people have observed less snow on mountains that they said were “blackish”. The elevations where consultations had been held had low snow fall, deposit and less melt water. The trend had lasted for almost 12 years. Data on snow fall was not available, which in Nepal is rarely measured. People used their own way to measure snowfall: ankle-deep snow referred to scarcity, knee deep was normal, and above knee level meant a wet season. The deficit snow has affected local agriculture but systematic monitoring did not exist.
In 2019 January, the upper slopes of the West Seti watershed experienced excessive snowfall that was reported widely in local and national media. This precipitation could be due to anomalous behavior of the winter winds influenced by climate change but attribution is not possible due to paucity of data and lack scientific studies. The local practice of measuring snow can help monitor the ongoing changes in region’s snow dynamics and its potential consequences on the regional hydrological system. This practice must be linked to scientific measurements. The data base thus established can help in planning adaptation measures. Point source pollution was increasing as untreated solid and liquid wastes were directly discharged in to water bodies. This was not monitored.
Road construction had reached all parts of the watershed and is changing both the local ecosystem and social dynamics. Roads have led to increased penetration of consumer goods such as instant noodles, alcohol, and seemingly modern concrete buildings had also begun appearing. The roads, however, were poorly built and remain as source mass wasting and threat to the local environment. The road sections are washed during the monsoon and require major repairs. Penetration of communication technology was also bringing major changes with increasing use of social media for seeking information, in some case also about market prices.
The district’s rural municipalities have many micro hydro plants. Khaptadchanna, for example, has 11 micro hydro plants (10kW to 45 kW) and the electricity is used for domestic purposes (lighting, charging mobile phones and TV). However, for cooking households people continue to rely on firewood from local forest because it is common, readily available and free. These micro hydro plants have been the source of electricity for several years now, but it is unclear how this power will be integrated
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once the region is connected to Integrated Nepal Power System (INPS). Some people feared that the small systems could become redundant if up-linking technology and institutional challenges are not addressed. Bajhang has been linked to the INPS. Many households in some of the rural municipalities do not have electricity supply while some households have installed solar panels for lighting. Some communities still use traditional lamps. Women in these communities understood the health hazards of using biomass for cooking and were willing to shift to cleaner electric stoves. This would need support and advocacy
TABLE 1: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Unplanned and haphazard road Communities demand for more Loss of terrestrial and aquatic constructions roads and they are being built biodiversity and increasing cost to without conducting due IEE/EIA as local community well as mitigative measures Rising pollution in urbanizing Lack of regulation and low Decreasing quality of river areas awareness level to manage waste water is a threat to freshwater biodiversity Drying up of spring water sources Unplanned road construction Scarcity of water for drinking and and erratic rainfall spawned by irrigation needs climate change Erratic rainfall pattern and Impact of climate change Decreasing water level in the decrease in snowfall rivers impacts agricultural production and affects freshwater diversity. Increasing instances of localized Unplanned and poorly built roads Damages to settlements, flood and landslide and frequent extreme rainfall households, livestock and rivers events Depleting freshwater biodiversity Decreasing water level and quality Loss of freshwater and of water in rivers biodiversity negative impacts on livelihood of the communities depending Economic Migration of young men seeking Limited local job opportunities Increased absence of youth has secure jobs and regular income. social repercussions such as the increased workload on women Inability to capitalize on local Lack of technical and marketing Limited off-farm job opportunities agricultural products and make knowledge, low extension adds to people depending additional income supports by agriculture on nature based vulnerable knowledge center and lack of livelihood. irrigation facilities Social Some communities are reluctant Lack of awareness firewood is Health hazards for women due to to shift to clean energy for cheaper for people to use from indoor air pollution cooking. local forest (free) than electricity.
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Political Interrelationship of provincial and Delay in adapting to the new Impact on planning and Local government is confusing to governance mechanism implementation, improper community. targeting and utilization of budget Existing policy provision such Lack of information about existing People remain unaware of as EIA/IEE not applied when provisions and poor coordination policies, development objectives, rural roads are planned and among government agencies as and in some cases, obstruct constructed. all three levels projects or do not get adequate services. Rural and urban municipality Poor investment in knowledge Limited knowledge affects authorities lack adequate sharing mechanism planning and effective program information implementation Lack of technical expertise and Officials do not want to serve in Few officials cannot respond to sufficient human resources in the rural areas. crisis situation and delivery of local government agencies quality service is affected. Poor management of buffer zone The committee members have Depleting quality of national park, activities not received support in pursing inability to utilize it to promote tasks tourism and support local livelihoods
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: Successes that the Paani Program can build on to conserve freshwater biodiversity was evident at Khaptadchhana Gaunpalika, which is situated along the buffer zone of Khaptad National Park (KNP). There local communities took pride in asserting that their Gaunpalika had a balanced environment. In the past, the local communities implemented many micro-hydro plants. A stretch of Jadaarigaad, a tributary of West Seti, had 11 micro hydropower plants whose capacities ranged from 10 kW to 45 kW. Together, they generated 125 kW of electricity, which was used for lighting, operating television and charging mobile phones. The canals of these micro hydropower schemes were also used for irrigation. Because the beneficiaries of irrigation and hydropower are the same, there is, according to locals, no dispute between irrigation and hydropower users. Such conflict-free, multiple use of water may be a useful approach to pursue, while its management arrangement needs deeper examination.
Community taps provide drinking water to municipal residents, toilets are built outside houses and households dispose waste in pits. Settlements are scattered across the Jadarigaad’s sub-watershed, and, because waste is not disposed of in the river, water quality was good. However, the basic parameters of water quality do need to be measured in cooperation with the rural municipality. While municipal and ward-level officials recognized the importance of data on river water quality, their capacity to collect and analyzed needs enhancement. Officials expressed willingness
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a number of tributaries, Missichaur, Kawa, Thado, Bihani, Nakharji, Kahka, Nauli, Buichana, Dudhe and Lyachudi. Fed by these rivers, Khatayad Khola joins Mugu Karnali River. Khatyad region, the arrow valley along Khtyad Khola, is the paddy growing region of Mugu District. It also locally known as granary and rice bowl of the district.
The Khatyad Khola if fed by rainfall, snowmelt, spring sources and return flow from irrigated areas along the mainstem and its tributaries. The Khatyad Khola and its tributaries are used for irrigation, hydropower generation, drinking water supply, other domestic uses such as cleaning, washing and bathing. The rivers and tributaries also sustain the rivers’ riparian vegetation and aquatic life. Given the fact that the region is remote, the water quality was high. In the water profile of the Rara watershed, the dissolve oxygen of river was recorded between 6.05 to 8.64 mg/l. This threshold is sufficient for the survival of aquatic life1. It is necessary to take prudent measures to ensure that the threshold and quality are maintained to enhance both quality lives of local people while ensuring environmental health.
Increasing number of domestic and foreign tourists visiting Rara Lake both is a challenge and opportunity. The lake covers an area of 1,583 ha, with average depth of 100 m and 167 m at its deepest point. According to locals, the water level remained unchanged even in the driest years2. The temple of Thakurnath, an incarnation of Lord Shiva, located in the South-East corner of Lake is a place of religious and cultural significance. People in the area believe that lord Thakurnath created a waterway to drain Rara Lake and reduced risk of flooding in the surrounding areas because the lake was dammed. The unchanged water level of the lake is an outcome of balanced inflow and outflow but increasing temperature and erratic rainfall patterns could pose risks.
Land use and land cover of the area comprised of cultivated land, forest, shrub and grazing lands, and area occupied by the lakes and water bodies. The distribution of land area included cultivated land-49.2%, forest-25.2%, grazing land 3.5%, lakes and water bodies-1.8% and barren land-20.3%. The area has rich forest cover and diversity of flora and fauna, including availability of more than 20 different types of medicinal herbs. The medicinal plants available in the area are commercially important and include Kutki (Neopircrorhizascrophulariflora), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Bikh (Aconitum spicatum), Pakhanbed (Bergiacillata), Lekh-satuwa (Trillidiumgovanianum), Godano (Pleurospermumdentatum), Padamchal (Rheum australe), Chuli (Prunus cornuta), Kakarsingi (insect gall on Pistaciachinensissubsp. integerrima), and roots of Kutki (Neopircrorhizascrophulariflora), Jatamasi
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to systematize data, to make it publicly available and to begin discussions with local officials and community representatives. People said that, unlike five yearsago, people no longer use electricity or other inappropriate practices to kill fish. The locals said they had also limited use of commercial fertilizers to become certified as organic. The local community was aware that it is essential to keep rivers and streams clean and prevent their degradation and were passionate about conserving them. This local sentiment must be built upon. In particular, the local capacity to conserve rivers and manage resources in the buffer zone must be built.
Challenges: The watershed faces many challenges. One challenge is the increase in the pollution of settlements such as Chainpur municipality. Tackling pollution should be a topic of immediate dialogue because Chainpur’s drinking water supply system was being upgraded and time was opportune for municipal officials to introduce measures for treating the liquid and solid wastes generated. The waste was dumped untreated in the West Seti River. Adopting proper waste disposal measures can help to develop good practices in the delivery of quality services, minimize pollution and conserve freshwater biodiversity. The best of these practices can be replicated in other parts of the MKWR basins. The construction of hydropower plants in compliance with e-flow provisions can be enhanced by engaging the private promoter building hydropower plants in the Kalanga River, a tributary of West Seti [Upper kalangagaad Hydropower (HEP) (28.46 MW), Kalangagaad HEP (15.33 MW), Sanigaad HEP (10.7 MW), Lower Kalanga HEP (8 MW) and Upper Kalanga gaad HEP (4 MW)]. The promoters were supporting activities such as reforestation and the building of local roads, drinking water systems and schools as a part of corporate social responsibility. Discussions need to be held with the promoter to ensure compliance with e-flow policy provisions and the conservation of fish with the objective of developing good practices for promoting both development and conservation through hydropower projects. This would be an important case study.
Rara-Khatyad Watershed
Context Rara-Khatyad watershed covers Chhayanath-Rara Municipality and Khatyad Rural Municipality of Mugu District. It covers an area of 308 km2 of high mountain ecology. The average elevation of the watershed is 2,439 m with the highest point at 3,956 and lowest point at 1,145 amsl. Springs and snow melt from surrounding ridges supply water to the Rara Lake. Khatayad Khola originates at the lake outlet. The river has
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(Nardostachys grandiflora) and Guchche-chyau (Morchellaconica). The watershed is inhibited by diverse range of social and ethnic groups.
Natural vegetation included mixed hardwood forest, which comprised 68% of the total natural vegetation diversity, 19.2% of the vegetation comprised oak, 7.4% pine forest and 2.7% Himalayan Fir, 2.6% hardwood Deodar and Sisoo, and Sal forests in lower belts of Khatyad that has sub-tropical climate. Bhojpatra is sporadically grow in the natural forest. The undergrowth in the public and community forest comprised of medicinal herbs. Mugu District is known for high annual production of medicinal herbs. The natural vegetation growing in and around Rara Lake include reeds (Phargmites), bushes (Juncus) and Sedges (Fimbristylis). Phytoplanktonic algae and floating vegetation like Polygonum and Sessile (Myriophyllum), which are important part of the food chain of the fishes and migratory birds, are also found in the lake.
Rara Lake and its feeder streams contain diverse species of rare, endemic game fishes that have high scientific, cultural and recreational value. Three endemic species of snow trouts, Schizothoraxrarensis, S.macrophthalmus and S. Nepalensis are found in the lake.A study carried out by Shrestha (2017), shows that there are seven fish species in the Rara Lake. Garraannandalei (Hora) is common fish in Rara Lake and Khatyad Khola. Locally, it is called Buduna fish3.
The population of the area was 16,919. Demographically, 60% of the total population belonged to Khas-Arya group, which includes caste groups such as Brahmin, Chhetri, Thakuri and Sanyasi (BCTS), 24% to Dalit and rest 16%, Janajati. The livelihood of the people was based on natural resources. Crop cultivation and livestock rearing, collection of medicinal herbs and firewood, and daily wage labor were the primary occupations and sources of income for large section of the people. Seasonal migration to India for wage earning was a traditional source of supplemental earning for large section of population. This has now declined with the opening up of some employment opportunities within the area as a result on construction of buildings, roads and other infrastructures and also in the urbanizing vicinity. Other economic activities, such as capture fishery, running small shops and tea stalls, stone queries for slate and collection of sand and river aggregates had been adopted as part time enterprises for supplementing household incomes. Less than 10% of households had one or more members in the family working outside the country and only less than 8% of households had one or more members in the family employed in government and private sector jobs. Overall, nearly 90% of the population depended on crop and livestock-based enterprises for sustenance. Almost 12% of the population was
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engaged in daily wage earning work. Nearly 17% of the population did capture fishery to supplement both diets and incomes.
The farmers in the area said both temperature and rainfall had changed and new crops not common to the area could now be grown. For example, banana, orange and lemon are some plants that the people had begun growing. The area under apple orchard has declined significantly because of rise in temperature. People’s observation revealed that the area had become warmer compared to what it was until a decade ago, the rainfall had become highly unpredictable, the frequency of high intensity and short duration rainfall had increased, and occurrence of snowfall in winter had declined significantly. The average monthly temperature of the watershed varied between 3oC, in winter, to about 15oC in summer. The average rainfall during winter (December–February), pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon (June–September) were 100 mm, 158 mm, 462 mm and 34 mm respectively4.
TABLE 2: PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Wild life human conflict is Declaration of National Park has Affected households cannot increasing not considered needs of local pursue traditional vocation and communities. their source of livelihood has been affected. Low flows in tributaries in two Erratic rainfall and reduced The amount of water in dry decades, many small tributaries snowfall in the upper reaches season is reduced for local uses have dried up like drinking, irrigation etc. Riparian vegetation nesting Debris from road excavation and Fish stocks decrease significantly burrows of fishes are damaged reduced flow Deficient sanitation quality in Poor water supply and behavioral Students maintain poor hygiene school issues practices leading to poor health Systems do not deliver water Poor operation and maintenance Lower level of services to adequately of systems households Increasing risks of disposal of Lack of local regulation Increased pollution threatens 3 untreated solid and liquid wastes compliance to rules and low level endemic native fishes (Asala) not in Rara Lake as tourism expands of awareness found anywhere in the world Economic Lowered sales of woolen products Sheep rearing practice has Traditional skills and livelihood declined with preference to goat are lost as everyone cannot shift and selling meat to other sources of livelihood No crop diversification Lack of reliable irrigation water Agriculture is subsistence in and extension support systems nature and does not contribute to households’ income Buyers control price of natural Market regulation is very weak Bartar system is getting eroded resource-based products while social context and tradition change Social Biomass is preferred source for Lack of awareness and easy Continued indoor pollution lowers cooking access to forest. women’s and children’s health 64 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Political Some government officials Transitional context of new Leads to lack of local regulatory still unclear about their governance including policies and mechanism with middlemen responsibilities and duties acts and lack of safety for local taking more benefits from local produce forest products Illegal and extraction of medicinal High demand and lack of Higher rate of extraction lead to plants at higher rate government regulation depletion of the resource while actual collectors benefit little. Low local initiatives in promotion Elite capture of resource and little Potential local entrepreneurs of local herbs support from political leadership cannot take initiative due to high risks.
Ongoing Activities /Challenges Activities: Rara-Chhayanath Municipality, which falls in the Rara-Khatyad watershed in the remote part of Mugu, has been undergoing changes, and elected officials were aware of the challenges and opportunities that these could entail. The municipality has proposed four new initiatives: i) organic farming and pollution prevention, ii) watershed management to conserve spring sources, iii) plantation of vegetation along the banks of Khatyad Khola to minimize erosion, and iv) the ban of destructive fishing practices in Khatyad Khola. The mayor of Rara-Chhayanath Municipality said that he had already assigned consultants to prepare a master plan for the development of tourism in the area. Other officials said the plan would be implemented upon completion of a foundational study. Another proposal was to build a bicycle lane around Rara Lake and to link it to local sites of cultural and religious significance.
Challenges: Local people see benefits in investing in tourism-based activities such as homestays, hotels and travel and tour agencies, but they lack basic skills in management and bookkeeping, provision of good quality food and accommodation, and proper sanitation. Opportunities to establish plants to process apples that are still grown, rhododendrons and sea buckthorn exist but as with tourism the people lack the skills, management capacity and do not have access to markets. Locals said cooperatives could be a model for development. In fact, in Seri, a marketing cooperative for medicinal herbs had helped to eliminate the monopoly that local collectors and traders had established to the benefit of farmers. This model needs to be analyzed systematically to determine if a cooperative could foster the processing of local fruit, how products could be linked to markets, and how quality and prices could be regulated. The municipality aimed to promote eco-tourism and to develop walking tracks to connect it with the Bajura District and theKhaptad region.
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Conservation activities must be implemented in the buffer zone in order to regulate the use of natural resources and to balance development and conservation. Doing so will require support to locals including capacity-building.
Phoksundo-Suligaad Watershed Context Located in Nepal’s northwestern mountain district of Dolpa, this watershed covers 964 km2. It has two rural municipalities: Shey Phoksundo and, Kaike and two municipalities: Thulibheri Municipality and Tripurasundari. Shey Phoksundo National Park (SPNP) occupies major portion of this watershed. The SPNP and its buffer zone cover 97.7% of the watershed’s area. Situated in shadow of the Dhaulagiri Range and the Kanjiroba Himal, the region receives less than 500 mm rainfall annually. The watershed has temperate climate. The average summer temperature of this watershed is 8°Celcius and average winter temperature is 4°Celcius. The Phoksundo-Suligaad watershed has total of 34 streams: Ghyompkapuica khola, Sagar khola, Maduwa Khola, Pugma khola and Normagad. The watershed has wetlands like Phoksundo Taal and 14 other lakes.
The watershed has a population of 2,258 with different ethnicities. Brahmin, Chhetri and Thakuri (BCT) are the major group comprising 57%, followed by Janajati 36%. The Dalit, Newar and Tarai people comprise 6%, 1% and 0.37% of the population, respectively. There is no tradition of fishing in the watershed. The watershed’s soil is conducive for growing potato, bean, maize and buckwheat. Because of its location in the rain shadow and cold weather, paddy is not planted.
Established in 1984, the SPNP aims to protect a wilderness of Himalayan and trans- Himalayan habitats. It also aims to maintain a viable population of snow leopards (Pantherauncia), a rare species, whose population has declined rapidly owing to habitat loss. Deer, Musk Deer, Jharal, Goral, Naur, fox, hyena, and Yak, etc. also inhabit the national park. The watershed has Bluepine, evergreen, and mixed deciduous forests, and Alpine meadows.
The Phoksundo Suligaad has cold snow melt water and thus, the fish population is low. Paani water profile reports that locals were unable to identify the fish species in the lower part of the Phoksundo River. Recently, CMDN Nepal identified species DNA of Barilius sp. CBM ZF 1131, Pethiaconchonius, Garra sp. CBM ZF 11369, Schisturacorica, and Bariliusbendelisis through environmental DNA (eDNA) in Shey
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Phoksundo5. Earlier, Phoksundo Lake was known as a “dead lake” with no flora or fauna. A research team of ISET-Nepal has identified six types of macroinvertebrate and few species of algae in the lake. The different macroinvertebrates that were found in the lake were Betidae, Chironomidae, species of Oligochaeta, Polycentropodidaeand Taeniopterygidae. The presence of Chironomidaeand Oligochaetaindicatedan increasing pollution in the lake6. The waste discharge from Ringmo village along with deforestation, overgrazing, poorly managed trekking routes and landslides are emerging threats to the lake ecosystem. These can adversely affect the sparsely distributed fish population of the lake and rivers.
In its southern part, the SPNP has various kinds of forests: e.g., Jagdula Khola has blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forests and evergreen oak (Quercus semecarcipolia); and along Suli Gad River there are mixed deciduous forests. The dominant habitat in the Himalayan portion of the SPNP is alpine meadows. The SNSP’s watershed is also the home to Yarshagumba (Cordyceps sinensis). A plant-animal combination unique to the Himalayan region, it is believed to be considered an aphrodisiac and is the main source of revenue of SNSP and income of local people. Other medicinal plants include Kutki, Guchichyau, Kurilo, Chutro, Jatamasi, Padamchal, Pakhanbed, Majitho, Bish, Satuwa, Panchaaunle, Setakchini, Bojho and Shilajit.
The watershed has two micro hydropower plants. Shangta of 52 kW capacity currently generates 25 kW electricity while Pugmo Micro Hydropower generates 16 kW electricity. They electricity is supplied to nearby villages. The watershed has no motorable roads but trekking routes link all the settlements. The region faces frequent flood, landslides, and avalanche that damage local trails, irrigation canals and culverts. Flood in Thakchu River has affected Raha, a vulnerable settlement in Dolpa. In the past, avalanches have killed yaks and triggered landslides
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TABLE 3: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Trekking routes along the river The fragile geology of the areas Sediment generated from dusty cause soil erosion make opening to tracks easy tracks end up in rivers that lowers quality of river water. Solid wastes are improperly Lack of awareness about harms Pollution is increasing, lead to disposed such practices bring adverse impact in rivers spreading of diseases among human and aquatic communities. Springs are drying Deforestation around water Increasing seasonal scarcity of sources and erratic rainfall water for drinking and irrigation pattern uses Increase in instances of landslide Dry soil, intense rainfall in short Loss of local aquatic habitat and local level flooding time will lead to adverse impacts on freshwater habitat and biodiversity in the stretch of the river where landslide debris fall Economic Migration of younger generation Limited local employment Increased work burden of women seeking alternative sources of opportunities in farming, shops and lodges. livelihood and jobs. Inability to capitalize local Lack of technical knowledge, Increasing dependency on agriculture and other products poor linkages with market and imported products and brand them extension support. Excessive extraction of High demand and lack of local Depleting stock of the plant and yarshagumba regulation locally dependent livelihood affected Social Persistence of caste based Structural context of local Weaker sections of society discrimination among BCTs societies remain feudal continue to get marginalized from development Domestic violence on women Women and marginalized Builds negative stereotypes and continues communities still excluded from lack of empowerment. mainstream. Inadequate institutionalization Poor availability of information Women and marginalized of GESI in local bodies and and dissemination of rights and households continue to face committees entitlement provision in policies gender and other types of discrimination Women are forced to perform Prevailing gender relation and Burden on women continue to many domestic activities migration of men increase Political Confusion in planning of New policies as per the 2015 Low public spending on development and addressing day- constitution are not yet programs and their ineffective to-day issues related to service harmonised implementation delivery Limited local participation in Delay in adapting to the new Fragmented and poorly grounded planning processes governance arrangement, the planning process committees include members of same party or relationship.
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Absence of technical expertise Officials do not want to go to local Government agencies perform and human resource in local governments poorly in delivering services to government; local community. Weak localization and Absence of regulatory capacity Top down plans, low participation institutionalization of GESI in local lead to and compliance gaps and lack of ownership of local governments population Accountability tools are Low awareness among women Continued marginalization of considered ritualistic and marginalized communities excluded households and lack of about their rights and voice in policy formulation entitlements
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: A few families in the basin have taken steps to conserve fish and there has been little financial and technical support from the government. The local community has formed buffer-zone committees to help conserve the terrestrial ecosystem. Women members of these committees help conserve forests and wildlife and provide scholarships to a few students.
Challenges: Transportation on this region is a major development hurdle. The new road being built will connect Dolpa District with the rest of the country, but, while this road will improve mobility it will also introduce new challenges. Social and environmental safeguards need to be put in place to reduce its negative impacts. Local efforts in conservation need to be replicated at scale by building the capacity to expand.
Tila Watershed
Context Tila watershed partially covers Khadchakra Municipality, Tilagufa Municipality, Shubha Kalika Rural Municipality, parts of Mahabai Rural municipality of Kalikot District, and Tila Rural municipality of Jumla District. With an area of 767.48 km2, the watershed has a steep terrain with altitude ranging from 738 to 4,790 amsl. The watershed comprises of high mountain range (3,000-4,790m), mid-mountain (1,500- 3,000m) and low mountain (738m-1,500m). The average monthly temperature in the watershed varies from 3°C, in winter to approximately 16°C in summer. The annual precipitation is 1,530 mm with highest rainfall in July. The months of November to February receive less rainfall. Tila River flows from northeast part of the district
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and joins the Karnali at Lalighat of Khandchakra Municipality. Its tributaries are Padamgad, Hima, Baligad, Bhartagad, Dhandkhola, Kathina (Ghatte Khola), Khallagad, Banchugad and Narmagad.
Tila watershed comprises of 16% cultivable land, 56% forest and shrub land, 25% grazing land, 2% barren land and rock, and 1% river/stream. Forest, fresh water fish, minerals (Tourmaline, Kinets), terrestrial wildlife and organic farming are major sources of livelihoods of the people. The watershed has total population of 58,996 of multi ethnic composition with Thakuri (37%), Chhetri (19%), Brahmin (20%), Kami (16%), Damai/Dholi (5%), Lohar (1%), Sarki (1%) and Magar (1%). The major source of livelihood is agriculture followed by daily wage labor activities, service sector and trade/business. Apple is grown in Phoimadev, Rachuli, Chilkhaya, Jubitha and Manma (Tadi). Major cereal crops are rice (Jumli Marse), wheat, barley, millet, corn, buckwheat, potato. Beans and horse beans are some of the legumes found in the area. Some of the popular fruits are apple, soft-shell walnut and banana.
Tila watershed has rich terrestrial and aquatic bio-diversity. The major forest types comprise of 71.3% mixed hardwood, 15.6% Banjh Oak (Quercus), 9.4% Sal and Pine mixed forest. Similarly, 1.9% Himalayan fir, 0.7% Sissoo forest, 0.7% Deodar type forest and 0.4% Sal forest are also found here. Human activities and livestock grazing regularly disturb the forest biodiversity and Banmara (Lantana camera) has invaded the lower regions. The watershed is the habitat of Red Panda, Himalayan Musk Deer and other valuable high mountain wildlife and plant species. According to information from the FGDs and KIIs, 27 species of fishes are found in Tila watershed basically dominated by Asala fish (Snow Trout). Other common fishes are Rajabam, Chepti, Khurpe, Baghi, Chuchesahar, Kabhre,Buduna, Katle and Sidre. Besides fish varieties, frogs, Paha, otter and crabs are important aquatic species found in the watershed. Overfishing and use of poison and electric current have damaged the aquatic biodiversity. In February 2019, huge population of fish had died in Raralihi, Kudari, Tatopani, Haku and Chhinasaghu of Tila Karnali, possibly due to poisoning7. People used to catch and kill local Paha frog in the past but they have become rare. Habitat destruction/alteration and use of poison could be responsible for disappearing population of Paha.
Medicinal and aromatic herbs and threatened species such as the red panda are the watershed’s major terrestrial biodiversity. The region has potential of producing medicinal and aromatic herbs for export. The medicinal herbs found in the area areSomlata, Sugandawal, Silajit, Kakarsinghii, Padamchal, Panchaaunle, Kutki, Jatamasi, Sarpagandha, Yarshagumba and Chiraitoo. Overharvesting of timber and
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NTFPs and poaching activities, however, threaten both plants and animal species. The aquatic ecosystem has been disturbed by increasing cases of slope failure and sediment deposition.
Water sources have been drying up and women need to walk 30-60 minutes to get water. Drying water sources mean that irrigation canals will also have less water. Solid waste is haphazardly disposed,and open defecation is still common. These practices affect the drinking water quality and aquatic habitat, and also public health.
The volume of gravel and sand extracted waslow compared to other watersheds in southern parts of the MKWR basins. Though limited, such activities affect aquatic ecosystems and destroy fish habitats. Places like Bali and Nagma are potential sites for gravel mining. The watershed has 90 km of strategic road and 64.7 km rural roads. Road construction has beentaking place at rapid pace but has also been caused for slope destabilization, erosion and landslides.
The watershed has 14 hydropower projects proposed or under construction. Tila 1 and Tila 2 440 MW and 420 MW, respectively, are being planned, which when built can reduce downstream flow and disrupt fish migration. Hydropower projects can also damage feeding and breeding habitat leading to biodiversity loss. Habitat alteration can lead to stunted growth, diseases and parasitic infestation in fishes (ADB 2018)8. The watershed has 83 community managed irrigation canals.
Temperature of the Tila watershed has shown an increasing trend in winter, pre- monsoon and monsoon. The annual rate is 0.04°C/year whereas the post-monsoon temperatures rise at a rate of 0.02 °C/year. The rate of temperature rise in the eastern part of the watershed is higher than the western part. The annual rainfall has been decreasing at the rate of 10 mm/year9. The watershed faces climate change risks and the is an area where adaptive measures are needed.
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TABLE 4: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Forest degradation is common. Illegal cutting of trees, road Reduced water supply, loss of construction and uncontrolled terrestrial and biodiversity and cattle grazing. damages freshwater habitat.
Wildlife poaching continues and High demand, high price and poor Loss of biodiversity and threats of immature herbs are extracted. local regulation endemic species being extinct.
Loss of aquatic habitats and Malpractice in fishing still Ecological imbalance threatens decline of fresh water biodiversity continues aquatic ecosystem and other population. species. Drying of spring sources Road construction, urbanizing Lack of drinking water and settlements and altered rainfall. reliable irrigation that lowers household level food security. Increased instances of soil Road construction, check dams to Increased hazards threaten local erosion and landslides. prevent landslide and erosion do livelihoods and assets not exist. Lack of reliable supply of water Drying of water sources in area Low crop production, loss of for irrigation facility where such systems have been livelihood, p local of poverty built. persists. Increase in average summer and Loss of vegetation, transport Increasing instances of diseases, winter temperature. vehicle emitting pollutants, non- epidemic and impacts local degradable wastes (Plastic) and economy rising global average temperature
Pine trees are being excessively Easy source of trade at good Deforestation and habitat harvested for resins and timber. price. destruction.
No systematic management of Lack of awareness among local Increase in pollution and risk of wastes. community disease spread
Economic More and more younger Lack of irrigation facility, Loss of livelihood and increased generation seek to exit out of migration, youth who are not dependence on imported agriculture interested in agriculture as products a vocation, it is considered a drudgery Many families still depend on Lack of access to alternative Indoor pollution causes health firewood for cooking energy sources and low problems to women and children awareness level Traditional skills and products Imported materials cheaper, no In absence of support, local such as Lokta paper, Allo market for local produces, young economy deteriorates production of ethnic people are generation not interested in the being lost job
Social Dalits and marginalized Upper caste dominance and lack Stunted social development of households are not offered of awareness on GESI backward communities. position in committee and organizations.
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Political Though mentioned in the The transition from District DCC officials feel they do not constitution District Coordination Development Committee (DDC) to have clear responsibility in local Committee (DC) officials felt that DCC has been not been smooth governance and that their role is their role in local governance is in the political context and in the ceremonial limited except in performing tasks transition. of monitoring. District level offices (forest, soil Limited financial, human Decision-making is ineffective and conservation.) lack resources, resources and transition in local officials unable to address have no clear and prompt governance problems at hand. directives from higher authorities. Work load of municipalities New constitution has empowered Unable to perform effectively at and rural municipalities have local bodies with many field level. increased but without enough responsibilities have bigger human resources. coverage area and less human resources. Limited understanding among Governments have made little Municipalities will have less local community of existing effort to communicate the human resources to deliver policies (Acts etc.) on hydropower decisions to locals effective services. and natural resources as well as limited awareness about new policies being by national, provincial and local governments Infrastructure development is Vote banks politics dominates. Mismanagement of resources being done without keeping leading to local suffers. environmental hazards in consideration.
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: Almost all villages in the watershed are connected to roads and those that are not are building new roads. The district is an open defecation-free zone. A “one house one toilet” campaign has helped to improve sanitation, hygiene and public health. Other campaigns, such as “one house, one water tap” supported by the local NGO Rural Development Group has had some success in Dundeli, Raralihi and Jumla. Local people said that the status of women has improved but much more needs to be done. In particular, the temporary isolation of menstruating women, an illegal practice known as “chhaupadi,” remains to be eliminated.
The Tila municipality had budgeted NPR 0.22 million for social development of ethnic minorities. In LaluKulalu of Naraharinath rural municipality, fishermen who used inappropriate methods to capture fish had been penalized and their equipment seized. In one such incident, violators were fined NPR 20,000, but this seemed to be an ad hoc punishment. Local officials should consider adopting local aquatic act as some other municipalities had done. Another positive initiative was the local effort to conserve the red panda that was being implemented in partnership with Red Panda
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Network (RPN). In fact, red panda’s numbers had increased and by conserving their habitat, the municipality was also conserving the watershed. In some areas, local municipalities helped farmers get good prices for their produce. For example, Shubha Kalika rural municipality buys Sichuan pepper (timur) from local producers at a set rate (NRP 700-1,000/kg) and re-sells, thereby preventing the need of people to rely on middlemen. This practice needs deeper analysis. The Narharinath rural municipality and Rajapur municipality in Bardiya district had established a “jalkachahari” in which they discussed upstream/downstream issues and supported each other. This could be used as a model to form multi- stakeholder platforms.
Challenges: Dundeli and Rarlihi of Jumla District had introduced improved varieties of Jersey cows, but the initiative failed because the local weather did not suit the bovines. A resident of the Shubhakalika rural municipality began fish farming, but this also failed because the fish stock was insufficient. Then, perceiving less risk, he decided to grow oranges, but some of the saplings provided by Department of Agriculture succumbed to disease. These examples point to the need for selecting interventions carefully to mitigate risks. Another failure was an attempt to create local jobs by promoting an apple jam industry. Unfortunately, locals lacked the technical knowledge needed to operate the equipment. Small windmills hadbeen established in Tatopani, Jumla District, to generate electricity, but their performance has not been studied.
The MKWR basin has potential for generating wind energy, an energy source less vulnerable to climate change compared to hydropower. As an alternative to hydropower, windmills also support freshwater conservation indirectly. But the failures of the wind turbine at Kagbeni, Mustang District (NCVST, 2009) as well as other pilots in Nepal must be studied closely before this option is pursued. Two major hydropower projects (Tila-1: 440 MW and Tila-2: 420 MW) are planned to be built in the basin. Care must be taken to ensure these projects do not damage the environment or reduce aquatic biodiversity, while benefiting local economies.
Middle Karnali Watershed
Context This watershed covers area parts of Accham, Kalikot and Dailekh districts of provinces 6 and 7. It is mostly in the mid- and high hill region. The watershed lies in the jurisdictions of Athabis, Chamunda, Bindrasaini, Dullu, Panchadev,
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and Kamal bazar municipalities,and Thantikadh, Bhairabi and Turmakhad rural municipalities. This watershed covers an area of 903 km2 and has 16 rivers: Ramghatkhola, Chinnekhola, Gumotkhola, Barelekhola, Belkhetkhola, Paduka khola, Rakamkarnali, Dogadekhola, Ghattekhola and Pulletalakhola. The average summer temperature in the watershed is 26°C. In winter the temperature reaches 9.05°C. The area has average annual rainfall of 1,340 mm. The monsoon rainfall is 1,293 mm.
The watershed has a population 171,856 of which 84,209 are males and 87,646 females. The major ethnic groups are Brahmin, Chhetri, Thakuri, janajati and Dalit. About 59% of the total population is BCT, 10% janajati and remaining 30% Dalit. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood contributing 70% of total income, followed by livestock rearing (12%), service-based occupation (4%), remittance (3.5%), wage employment (3%) and the remaining 8% are engaged in different other vocations. The communities grows rice, wheat, millet, lentils as staple crops. Commercial crops include sugarcane, potatoes, chilly, onion and garlic.
Seven fishing communities live in the watershed. Their population is 1,587 and include Majhi (36%), Badi (27%), Kumal (26%), Tharu (9%), Rajbhar (1%), Nuniya (1%) and Sonaha (1%). Capture fishery is an important source of income for these groups. Major fish markets exist along the banks of Karnali highway, including Tallo Dungeshwor, Rakam Karnali, Khidkijyula, and Humla Bazaar. Many also supply fish to local hotels and restaurants. Snow trout, mahseer, and bajelo are important species in the watershed.
The watershed has Sal forest at lower elevations. At higher elevations forest is mixed with Chirpine. Alder, Rhododendron, Quercus, Kharsyu and Katus as major tree species. About 186 CFUGs are involved in the management of the forest in area. The forest are habitat for species like jackal, monkey, leopard, fox, Langoor, wildboar, bat, squirrel, porcupine, rats, snake, katle, harep, lizards,and frogs. The forests also have medicinal plants: Kachur, Peepal, Bar, Timoor, Rhododendron, Kurilo and Aamala
The water of Middle Karnali supports both warm water and cold-water fishes. The rivers have 46 species of fishes including, Phageta, Asala, Ghoti, Budhuna, Bam, Thumri, Bajelo, Lohori, Shed, Bhoti and Masina. The endangered fish species are the snow trout (Schizothorax) and mahseer (Tor sp). Rare migratory fish like the Indian motted eel (Anguilla spp), and Dwarf gonch (Bagarius spp.) used tobe common in the Middle Karnali.
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Both climatic and human induced pressures have affected fish populations. Climatic pressure such as rising water temperature, erratic precipitation, decreased water discharge and landslides have beendisturbing the aquatic habitat10. Likewise, destructive fishing practices such as use of poison and electric current, and unplanned road construction, contamination with pollutants, and agricultural runoff have further affected the aquatic population.
People use piped water, surface water, springs, stone taps, and wells as sources of drinking water. Governmental and non-governmental organizations have provided support for building drinking water and irrigation systems but poor management has led some systems to fail. In addition, the region has water scarcity. According to watershed health report, 47% of the people reported difficulties in obtaining sufficient water for drinking. In the last few years the amount of water used has increased but sources have been drying leading to less availability of water in built systems.
The watershed has potential to produce variety of agricultural products, but lack of reliable irrigation. The area’s bio-diversity can be properly harvested to generate benefits for local households, but lack of knowledge and poor incentives have stifled innovation in harnessing. People said that social context particularly related to gender is better than that in the past but much more needs to be done. A few women held positions in community organizations. This change is an outcome of improved education. The Karnali highway passes through the area, connecting it to other parts of the country. This has improved mobility but road quality is very poor. About 220-km of rural roads have been built in the watershed while 116 km are currently planned and/or under construction. Road construction and various infrastructural developments have led to gravel mining as a source of livelihoods for marginalized local people. Gravel and sand extraction is high in places like Tallo Dhungeswor and Rakam.
The winter and spring temperatures show an increasing trend at a rate of0.03°C/year while summer (monsoon) and mean annual temperatures have risen at the rate of 0.02°C/year. The average post-monsoon temperature of the watershed does not show change. The temperature increase rate appears higher than that in the northern part of the watershed for all seasons11.
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TABLE 5: PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Drying of springs and smaller Haphazard road construction, Less water available for households’ stream sources deforestation, poor conservation drinking needs and irrigation. Cost of of sources getting water by tankers increasing as households pay more for water.
Declining fish population in rivers Over fishing, pollution and Loss of freshwater biodiversity, declining discharge in rivers marginalized fishing community who lose out. Increasing deforestation Lack of conservation efforts Drying of water sources, loss of through community forest group freshwater biodiversity and terrestrial ecosystem. Construction unplanned roads Built without any regulation and Landslides and reduced water environmental safeguard not sources adhered to Haphazard extraction of sand and No regulation on quantity of Risk of flood increases and impact on gravel from riverbed and bank material extracted in a day and freshwater biodiversity boundary extraction undefined. disposal Increasing of plastic Import of packaged food items Pollution of land and water, impact on wastes agriculture as well as fish farming.
Economic Available herbs not properly Market demand, lack of knowledge Local community do not get benefits harvested in proper management of the harvesting Locally skills of entrepreneurship Lack of knowledge, interests and Unable to obtain benefits improved in has not developed support use of local natural resources Increasing menace of monkeys People do not know why monkeys Monkeys destroy crops and cause have come in their locality. loss of investment farmers’ have made in planting, discourages them from diversifying their crops Social Conflict over ownership of water Lack of understanding and Some household do not get sufficient source in private land harmony, notion of profit-making water and are having to pay high sum notion on the rise of money which is adds to cost of providing basic service Continued migration of young Lack of local opportunities for jobs Drudgery on women people Limited access and understanding Lack of vegetable collection and Unable to shift to sell farms products of to market dynamics for selling supportive arrangements though irrigation facilities have been agriculture produces provided. Political Incomplete and non-functioning Projects are designed at top level Affects irrigation utilization of drinking water and irrigation without consultation with local their full potential for sustainable schemes beneficiary development Poor quality feasibility studies of Studies are carried out in Water flow in dry season and infrastructure monsoon, constructed scheme cannot deliver service provider lack accountability services as designed
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Local community are unaware Local leaders have not Without local buy-in for conservation of the importance of conserving taken efforts to interact with aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem will freshwater biodiversity communities, build mechanism for degrade information flow and explain the importance Lack of transparency, Structural context of governance Poor implementation and delivery of accountability and poor service delivery coordination among and between governmental officials.
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: Micro-level agriculture and irrigation initiatives have been implemented in this basin. Solar lifts have become a popular way to supply drinking water in a readily accessible and affordable way. For example, in the settlement of Badapokhari in Dullu Municipality, a user group manages one such system. Kali Khola micro-hydel project, which was built with the support of ASTHA Nepal and the concerned district and village development committees, has supplied 18 watts of uninterrupted electricity (14 of which are used) to local communities free of charge since its establishment in 2002. The source for this project also runs a private grinding mill, which charges NPR 5 per kilogram to help cover the cost of maintaining and operating the plant.
Rainwater harvesting is common in the Dullu municipality. Each household has a self-financed rainwater harvesting tank. Further promotion of this method is desirable given that springs are drying and drinking water systems no longer perform as well as they used to. The relationship between rainwater harvesting and spring discharge needs to be studied further. The findings of the ongoing study onsprings that Paniis supporting will be key in this endeavor. The lessons from programs such as the RVWRMP being implemented in parts of MKWR basins will be worth replicating and systematically linking to efforts such as the NCCSP and the SIP, both of which have provided support for irrigation and encouraged villagers to cultivate vegetables both for self-consumption and sale. The resultant increase in vegetable cultivation has helped improve household nutrition and incomes. The Thulo Khola Sinchai (Irrigation Canal) has helped the farmers of Nawle village irrigate their fields and increase productivity. The village water user association oversees the maintenance and operation of the canal as well as the allocation of water. In general, people are aware of the need to conserve water. Like elsewhere in Nepal, women are in the forefront of agriculture, a fact which adds to the level of drudgery they experience. There is an opportunity to build on the mechanization of agriculture already underway in the country.
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Dullu municipality is experiencing new water management dynamics. The increase in population and the demand for better sanitation have increased water consumption. For the last four years, however, Ghanashyam Acharya, the owner of a hotel in Dullu has been operating a water tanker business. He charges NPR 4,000 for a 4500 L tanker. Water collected from the Bartadi River is fed to household rainwater harvesting tanks constructed with support from the swiss NGO Helvetas.
Challenges: A few ponds were built under the SIP, but none were successful. Questions about the ownership and management of the ponds made their sustainability and scaling-up uncertain. The few ponds built by individuals also failed as they did not retain water. Even those lined with cement leaked as the masonry was shoddy. A few drinking water projects were designed and built without properly consulting with local beneficiaries and none performed as designed. People do recognize that the drying of springs is a major challenge and that a systematic approach to their conservation and restoration is needed. What they learn will help scale up such conservation efforts. Urban and rural municipalities need to play a greater, proactive role in leading this change.
Jhimruk Watershed
Context The Jhimruk watershed occupies parts of Pyuthan and small section of Gulmi and Arghakhanchi districts. With a total drainage area of 680 km2 the watershed includes Gaumukhi, Jhimruk, Mallarani, Naubihani and part of Manadbi and Sarumarani municipality of Province 5.The Jhimruk River watershed falls primarily in the mid hills where the average annual rainfall is 1,516 mm. The watershed has seven streams: Jhimruk, Lungri, Chundarikhola, Gartang, Cheppe, Jumri and Jhakerithan. Wetlands in the watershed are Jamune, DahaBarah Lake and Bijuwar.
The watershed experiences an average summer temperature is 40°Celcius and winter temperature is 10°Celcius. The average annual rainfall is 1,516 mm with non-monsoon rainfall of 300 mm. Rainfall has become erratic while temperature has been on the rise. Most people are aware of these changes and consequences but their capacity to adapt is limited. Most of the activities supported by donors and governments aim to provide basic services and minimize climate risks. In many locations, springs are drying, and people perceive that erratic rainfall is one of the reasons for depletion. Landslides and erosion have become common in monsoon months. In many places,
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improper limestone mining (Luplung) has led to landslide. Despite high flood risk early warning system has not been installed.
In the upper and middle parts of the watershed there is pine forest while sal mixed forest dominates the lower reaches. These forests are rich in terrestrial fauna such as musk deer, red panda, deer, cat, monkey and many more. Chiuri, Cinnamon, Timur, Chiraito, Alaichi, Kurilo, Parse, Pakhanbed, Allo and Jatamasi are the medicinal herbs available in this area.
The total population of the watershed is 145,005 (44% men and 56% women). The ethnic composition is as follows: Brahmin (9.6%), Chhettri (25.8%), Magar (28.7%), and Dalit (20.9%). Two traditional fishing communities, Kumals (2,316 persons) and Bote (21 persons), live in the watershed. Other Janajati groups are Raute, Dhami, Gurung, and Magar who also engage in fishing.
Due to the fertile soil, the flood plain of Jhimruk is known as the region’s “Rice Bowl”. The watershed’s land use is as follows: 70% forest, 15% agriculture, 12% grazing lands and 3% shrub-forest. Maize, wheat, millet, potatoes, mustard, cucumber, ginger and tomatoes are the major crops and vegetables. There is a growing trend of migration of male youth. Seasonal migration to Madras and Punjab in India is common. Young men from few rural municipalities join the Indian army. Migration to Gulf countries was also on the rise. The remittance migrants send has helped the households to cover their expenses, but the income is not used in productive investments. To help families,many young men leave education mid-way. Agriculture is considered as drudgery. Because tangible support to the sector from the state has not been helpful, despite efforts, agriculture has largely failed to retain young men and women who have been migrating in growing numbers.
The rivers and streams of this watershed is enriched with 18 species of fish such as Rim maccha, Bai machha, Jhinge maccha and others. Water mussels, otters and Ruddy shelduck also adds to the list of aquatic diversity. More recently, mining and road construction have added to sediment loads of rivers and affected fish habitat. Local people dig trenches in the deposits to allow fish to pass, but this has not been effective. The pursuit of harmful fishing practices such as use of poison and electric current have reduced fish stocks. The fish-ladder in the Jhimruk hydropowerweir provides for the movement of fishes (Sahar, Snow trout, Katle, and Thed)so that they can move upstream for spawning.
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Lakes, streams and springs are the common water sources. In many places, springs have dried up and their discharge at some places the discharge has been decreasing significantly. Unplanned road construction and erratic rainfall were mentioned as reasons behind depletion of springs. The depletion of water sources affects local hydrology and seasonal scarcity that has led to disputes between upstream- downstream users. Data on decrease in stream flows was not available, but scarcity of water adds to the burden of women. Locals perceived that diversion of water for Jhimruk hydropower had lowered supply for irrigation. This issue had also resulted in arson attacks and violence and led to debate and that even led to violence and arson. The debate still remains and is discussed further in Chapter 12.
The level pollution varies in rural areas and towns. In rural areas, the community take water directly from the source as the quality is considered fine. In some locations there were systems of managing waste and people do not dispose it in rivers. Water pollution has been increasing in urban areas with plastic, household and industrial wastes.
Degradation of water sources has negative impacts on environment, biodiversity, social and economic lives of the community. Decreasing water level has been affecting both the variety and number of fishes and also the terrestrial biodiversity. The communities that directly depended on fishing for income generation have shifted from their traditional occupations and/or migrated for better opportunities. Drying water sources has also led to increasing burden on women who collect water. Some households are even said to have shifted dwellings to locations with better water accessibility.
Road construction has improved mobility and helped communities reach markets. The supply of basic needs has improved. Roads have also improved access to schools, health services and jobs. But haphazard construction has impacted the local environment, rivers and aquatic biodiversity.
In Pyuthan, the communities were gradually becoming inclusive with participation of women and representatives of marginalized communities in social groups such as the users’ committees and in activities of the local government. They are also gaining some economic independence through income generating activities. The inclusion of women and marginalized communities was made possible by increasing community awareness, and laws against violence and discrimination against women. The caste system, however, was still entrenched in the communities.
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TABLE 6: PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Spread of unplanned road Community’s demand for Adversely impacts terrestrial, constructions construction at higher pace and aquatic biodiversity and lowers job is done without EIA livelihood Community do not abide by waste Lack of commitment low Increased local level pollution management plan awareness and poor regulation by affects environment and water local government. Drying water sources Unplanned road construction and Seasonal scarcity of water for erratic rainfall domestic and irrigation purposes Erratic rainfall pattern Impact of climate change Affects agriculture production and discharge of rivers Increased instances of landslide More extreme rainfall events, Settlements are damaged and and floods changed land use also loss of human lives Depleting freshwater biodiversity Absence of institutional Depletes terrestrial eco-system capacity to plan and implement and impacts livelihood dependent conservation activities the community Economic High rate of migration of young Limited economic opportunities Lack of human resource; social repercussions such as the increasing workload on women Displacement of fishing Reduction of fish stock in rivers Loss of dependent livelihood and communities traditional practices. Inability to capitalize on Lack of technical and marketing No new job opportunities agriculture products knowledge Women are getting more Structure of local society low Continued gender based dependent on men local economic opportunities low exclusion and violence against illiteracy and practice of women in women domestic tasks Social Child marriage practices and Lack of awareness among parents Stunted education and lowered domestic violence about the consequences; inability health of girls who many young to understand the importance of and her children education. Caste based discrimination persist Structural context and practice of Exclusion continues in society dominance social development is incomplete GESI not institutionalized in Local government do not engage Continuation of oppression of the state agencies, local bodies and women and marginalized weaker individual and disputes committees communities. Low awareness level among women and marginalized communities about of their rights and entitlements and their participation Community is not aware and Weak information dissemination Lack of sense ownership among shows little interest to be by the government agencies and local community involved. local apathy Women burdened by domestic Division of labor based on gender Women continue to depend in activities and limited to differentiates men for economic context reproductive responsibility.
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Political Local officials are not clear about Delay in adapting to the new Lowers effectiveness of local how the relation among local governance system plans and delivery of services at governments, provincial and local levels national government will evolve for effective local level plans and delivery of services Local officials’ participation in Officials in local government Planning is uninformed of planning processes is ineffective departments consider local realities fragmented and participation in local plans to be implementation ineffective ritualistic Absence of technical expertise Officials do not want to be Hamper making of technically and human resource in local induced in lack of monitoring to sound plan and lack of human government. ensure their presence resources means crises cannot effectively responded to emerging challenges Accountability tools used as ritual Absence of evaluation criteria and Lowers performance of sanctions organizations, inefficiency prevails
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: A few initiatives in the village of Hurana provide broad lessons for change. On their own, villages have taken up organic farming and conserving terrestrial biodiversity. They also scaled up the cultivation of oranges, large cardamom (alaichi), amriso(a fodder grass), and ginger and established homestays. Women are involved in a committee that protects and conserves water sources. Mothers’, and agriculture and cattle-rearing groups and their members pursue an agenda of social change. With support from the Paani Program, a community aquatic animal conservation group with men and women members was formed to promote conservation of freshwater biodiversity. In coordination with the ward office of the local government, this committee has taken initiatives to prevent destructive fishing practices in the Jhimruk River. The group organizes monthly meetings and encourages members to save money, and both activities show signs of a movement towards institutionalization.
A local woman entrepreneur has engaged the community by utilizing the traditional skills of women in production and has exported allo (a plant species) thread and its products to national and international markets. The thread is used in making clothing, purses, pouches. This enterprise has helped in social and economic empowerment of women. There is a bottled water company in Pyuthan the only bottled water consumed in Pyuthan’s urban areas; they do not import other brands. Small enterprises run by women produce and export soaps, and nettle products. Many local women are engaged in vocational work for income generation.
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Challenges: Most activities are related to agriculture, but farmers are constrained by their limited skills and links to local markets. A reliable source of irrigation water is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for farmers to adopt improved cultivation methods to increase production. Providing effective support to farmers and enterprising members remains a challenge. One practical point of entry is providing technical support in pocket areas, an initiative which could yield lessons helpful for scaling up small and micro enterprises. Communities have become inclusive: women and members of marginalized communities now participate in users’ committees formed by the local government for development activities. A few users’ committees have gained some degree of economic independence and manage their income-generating activities. As a result, the level of awareness in communities has increased and there is higher enforcement of laws against intolerance and violence. Still, society is hierarchical, which is why the initial gains need to be systemically extended. In particular, girls still need more support to complete their education.
Rangun Watershed
Context Rangun watershed is situated in Dadeldhura and parts of Doti districts with total area of 687.87 km2. The watershed lies within the Siwalik range in the Mahakali river basin. It is located in province 7 and includes three local governments: Parshuram Municipality, and Alital and Jorayal rural municipalities. The watershed has mountainous Siwalik landform in the south with elevation varying from about 300 amsl to 2,500 amsl. It has 135 seasonal streams of various sizes, including the Rangun, Punturagad, Sirshagad, Sunkhola and Sandanikhola.
Average summer and winter temperaturesare25ºC and 10ºC, respectively, and the average annual rainfall is 1,346.6mm. Soil type is characterized by presence of mica, schist and phyllite. Land in the watershed is fertile and has high agricultural potential. About 6.3% of land is under agriculture, 91% covered by forest, 1.6% under grazing and rest 1.4% comprises of rivers and streams. Wetlands in this watershed are: Ali Tal, Pipalkot Tal, and Kumadgaad. Most of the people in the watershed depend upon springs, community tap, spouts, rivers, and wells for drinking. However, in many places, springs have been drying and drinking water shortage is on the rise.
NGOs and INGOs have supported activities on local livelihood, education and awareness building. One such initiative has increased source flow through recharge.
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Earlier a source yielded 5 liters water a day. After recharge ponds were built the discharge has increased to 35 liters a day. This approach can be replicated in other areas where springs have been drying up.
The total population is 53,109: 27,562female and 25,547male. The social composition has 9.6% Brahmins, 66.2% Chhetris, 8.8% Janajatis and 15.2% Dalits. The sources of livelihoods are agriculture, livestock rearing, poultry, migration (seasonal and abroad) and fish farming. The major crops and vegetables include rice, potatoes, maize, wheat, lentils (mash, moosoor, gahat), millet, buckwheat, barley, soybean and peanuts. Vegetables like chili, turnip, cabbage and mustard and fruits such as orange, lemon and box myrtle are quite common. There are 188 CFUGs in the watershed. The community forest groups support conservation and help in capacity building of users.
Terrestrial fauna in the watershed include porcupine, hare, wild boar, common leopard, fox, squirrel, malsapro, hog deer, ghoral, monkey, bat, jackal and langur. Reptiles recorded in this watershed are turtle, tortoise, cobra and dhaman. The watershed has the flowing birds: black eagle, kalofitra, ranichari, crow, chyakura, fisto, julphejureli and kuthurkhe. About 13 species of fish are found in the rivers; Asala, Katle, Sahar, Buduna, Sanosahar, Chuchebam, Sanoasala and Fargate.
The forests are dominated by pine (Pinus roxburghii) and mixed broad-leaved trees including sal (Shorearobusta) in lower altitudes and Quercus at higher elevations.
Rangun Watershed is connected with Buder to Lipnaby47 km of graveled roads and 119.5 km of earthen roads. Haphazard road construction has affected and blocked/ disturbed spring water sources. People demand roads for easy access, mobility, improvement of local economy and social development, but haphazard building practices have adversely affected the local environments. Haphazard interventions have also encouraged rampant gravel mining. In the past, Alital and Jogbuda VDCs faced heavy deforestation and overgrazing. Large quantity of timber was cut where top-level authorities were accused. Deforestation continued and so did risks of floods and landslides during monsoon.
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TABLE 7: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental In the past the watershed saw Misuse of power by people in Increased instances of landslides heavy deforestation authority who were responsible and floods. People are displaced. for conservation Drying up water sources Unplanned road construction, Scarcity of drinking water, erratic rainfall, irrigation system performs poorly Increased instances of Landslides Deforestation, overgrazing and Households in some settlements and floods haphazard road construction have been displaced and few are still in danger Shift in rainfall pattern Climate change Decrease in agricultural production Forest fire during dry season Sometimes intentionally by local Large-scale damage to forest, wild people and also due to natural factors life and bio-diversity. Economic Poor irrigation facility Drying up of springs and other Decreasing agricultural water sources, insufficient water productivity, people seeking to cultivable area alternative livelihood Increased seasonal migration Low local employment Shortage of human resource opportunities in agriculture, and increased drudgery of women Social Low level of awareness among Lack of education Cannot judge issues that affect people them Political Agriculture knowledge centre has Transition in governance Governmental organizations low resource allocation to meet arrangement continues cannot help solve emerging local its new role and responsibilities. problems.
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: About 35 households raise and earn incomes from beekeeping. The government has certified their beekeeping as 100% organic. The honey is consumed in the village and beekeepers said they can transfer their knowledge and experiences to others.
With support from the President’s Chure Protection Program, Mane Singh Bohara, a local farmer of Ward No. 12 of Khajurani constructed a pond, and has begun vegetable cultivation, established a nursery and a fish farm. He also raises cattle. The pond assist water recharge to augment spring flows.
The Rural Village Waters Resource Management Project underway in the watershed requires that at least half of all members are women. Many committees have Dalit men and women in leadership positions, a practice which has, to some extent, helped reduce caste-based discrimination.
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Alital Rural Municipality has also installed a flood alarm system that helps local people receive information and more to safety when rivers flood in the rainy season. This system is used in conjunction with flood and landslide rescue drills for the Nepal Police, Nepal Army, local governments and communities. This practice has improved awareness about disaster risk reduction and has helped to save lives during climate- related hazards. This is something that can be replicated elsewhere in the basin.
Challenges: PAHAL, an USAID-funded project, provided agriculture support materials and training to the region’s ethnic Raute community. The community performed well for some years but later, after the government started paying them a monthly allowance, they abandoned farming. How the government can provide support and, simultaneously, promote self-reliance needs to be assessed. The watershed had successful beekeeping and this requires mustard plants for expansion and continuity. However, the community has been unable to expand area in which mustard is cultivated for lack of irrigation facilities.
Thuligaad Watershed
Context Thuligaad River originates in the Mahabharat mountains of Jorayal and Badikedar gaupalikas of Doti District. The river meets with Karnali River in the Chure foothills at Mohanyal Gaupalika, Kailali District. This river is also called Sheragaad. Its watershed covers 850 km2. It has sub-tropical to middle mountain climate. The watershed has 17 streams and over 156 small tributaries. Water drains from the north between the Karnaso Gaad through the Khimadi near Mohanyal in the south where it flows into Karnali River. About 85% of the watershed is under forest cover, and 14.7% is agricultural and pasture land. Jorayal, Badikedar, Chhure and Mohanyalare the gaupalikas in the watershed.
This watershed is rich in lakes and wetlands and Brahm, Jwalaban, Raxes and Chhatiwan are fresh water lakes. These lakes provide important habitat for fish and migratory birds though detail information on this was not available. Seventeen wild animal species, 20 types of birds, diverse species of fish and 16 species of aquatic vegetation are found in this area. The fish species include Sahar, Jebra, Asala, Cheche, Rajabam that are native to the area.
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Agriculture is the most common livelihood. About37% of the land is irrigated of which 15% is under permanent irrigation. Only 16% of households respond having sufficient water round the year. Though renowned for fruits, vegetables and cereal crops, the productivity is threated by changing climate pattern, limited irrigation and rising operational costs of farming.
The watershed has high topographic variation that determines spatial distribution of rainfall. The monsoon rainfall of 1,558 mm and the non-mons0on rainfall is 314 mm. About 15% households have sufficient water round the year for irrigation while 91% face difficulties. Water sources are drying and ir mean that almost 91% face difficulty in drinking water. About 83% households have drinking water within 30 minutes walking distance, 57% of the households perceive that the quality of water they drink is poor. There is decreasing water river discharge during three seasons but an increasing trend during winter. The precipitation has decreased in this watershed while temperature has increased
There are 16 species of aquatic vegetation. More than 100 CFUGs in the watershed area manage forests. At the higher elevation Chir Pine predominates with other broad leaf trees. In the lower area Sal Forest is common. Rice, maize, wheat and millet are main cereal crops. Jackal, wild boar and monkeys are increasing whereas tiger, leopard and bears are decreasing around the Thuligaad watershed forest. There is a high sedimentation problem in Thuligaad. Its floods plain is also very wide as compared to water flow with plenty of big boulders.
In the watershed, four sites have been gravel mined but they have had low impact so far. The Bhimdutta highway (50 km long) passes through the watershed through agricultural land, and settlements such as Sahajpur, Phaltude, Budar, Gaira, and Bhatkada. The rural roads have expanded significantly over the past decade. As compared to others Mohanyal Rural Municipality is large with difficult terrain and people find it difficult to commute.
Local farmers of Chure hills of Thuligaad face irrigation problem due to drying springs, along with changing the land pattern in the last 10-20 years. In some places (e.g. Sahajpur, Chure gaunpalika) farmers have established seven agricultural cooperatives. Some farmers have started to dig recharge ponds. Fishermen in Jorayal are engaged in culture fisheries and have constructed fish ponds. Joyral is famous for local Basmati rice, but this variety needs protection and promotion. Marginalized and Dalits face difficulties as most of them live in the disaster-prone areas such as river banks and in slopes. The reasons are structural and landlessness.
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The major issues of Thuligaad include climate induced hazards such as landslides, flooding, and sand deposition, drying water sources, declining fish population and diversity, along with forest degradation and wild fires. Gold particles (dust) are found in sand beach of Thuligaad and Karnali rivers. The Raji, and local fishermen/ people collects these particles to maintain their livelihood.
There are about 13 micro hydro (4 are running) and 3 small hydropower (one in Gadsera and 2 in Thulikhali) in the watershed. In Jorayal, there are about 80 water mills of which 20 are closed due to water scarcity and diversion for irrigation. Two lifting drinking water projecthas started in Sahajpur and Faltude.
The population of the watershed is 42,277 divided evenly between male and female. They vary varied in terms of ethnic origin: Brahmin, Chhetries, Dalit, Badi, Majhi, Lama, Bote, Gurung, Newar and Dalits. Women have lower social status than men and perform household chores.
In the watershed’s four sites gravel mined but they have had low impact so far. The Bhimdutta highway (50 km long) passes through the watershed through agricultural land, and settlements such as Sahajpur, Phaltude, Budar, Gaira, and Bhatkada. The rural roads have expanded significantly over the past decade.
TABLE 8: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Problem Cause Impact Environmental Drying of springs and other water sources. Deforestation, erratic rainfall and Water scarcity for drinking, irrigation, and haphazard road construction micro hydropower system Depleting fishes and fish varieties in rivers, Malpractices in fishing, changes in river flow Fish scarcity, loss of aquatic biodiversity some fish species have permanently disappeared Unreliable irrigation Drying springs, Low agricultural production Rivers are deepening every year lead to Stone and sand mining, road construction Flooding, riverbank cutting recurring landslide, flood and soil erosion Land pattern has changed since last 10-20 Urbanization, road construction Low production, livelihood problem years with decrease in agricultural land Every year, Karnali and Thuligaad river cuts Topography, erratic flow, lack of bank Less production, and loss of livelihood agricultural lands protection, encroachment and loss of agricultural land, flooding, soil erosion, land cutting Illegal method of acquiring timber by Forest department’s permission to cut dead Local deforestation continues at making peeling bark of trees that dies and cutting trees land exposed leading to loss of terrestrial them for timber, firewood) biodiversity and downstream impacts Economic Firewood used for cooking Lack of alternative energy sources for Deforestation, health hazard due to indoor cooking pollution Insufficient crop production (for 3 months) Lack of irrigation, low quality agriculture Migration, low household nutrition land and alternatives
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Traditional artisans losing jobs (making iron Imported machines are cheaper and more Displacement from vocation, less incentive agricultural tools) efficient of young generation for traditional job Social Badi households continue to get excluded Upper castes dominance Social exclusion increases from affirmative action initiatives at municipality and user groups while traditions such as Deuki and Chhaupadi persist Open defecation in forest, riverbanks, Lack of awareness Spread of contaminants diseases springs Political DCC officials unclear about their role DCCs is in transition Ineffective monitoring District level offices (forest, soil Limited human resources Ineffective planned activities and services conservation) have authority but lack delivery resources (budget, human resource) Low capacity and human resources in In the new federal structure, local bodies Conflicts and debates in program municipalities and rural municipalities are assigned with many responsibilities but implementation despite increased responsibilities lack human resources
President Chure Conservation Program Lack of planning and programming, DRR is Conflicts and debates in program stipulated that there are no stone and sand still not a priority implementation mining activities in Chure but the local government is providing license to collect revenue No separate budget allocated for DRR in DRR is still not a priority DRR task will be ineffective municipalities
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: In this watershed, people see building more roads as a priority. They have made efforts to build them manually. The SUHARA program under the DFID provided financial support to build a 66 km-long motor road south to Silgadhi. The Silgadhi-based NGO Source Nepal provided support. There are anecdotal examples of farmers who took the initiative to build ponds and, thereby, to promote recharge. The community also formed groups to conserve the watershed. The BP Nagar Rural Municipality proposed a mechanism to control uncontrolled fishing in rivers, and this initiative needs to be linked with the local acts protecting aquatic biodiversity.
Challenges: The social context continues to remain a major challenge. Though they have decreased, discriminatory traditions such as deuki and chhaupadi continue. Unlike in other parts of the country, the campaign to establish an open defecation- free zone was not successful here and sanitation coverage remains low. Toilets have been built but are used for other purposes.
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There are other, larger social problems, too. Traditional artisans who handcraft iron implements are losing business as machines are cheaper and the traditional products cannot compete. Some well-meaning programs such as government social protection programs have unintended consequences. For example, under this policy, the government provides members of Raji families monthly allowances of NPR 2,000. Some families quit fishing once they got an allowance, increasing their dependence and undermining their self-initiative. Many grounded efforts are needed to create opportunities for helping fishing communities build on their fishing culture, turning it into a profession that can also conserve freshwater biodiversity.
Local communities disagree about the merits of the Baigyanik Ban (Scientific Forest; in relation to sal forest) program launched by the Division Forest Office. Some argue that this program would help manage forests as saplings would be planted in new areas or nearby forests and existing old trees would be cut down for use. Others disagree: they argue that old trees should not be cut down because new trees take a long time to grow and areas would be relatively barren until they did grow. The debate continues. With more dialogue, creative outcomes are likely to emerge.
Thuligaad River transports very high sediment loads washed down from the fragile Chure hills. The flood plain is wide and covered with many boulders and pebbles. Earlier, it was narrow but it has widened as, over the years, more and more stones and sand have been extracted upstream. The President Chure Conservation Program did recognize this connection and resolved to prevent the mining of sand and stones in the Chure region. However, local governments continue to sell licenses to extractors in order to increase their revenue.
Bogatan Lagam Karnali Watershed
Context This watershed falls in middle mountain region of Nepal’s Sudurpaschim Pradesh (Far Western Province). With an area of 206km2, the watershed is spread across three rural municipalities; Bogtan gaun paalika, Badikedar gaun paalik of Doti and Chaukune of Surkhet. Wetlands of this WS are: Sunpaal Taal, Libu Khola Taal and Debal Khola Taal. The region experiences tropical/subtropical climate. The average annual high temperature for the watershed is 23⁰C, while the low average annual temperature is 10.7⁰C. The average dry season rainfall (November–May) is 332 mm, monsoon (June-October)is 1,328 mm and the annual rainfall is 1,659 mm. Forest
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covers nearly 80% of the land, followed by 18% for cultivation, and the remaining 2% by rivers and streams. The watershed has 30 rivers and streams as follows, Serrigad, Bandgood, Guinadokhola, Pogadekhola, Barolkhola, Buda khola, Bhatmarekhola, Dhomelikhola. The rivers are used for meeting drinking water and irrigation needs. According to Panni’s (2018), 62% of households use piped water and the remaining households get water from a variety of sources like wells, rivers, lakes, rainwater harvesting and groundwater.
The total population of the watershed is 16,251, of which 60% are Brahmin, Chhetri and Thakuri. Janajatis make up 22% of the population while 16% are Dalit. Their main source of livelihood are, agriculture, livestock rearing, seasonal migration and wage employment. Rice, wheat, maize and millet are produced as staple crop whereas orange, ginger, turmeric and honey are exported from the region. Food grains, salt, oil and clothes are imported. The watershed has low agricultural productivity due to migration, drying of water sources and lack of irrigation facility. This has increased dependency of the locals on the imported goods and the economy is based on remittance. Chhaupadi and caste-based discrimination which has been legally banned still affects the social life in the area. Illiteracy and superstitious are the prime factors. Social structure has changed showing signs of progress as participation of marginalized group has increased in decision making roles.
Most of the forest is under community management followed by national forests. There are 31 CFUGs in the watershed that manage forest and help in regeneration. The major forest species are Chirpine, Rhododendron and mixed broad leaf tree species, Sal at lower elevations and Quercus at higher elevation. Monkey, Elephant, Tiger, Porcupine, Chittal, Hog deer, Four horned antelope, Hyena, Wolf, Golden jackal, Wild cat, Nilgai, Sloth bear, Leopard, Indian hare, Leopard cat, Yellow throated marten, Mangoose, Squirrel and Rat are common animals in the local forest. Indian Gooseberry (Amala), Washnut (Ritha), Cinnamon (Dalchini) and Resin (Khoto) are common. Although the watershed has abundant medicinal herbs with potential extraction, very little is actually being done and these are not harvested for local benefits. The rivers and streams inhabit 17 different species of fishes such as Kuera, Sattokaloch, Pangar, Sueni, Githi, Geraj, Gerara, Oyara and Asla. Both modern and traditional fishing practices used in the perennial tributaries of this watershed. Capture fishery is one of the means of livelihood is carried out in an unsustainable manner through the use of poison, gill nets and explosives. They create threats to fish population.
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In the watershed roads are being built at a very fast rate as they are recognized as foundation of development. The soil mass after excavation of steep mountain slopes are disposed in rivers. The sediment lower quality of rivers with adverse effects on aquatic biodiversity. The roads are unpaved, narrow and muddy. They are difficult to navigate in the monsoon. In other seasons’ roads do provide improved access to market for local agricultural products. They also help provide health services through use of ambulances for emergency medical services. The watershed’s rivers also are mined for gravel and sand. People employ a combination of sources to meet their irrigation needs: rainwater harvesting (50%), canal water (13%) and seasonal rivers (15%). The watershed is largely rural and there no major industries. Most of the businesses are small and agriculture based that export local agriculture produces. Around 100-150 organizations are registered with the Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) at district level. Remittance is a major source of households’ income. In the last few years exports have reduced while import of food grains has increased.
In Bogatan and Badi Kedar Municipality, RVWRMP is involved in providing access to clean drinking water through provision of taps to individual households (HHs). Works in cooperation with the rural municipalities, the program helps users prepare Water Usage Master Plan (WUMP). The program involves sanitation improvement, community-based irrigation, micro-hydro power, improved cooking stoves and water mills. It supports a number of environmental, food security, nutrition, livelihoods and capacity building projects.
TABLE 9: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environment Depleting springs and other water sources Erratic rainfall and haphazard road Lower agricultural production, and seasonal construction scarcity of drinking water High rate of deforestation Unplanned road construction and illegal Increased soil erosion, local floods, loss of logging wild life habitat Increasing instances of landslides Unplanned road construction and intense Debris flowing to rivers pollutes water, rainfall impacts settlements and may lead to loss of lives Economic Low agricultural production Inadequate irrigation, drying of spring and Dependency on imported products has water sources, migration increased Lack of adequate energy for local use Lack of investments in alternative energy, Household continue to live in energy inability to use water sources to produce poverty that leads to low human electricity development.
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Social Caste based discrimination persist Caste hierarchy persist in local community Inequality and further social fragmentation, persistent poverty. Chhaupadi tradition continues Illiteracy, superstitious beliefs, gender Violation of basic human rights of women, disparity and in some cases community affects their physical and mental health. endorse of the practice Political Many officials express lack of clarity about Transition to in institutionalizing federal Affects planning, delays implementation the function and jurisdiction of the three governance system at the three levels. and in effective service delivery. levels of governments Local people are not aware of new policies Lack of government’s effort to communicate it Some sections of the society are left out from participation and contribute to local plans, continued ignorance about rights and responsibilities
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: A few successes do offer new opportunities. One example is the RVWRMP and its activities, which are described in Chapter 10. We propose it as a potential approach to local IWRM.
Challenges: A hydropower plant with a 1.5 KW capacity was built in Kauligaad River with support from the Centre for Rural Technology Nepal. The community contributed about NPR 0.2 million in cash and manual labour. It provided electricity to 15 households for a few days. Then a landslide damaged the power house. It has not been renovated yet. Despite much knowledge in this sector, arrangements for implementation and support are inadequate.
Middle Rapti Watershed
Context The Middle Rapti watershed stretches from Nepal’s Dang District to Uttar Pradesh in India. This watershed spread across one municipality: Lamahai and three rural municipalities: Rapti, Gadhawa and Rajpur of Dang. Jakhera, Banghushari and Bankijakhera are the wetlands recorded in this WS. The watershed incorporates range of topography: plain areas in the south (300 amsl) and Siwalik ranges in the north (1,000 amsl). The range consisting of sandstones, siltstones and mudstones has dense forest. Geologically the hills are flimsy and produces high sediment load. It pollutes rivers and streams. The range consisting of sandstones, siltstones and mudstones has dense forest. Geologically the hills are flimsy and produces high sediment load. It pollutes rivers and streams.
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The Rapti River originate from the Gaumukhi and Naubhani in Pyuthan District at 3,000 amsl and flows through Jhimruk watershed. The Rapti is a braided river with many tributaries. Its flow patterns change over time. The average dry season rainfall in 167 mm, average monsoon 1474 mm and average annual is 1641 mm. The average winter temperature is 14 degree Celsius and average summer temperature is 28 degree Celsius. Locals say that rainfall has become erratic while temperature is increasing. This trend is seen for past couple of decades. Pest and disease such as Ausa, Lai and Dadhuwa affect crops and vegetables. Forest fires have become rampant.
The total population is 122,313 (52% female; 48% male). The population comprises of 20 percent Brahamin/Chhetri/Thakuri; 66 percent Janajati (55% Tharu); 6 percent Dalits and 7 percent other ethnic groups. The source of livelihood are agriculture, rearing livestock, remittance from abroad, engagement in service industries “off- farm” work such as markets and retail shops. Traditional fishing communities comprise 55% of the total population living in the watershed. It includes Tharu (with 61,151population), Kumal (5,973 people), Bote (158), Majhi (124), and Mallah (with 11 people). They harvest fish mostly for household consumption. They use traditional fishing practices such as use of helkadiliya, taapi, dondiya thane, mahuraune, tirhanne, and khongiya.
Paddy, wheat, maize, lentils, mustard and potatoes are crops grown in the watershed. Locals also cultivate cabbage, cauliflower, radish, tomatoes, carrot, bitter gourd, cucumber, pumpkins, onion and garlic. Fruits such as mango, litchi and pineapple are grown and guava are sold in the market. The watershed n has 89 CFUGs supporting watershed and forest management and regeneration.
The watershed has 61% forest, 30% agriculture and 8% rivers as well as lakes and ponds and small patches of grass and shrub land. About 74% of forest of the watershed consists of mixed hardwood: 20% sal forest and 6% of other species. The major tree species are Sal, Sisso, Jamun, Kadam, Asna and Dhauti and medicinal plants are harro, barro, kurilo, khayer, bakena, chutro and bayar. The World Wildlife Fund has declared the area around and including Middle Rapti as a biodiversity conservation “hotspot” due to the high number of rare and endangered species found in the watershed, and also because the area provides a crucial connective link for wildlife (e.g., elephants) between Banke National Park and Sohelwa Wildlife Reserve in India12. Wild boar, barking deer, spotted deer, Sambar deer, jackal and leopard are the most common animals in the area. Likewise, Ruddy shell duck, Egrettagarzetta, Babulus ibis, Columbia livia, King Fisher, Todornaferruginea, are some of the aquatic birds.
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The rivers have 39 species of fishes and rare species such as chipi, saura and kathlaggi are found. Other species are silver carp, common carp, rohu, katla, bam, jhinga, charinga, tyangna, sidra, gherta and araw. Paani (2018) has identified keystone fishes in the Middle Rapti watershed through fish vulnerability assessment. The most prioritized three keystone fishes were Rawa (I), Baikha (II) and Kalmuda (III).
Use of bomb, poison and electric current for fishing are used to kill fishes. Such practices have severely damaged the fish population and other significant aquatic biodiversity. Similarly, the extraction of sand and gravel has become major source of revenue for the local government and job opportunities for the local families. However, the extraction has disturbed the river ecosystem and aquatic habitat. With better understanding the significance of aquatic ecosystem, and support from Paani Program, user groups are taking initiative to protect forest and water resources. They have banned stone extraction and controlling cattle grazing close to river. Furthermore, through Paani support, local government has recently banned harmful fishing practices in Middle Rapti watershed and has helped draft the Aquatic Act. The team has also formed Fishers Group and River Conservation Group (Nadi Samrakchyan Samuha) that focus on conservation of aquatic biodiversity.
People uses on hand pump water for their daily needs. Some hand pump waters are contaminated with Arsenic and has developed skin problems among users. The area is well connected. The watershed has 26 km of national highway, 23 km of feeder roads, 28 km of district roads and 85 km of rural roads. Praganna and Badkapad irrigation schemes are located within this watershed.
For the past couple of decades, places such as Gurung Khola village of Gadhwa rural municipality and Sitalapur village of Lamahi municipality faced water scarcity. Decreasing rainfall is one of the reasons for depleting sources. It affected agricultural activities too. About 15-20 years ago, Gurung Khola used to have continuously flow for 12 months. Today, dischare us is high only during wet season can support irrigation only during this season. Locals have stopped planting maize due to water scarcity. In the winter they plant only wheat as it requires less water. Wetlands have dried up and are converted into agricultural land because of their high fertility. At the same time, transformation of agricultural land into settlement in Kalapani, Lalmatiya, Bagdhaddi, Gadhawa, Lamahi, Patthargadhawa and Narti areas shows increasing urbanization trend in the watershed.
Floods frequently damage household and crops in some parts of Middle Rapti watershed. Population pressure and urbanization has increased the Dang District.
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Consequently, road construction has become a major priority of the government. Yet, haphazard construction practices have increased incidences of landslides and mudflow. Roads get flooded during monsoon and prevent children from going to school. Flooding also affects pregnant women and those in neonatal stage. Women face the threat of sexual abuse during disaster. Floods and landslides affect aquatic biodiversity and habitat by altering the water levels, water temperature, and increasing river sediment and turbidity.
TABLE 10: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problems Causes Impacts Environmental Drying/Decreasing quantity of water in Less rainfall (reduced winter rainfall), forest Increased scarcity to meet drinking water river, springs and lakes damage, road construction, overgrazing, agriculture and for fishes mudflow, erosion and rise in temperature Population of fish, crabs, turtle and Drying river water, gravel quarrying, sand Loss of fresh water biodiversity stock, crocodile reducing extraction, use of bomb, poison and electric decrease in arrival of birds depending on current fish Mudflow, erosion, landslide and bank Deforestation, gravel quarrying, sand Sand castings destroy crops, affects cutting extraction, unpredictable rainfall pattern livestock, destroy road and damages FMISs. and haphazard road construction Decrease in quality of river water Use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides, use Aquatic habitat destruction, health problem of poison for fishing such as diarrhea and vomiting Decrease in agricultural production Less rainfall, less water availability, pest and Increased dependence on market products diseases (dadhuwa, black caterpillar) as local food is availability is reduced High rate of depletion of trees Illegal timber cutting Increase in mudflow/erosion/landslide, depletes water resource, loss of terrestrial wildlife habitat and valuable vegetation Increased instances of forest fire Human negligence, poachers initiate to Destruction of valuable plant species and catch animals, herders burning vegetations wild fauna for promoting new growth Degrading wetlands Encroachment availability of water in Loss of aquatic biodiversity as it converted reduced to agricultural land Economic Migration of male members Lack of employment opportunity, flood Increasing work burden on women, destroying agricultural land persistent poverty Compensation dispute of in irrigation Land acquisition and displacement of Social unrest, affected population scheme two households; lack of provision on mostly belonging to lower income group compensation demanding compensation Seasonal agriculture main source of No alternative employment opportunity Household’s income remains low and employment available. inability to diversified limits adaptation to stress. Low quality road and other physical Lack of capital expenditure Mobility limited while risk of flooding is infrastructure Lack of proper planning and engineering increased. Lack of economic awareness among local Lack of dissemination of the information by People cannot take advantage of facility population the GoN made for farmers.
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Social Prevalence of child marriage, early child Low awareness and social context Reproductive health problems in young pregnancy and polygamy girls, cannot complete education, financial dependency on husband and other male members, increased mental anxiety Alcoholism among males Social and cultural practice, peer influence Increased domestic violence, financial loss and lack of awareness and poor health issues Threat to women’s health and sexual abuse Lack of secure shelter, pregnant women Reproductive health problems, rise in eve in post flood situation and new mothers do not receive sufficient teasing and attempted rape cases prenatal and postnatal care Low education attainment High school is far (2 hours walking distance) Danger of attack by wild animals, attempted in Sitalapur, Lamahi rape observed Upstream/downstream conflict in Upstream community more interested in Downstream water quality lowers and Kakrahawa, Gadhwa logging and stone extraction and do not affects dependent communities take conservation of rivers Political Local communities are unware of specific Provisions have not yet been discussed in Low understanding among users leads provision of acts about aquatic biodiversity details with local communities to implementation challenges especially conservation related to imposition sanctions and rewards Rampant stone quarrying and sand Major sources of revenue for local Destruction of aquatic habitat and extraction government and supports local livelihood, biodiversity local political leaders and elites involved in business Contractors of road, gravel and sand Lack of monitoring and government’s Destruction of terrestrial and aquatic mining operators do not comply with EIA regulation biodiversity that negatively impacts fishing recommendation community
Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: A number of forest users’ groups, including those of Kakrahawa Ganesh, Kulpan, Narti Kalapani and Sitalapur villages, work to conserve forests and local water sources. Locals recognize the link between water and forest. These users’ groups also work to conserve plants, minimize the over harvest of forest products, ban grazing and prevent the extraction of stone close to rivers. The impacts of these initiatives include an increase in greenery and the number of wildlife species and better conservation of local water bodies.
Locals realize the harmful effects of using explosives, electric current and poison to kill fish, and, with support from the Paani Program, have formed groups of fishers’ to curb such practices. Members of the groups conduct field investigations, inform the group about their findings and, in the case of violations, decide how to prevent further violations. When necessary, the group reports violations to the local government, which has passed an aquatic protection act to conserve freshwater biodiversity.
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With support from the Paani Program, the Maacha Samuha program was formed. Women members of the committee aim to conserve fish. Members of Chetansil Mahila Samaj manage a community forest in Attar beruwa as well as a cooperative. A few women have started small businesses such as selling items of daily use. Programs like Hariyo Ban, Kishan, and Panirun variously by governmental and non-governmental organizations, have provided built the capacity of women of marginalized communities to cultivate vegetables for sale in local markets.
Badkapad and Parganna irrigation systems are large systems managed by FMISs. They have helped farmers improve agricultural production. Funded by the Kuwait government, the Praganna irrigation system serves Lamahi Municipality and Gadhwa Rural Muncipality. The Badkapad system serves land in Gadhwa, Gobadiya, and Ganaparashpur rural municipalities.
In the past, the women of the 275 households in Gurung Gaun, Gadhwa, used to walk half an hour to fetch drinking water. In 2016, the Gorkha Welfare Society helped the community build a water supply system costing NPR 10.24 million. Each household contributed NPR 4,000 towards the project initially and contributes NPR 75 every month for maintenance. This effort shows that when local people are involved, collective action brings benefits. This provides lessons for conservation of fresh water biodiversity by using community collective. The residents of Sitalapur, Lamahi, used to depend on spring water and had to walk more than an hour to fetch water.Hariyo Ban Program has helped them establish solar pumps for public water supply and minimize their drudgery.
The flood-affected community of Kanchi Gaun, Gadhwa, uses traditional techniques to protect valuables. Families store household materials in high upper levels inside their houses and use “dehari,” a raised platform, to store vessels of food. They hang a round box called a “sikahar” from their roofs and use it to store cash, clothes and jewelry. A bell is hung at the base of the sikahar to alert owners in case of theft.
Challenges: Sand mining is carried out without following EIA guidelines and local governments are more interested in generating revenue from selling licenses than in regulating the mining of sand from rivers. Local politicians are also involved in this as business. River ecosystems continue to be harmed and, as a result, fish stocks to decline. Locals say that they used to catch 5 kg of fish in an hour, but that they catch much less today.
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Increasing social awareness is a challenge though donor-supported initiatives such as Paani and Hariyo Ban and organizations like the Red Cross, WWF and GWS do focus on awareness building. Programs implemented by the government, in contrast, include limited awareness-building. Cross-border issues are equally challenging. Indian fisher groups from Koilabash live in Nepali territory for months anduse advanced electronic nets to harvest huge numbers of fish from the West Rapti River in regular interval. Locals who challenge their practices are assaulted. This transboundary problem has yet to be addressed.
Lower Mahakali
Context The watershed is located within Kanchanpur District of west Nepal. It borders India to the west and south. The Mahakali River the main stem in the watershed is a snowmelt fed river starting in the Api-Himal. It descends from 3,600 amsl elevation at Kalapani to around 200 m in the Lower Mahakali where it begins to flow into the Tarai at Brahamadev Mandi. Administratively, the lower Mahakali watershed has three zones: BhimDatt municipality occupying northern portion of the watershed, Mahakali Municipality in the west, and Shuklaphanta National Park occupying southern parts of the watershed. Overall, this watershed comprises of diverse landforms like: Siwalik, bhabar and Tarai, covering 310 km2 area. Large section of the watershed is characterized as predominately flat alluvial plain topography of the Tarai with small portion in the Siwalik and bhabar to the north. Sixteen streams in the basin are Mahakali, Tilkeni Khola, Kamikate, Gahatadi, Malariya Bhunikhola, Bangekhola, Gandhakhola and Jogbuda Nadi. There are an estimated 21 lakes of which Rani Taal, Sikari Taal, Kalikitch Taal and Tarapunal are located within the watershed. They support a diversity of freshwater and aquatic lives. The Rani Taal in Shuklaphanta National Park, supports floating aquatic vegetation, important habitat for fish species and associated fish-eating birds. According to Divisional Forest Office, Kanchanpur ranks 9th when it comes to importance for wetlands nationally.
The average summer temperature is 27ºC and average winter temperature is 12ºC. Average annual rainfall of this watershed is recorded as 1,706mm, monsoon rainfall as 372mm and post monsoon as 20mm. Forest covers the one-third, almost 29% (90.75 km2) of the land. The region has community forest, religious forest and national forest (under Divisional Forest Office, Kanchanpur). Agriculture covers bulk of land (35%, 109.81 km2). Peak Monsoon (June-September) rainfall has reduced and the change
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has been observed spatially. Sometimes, pre-monsoon (March-May) will have more rainfall than the peak monsoon.
Climate is changing. Temperature is increasing both in the summer and winter. Peak Monsoon (June-September) rainfall has reduced and the change has been observed spatially. Sometimes, pre-monsoon (March-May) brings more rainfall than the monsoon. Climate change has affected agricultural activities. Flood is a major hazard in the rainy season while drought like situation prevails if the rainfall is deficient even during the monsoon season.
Total population of the watershed is 143,852: 69,048 male and 74,804 female. The majority of the population is Chhetri (42%), Dalit (23%), Brahmin (23%) and Janajati (12%). Farming, fishing, seasonal migration for earning and wage labor in mining site are the major source of income of people living within the watershed area. Despite fertile, agricultural income is limited to certain groups. Janajati, Tharus and Sonahas engaged in fishing. There is a high level of seasonal migration, to India fortheir earnings. In the summer months, after paddy is sown, men migrate to India.
Riverbed mining is an income source. Paddy rice, upland rice, wheat, millet, lentils, peas, sugarcane, mustards, chilly, onion and garlic are the major crops grown in this watershed. Nepal drinking water corporation, hand pumps, wells, tubewell boring, surface water, commercial bottle jar are the available sources for the drinking water. Water source discharge are decreasing and older existing sources have been completely dried out. People are dependent on Nepal Drinking Water Corporation for drinking water they supply and where its reach is low people use hand pumps.
Lower Mahakali watershed has important biodiversity. It has 46 mammal species, 423 bird species of migratory and resident birds (including Nepal’s largest population of Bengal florican), and 16 species of reptiles. The area hosts the world’s largest herd of swamp deer as well as tigers, leopards, chittal, hog deer, sambar, rhinos and hispid hares. This watershed is home to migratory fish like Sahar, Mahasheer, Himalayan Trout (Asala), snow trout and Rajabam. Outside of Shuklaphanta NP, there are a range of different forest types throughout the watershed, ranging from khair (Acacia chundra)-Sissoo (Dalberghiasissoo) forests in riverine areas, gurelandpithura (Trewianudiflora) riverine forest, sal (Shorearobusta). According to local communities within the watershed, the protected Bijaya Sal (Pterocarpus marsupium) tree holds important medicinal value. Sixty nine species of fishes are recorded here such as: Catfish, Sahar, Mahesheer, Asala, Snow trout and Rajabaam along with endemic fishes like: cat fish, Pseudoecheineisserracula
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The district is well connected with other parts of the Tarai through the East-West Highway. The watershed has about 51 km of district roads and 20 km of strategic roads. One of the longest multi-span pedestrian bridge in Nepal, is located in the watershed over the Mahakali river that connects Chandani and Dodhara. Mahakali separates both from urbanizing Mahendranagar (about 12 km north-east from bridge). This bridge located 8 km below Sharda Dam is the only access to the area.
TABLE 11: PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Uncontrolled aggregate mining IEE done as a ritual; lack of monitoring Pollutes rivers, impacts freshwater biodiversity Heavy deposition of silt Obstructed by earlier flow Habitat destruction and risk of extinction of endemic species. Increased instances of flood and soil erosion Erratic rainfall, uncontrolled aggregate Habitat and loss of biodiversity, damage to mining, riverine property and lives Cutting of trees Urbanization and road construction, Habitat destruction and soil erosion Haphazard disposal of wastes Lack of awareness and local regulation Increase in pollution and risk of spreading of diseases Economic Fishermen shift to new profession Lack of water in river and decrease in fish Low income among dependent families population. Lack of market for agricultural products. Farmers do not get the right price for their Loss of interest in agriculture produce Youth migration Lack of enough job opportunities. Human resources are not available for local tasks Unclear riverbed mining jurisdiction. Unequal revenue sharing from mining. Conflict between municipalities about revenue while ecosystem loss rises. Farmer exiting from agriculture Seasonal and permanent migration, young Dependence on imported products generation losing interest in agriculture, lack increases of proper irrigation facility Social Human-Wildlife conflict Human encroachment of wildlife habitat Damage to property, crops and even loss of life. Caste based discrimination persists Lack of social and GESI awareness Persistence poverty and low socio-economic status of certain groups Political District level offices (forest, soil Organizations established have limited Unable to perform effectively and deliver conservation) have authority but lack budgetary and human resources quality services. resources and directives. Work load of municipalities and rural New federal structure has empowered local Service delivery is ineffective municipalities have increased. bodies with responsibilities with bigger coverage area but without resources Officials are unclear about federal and Lack of coordination, unclear directives for Misunderstanding of the roles and provincial laws and roles the provincial representatives responsibilities affects implementation. Road development done without in The prevailing local leaders disregard Adverse impact on terrestrial biodiversity considering risks of environmental hazards provisions of EIA/IEE in construction of road and freshwater biodiversity. projects.
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Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: Lower Mahakali basin exhibits a complex interdependence between landscape and people. Since the 1920s, the area has seen major interventions for irrigation and much debate surrounding the Tanakpur barrage project.
The Shuklaphanta National Parks is home to more “barahsingha,” or swamp deer, than any other region in the country. At latest count, they number 2,301. Community forestry activities included planting saplings in parts of Kanchanpur. The community groups have also established a nursery to raise and sell saplings.
Some individuals have made efforts to adapt. Nathuram Rana of Bhimdatta Municipality, for example, practices smart, climate-adapted farming while Purna Sahu manages a successful banana farm and Paltu Chaudhary runs a fish hatchery. With support from the government, Bhimdatta Municipality has launched a campaign of promoting “one house one seed” campaign. Like other districts, the districts have declared itself open defecation-free. Farmers use sprinkler and drip technology to irrigate vegetables, cultivate vegetables in plastic greenhouses, and practice mulching. These techniques, which have helped improve local agriculture production, should be replicated
Challenges: Flooding is a major problem. At the same time, the water table under the Bhabar region is declining and the livelihoods of locals are, as a result, suffering. Locals are not, however, well informed about the adverse impacts of such changes.
Lower Karnali Watershed
Context This watershed covers the sub-tropical and tropical belts on the lower reaches of the Karnali. It covers 875.32 km2 and is spread into three provinces: part of Province 5 (Bardia), Karnali Province (Surkhet) and Sudurpaschim Province (Kailali). Within these three districts, the watershed includes 10 local governmental jurisdictions. It lies within Bardiya and Kailali districts that encompasses a wide variety of landforms; Siwalik (Chure), government forest, community forest and irrigated, and bari lands. The area has diverse land use: around 55% under forest, 34% under agriculture, 9% rivers and streams and 2% grazing lands. The alluvial soil type is recorded.
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The watershed has 59 streams and rivers: major rivers in the watershed are Karnali, Geruwa, and Aurahi along with lakes and wetland such as Tara, Bahraiya, Bhagaraiya, Babai and Orahi. The watershed does not cover the entire area of the districts. The boundary of the watershed and political jurisdiction do not match. In Panchpuri, for instance, the watershed covers just two of its wards. The area experiences subtropical monsoon climate with four distinct seasons: hot and dry pre-monsoon, hot and wet monsoon and dry in post monsoon and winter. The dry season rainfall is 193 mm whereas the monsoon rainfall is 1,600 mm/year.
The watershed has a total population of 171,943 with 48% male and 52% female. The main inhabitants are Janajati 61% (of which 89% are Tharu), Brahmin and Chhetri (26%), Dalit (8%) and others (5%). The economic activities include; Agriculture 54%, daily wages 25%, livestock rearing 4% and capture fisheries 3%. The major crops grown are rice, maize, wheat, lentils, mustard, grams and vegetables. Decrease in water availability, for instance the water level decrease in Geruwa River due to upstream diversion threatens the aquatic biodiversity and seasonal surface scarcity of water is increasing though in south of Bhabar the area has groundwater. People tube-well, river, taps, piped water, spring, jar and bottle, as sources of drinking water.
About 48 CFUGs are involved in the management of forest. The area has Sal forest in the riverine areas along with Khair, Sisoo, Simal and sajh. The Bardiya National Park (BNP) encompasses a vast area of this watershed and is home to key grassland and forest species of wildlife including tiger, rhinos, elephants and deer. It has wetlands that are habitat of many varieties of fishes, dolphin and other aquatic species. There are 74 fish species: Sahar, Rawa, Thed, Kathlaggi, Rajbaam, Karauwa and may more in the rivers and streams. The area also uses Pipal, Bar, Ghodtapre, Okhar and Aaiselu as medicinal herbs. Net casting, gillnets, fishing hooks, draining water, trapping in paddy field, poison, electric current, use of light and explosives are the methods used for catching fishes.
The watershed is connected by the country’s East-West Highway: 2 Strategic roads (Postal highway and East-West Highway) run through lower Karnali WS There has been a substantial increase in construction of houses in parts of Bardiya, Kailali and Banke districts. This trend has significantly increased demand on construction materials, especially riverbed mining of lower Karnali stretches. Two systems are under operation that fulfill the water requirement for irrigation; Rani-Jamara- Kulariya in kailali and Budhikhola irrigation in Rajapur.
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TABLE 12: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Cause Impact Environmental Geruwa river has reduced flow Upstream water diversion Increasing degradation and seasonal scarcity affects freshwater biodiversity Excessive mining of sand and aggregates Local government use IEE as a Damages to local fish habitat and loss ritual and do not comply with of freshwater biodiversity recommendations River changing course cuts banks. Upstream interventions and more Limitation of conventional erratic river flows management procedures to resolve dispute between communities and that between communities and the national park. More pests and weed attack crops. Increased average and maximum Traditional methods of agriculture temperature become ineffective and people move to new places for work Increased inundation during monsoon Barrage built in India across the Increased vulnerability of household’s border blocks flow and those affected face reduced food production. Economic Displaced population are yet to receive relief and Bureaucratic approach to address Rising inequity and sense of loss some have been left out from the process compensation People leave traditional agricultural. Unpredictable and changing rainfall People forced to supplement incomes pattern through migration to India and elsewhere. Social Tharu community cannot get enough thatch for their National Park authorities restricting Loss of turning traditional skills, roofs and make baskets used in special occasions, the use of elephant grass adverse impacts on cultural practices. communities feel that they are under surveillance, their mobilities and lifestyles curtailed. People leave traditional agricultural. Unpredictable and changing rainfall People forced to supplement incomes pattern through migration to India and elsewhere. Political Families affected by wildlife damage not compensated Long and bureaucratic procedure of Inequity and sense of injustice prevails compensation People feel that they will face reduced water from Downstream users are not consulted Increasing frustration and lack of upstream interventions about upstream plans ownership Lack of trust between Tharu non-Tharu community. Past violence and lack of local Continued strained relationship. interlocution Poor access to information No systematic method of information Community does not feel included in flow between the elected local governance process government members, between the government and the citizens. Lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities of No basis for local government to take Community do not get benefits and the national and provincial government in natural benefit from forest resources in new discontent can manifested in future resource such as forest. governance arrangement. conflict. Some communities feel that their aspirations are not Dominant caste groups influence Eroded notion of social inclusion sufficiently reflected in the constitutional and federal political and economic processes processes
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Ongoing Activities/Challenges Activities: Lower Karnali Watershed is undergoing rapid changes. Eco- and village tourism, including homestays in Bardiya District are common, and homestays in Dalla, Baridiya, have even become famous nationwide. Similar efforts at promoting homestays are being made in Balchour, Kailali. Homestay operators and local communities work together to help conserve forest wildlife and aquatic animals as these are among the attraction tourists come to see them. Whitewater rafting, another tourist attraction, offers new opportunities for river conservation. Community-based anti-poaching efforts operational around Bardiya National Park have achieved some degree of success. Several individuals from different communities, FUG networks, and corridor groups are actively involved in the conserving tigers, dolphins, birds, and other species and in conducting environmental and conservation campaigns.
Rajapur municipality and Narhari Nath rural municipality have established “jalkachahari” with the objective of discussing upstream-downstream issues and supporting each other. This is a useful beginning, one which can serve as a model platform for convening basin-level dialogues that can balance the multiple uses and needs for water as well as promote the conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
The early warning system for floods in the Karnali River and community-based disaster management committees (CDMCs) have served communities in Kailali and Bardiya districts well. The system has saved lives and played a vital role in bringing communities and their representatives together through information sharing. Communication media such as radios and short messaging service (SMS) are used to transfer information about the water level in the Karnali to downstream communities as part of a larger flood disaster preparation program.
Challenges: The Rani-Jamara Kulharia and Budhi Kulo are being modernized and a new institutional form is likely to emerge to manage them so that they support agriculture effectively. Large problems are emerging in the district, however, as a report by Karobar on April 7, 2019, made clear. Banke and Bardiya districts are known as the granary of Nepal because they produce cereals for supply parts of the Mahakali and Karnali basins. Their capability to do so, however, is called into question by the recent rice in cereal imports. The records of the Nepalgunj customs office reveal that NPR 4.5 billion worth of rice was imported from India in the first eight months in 2017-18, an amount 14% greater than was imported in the same period in 2016-17. Other foods, including NPR 625 million of wheat, NPR 340 of pulses, and NPR 1 billion of potatoes, were also imported during that same period.
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The fact that imports went up does not tally well with the fact that rice production in Bardiya and Banke increased 7% over the year. According to the Agriculture Knowledge Centre Banke, the yield is sufficient to meet both local needs and the needs of other regions of the province. They claimed that rice imports are increasing because of an increase in the demand for aromatic, fine and long-grained varieties. Local farmers cultivate a high-yielding coarse-grain variety whose demand is not as high. Thus, even with government support for local farmers, imports are unlikely to decrease. To meet the demand, traders and businessmen must import. Because of the increase in rice imports, 95% of local rice mills have been shut down in the two districts.
Investment in Bheri-Babai Diversion Multipurpose Project needs to be examined in light of this emerging challenges. The project aims divert water from the Bheri River to produce 48 MW hydroelectricity and irrigate 51,000 hectares of land in Banke and Bardiya districts13. Innovative approaches are also needed in the management of Rani-Jamara Kulharia and Budhi Kulo and in the use of groundwater in order to achieve agricultural gains. The new approach needs to consider the optimal use of water in a way that meets the needs of local agriculture and conserves iconic fresh water species such as the dolphin.
The extraction of aggregate has been restricted along the Karnali River towards Bardiya National Park, but water flow in the Geruwa branch has decreased, a change that has stressed a critical habitat and the wildlife species that live there. Such extraction is the main source of local revenue for local governments: they raise NPR 5 million to 10 million from the sale of licenses.
The lower Karnali region faces a high risk of flooding. The challenge is to build on the disaster risk initiative already implemented in this region and minimize future losses. The greater challenge is to create jobs locally. The level of trust among communities within the new political context must be built using community interlocutors. Such effects will minimize the recurrence of conflict and create space for the conservation of freshwater as well as terrestrial biodiversity. Such activities will benefit people living south of the Siwalik of the MKWR basins. Subsequently, the learning from approach can be replicated at the national level, too.
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Stresses and Pressures The MKWR basins faces following stresses.
Climatic Stress: Climate determines a region’s ecological and social character. Since the region’s meteorological and hydrological parameters vary greatly at the microlevel and Nepal’s meteorological stations are few, site-specific details on temperature, snowfall, rainfall and humidity are inadequate. As a result, to assess the influence of climatic drivers on freshwater biodiversity at the micro level, it is necessary to triangulate macro-level historical trends, the perceptions of local people and climate-model scenarios. Though it is difficult to downscale model results to make them relevant to the diverse local ecosystems of the MKWR basins, the overall picture is that temperatures are rising, rainfall is growing more erratic and snowfall is declining. Local communities claim that thunderstorms and hailstorms are more frequent.
The frequency of climatic hazards has increased. Such hazards stress forest, agricultural, and aquatic ecosystems; reduce biodiversity; and destroy habitats. Landslides, mass wasting and GLOFs destroy lives and livelihoods. They also damage vegetation, which then takes years to regenerate and when it does, the composition of species will have changed. Increases in the water flow of rivers due to the climate- induced rise in intense rainfall events have increased the risk of flooding in towns and village. While some municipalities have established local emergency operation centers, many others accord little attention to DRR.
These changes in climate have changed the local hydrology and accelerated soil erosion, landslides and mass wasting as well as climate-related hazards such as drought. Soil fertility is declining, as are the health of terrestrial ecosystem and freshwater biodiversity. Increases in water temperatures brought by climate change will affect ecological processes and the geographic distribution of aquatic species. Cold water fish are at risk due to rises in the temperatures of water bodies. Changing water temperature may promote the proliferation of invasive species that compete with and sometimes even dominant native species, driving down their population. Changes in precipitation and runoff will impact hydrologic characteristics of aquatic systems which can affect species composition and ecosystem productivity. Changes in the seasonal timing of snow melt can affect stream flows, thus impacting the reproduction of many aquatic species14.
Forest Fires: Forest fires may become a new hazard in many places in the MKWR basins as the incidence of drought increases and the dry season grows longer.
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Already, droughts and longer dry spells have resulted in the loss of forest cover and biodiversity. Forest fires destroy seedlings and seeds on the forest floor. The forests in the Chure hills, Tarai and Doon valleys have all become more susceptible to forest fire. Changes in land surface behavior following wildfire can add nutrients and fine sediments in rivers that may lead to both positive and negative impacts on aquatic communities. Larger wooden debris when deposit in rivers morphologically modifies them with various effects on aquatic communities over the long run. After wildfire, the recovery of aquatic ecosystems is related with that of terrestrial landscapes demonstrating close relationship with aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems15.
Spread of Invasive Species: The spread of non-native plant species seems to have increased although, at present, the evidence for this change is just anecdotal. Changes in climatic regimes are not the only reason for the proliferation of invasive plant species: in regenerated ecosystems the composition of species may be different than the previous and make the habitat more inviting to invasive species. In fact, some species abundant in certain areas only a few years ago have now disappeared.
Non-Climatic Stresses Road Building: Road construction, urban growth and land-use changes are the dominant non-climatic stresses in the MKWR region. The number of hotels and restaurants, vehicular traffic, the consumption of fossil fuel, and consumerism have all increased. Tourism makes positive contribution to the local and national economies, but if it is not managed well it could result in serious water and land pollution, an outcome that would have a direct and adverse impact on freshwater biodiversity.
The climatic and non-climatic stresses have both intensified over time. Local ecosystems and communities, which have already adapted to both climatic and non-climatic variability with varying degrees of success, are being exposed to new stresses. The resilience of these systems must be built so that they can better adapt to the emerging risks.
Migration and urbanization: Nepal’s rate of urbanization (3% on average in 2014) is one of the highest in Asia though the urban population (17%in 2014 but shooting up to one-third in 201716 with the declaration of 159 new municipalities) comprises a smaller percentage than elsewhere. The growth rate of small townships along road corridors is particularly high. As migrants from adjoining watersheds come to settle in these townships, the population density increases and local infrastructures
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are haphazardly extended to meet the increasing needs of the people living there. The result is a gradual increase on local resources. More solid and liquid waste is generated and, in most town, is discharged untreated, to the detriment of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The untreated waste containing nitrate and phosphate can promote algal bloom and deplete oxygen level in water bodies thus killing the aquatic species that cannot survive in low oxygen level. The largest urban centers in the MKWR are Dhangadhi, Mahendranagar, Tikapur, Dadeldhura, Silgadi, Dipayal, Lamahi and Chainpur.
Overexploitation of Forests and Over-mining of Rivers: The mining of sand and aggregate from the rivers of the MKWR basins has increased as the demand for materials to construct roads, buildings and other infrastructures has increased. Roads are seen as the main avenue to overall socio-economic development but since road- building is often haphazard and environmentally destructive, many roads have so seriously jeopardized ecosystem health that, while they have increased connectivity, they actually threaten sustainable development. Roads cause slope destabilization, erosion and landslides; increase siltation; destroy aquatic habitats; and reduce water quality. Sometimes floods and soil erosion together result in the movement of medicinal and poisonous plants through river, a phenomenon which reduces aquatic diversity of rivers. Currently the MKWR basin has 20,199 km of main and feeder roads. Upgrading them will require a substantial amount of base materials. Although it is clear that the increase in the pace of construction that characterizes the entire MKWR region has seen a significant increase in the mining of river aggregates, there is no data on the actual amount extracted.
While any mining of river aggregates will bring about some changes in river morphology and the habitat of fishes and other aquatic animals, the levels mining has reached today threaten to do irreparable harm. River-mining is one of the greatest environmental challenges and most pressing governance issues in almost all watersheds that are connected by road. In fact, across the basin, house construction as well as the implementation and upgrading of projects such as the Rani-Jamara- Kulhariya and hydropower plants have increased the demand for aggregates. For contractors as well as for the local governments that issue licenses to contractor, river- mining means money. In fact, licensing such mining is one of the greatest sources of local revenue. These mining activities rarely follow EIA guidelines. Therefore, such action is destroying aquatic habitat and river ecosystem. Despite the imbalances in river morphology mining causes, very few national parks have banned aggregate mining.
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Changes in land use and land cover: Like the rest of Nepal, the MKWR region faces significant changes in land use and land cover. What was once forestland is now being used for agriculture and agricultural land is being converted into human settlements. Changes such as these change micro climates and local hydrology and thereby alter ecosystem functions.
Modernization of Agriculture: Many elected local governments emphasize the need to modernize agriculture and, indeed, a few enterprise-based agricultural systems have developed. This trend is facilitated by the prime minister’s Agriculture Modernization Project and by local governments’ support for the development of cooperatives, the marketing of agricultural produce, and the construction of cold storage facilities. These changes are likely to increase the demand for irrigation water. Farmers are keen on using chemical fertilizers and pesticides to improve their productivity and to get rid of pests. However, agricultural run-off can increase acidity, ammonia toxicity, iron and nitrate-phosphate contamination in water bodies, thus harming the aquatic life. Unhealthy water bodies alter aquatic habitat, make fish vulnerable to diseases, disturb metabolism and promote invasion18.
Building of Water Infrastructure (irrigation barrages and hydropower dams): Many irrigation projects, including the Bheri-Babai, Sikta, Badkapad and Praganna, are being built and the Rani-Jamara- Kulhariya in Kailali, and the Budhi Kulo in Rajapur are being upgraded. The chaudhari, or hereditary title-holding, system of the Rani-Jamara-Kulhariya has a mul samiti, or federation of the three users’ groups of the Rani, Jamara and Kulhariya sub-systems. The irrigation systems use a modern system of organization. Hydropower projects of various sizes are being built in the MKWR region and others have been proposed. While data varies, most suggest that, not including the 10,800 MW Karnali Chisapani, the electricity generated will reach 3,000 MW when all the projects are complete. Hydro-engineering structures block flow, increase inundation, and disrupt fish migration. They can destroy both feeding and breeding habitats and thereby lead to freshwater biodiversity loss. Habitat damage leads to stunted growth, diseases and parasite infestation among many fish species (ADB 2018)19.
Competing Water Uses: Competition among various water uses is a challenge. One key example is the Rani-Jamara-Kulhariya and Budhi Kulo irrigation systems. Downstream farmers report that they are not consulted about possible new hydropower development or the upstream interventions such as West Seti, Upper Karnali that will alter the downstream flow regime. They are worried that long-term restrictions of the flow of water in the Karnali will seriously affect irrigation users.
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The water users and leaders of both irrigation projects mentioned that they have conveyed their worries to the concerned offices in Kathmandu but that there has been no response so they remain ignorant of plans for building hydropower projects in their basins. Given that this sort of upstream-downstream competition led to conflict in Jhimruk when it was designed and built in the 1900s, it is important that this issue be looked into.
Conflicts Between Humans and Wildlife and Other Challenges to Conservation: Conflict between humans and wildlife is considered to be one of the most challenging issues for wildlife conservation worldwide. Such conflicts are particularly seen in regions with considerable biodiversity, such as protected areas and national parks. Conflict between people and wildlife often occurs because the limited resources available must be shared. The results include property damage, human death and injury, crop-raiding, livestock predation and the retaliatory killing of wildlife. One of the main reasons for such conflicts is the increase in human populations and the fact that they build their settlements near protected areas. Most of the protected areas in Nepal are located at high altitudes; thus, the fauna of the lowland Tarai regions is not adequately protected and most wildlife species, especially large mammals, live in forest landscapes dominated by humans.
For this reason, people-wildlife encounters are many and people are often attacked by large mammals such as tigers, leopards, rhinoceros, bears and elephants. The retaliatory killing of such species is highly controversial if those species happen to be threatened. Thus legally protected species, as tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses and some species of leopards and bears are. Humans have the most conflicts with elephants, followed by monkeys, wild boars, leopards, rhinoceros, and bears face greater risks. When the total number of attacks is considered, conflict with tigers is the least common.
National parks and their associated buffer zone users’ groups are trying to promote wildlife conservation within buffer zones. In other areas, it is community forest users’ groups that are involved in the conservation and management of forests and the protection of wildlife. In addition, some local groups regularly clean nearby picnic spots and encourage tourism in their communities. Local people complain they are inadequately compensated for the damage that wildlife does to their crops and properties and that bureaucratic procedures delay the delivery of the little compensation that they do get. The Bardiya National Park is case in point. In fact, some local governments have started providing compensation faster than park officials.
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Capture Fisheries: Three social groups that live across the Karnali river basin practice capture fishery as their traditional occupation: the Sonaha, Raji, and Majhi communities. The Karnali is home to 74 species, including the sahar, rawa, thed, kathlaggi, rajbaam, and karauwa. The mohi became extinct in the 1990s and today, the asala (Himalayan trout) cannot be found in the area. People say that fish populations in general are dwindling. While destructive practices, including the use of explosive devices and poison, have largely stopped in Karnali, because fishers use fine fishing nets, they catch fingerlings and thereby reduce the number of breeding pairs and therefore entire populations. The Sonaha community in Lamki Chuha Municipality, which is located along the western banks of the Karnali, mentioned that in an overnight fishing expedition, they can catch over 100 kg of fish, but at other times they have to be satisfied with just a few kilos. The average catch is about 40 kg of fish. The Sonaha complain that Bardiya National Park authorities and members of local committees often take retaliatory action against them when they fish: they damage their boats.
People from the Tharu community of Rapti region catch fish throughout the year using a variety of methods such as helkadiliya, taapi, dondiya thane, mahuraune, tirhanne, and khongiya and sourcing different areas. In the monsoon season, when rice fields are flooded, the Tharu fish rice paddies and the drainage channels around them. In the dry season fishing activities shift to rivers, wetlands and marshes. Tharu people stated that harmful fishing practices such as use of bomb, poison and electric current have severely depleted aquatic biodiversity. Yet, through support of Paani Program illegal practices have been banned.
About 25-30 years ago, few people depended on fishing as a source of livelihood20 and used to barter fish with rice, corn, and cereals. They used hair of bulls, horse tails21 and Himalayan nettle to make a fish trap (paso). The paso’s opening would be small enough to catch big fishes (weighing up to 1.5 kilograms) and big enough to leave fingerlings flow through. In some case fishes as large as 3 kilograms would be caught.
The availability of thin nylon thread in the market have begun to change these traditional practices. As fisher people started using net made of nylon, the use of traditional nets has declined. The nylon nets are made with small openings that also catch fingerlings and hatchlings. Elderly villagers say that nylon thread is used from March to May when fish starts migrating upstream and that results in higher fish catches in those months. The use of such nets threatens to wipe fish stock.
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In the last 5 to-6 years, fish stock has declined due to changes in fishing practice including use of new equipment/instrument. These and not necessarily more people engaged in fishing seem to have led to decline in stock. Excessive blasting during the construction of Karnali highway has also led to decline in the fish stock in some rivers especially Tila River of the Karnali basin. After blasting, large sized stones were thrown into the Tila River and they have destroyed fish Kur (kind of fishes’ habitat). Fishing using electricity is another reason for destruction of fish and other aquatic animals. Such practices not only kill the fish-stock but also other species in the rivers. In places like Tallo Shera Bada and Bali snow trout that weigh up to 1.5 kilograms is available today but may disappear if the prevalent practices continue. People worry that, the entire fish stock may vanish by next 10 to 15 years without serious conservation efforts.
Tourism: Touristic development around parks is developing, especially in the form of home stays and rafting expeditions. Development organizations and park authorities see the promotion of tourism as an opportunity to incentivize people to engage in wildlife conservation. However, if there are more tourists, more local natural ecosystem services will be used. Sensitive ecosystems like those of Rara, Sheyphoksundo and Kaphtad protected areas and entire ecological landscape could soon face new forms of stresses. Higher number of hotels and home stays means additional use of water bodies and increases in the generation of effluent. In the poor governance and capacity context, the effluents are likely to be disposed untreated in water bodies ultimately degrading their quality.
The basins must also content with non-geographical drivers:
Political transition: Political uncertainty prevailed in the country after the mid- 1990s and the government changed frequently. Local governments, which had been empowered to function as custodians of natural resources and biodiversity under the Local Self Governance Act of 1999, were dismissed in 2004, and, until the promulgation of the 2015 Constitution, it was central-level government officials and all-party mechanisms that were involved as local governments in overseeing local issues. The new constitution does accord importance to the conservation and management of ecosystems and biodiversity, but during the recent campaign for local elections held in 2017, political leaders emphasized economic prosperity as their overarching goal. The local leaders elected are concerned primarily with road- building who worked as contractors. They compete to deliver development, which is measured solely by the completion of roads and other physical infrastructure. The pressure to deliver has pressured local governments to generate revenue, and gravel extraction is seen as an easy way to do so.
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Policies: Three aspects of policy have implications for ecosystem degradation and loss of freshwater biodiversity. The first is the fact much policy-making is reactive: it is guided by specific projects and is not based on grounded evidence. Policies regarding the conservation and management of ecosystems and biodiversity are top- down and, because they do not indicate any direction for their implementation, have limited practical utility. The second shortcoming of current policy is that it has a sectoral focus and that the policies of different sectors are poorly coordinated. Because ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation are dealt with mostly under forest policy, biodiversity in general and freshwater biodiversity in particular are poorly linked to sustainable water resource management. Policies regarding the conservation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are also inadequately linked to local social and cultural contexts. The third flaw relates to implementation: policies are guided more by international contexts than local demands and, in some cases, are not supported with legislation.
Market Penetration: Market forces have affected ecosystem stocks and services in significant ways. Price fluctuations in international and local markets, for example, have a major influence on both the demand for and prices of medicinal herbs. China and India are the main markets for the medicinal herbs of Nepal though a small quantity is processed and used within the country as well. Other changes brought about by market penetration are also important if we are to conserve freshwater biodiversity. These include changes in patterns of consumption. The import of foods like rice and instant noodles, which are seen as more desirable than traditional food crops such as maize, millet, barley, naked barley, and buckwheat, has caused the use of local foods to provide nutritional security to decline in many places of the basins. Indeed, the demand for non-traditional food crops has increased even in the remotest of areas and the area in which traditional crops are cultivated has decrease. Consumption patterns are likely to continue to change and their pace of change to accelerate as new infrastructures are and the flow of imported goods and services and immigrants increases. Without locally rooted social and environmental safeguards it is likely that agricultural biodiversity will be lost and that the impact of that decline will be transmitted to freshwater biodiversity, resulting in its decline, too
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Concluding Remarks The water resources of the MKWR basins face degradation, pollution and climate change-induced stress. The inhabitants of these basins use and depend on natural resources for their livelihoods, but opportunities for expanding those livelihoods are limited as the productivity of natural resource systems is decreasing. In fact, in some areas such systems no longer meet the needs of the local populations. There are very few examples of the use of technology in manufacturing and the service sector has barely emerged. Thus, local communities, which once could respond effectively to emerging stresses, are unable to deal with new stresses. The freshwater biodiversity is at the heart of this problem. We need to better understand interactions among ecosystems, people and development so that insights from such study can suggest changes in policy and how people can benefit from emerging local markets, and alternative livelihoods. While specific policy responses are needed to contribute to the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, the larger dynamics are also important.
One issue that needs focused examination is the changing nature of the climate and the fact that extreme weather events are becoming more frequent. The data base is inadequate and fragmented and must be systematically updated and compiled. It is important to generate reliable, verifiable and easy-to-understand data and to make it available for local decision-making. Data on precipitation, temperature and iconic aquatic systems is essential. Collecting it will create a baseline that will help us assess the changing nature of hazards. Provincial and local governments must take proactive measures to identify gaps, problems, the causes of those problem and ways of overcoming the gaps.
Vulnerability to shocks is exacerbated by poverty and a lack of alternative livelihoods. Gender, age, location, and preexisting conditions determine people’s vulnerability and capacity to adapt to various climate and non-climate shocks. Geography, local climate, culture and governance, demographic and socio-economic characteristics are equally important. Helping overcome these challenges requires local governments to formulate plans that will benefit the poor, women and marginalized communities as well as conserve fresh water biodiversity. Improved understanding can help municipalities formulate strategies with minimal risks to fresh water biodiversity. Each municipality in the MKWR basins needs to systematically develop its capacity to deal with emerging challenges regarding service delivery, infrastructure development and the conservation of both aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity.
The MKWR basins face intense pressure on its resources due to a variety of factors. There are many actors in the basin, but no single one serves as an umbrella
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organization at the scale of watershed. The boundaries of provinces, districts, and municipalities do not always match and the jurisdictions of federal, provincial and local governments are not yet clear. In addition, all levels of government have competing mandates: the mandate to conserve natural resources, for example, clashes with that to generate revenue, which local governments often do through resource extraction. Resource extraction, however, threatens local ecosystems as well as traditional and indigenous practices and livelihoods. Conflicts over the rights of indigenous peoples versus those of the modern state, with its rules about and institutions overseeing fishing, irrigation, hydropower development and the conservation of fresh water and terrestrial biodiversity are emerging. These inter linkages need to be better understood for devising means to avoid potential conflict.
Notes
1 Details available in aquatic ecosystem analysis report. 2 Local perception shared during field visit. However, a participant during River Summit claimed that water depth was declining due to constant seepage. 3 Additional information in aquatic ecosystem analysis report. 4 Data from watershed profile. 5 The information is not obtained through fish capture but is based on provided by seconadary sources. So there is an element of uncertainty in data and that must be cautiously used. CMDN team to be contacted for further technical details. 6 The research team comprising aquatic ecologist Deep Narayan Shah and botanist NarayanPrasad Ghimire. 7 http://annapurnapost.com/news/119182. 8 ADB. (2018). Impacts of Dam on Fish in the Rivers of Nepal. Asian Development Bank 9 Analysis in water profile report. 10 Exact numeric data not available. 11 Analysis based on watershed profile. 12 Statement taken from watershed profile. 12 See, The Kathmandu Post, April 7, 2019. 14 https://www.c2es.org/document/aquatic-ecosystems-and-global-climate-change 15 Pinto, P. et.al. (undated). Wildfire impacts on aquatic ecosystem. Sustainable Development: Energy, Environment and Natural Disasters. 16 https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/pace-urbanisation-rapid-nepal-says-report/ 17 https://gsdrc.org/publications/urbanisation-and-urban-growth-in-nepal/ 18 More information on Chapter 6. 19 ADB. (2018). Impacts of dams on fish in the rivers of Nepal. Asian Development Bank 20 nsight from discussion at Shera Bada, Ward No 8, Khadachakra Municipality, Kalikot District with fishers and other members of community 21 Discussion with fishing families and other members of community in Dundelin ward no 9, Tila Rural Municipality, Jumla District
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Aquatic Ecosystem Analysis and 4 Management
Introduction This chapter presents an analysis of aquatic biodiversity in the MKWR basins as well as a discussion of the characteristics of the landscape-level ecosystem within which that aquatic biodiversity exists and how both the ecosystem and the biodiversity are managed. Though Nepal does have legislation that aims to protect aquatic ecosystems, both these systems and the rivers that support them continue to degrade. The MKWR basins are among those that need attention. Since aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are part of the same continuum, we will also examine various aspects of terrestrial environments and their connectedness to the aquatic systems in question. Since stress in one impacts the other, both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems must be conserved simultaneously.
Deforestation and overgrazing degrade land surfaces, making them susceptible to mud flow, erosion, landslides and bank cutting, all processes that increase sediment load in rivers, lowering their quality and destroying aquatic habitats. If such disturbances persist, the health of aquatic species will decline and some may even disappear. Like other basins, the MKWR basins are also harmed by activities such as sand mining, gravel extraction, use of chemical fertilizers and harmful fishing practices, like explosives, electric current and poison. Overfishing could affect aquatic food chains and disrupt ecosystem services and functioning and the use of toxic chemicals results in bio-magnification, such that species at the apex of a food chain ingest the greatest amounts of toxins.
Freshwater Ecosystems and Aquatic Diversity Before considering the aquatic ecosystems of the MKWR basins, it is useful to recapitulate the character of those basins. The rivers of the MKWS basin can be classified into three types based on dry-season discharge and origin as Himalayan, Mahabharat and Chure rivers. The perennial snow- and glacier-fed Mahakali and Karnal rivers also receive water from their rain-fed tributaries, such as the Rangun and Thuligad respectively. After the Mahakali and Karnal reach the Tarai, they are joined by rivers which originate in the Chure range. These Chure rivers are monsoon-fed and their flows are highly variable and flashy. The Karnali, Mahakali and West Rapti rivers are the habitats of diverse riverine fish species. Aquatic species thrive especially in the lower parts of Chure rivers like the Mohana River, too.
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At high elevations, the Karnali and Mahakali rivers are cold, but their water temperature increases as they flow south. Mahabharat rivers which originate in the high mid-hills are warmer. Two factors determine the nature of the aquatic systems in Nepal: the spatial transition from alpine to tropical climate over a short horizontal distance and temporal changes in climate. The resultant diversity of riverine and standing water ecosystems is responsible for great freshwater biodiversity. The influence of rainfall on the hydrology of rivers means that during the four monsoon months, rivers receive large volumes of water and sediment absent during non-monsoon months. During the non-monsoon low-flow period the dilution capacity of rivers is low and the threat of pollution increases. The MKWR region also has many lakes, swamps, wetlands, ponds, and paddy fields which also serve as aquatic habitats.
Freshwater ecosystems are categorized into three main types: i) lentic ecosystems involving standing water, such as lakes, ponds and reservoirs, ii) lotic ecosystems involving flowing water, and iii) wetlands whose soil is perpetually saturated at least for part of the year. Wetlands form along the shores of lakes or near the oxbow lakes that form as rivers meander across flood plains. When wetlands are formed, a lotic system becomes lentic. A lentic ecosystem has four zones: a) a shallow zone along the shoreline where aquatic plants grow, b) the open water body, c) a substrate zone at the bottom of the water body providing a good environment for invertebrate populations to thrive in and d) the surface film of the water body connected to the atmosphere, through which exchanges of gases and nutrients between the aquatic and the terrestrial ecosystem and the atmosphere occur. Gradient, the velocity of flow and the amount of sediment flowing through in a river determine the zoning of lotic ecosystems, depending on which river stage is concerned. Fast-flowing river water contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen than slow-moving water and therefore supports greater biodiversity. In upland reaches where the velocity of flow is high, lotic ecosystems prevail, but in the middle and low stretches, lentic environments may be present too.
In the MKWR basins the freshwater ecosystems are as follows:
Freshwater Ecosystem Lakes and other wetlands: According to the MoFSC (2017), the region has 92 lakes of different sizes distributed across three physiographic zones (Table1 1) . The concentration of lakes is greatest in the Tarai because it is there that sediment is deposited and depressions caused by the shifting of rivers eventually become permanent water bodies. Lakes are rich in food sources, so they support the growth of
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a number of plants, medicinal herbs, shrubs, fish and aquatic animals. The core areas of the lakes in the MKWR basins ranges from 1 ha to 78 ha. The majority are degraded due to human encroachment, pollution and the growth of invasive vegetation.
TABLE 1 INVENTORY OF LAKES
Distribution by Physiographic Zone
S.N. District Total Tarai Shiwalik Mahabharat Mountain (60-300 m) (700-1,500 m) 1500-2700 m (2700-3000 m) 1. Achham 7 7 2. Baitadi 1 1 3. Bajhang 1 1 4 Bajura 1 1 5. Dadeldhura 1 1 6. Darchula 0 7. Dolpa 1 1* 8. Mugu 3 3* 8. Doti 2 2 9. Humla 0 10. Jajarkot 0 11. Kailali 48 48 12 Kanchanpur 28 28
Source: MoFSC (2017); * Water bodies are located at elevation < 3,000m
TABLE 2: MAJOR WETLANDS OF MKWR BASIN
Mahakali Karnali West Rapti Ghodaghodi, Ali Tal, Pipalkot Tal, Surmasarovor, Timodaha, Khaptad daha, Jamune daha,Barah Kumad gad,Rani Taal,Sikari Taal, Lokundo daha,Kharardaha, Rara taal lake, Bijuwar,Jakera, Kalikitch Taal, Tarapunal Tal, Urailekhko,Ramchadaha,Phoksundo taal, BanghushariBakijakhera Betkot and several others Brahmtaal, Jwalanban, Rakxes, Chhatiwan, Sunpaal Taal, Libukhola Taal, Debalkhola Taal,Bahraiya, Bhagaraiya, Babai, Orahi and many other
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Ghodaghodi and the 13 lakes linked to it are case in point. They support the critically endangered red-crowned roofed turtle as well as threatened plant species such as the endangered orchid and lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and the rare wild rice Hygrorhiza. They also support six threatened white-rumped and slender-billed vultures (Gyps tenuirostris); the vulnerable lesser adjutant and Indian spotted eagle (Aquila hastata); and the near-threatened Oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster) and ferruginous duck. The resident population of cotton pigmy-geese (Nettapus coromandelianus) makes up nearly one per cent of the total population in Asia (Kafle et Al., 2009).
Local governments and communities manage the majority of lakes and community forest users’ groups (CFUGs) manage lakes within forests. Even so human encroachment on most lakes is increasing. The use of chemical fertilizers causes the release of nitrates and phosphate into lakes, thereby promoting algal bloom and the growth of water hyacinth, both of which cause eutrophication2. The resultant depletion of water oxygen is detrimental to various aquatic species, especially those fish that are unable to adapt to the changing environmental conditions. Ghodaghodi Lake is naturally eutrophic but increases in agricultural and religious activities have further contaminate it. Overgrazing, poaching and illegal timber harvesting also degrade the lake.
The MKWR region also has high altitude Shey Phoksundo Lake. The Rara Lake and its surroundings, too, are fairly pristine: both is biodiversity and aesthetic appeal are largely intact. Rara Lake and its feeder stream contain diverse species of rare and endemic fish with high scientific, cultural and recreational values. According to Shrestha (2017) there are seven species altogether, including the Garra annandalei (hora, or, locally, buduna), which is also common in Khatyad Khola. The lake also is home to three endemic species of snow trout: Schizothorax rarensis, S. macrophthalmus and S. nepalensis.
TABLE 3: FISH SPECIES IN RARA LAKE Fish Species Local Name
Garra annandalei (Hora) Buduna Schizothorax rarensis (Tarashima) Kalo Rara Asla Schizothorax nepalensis (Tarashima) Nepali Asla Schizothoraichthys marcophthalmus (Tarashima) Tilke Asla Naziritor chelynoides (McClelland) Karange Pseudecheneis serracula (Ng and Edds) Dhami Machha Schistura rupicola (McClelland) Gindula
Source: Shrestha (2017)
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Rara Lake is the habitat of 272 species of birds. The great-crested grebe (Podicep nigricollis), red-crested pochard (Netta rufina). Merganser (Mergus merganser), Baikal teal (Anas formosa), common teal (Anas creca), gray heron (Ardea cinera), great egret (Cosmerdious albus), demoiselle crane (Gurus vigor), and Heuglin’s gull ( Larus heuglini) are among the rare birds found in the area. These birds contribute to the fertility of the lake and support the food chain of the fish in the lake. The lake also supports water birds, including the coot (Fulica atra), crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus), tufted pochard (Aythya fulligula), mallard (Anas platyrhyncus), common teal (Anas creca), bar-headed goose (Anser indicus), and sheldrake (Tadrona ferrugina).
Phoksundo Lake used to be known as a “dead lake” as no flora or fauna are found in it, but a research team of ISET-Nepal recently identified six types of macro invertebrates and a few species of algae that live there . The different macroinvertebrates found in the lake are Betidae, Chironomidae, and species of Oligochaeta, Polycentropodidae and Taeniopterygidae. The presence of Chionomidae and Oligochaeta indicate that pollution levels in the lake are increasing. Waste discharge from Ringmo village is one source, deforestation, overgrazing, mismanaged trekking routes and landslides, others.
Other wetlands such as marshes, bogs and peats are threatened by human activities and the impacts of climate change. Since such land is fertile, it is often drained for agricultural activities. Locals shared that higher temperature and more erratic rainfall than in the past have dried up the wetlands. About 15-20 years ago, buffaloes used to get stuck in marshy areas that are now are completely dry4. The increase in population, deforestation and overgrazing have all damaged the wetlands.
Both Phoksundo and Rara lakes have attracted steadily increasing numbers of tourist. The development of tourism creates opportunities for local communities to find jobs and earn incomes, but the inflow of people can have negative consequences on local ecologies if externalities are unmanaged. The large number of domestic and foreign tourists visiting the area adds pressure to the ecosystem as vehicular traffic and the demand for food, and fuel wood for cooking and heating increase. Tourists also generate solid and liquid wastes which, when discharged untreated in water bodies, threaten ecosystems and biodiversity.
Rivers: Lentic biodiversity may evolve where river flow is very slow. Since rivers are connected to oxbow lakes, wetlands and springs, lentic and lotic freshwater ecosystems coexist in different parts of the same river. Freshwater river systems provide the clean water that supports vegetation and wildlife. These systems also regulate flooding and sedimentation, thereby helping to retain the nutrients needed
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to meet the food needs of aquatic life. The annual flood cycle replenishes nutrients on flood plains. Rivers are used for religious and cultural purposes as well as for recreational water sports such as rafting and canoeing, both of which serve as sources of revenue and livelihoods.
Of the 232 species of fish in Nepal, 12 are commercially cultivated and 16 are endemic5.
TABLE 4: RIVERS AND TRIBUTARIES Names of rivers Major tributaries and characteristics
Mahakali Mahakali flows along the Nepal–India border on the west and joins the Karnali River in India. Chamelia River flows into the Mahakali River. Karnali Karnali drains western Nepal, with the Sano Bheri, Thulo Bheri, Tila, Mugu Karnali, Humla Karnali, Budhi Ganga, and West Seti are its major tributaries. West Rapti West Rapti originates from the rugged highland of the western hills. Jhimruk and Mardi rivers join to form West Rapti.
Source: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. 2014. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014–2020. Kathmandu.
The fish species in Nepal’s rivers vary from small, short-lived species likeDanio rerio, which is on average just 26 mm, to some of the world’s largest freshwater fishes, including the gonch, which can be as heavy as 80 kg (Sharma, 2008). The majority of these fish species are found in the riverine environments of the Taria and mid-hills. Even though aquatic diversity declines in low temperature regimes, 59 cold-water species have been reported in Nepal’s mountain and high mountain freshwater ecosystems. Some of Nepal’s endemic cold-water fishes and its endemic Rara frog (Nanorana rarica) are found in Rara Lake and in rivers that flow in the High Mountain region. Other fish, such as the Indian mottled eel (Anguilla bengalensis, or, in Nepali, rajabam) and the gon (Bagarius yarrellii) have much larger ranges and undertake long migrations between the Bay of Bengal and the mountains. In the low Tarai basins are found gharial and marsh crocodiles, Gangetic river dolphins, otters, turtles, birds, and numerous species of snakes, frogs, and toads
Fish accounts for 1.7% of the total protein consumed in Nepal and fishing provides a livelihood to 700,000 people, of whom 53% are women. Fishery contributes US$ 154 million (>1.32%) to the GDP. About 13 ethnic communities (10.8% of the total population) directly or indirectly depend on aquatic biodiversity. Capture fishery in the three river basins of the MKWR support household-level food needs and, for some fisher communities, supplements income. Unfortunately, the issues of aquatic life and ecosystems are not part of the larger discourse on water development.
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In the three basins, capture fishery is limited to the main stems of river and their tributaries in the mid hills and Tarai. Fishery is scattered and poorly organized. Fisher communities live along rivers and lakes and use traditional gear such as great, current, and gill nets, mainly for subsistence-level production. Besides these traditional nets, they also use baskets, rods and lines, spears, fish traps and indigenous fish poison. Fishers generate a marginal benefit from their efforts.
Aquatic biodiversity faces major stresses in the MKWR basins. Overfishing and illegal fishing through the use of poison, dynamite and electric current have affected many aquatic species adversely. Not only have they depleted fish populations but they have also reduced the diversity of local diets. Some fishers claimed that 15-20 years ago they used to catch 5 kg of fish an hour but that today they were lucky to catch 1 kg in the same amount of time. In February 2019, a huge population of fishes died in Raralihi, Kudari, Tatopani, Haku and Chhinasaghu of Tila. It was speculated that poison was used to kill them6. The decrease in the population of river dolphins is also another concern in the lower Karnali basin7.
Another worry is sand extraction and gravel quarrying, activities which are a major source of revenue for local governments and livelihoods for the poor. These practices destroy aquatic habitats and harm river ecosystems as extraction rarely follows the recommendations of EIAs and local governments do not regulate mining effectively. In areas with dense settlements pollution is gradually lowering the quality of river water. In sampling sites on the West Seti River, a macro invertebrate belonging to the family Chironomidae, an indicator of organic pollution, and one belonging to the order Diptera, an indicator of pollution, were found in areas with large human settlement such as Chainpur, Bajhang. Where households and hotels directly discharge effluents into river, pollution levels are high and increasing8.
The construction of dams and barrages for hydropower and irrigation has disrupted the natural flow or water in many rivers. In some cases, sedimentation and turbidity have increased but these effects are not systematically monitored. Downstream of Sarada barrage, for example, sedimentation has elevated the river bed. Hydro- engineering structures block flow, increase inundation, and disrupt fish migration. They can destroy both feeding and breeding habitats and thereby lead to freshwater biodiversity loss. Habitat damage leads to stunted growth, diseases and parasite infestation among many fish species (ADB 2018)9.
Unplanned road construction is another threat to aquatic ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity. Roads cause slope destabilization, erosion and landslides; increase siltation;
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destroy aquatic habitats; and reduce water quality. The development of rural roads has affected fish habitats in Khatyad Khola and caused fish stocks to decline. Sometimes floods and soil erosion together result in the movement of medicinal and poisonous plants through the river, a phenomenon which reduces aquatic diversity of rivers.
TABLE 5: MAJOR FRESHWATER FAUNA AND FLORA
River Fishes/ zooplankton/ Reptiles Amphibians Mammals Birds Plants Basins invertebrates Karnali Asala, Gharial, Turtle,Frog, Dolphin, Cormorant, Darter, Reeds(Phragmites), Kathyal,Chiu,Pate,Satto, Mugger Para rarica Otter, Egret, Herons, Bushes(Juncus), Pande,Sahar,Rajbam, Rhinoceros, Lapwings, Duck, Sedges(Fimbristylis), Sessile Jalkapoor,Goz, Katle, Rawa, Wild buffalo Geese, Ibises, plants, Water hyacinth Thed, Kathlaggi, Karauwa, Spoonbills, Terns, Zebra maccha, Buche Kingfishers, Storks, asala, Asala soal, Chuche Cranes, Osprey, asala, Kuero, Gerara, Eagles, Martins, Oyara, Kaloch,Pangar, Pratincoles, Sueni, Githi, Geraj,Rim Ruddy Shelduck machha,Pointed nose snow trout, Blunt nose snow trout, spotted snow trout,Khurpel, Chepti, Chuche sahar, Baghe, Mada, ghawai, Rahu, Kabre, Golden Mahasher, Rara snowtrout, Nepali snowtrout Rapti Bai Maccha, Jhinge Gharials, Frog, turtles Otter Black stork, White Aconitum balangrense, maccha, Water mussels, Crococdiles tailed stonechat, Crateva unilocularis, Silver carp, common carp, Great cormorant, Operculina turpethum, Rahu, Katla, Bam, Jhinga, Intermediateegret, Alstonia scholaris, Butea charingo,Tyangno, Sidra, Ruddy Shelduck, monosperma, Neopicrorhizo Gherta, Rawa, Eurasian wigeon, scrophuloriifolio, Valerino Northen pintail, jotomonsii, Piper longum, Eurasian teal, Ponox pseudo-ginseng, Common Dolbergio lotifolio, merganser, White Spironthes sinensis, wagtail Cyotheo spinuloso, Sphagnum nepalensis, Pondonus nepolensis
Mahakali Asala, Katle, Sahar, Cobra, Frog,turtles, Otter Great spotted Pistia stratiotes, Nelumbo Bunduna, Sano Dhaman tortoise eagle, Falcated nucifera, Nymphoides sahar, Chuchebam, duck, Ferruginous indica, Nymphoides Sanoasala,Fargate,Catfish, pochard, Darter, hydrophyllum, Red- Mahasheer,Snowtrout, Black-necked Green algae, Blue-green Rajabaam stork, Black- algae, Persicaria barbata, headed ibis, Persicaria capitata, Eursian curlew, Persicaria glabra,Polygonum Painted stork plebeium,Polugonum pulcherum, Chara
Source: Water Profiles of MKWR watersheds (2019), Smith et al (1996)
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The water quality of the rivers that the Paani program assessed is summarised in table 6. The maximum and minimum values for physio-chemical properties indicate the range found.
In all rivers, electrical conductivity is within the national standard (1,500 μS/cm) indicating that the dissolved solids in rivers are within acceptable limits. A pH of 6.5-8.5 helps maintain aquatic life, but the pH in Jhundi Khola of Jhimruk watershed is just 4.8, an acidity level that kills fish or, at the very least, causes physical damage and makes them vulnerable to diseases10. Low pH is also an indication that aquatic biodiversity is low. Tribeni Khaptad River of West Seti is also acidic: its pH is 5. In fact, nine samples of river water in the West Seti watershed had pHs between 5.1- 5.9, suggesting that the river system as a whole is acidic. Agricultural runoff and the disposal of road construction spoils in a river increase its acidity.
In most of the rivers of the 12 watersheds, iron is within the tolerable limit (1 mg/L). In Sikrahawa and Dolai Khola rivers of Middle Rapti, however, iron concentrations are very high, at 4.4 mg/L and 5 mg/L respectively. Sediments and the nature of the surrounding rock determine iron content in rivers but iron fertilizer (ferrous sulphate) may also elevate levels. This supposition requires more detailed analysis11 . Iron contamination can disturb the metabolism and osmoregulation of aquatic species and change the structure and quality of benthic habitats. Increases in iron levels may affect species diversity and stock and add to toxicity on food chain12.
Nitrate and nitrite standards for aquatic life are 20 mg/L and 0.15 mg/L respectively. The available data shows that both are within the standard range. To thrive in water bodies, aquatic life requires at least 6 mg/L of dissolved oxygen. Except for the Panduragoth River of West Seti (with a DO level of 3.5 mg/L), all the rivers have dissolved oxygen levels greater than 6 mg/L,13 a level indicated that water quality is satisfactory and that encroachment is low. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations indicate that local discharge has increased pollution.
Data on turbidity is available for the Phoksundo Suligaad, West Seti and Tila watersheds. The maximum turbidity ranges between 17.7 to 44.4 ppm, concentrations indicating high levels of sediment in rivers. High values of phosphate (20 mg and above) were observed in the rivers of the Middle Rapti, Middle Karnali, Lower Mahakali and Bogtam Lagam Karnali watersheds. These values reflect an increase in the use of agricultural fertilizers in the low and middle hills and the Tarai. High phosphate levels may increase amounts of water nutrients (cause eutrophic condition) and thereby promote the growth of water hyacinth in rivers. In fact, locals say that hyacinth has already spread rapidly and that removing it is major a challenge. For healthy aquatic life phosphate concentrations should be no more than 0.1 mg/L. 126 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Min 0 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.5 0 0.0 - 0.9 0.0 0.6 (mg/L) Phosphate- Phosphorous Max 11.5 13.0 10 23.5 6.5 22 20 - 8.6 14.5 23.5 Min 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 1 0.0 - 0 0 0.0 (mg/L) Ammonium Max 2 2.0 2.0 7 1.5 2 7 - 5 2 8 Min 1.28 - 11.5 ------1.65 - (NTU) Turbidity Max 44.4 - 147.3 - - - - - 17.7 - Min 7.19 6.05 3.5 ------7.28 - (DO) (mg/L) Oxygen Dissolved Max 9.1 8.64 9.75 ------9.4 - Min 0 - 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 (mg/L) Nitrite- Nitrogen Max 0.37 - 0.0 0.11 0.0 0.1 0.06 0.0 0.02 0.05 0.03 Min 0.6 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 (mg/L) Nitrate- Nitrogen Max 3.2 - 0.0 1.3 0.0 1 4.4 0.0 1.3 2.3 1.9 Min 6.2 6.2 5.0 5.9 6.4 7.3 5.5 6.3 4.8 6.2 7.1 pH Max 7.2 7.8 6.6 7.5 7.6 7.6 8.2 6.9 7.4 7.7 7.9 Min 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.03 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 (mg/L) Total Iron Max 0.36 0.12 0.2 0.39 0.0 0.3 0.45 0.0 0.0 0.12 5 Min 5.7 10.1 13.1 25.9 26.3 26.4 22.9 - 10 14.3 26.0 C) o ( Temperature Max 19.1 22 25.7 31.6 29.1 32.9 31.7 - 19.4 32.9 43.8 Min 135 - 11.8 73.7 246.5 285.9 37.3 - 14 34.6 225.5 (μS/cm) Electrical Conductivity Max 425.4 - 258.4 321.6 357.2 591.2 482.2 - 511 324.3 544.7 Name of Watersheds Phoksundo Suligad Rara Khatyad West Seti Middle Karnali Rangun Khola Lower Mahakali Bogatan Lagam Karnali Thuligad Jhimruk Tila Middle Rapti S.N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TABLE 6: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS Source: Water Profiles of MKWR watersheds (2019)
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Aquatic species can tolerate small concentrations of ammonia (less than 0.02 mg/l), but higher concentrations makes it hard for aquatic organisms to excrete toxins. If toxicity in internal tissues and blood build, a species can die. Temperature and pH both influence ammonia toxicity in aquatic animals14. The decomposition of organic waste matter, gas exchange with the atmosphere, forest fires, animal and human wastes, and nitrogen fixation increase ammonia levels in rivers, as do effluents and runoff from agricultural lands. Many aquatic species in the MKWR basins are threatened by ammonia toxicity. Unexplained deaths of fish species in these watersheds may be attributable to the rise in ammonia toxicity. The rivers ofthe Middle Karnali, Bogatan Lagam Karnali, Jhimruk and Middle Rapti watersheds all have ammonia concentrations above 5 mg/l, 250 times the standard.
Ecosystem Services The MKWR basins, through various lotic, lentic and wetland ecosystems, receive various ecosystem services that aid the livelihoods of local people and balance the ecology. Some of the major ecosystem services provided are as follows:
Provisioning • Food: By tradition, the Rajhi, Majhi, Badi, Kumal, Tharu, Rajhbar, Nuniyer and Sunar are fishers. They eat a variety of species of fish, including asala, rajbaam, kathyaal, budhuna, phageta, and sahar, as well as Molluscans. • Fresh water: The rivers and wetlands of the MKWR basins are sources of fresh water for domestic and agricultural uses. Rani-Jamara-Kulariya irrigation system, for example, has enabled several thousand families to irrigate thousands of hectares of agricultural land for 120 years. Upper watersheds have smaller but no less important FMISs. • Fuel: The MKWR basin has much potential for hydropower generation. If all of the proposed hydropower projects are built, the basins will produce around 3,000 MW of electricity. • Biochemical: Various plants and animals of medicinal value are found in the rivers and lakes of different altitudes. Ethno-botanical and ethno-zoological research has yet to be carried out to systematically document aquatic plants with medicinal values. • Construction materials: The gravel and sand transported by rivers are used for construction and developmental purposes.
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Regulating •• Climate regulation: Rivers and their tributaries as well as lakes, wetlands and forests act as sinks of greenhouse gases and thereby play a role in regulating local climates, particularly with respect to precipitation and temperature. •• Water regulation: The hydrology of these basins regulates groundwater recharge and discharge. •• Waste purification and treatment: Rivers and rivulets retain, recover and remove excess nutrients and other pollutants from various point and non-point sources. •• Erosion and natural hazard: The aquatic ecosystems of these basins help retain soils and sediments and reduce flood peaks. They also help in the formation of fertile soil on floodplains. •• Pollination: Several pollinator species of birds, insects, and mammals have habitats in the river basins. They balance both aquatic as well as terrestrial ecology.
Cultural • Spiritual: Several lakes, like Surmasarovor, Khaptad Daha, Betkot Taal, Chattiwan Taal, Swargadwari, Rara, Shey-Phoksundo, and Rakxes Taal, have religious and spiritual values that connect society with aquatic ecosystems. • Recreational and aesthetic: Many lakes and rivers enhance Nepal’s natural beauty and offer recreation. Many tourists visit Rara Lake, Shey-Phoksundo Lake, Ghodaghodi Taal, and Khaptad Daha. Rafting in the lower Karnali offers opportunities to see river dolphins.
Supporting • Soil formation and nutrient cycling: The rivers, rivulets and lakes in the basins play a role in the accumulation of organic matter and retention of sediment. • Nutrient storage, recycling, processing and acquisition support aquatic life. • The minimum flow in rivers function as environmental flow and supports aquatic ecosystem.
Ecosystem Management Nepal has pursued various strategies to manage the natural ecosystems and biodiversity since the 1950s, including the establishment of natural parks, protected areas and buffer zones. Some of these strategies are summarized in ableT 7.
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TABLE 7: CONSERVATION MILESTONES
Year Milestones 1957 Wildlife Conservation Act promulgated identifies importance of protecting wildlife in Nepal 1960 Aquatic Animal Protection Act formed indicating the recognition of the conservation of aquatic life 1967 WWF started working in Nepal launching rhino conservation program in Chitwan valley 1973 Chitwan National Park established 1973 National park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1980 Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation established 1982 Royal Bardiya national reserve established Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1985 Mines and Mineral Acts highlights compliance to safe mining operation without significant adverse impact to the environment 1988 Government prepared and endorsed National Conservation Strategy (NCS) with the objectives of establishing framework strategy for conservation of natural and environmental resources 1992 Water Resource Act formed Environment Protection Council formed 1993 Forest act empowers the government to hand over forest areas to the local communities Water Resource Regulation promulgated Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan prepared 1996 Environmental Protection Act 1997 Environmental Protection Regulation 1997 GoN declares Kanchenjunga, a special conservation area 2001 Wildlife corridors linking 11 protected areas between India and Nepal 2006 Agro-biodiversity Policy 2011 Climate change policy promulgated 2013 National Wetland Policy formulated 2014 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2020 prepared 2015 Constitution of Nepal envisions all the three levels of government- local, provincial and federal will be involved in the conservation and promotion of biodiversity in the country. 2017 Revised Aquatic Animal Protection Act
Source: WWF-Nepal, 2014 and ISET Policy Review chapter 11.
To conserve freshwater biodiversity, aquatic ecosystems in the MKWR’s need to considered with respect to the terrestrial ecosystems with which they interact. The biosystem as a whole, both aquatic and terrestrial, is the source of the food, water, clean air, forage, fodder and genetic resources key to the survival and wellbeing of the region’s population. Considered from this perspective, the MEA defines an
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ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganisms and the non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit” and further goes on to define ecosystem services as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation and diseases; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient recycling; and cultural services such as aesthetics, recreational, spiritual support and similar non-material benefits” (Reid et al. 2005). The health and quality of the ecosystem, including the aquatic ecosystem within the larger whole, determines the availability of services for the MKWR region’s human and ecological communities. The availability of the services however, is not straightforward in any society, especially not in one that is stratified socially as the society in the MKWR is. Social, cultural and political relations are important as they determine people’s relative access to ecological services. Often those most dependent on those services and most in the social and economic margins are the ones most affected when the quality and services of an ecosystem decline. It is these individuals, too, who lose their livelihoods. It is clear that in the MKWR region increasing human activities and climate change are putting ever greater pressure on ecosystems and their services. Such pressures have different impacts on the wellbeing of different segments of local communities and the specifics of these impacts need further examination.
Would ecosystem conservation-cum-management help address stresses? This approach to ecosystem management aims to maintain protected areas through cooperative management and to develop strategies to balance emerging demands and pressures within in an ecologically defined boundary with clearly defined management goals, cooperation, monitoring of the results of management, and leadership at the national policy level. The approach incorporates the biological and sociopolitical values and the policy process aspects related to the ecosystem (Grumbine, 1992; Clark, 1993).
While Nepal’s existing acts (such as Aquatic Animal Protection Act of 2017 (1960) and the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973) and policies (Nepal Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of 2014-2020) do recognize the importance of conserving natural resources and also provide a broad context for basin-level management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, this national-level tools need to be contextualized at the level of rural and urban municipalities. Paani Program’s initiatives to address the issues of freshwater biodiversity conservation through fisher groups and river conservation groups (Nadi Samrakchyan Samuha) formed in all 12 watersheds offer scopes for localizing the national agenda. These groups conduct field investigations, inform communities about harmful fishing practices
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and intervene to prevent such practices. If necessary, they can report cases of illegal acts to rural and urban municipalities. In addition, local aquatic biodiversity conservation acts and regulations have been formed or are in the process of being formed in different watersheds with Paani Program’s assistance; these, too, are other point of entry15. In fact, one local government has banned harmful fishing practices in the Middle Rapti watershed.
Conserving Aquatic Ecosystems Monitoring and enforcing: National, provincial and local government should regularly monitor activities such as harmful fishing practices (use of explosives, poisons and electric current), unsustainable gravel mining, overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers and waste disposal in aquatic bodies, by employing officials and coordinating with water users’ and fishers’ groups to prevent detrimental activities. Relevant acts and rules such as environment protection, water, and aquatic animal acts and rule should be revised, updated and enforced with well-defined fines, tariffs and taxes. Violators should be fined. We discuss the specifics of monitoring in Chapter 6.
Influence of Infrastructure: Several hydropower dams and irrigation barrages have been, are being or will be built in the MKWR basin. To mitigate their impact on aquatic ecosystems, measures such as the installation of fish ladders or lifts for migrating aquatic species and the maintenance of environmental flow needs to be implemented. Detailed investigations of environmental flow are necessary to determine just how much water is needed to maintain the downstream aquatic habitat. Road construction should be planned systematically and implemented with mitigation and precautionary measures. The performance of the fish ladder installed in Babai weir should be assessed and lessons drawn.
Watershed Conservation: Local governments and forest users’ groups should prioritize conservation measures designed to protect undergrowth, which helps regulate local hydrology and delay surface runoff and interflow. For this reason, having luxuriant undergrowth helps to maintain the purity of river water and to conserve the quality of aquatic ecosystems. Locally suitable species should be planted after consulting specialists.
Upstream-Downstream Cooperation: Since activities conducted in upstream areas have direct impacts on downstream areas, disputes occur between the regions. To
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prevent such conflict, inter-governmental and inter-agency cooperation to address water use, aquatic biodiversity, forest conservation and benefit-sharing issues is essential. Dialogue and negotiations should include discussion about maintaining healthy aquatic ecosystems.
Optimizing Use: One practical step toward minimizing water scarcity is to reduce the use of water enough to restore water bodies. Vulnerable fish species should not be harvested.
Research and Documentation: Unlike research on terrestrial ecosystems, research on aquatic ecosystems is severely limited. To extend our knowledge, universities, research organizations and government bodies should promote research on aquatic biodiversity by providing research grants and other support. Conferences, workshops and dialogues on aquatic diversity can also generate knowledge on aquatic systems in the MKWR basin.
Increasing Awareness: Local, provincial and national government bodies, I/NGOs, media, CSOs and academics should help improve awareness about aquatic ecosystem conservation. Awareness-raising activities should include seminars, training, flyers, brochures, info-graphs, research papers, documentaries, radio programs, and articles in vernacular that is understood by local people. The selected champions can make a significant contribution towards this process.
Notes
1 This inventory does not include glacial and tectonic lakes above 3,000 m elevation. 2 A condition where high nutrients in water lead to excessive growth of types of algae and aquatic plants that can deplete oxygen in water bodies. 3 Aquatic ecologist Deep Narayan Shah and botanist Narayan Prasad Ghimire conducted the study. 4 Local perceptions recorded during 2018 field visit. 5 MoFE. (2018). Nepal’s Sixth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Environment. 6 http://annapurnapost.com/news/119182 7 It is reported that the population of the Karnali dolphin has declined by 66 percent due to the decrease in water level caused by the sand, silt and debris brought by past floods. https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/dol- phin-number-66-pc-karnali-river/ 8 Matangulu, M., Gurung, S., Prajapati, M., & Jyakhwo, R. (2017). Macroinvertebrate assemblages as indicators of water quality of the West Seti River, Bajhang, Nepal. International Journal of Environment, 6(3). 9 ADB. (2018). Impacts of dams on fish in the rivers of Nepal. Asian Development Bank 10 https://sciencing.com/facts-5539162-effect-ph-river-water.html 11 https://www.smart-fertilizer.com/articles/iron 12 Vouri, K.M. (1995). Direct and indirect effects of iron in river ecosystems. Finnish Zoological and Botanical Pub- lishing Board. 13 Dissolved oxygen was measured in rivers in the Phoksundo-Suligaad, Rara, West Seti and Tila watersheds (DAI 2018). 14 https://www.epa.gov/wqc/aquatic-life-criteria-ammonia 15 Such acts have been passed in Narahari Rural Municipality of Tila Watershed and Aathbish Municipality of Mid- dle Karnali Watershed.
133 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Local Knowledge and 5 Practices on Management and Use of Aquatic Resources
Introduction The MKWR region comprises diverse ecological zones, each of which supports different flora and fauna and different social systems, themselves a product of the ecology. The rich biological and social diversity has resulted in the evolution of a variety of indigenous and local knowledge and practices (ILKP) related to the use of natural resources, health, diet, agriculture and irrigation, and fishery. Over the years climatic and non-climatic factors have stressed communities in the MKWR and they have adapted to those challenges, in part through sharing and learning from knowledge systems embedded in local culture and norms.
These knowledge systems are grounded in activities such as “herding, hunting, walking, sitting and living with the environment and resources over a long period of time” (Poudel, 2018). They are “the multi-faceted arrays of knowledge, know-how, practices and representations that guide societies in their innumerable interactions with their natural surroundings” and are “at once empirical and symbolic, pragmatic and intellectual, and traditional and adaptive” (Icsu, 2002; Berkes, 2012).
This chapter considers three facets of the ILKPs in the MKWR basins—i) the management of natural resources, ii) watershed management and irrigation, and iii) food and nutrition—and their organizational arrangements. We end by highlighting how ILKPs can be used to support livelihoods and resource management in the journey toward achieving balanced water development.
Forest Management: Forests are the key source of fuel wood for cooking and heating, timber for the construction of houses, and fodder and forage and bedding materials for livestock. They are also a source of the NTFPs that people use for food, medicine and bio-pesticides. In the MKWR basins, forests are classified and managed as public forest, protected areas (national parks and wildlife reserves), community forests, religious forests and private forests. Community forestry has been a success across the three main geographical regions (mountains, hills and the Tarai). Most members of community forest users’ groups are knowledgeable about tree species and methods of plantation, propagation and harvest. Users of community forests in all 12 priority watersheds revealed that most endemic tree species undergo natural succession as long as conservation measures are implemented. The development and enforcement of rules and regulations with regard to collecting and sharing forest
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products and the levying of fines and sanctions on defaulters are central to success of most community forests in the region.
Conservation practices are also related to faith. Khas Kshatriyas, who are native to the mid- and far-western middle and higher mountains, follow the shamanistic tradition of the masta god. This god has no specific idol but is worshipped to secure protection from ailments, misery, torment, witchcraft and natural calamity. The forest around a place of worship is protected as a religious forest. People are allowed to graze their livestock in protected forests but collecting fuel wood, timber or fodder is prohibited. People said that they keep a forest guard in such forests to protect them from accidental fires.
Non-Timber Forest Products: NTFPs, especially medicinal herbs, are major economic products of the MKWR basins, especially for the people in the High Mountain and High Himalayan regions. Yarshagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), in particular, is a major economic driver in the high Himalayan districts of Mugu and Dolpa, but other species, such as Fritillaria cirrhosa (ban lasun), Paris polyphylla (satuwa), and Morchella (guchhi chyau) have also gained economic value. The collected herbs used to be taken to the trading town of Nepalgunj, but in the last few years many traders have gone to Taklakot, Tibet, where demand and prices have rapidly increased. People in the MKWR are well informed about where medicinal herbs grow, when they mature, how they should be harvested, and how to process them. With expanding markets and value chains for medicinal herbs increasing the economic incentive for people to extract medicinal herbs, pressure on forests has increased and herbs have been harvested prematurely. The result has been a general loss in biodiversity. Specifically, people in Mugu and Dolpa districts said that as the number of people indiscriminately collecting yarshagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) rose, it became less available. In addition, trampling by collectors had increased pressure on it, and, due to the lack of proper supervision, its sustainability threatened.
The economic value of herbs raises the issue of collection rights. In some places, only local communities are allowed to collect herbs, but such rules are not always strictly applied. Almost all the people of Mugu and Dolpa collect Ophiocordyceps sinensis for 5–7 weeks in May and June, especially since those contractors who are issued permits by the district forest offices often employ or sub-contract local community members.
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Plants: People in the MKWR basins use different plants and their products for medicine, food, fodder, edible oil, fibers, and dyes. They are informed about the habitats of plants as well as when they mature, how they can be harvested, processed and stored, and how to extract their active ingredients. The following section presents local knowledge about plant resources.
Herbal Medicines: Herbs and their products are used to treat diseases such as abdominal disorders, cuts and burns, coughs and colds, asthma, bodily pain and fever. People who possess knowledge about various methods of use and of the purposes for that use are found across the different geographical regions in the MKWR basins.
Wild Vegetables: Some plants are used for food. In the High Mountain region people use banko (Arisaema spp), tarul and bhyakur (Dioscorea spp.), liundo (Dryopteris spp.), rugo (Megacarpaea polyandra), satuwa (Paris polyphylla), jarko (Phytolacca acinosa), and jinaudo (Polygonatum verticillatum) as vegetables. For example, in Bajhang, Jumla and Mugu districts, tender bamboo shoots (Drepanostachyum falcatum) are fermented to make tama for use as a pickle and as flavoring for vegetables. These are also used in middle hills and siwalik region. People also eat gundruk, made from fresh radish and mustard leaves (Bassica spp.) and a number of other wild plants, such as ruga sag (Megacarpaea polyandra), jaringo sag (Phytolacca species) and Polygonatum spp. The fresh leaves of plants are allowed to wither and then stuffed in air tight containers to ferment in the sun. The fermented leaves are then taken out and dried under the sun for several more days. Gundruk is used as a vegetable in the dry season when other fresh vegetables are not available.
Oil Extraction: People extract the oils from the fruits of several wild plants. People in far western middle and lower mountain zones in Mahakali River Basin extract oil from chiuri (Aesandra butyracea), while in the higher and middle mountains people use okhar (Juglans regia), dhatelo (Prinsepia utilis), and aaru (Cannabis sativa) for oil extraction. Their cotyledons are roasted and powdered, thoroughly mixed with boiling water and then compacted into a cotton cloth to extract the oil. In Tila and Rara Kahtyad watershed wooden press are used to extract oil from Okhar and aroo.
Fiber Extraction: Fiber for weaving cloth and making handicrafts is extracted from ganja (Cannabis sativa), bheul (Grewia optiva), allo (Girardinia diversifolia) and ketuki (Agave Americana). Until two decades ago, people in Bajhang, for example, used ganja fiber to knit cloth; today, however, it is no longer in use, possibly due to a national ban on ganja cultivation. Some communities in the lower and middle mountain regions
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of the basins extract fiber from allo and use it for making ropes, fishing nets, bags, sacks and carpets. The harvested stem and branch are submerged in water for a day before the bark is extracted. The extracted bark is then dried, bundled and cooked in wood ash for about 2–3 hours in an iron drum. Next, a wooden hammer is used to soften the bark. The clean bundles of fiber are then sun dried and soaked in water with locally available white clay. The traditional hand spindle (kauwa) is still used for spinning allo and other fiber.
Watershed Management: ILKPs regarding watershed management relate to the development and management of terraces, rainwater harvesting, the utilization and conservation of spring sources, and the conservation of soil and restoration of degraded land. These ILKPs are highly nested so it is difficult to isolate them to meet individual watershed management objectives; nonetheless, each is valuable and meets more than one purpose of management. For example, terracing a slope not only stabilizes the slope and conserves but also serves as a means of harvesting rainwater and recharging hill aquifers as they feed into cascading springs. The following section identifies three watershed management-related ILKPs.
Terracing: Terraces are made narrower as slopes grow steeper and higher. Farmers reveal that wide terraces on a steep slope not only disturb the slope as they have to be cut deep but also provide only a thin layer of productive soil for crop cultivation. They believe that planting a vegetative cover on the riser serves as a binding element to hold the soil mass and prevent the riser from collapsing when the soil mass is saturated. That vegetation, however, is tilled every year before crops, especially rice, is cultivated, in order to seal the burrows of the rodents and insects that flourished the year before.
Planting on the bunds is another common practice, but one more popular in the mid and lower hills and on non-irrigated terraces. Such practices are common in Dadeldhura, Doti, Dailekh, Bajhang, Surkhet and Pyuthan districts. Because perennial vegetation does not thrive on irrigated terraces, the bunds of irrigated terraces are left unplanted or planted with soybean and black gram or natural grasses are allowed to grow on bund risers. The practice of planting perennial vegetation on bunds is popular on non-irrigated upland terraces. Here fodder trees such as badhar (Artocarpus lakoocha), nimaro (Ficus noxfurghii), khanayo (Ficus semicordata) and bakaino (Melia azaderach) are grown.
People have a basis for judging slope stability: the presence of a paharo, the local term for an exposed massive base rock at the toe of a hill slope, is an indication of
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stability, whereas its absence is a sign of instability. The absence of a paharo is also a sign that an area is unsuitable for a settlement. They use soil thickness on a slope, the suitability of the soil for crop production and the availability of water for irrigation to decide whether or not to terrace land, irrespective of slope stability.
People understand that terraces are useful for harvesting rainwater and crop production without compromising stability. In areas with low rainfall and on low hill slope, they construct level and inward sloping terraces on low hill slopes so that a large amount of rainfall can be stored for later use. In areas with high rainfall and on high hill slopes, in contrast, they construct outward sloping terraces in order to ensure stability of the terraces. Excess water from outward sloping terraces flows out before the soil can get saturated enough to trigger slope failure.
Cleanliness of Water Sources: People across the three river basins believe that the area around a water source, especially one used for drinking, should be kept clean. Specifically, they felt that nearby trees should not be cut and that open defecation, animal grazing and littering should be avoided. They inherited such religious and ethical codes from their ancestors. Water taps and flowing streams used for drinking are decorated with idols of gods and goddesses to remind people not to pollute or degrade them. In Mugu, Kalikot and Bajhang, spring sources are bio-fenced with thorny vegetation. Such fencing keeps domestic animals and superfluous people away from the water source. They say that having one person from each household clean the surrounding of the water source daily would help maintain cleanliness while at the same time decreasing repair and maintenance needs.
On most hill slope, water emerges spontaneously in several locations, so in areas where water is scarce because there is only a single spring source, people make bamboo channels to tap water flowing out from these points of emergence. That water is then collected in a tank, or kuwa, from where people collect water from for drinking and other household needs. The vessels used to draw water from such source must be clean so that the source does not get contaminated.
In the low and middle mountains and foothills, where irrigation water is scarce, people make a small pond at a slightly lower elevation than whatever water sources exist. Water is collected in the pond and used for to irrigate small plots of vegetables and other crops. Several communities had this traditional practice of the multiple use of water. Tharu households in Bardiya and Kailali districts also make small ponds close to water sources, especially where people have independent access to water source through shallow tube-well and hand pumps. The ponds serve as soak pits
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and also as reservoirs for storing waste water, which is then used to irrigate crops in kitchen gardens. Some households have slightly bigger ponds in which they raise fish for domestic consumption.
Soil and Water Conservation: Farmers show concerns for soil erosion and understand erosion processes. They practice measures for conserving both soil and water. They construct 0.5 to 1.5 m high stone barriers on non-terraced hill slopes in areas with low rainfall. The terraces are used as grazing land and for growing seasonal crops. Stone walls have three purposes: i) they create property boundaries so that sheep herders can keep their sheep out overnight, ii) they trap sediment and control erosion, and iii) they block overland flow and allow water to infiltrate, thereby replenishing soil moisture and supporting crop production.
Small waterways are integral part of terraced farming in all the watersheds. They are used to collect, convey and divert excess water to non-erosive points. After every bari terraces, farmers develop an inter-terrace waterway at the toe of a terrace to collect excess water from the upstream terraced land and divert it across the slope to a main waterway. Inter-terrace waterways are also used to distribute water uniformly across terraces in the dry season. Farmers also construct interceptor drains on the upstream ends of terraces. These drains collect excess runoff from upstream areas and divert it to safe locations without letting the runoff accelerate erosion and trigger gully formation on the terraced land.
Farmers revealed three causes of gully formation on hill slopes: i) the large-scale clearing of forests ii) the construction of roads and iii) haphazard disposal of roadside drainage on slopes without any protection measures. They also said that gully formation is the most destructive form of soil erosion because a gully develops rapidly and eats up agricultural land both on its sides and uphill. Planting bamboo and constructing stone walls at a gully head helps prevent it from advancing. Planting bamboo along stream banks is excellent protection against river bank erosion. Ban bans (Bambussa balloca), choya bans (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii) and malinge nigale bans (Himalayacalamus brevinodus) offer excellent soil binding capacity, and their leaves can be used for fodder and their stems for thatching material and for fencing.
Farmers also practice the mulching of crops: they spread leaves and twigs on the land to conserve residual soil moisture. Mulching is practiced on bari land because water deficiency in the tuber formation stage is a key problem faced bypotato farmers. They said that mulching also protects crops from sun and rain and hail. They revealed that the leaves of the siris (Albizza odoratissmma) make excellent mulch
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because the siris is leguminous and, as a result, the decomposition of its leaves after the crop season adds to soil fertility.
Irrigation: In all three river basins, farmers act collectively to acquire water from spring and stream sources to irrigate crops in plots adjacent to those sources. There are many Farmers Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs) in both the hills and the mountains, though those at higher elevations are smaller. The command areas of FMISs in the hills range in size from less than one hectare to as large as 100 ha. The 12 watersheds of the MKWR have a large number of FMISs though no inventory is available. In the Tarai and valley floors farmers have developed irrigation systems that are comparable in size to the country’s large-scale irrigation systems developed with public sector investment.
Budhi Kulo in Rajapur, Bardiya District, and Rani-Jamara-Kularia Kulo in Kailali District are examples of large FMISs. They get water from the left and right bank channels of the Karnali River and irrigate 14,320 ha and 8,000 ha respectively. In Rajapur, three other FMISs (Tapra/Maila, Manu and Khairi-Chandanpur) were developed almost around the same time; each uses water from the Karnali. Combined, the Rajapur Irrigation system serves 15,800 ha. The Parganna Irrigation System in Dang is another testimony to the power of community investment in the development of irrigation infrastructure.
The FMISs that are built in the MKWR basin landscape as well as Nepal’s hills and mountains and parts of the Tarai have been made possible through local knowledge about various elements of an irrigation system. In fact, Nepal’s oldest irrigation canal, the Jachauri system, was built in Jumla 500 years ago. Building an FMIS involves erecting water diversion structures to acquire water, conveying that water to fields by canals and building canal crossings. FMISs also make rules about allocating water to farmers’ fields that match the need for water for irrigating crops. Farmers organize themselves to manage resources, both labor and material and occasionally financial, for the development of such systems. They also make collective efforts for the annual and periodic repair and maintenance of their systems and for allocating and distributing water among the users. Such rules may be based on the resource contribution of each individual household and area, a key aspect of the FMIS tradition. Despite provisions of equity, water allocation is dependent on land registered in a woman’s name. At the same time, having a certificate in her name, does not guarantee that a woman will be included in key decision-making (Dixit and Shukla, 2019). Because the number of women land owners are low, in many cases equity principles in local irrigation systems are not met.
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The key physical components of an FMIS include an intake, canals and control structures for distributing water. The intake typically consists of a diversion structure and a canal off-take point. A very low-head system made of stones and brushwood is erected across a river or stream. This temporary diversion channels some river water into a canal without recourse to a mechanical head gate and allows some water to flow. Since an intake is usually located in a narrow section of a river which has stable bed rock, its associated diversion is small, reasonably stable and cost-effective. Although high floods often wash away such brushwood-and-stone diversions, users simply repair them with locally available materials, thereby restoring the functionality of the system. Indeed, such systems are flexible enough to readily accommodate even the most unpredictable and intense of floods. They are uniquely resilient.
In the hills, FMISs serve small command areas and few users but the canals are very long. Often, the intakes and command areas are located far apart because it is not easy to find an appropriate point to divert waters. FMISs in the Tarai, foothills and lower valleys, in contrast, have larger command areas and more users. Irrigation development in Nepal has largely remained a men’s responsibility with women taking part in building of syauli dam, cleaning of canals, source protection and to some extent water allocation. In recent times, many irrigation improvement programs have focused on increasing women’s role in primary management and decision making, however this role in most cases is limited to ritualistic representation in executive committees of users’ organization. On the other hand, women do have a significant role and they do allocate significant time on a daily basis in on-farm water management.
Farmers have a good understanding of how to align canals from the intake to their fields. They understand the relationship between the elevation of the land and the slope of the canals and have thereby succeeded in building long canals despite the difficult terrain. When overhanging rocks obstruct a canal’s alignment, farmers build tunnels. Among the Magar community, a group called aagri specialize in building tunnels using traditional hand tools, such as chisels and hammers. The tunnels they have built in Bajhang and Doti are as long as 15 m. While chiseling canals through hard rocks, aagri prepare a hot soup of boiled horse gram locally called gahat and pour it in rock fissures to weaken the rocks and make it easier to dig using traditional hand tools.
A main canal and a number of branch canals convey water to farms. Most FMISs do not require low-order canals because they serve only a small area. However, large systems such as Rani Jamariya do need low-order canals—secondary, tertiary and
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even quaternary—to distribute irrigation water to all parts of the command area. In the hills and mountains, it is common to have branch canals located at different elevations so that lower canals can catch seepage flow from upper canal functioning and thereby, through such interception, make water to the best use possible. Farmers line canal banks and beds with locally available stones and slates in areas where water is likely to be lost through seepage. The stones that cover both the inside and outside of canal banks also reinforce the banks, preventing their collapse. It is also common for farmers to place various materials, include wooden stakes, bushes, stones and earth, across the main canal to divert part of its flow into branch canals.
Farmers also know much about protection measures: they protect intakes, sections where canal drops from high to low elevations, and farmland along river courses, often using the local bharai system, in which stones are piled in heaps protruding from stream banks. Wooden stakes are driven in the four corners of each heap to reinforce them. Such heaps function as spurs that divert stream current away from riverbanks while at the same time inducing sedimentation along those banks. People also plant Salix spp. or kans (Saccharum spontaneum) along banks to protect farmland from erosion during floods. Where canals drop, farmers use stone and slate to make cascading steps. Large drops will have many such steps in order to reduce the energy of water flow and thereby prevent the scouring of the canal. In some systems, wooden weirs (locally called sancho) are used to apportion water among branch canals. Famers know how to make canal crossings using locally available materials. To make canal crossings, farmers use wooden flumes, locally called fadke, made from large tree trunks. They use local tools to remove the inner wood and give the trunk the shape of a channel.
Wooden canal crossings and proportional weirs are still in use in many farmer managed irrigation systems in Bajhang, Doti and Dadeldhura districts, however these are fast getting replaced by cement concrete structures as financial resources for rehabilitation and improvement are becoming available to them. Ghatigad and Nawadurga FMISs in Dadeldhura, Gochekhola Irrigation System in Surkhet and Gandi Gad and Ghol Tada Irrigation Systems are some of the examples where uses of wooden structures for river crossing, water allocation and cross drainage are still in use. These can be seen in the FMISs throughout the country although no evidences are available to describe as to how the knowledge and practices from one region were transferred from one region to the other and the patterns of transfer of knowledge.
Crop Production: The types of crops grown in the MKWR basins vary depending on elevation, climate, soil diversity and the edaphic environment. In the upland regions
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of the districts of Mugu, Jumla and Bajhang, which fall in the Rara-Khaptad, Tila and West Seti watersheds, there is only a single crop-growing season, which begins after winter snow melts. Low temperatures limit cultivation in other seasons. The major crops grown are naked barley (uwa), buckwheat, chino wheat, potatoes and radishes. While farmers used to cultivate foxtail millet (kaguno), porso millet (dudhe chino) and amaranth (Amarantus spp.) until a decade ago. These species are no longer very popular.
A few farmers have apple orchards, and some have introduced innovations in crop- production technology, including the use of greenhouses and plastic tunnels to cultivate cabbage, cauliflower, peas, carrots and tomatoes on a small scale on both irrigated and rain fed land. Women play some role in making and implementing decisions about management, in mobilizing resources, using food in the household, and selling any agricultural surplus. Due to migration and shortage of on-farm labor, feminization of the agricultural labor force, has increased. Women now face a greater workload. Minimising hardships of women is a subject of deeper examination.
The trend across the entire region, however, is to abandon agriculture and shift to off-farm employment, including the collection of medicinal herbs for trading in commercial centers in Tibet, the Tarai and India. Three reasons account for this shift. First, rice is cheaper. Because the region is labeled as a “food-deficit region,” Nepal Food Corporation distributes rice at lower than market prices. As a result, people have little incentive to cultivate traditional food crops. Second, the opening of road corridors and the resultant increase in vehicular movement have reduced the prices of imported foods and encouraged private traders to join the value chain. Third, the collection and marketing of medicinal herbs, particularly high-priced yarshagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), is financially very rewarding.
In the middle and lower mountains, farmers grow two crops, one in the spring and one in the summer monsoon. While they depend on climate and the availability of water but include wheat, barley, and potato in the spring and rice, maize and millet in the summer. Along the river valleys of the Tila, Khatyad and West Seti, where irrigation is available, farmers grow traditional marshi rice, which is considered to be a precious crop. They also cultivate various types of beans (simi) throughout the year. These beans are a major agricultural export of the region. The region’s climate also favors the cultivation of several varieties of walnuts, apples, oranges, and other citrus fruits. The drying up of spring sources and the resultant depletion of water flow in streams are increasing seasonal water scarcity. The decline in water supply is attributed to the changing climate, particularly the perceived reduction inthe
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amount and duration of snowfall and changing rainfall patterns. Locals estimated that water sources are now nearly 60% less abundant than they were two decades ago. Increasing temperatures were also noted, and locals remarked that the greater warmth had created opportunities to grow non-traditional crops such as oranges, lemons, bananas, and apples.
In the lower hills and the Tarai, parts of the basins which encompass the Lower Karnali, the middle Rapti and the lower Mahakali watersheds, rice-based cropping dominates. Most farmers grow rice in the monsoon season and wheat, maize, mustard and/or lentils in the winter. Two decades ago the government promoted cotton as cash crop in Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur districts but sugarcane has since emerged as an important cash crop replacing cotton. Farmers in the area, especially the Tharu community, practice the mono-cropping of rice in the monsoon season and leave their land fallow in the winter and spring.
Animal Husbandry: Animal husbandry is a major livelihood strategy of the people in the basins although its importance and contribution to local economies varies spatially. In the High Himalayan regions of Humla and Mugu, people keep herds of sheep and yaks and practiced transhumance grazing, which involves shifting herds from one location to another in the search of good pasture. They take their herds to lower altitudes in the winter and to higher altitudes in the summer, sometimes even crossing into Tibet. Farmers are knowledgeable about the seasonality of pasture land and how its suitability for grazing animals varies at different times of the year. Livestock herders, especially those from the Lama community, have for generations cross-bred yaks with local cattle called lulu. The crossbreeds, which are called jhuma (female) and zhopa (male), are valued for their milk and draft power respectively (Chaudhary et al., 2017).
Today livestock herders face increasing constraints on keeping large sheep herds as there is now less pasture land available for open grazing than there was in the past. The land people used to use, which is located in southern Humla, Mugu and Bajhang districts, is now under the control of community forest users’ groups and is no longer open for grazing. Another reason that the size of sheep herds is declining is that the salt-grain trade once dominant in the region (people in Humla and Mugu once exchanged beans and other food grains, woolen blankets and honey for salt in Tibet and in the markets in the Tarai close to Indian border) has declined. Farmers once raised large herds of sheep to form the caravans needed to transport goods, but now that roads have been constructed and trade is low-volume, far fewer sheep are needed.
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Farmers in Mugu, Humla and Bajhang keep four different types of sheep for four different purposes: kathe bakhra for hides, khunuwa bakhra for meat, dhakaria to serve ass pack animals; and biun is for wool and meat. In Humla, the breeds raised are selected with reference to the physiography of an area. At low elevations, people usually rear rong-lu (lowland sheep), a breed that provides coarse wool, while at high elevations, people rear chiang-lu (northern sheep), which provides fine wool. Sheep wool is mainly used to make chutka—blankets, sleeping mats, and carpets—in Humla and Mugu. Many herders weave radi-pakhi (a blanket) to use at home or to sell. Tents and carpets are prepared from wool and sometimes goat hides, which is called ‘ga’ in Humla. Fresh hides are washed with soapy water and then stretched out and nailed to the ground, the inner side facing up, and left to dry in the sun for 1–2 days. To make a hide soft enough to for produce blankets, it is first soaked in lukewarm water and then hand-massaged with oil. At high elevations, people rear chyangra (a type of mountain goat). In Byas and Kanda VDC of Bajhang, goats of the lakha breed, also called badhya, are raised for hauling loads and for meat (Chaudhary et al., 2017).
Locals in the High Mountain and Himalayan regions are well-informed about both the availability of grazing land and the grazing behavior of animals. In Phoksundu- Suligaad Watershed, for example, sheep are generally grazed before horse and mules on new grassland because, although they eat the same species, sheep do not like to graze on grassland already grazed and trampled by other livestock. They also do not like grazing on very short grass. Horses and mules, however, are indifferent to such matters. The use of staggered grazing times demonstrates how much local people know about the grazing preferences of their livestock and is important for proper rangeland management.
In the High Mountain and High Himalayan regions horses and mules constitute a significant proportion of the total livestock population. Their primary use is in the transportation of good and people. In areas without road connectivity, mules are important for transporting. The rise in road construction and the usage of vehicles, however, has caused mule populations to decline.
Fishing: Fishing is an important part of local social systems, livelihoods and ILKPs in the MKWR basin. Below are salient features of IKPs related to fishery.
Vocabulary: Fishing is very important to the Tharu and other ethnic groups such as Majhi, Raji, Kumal and Sonaha and their knowledge about fish, in particular availability of fishes at different times of the year, their spawning seasons and
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the aquatic environments they favour, is considerable. Local people have a rich vocabulary to identify and distinguish different kinds of fish. They identify native fish species by characteristics such as body size and shape, the form of their mouths, color, the nature of their fins and the shape of their scales. For example, the singhi is a horned fish with prominent barbels; thethwar (Xenethon cancila) has beak- or needle- like jaws; and the baghya or gerra (Noemachillus spp.) have tiger-like stripes on their bodies. Locals also use different morphological and behavioural features to identify different species of fishes. For example, kapterwa (Amblypharyngodon spp.) are carps with large and hard scales; terri (genus Labeo or Punitus) have a very round mouth; katlaheri (Catla spp.) hide in rocks, manjhaula (genus Labeo) are carps of medium size and weight and sedhri (genus Danio) have small bodies. Different species of sedhri are identified, too, including ‘cepahi sedhri’ for those with slippery bodies, ‘kapterwa sedhri’ for those with large hard bodies, and ‘kauwa sedhiri’ for those with black stripes on their bodies.
Sometimes a single word is used to identify different kinds of fish with a common characteristic. For instance, a tilori (genus Barilus) has vertical lines on its body, a joghinya has dots on its body and a marila has long barbels and long caudal fins. Some fish species are well-known. They include the tastyguitna (genus Lepidocephalichthus), which has an elongated cylindrical body and ray-fins, the carangi (genus Channa), which has wide ventral and dorsal fins and the susa, which has a naked elongated body without scales. Eels are identified by different names based on their size: bamawa for big eels, bamli for medium-sized eels, and bamsotti for small eels. Crabs, too, are identified and distinguished by their color, the consistency of their shells and their behavior. For example, the lajmuni gegkta is a shy crab that retreats into its shell and remains there for some time even after it is put back on the ground.
Methods of Fishing: Fishing is a way of life among several ethnic groups in the Tarai and Mid Hills. The Tharu communities are case in point. Tharu men and women of all ages fish throughout the year using a variety of methods and sourcing different areas. In the monsoon season, when rice fields are flooded, the Tharu fish rice paddies and the drainage channels around them. In the dry season fishing activities shift to rivers, wetlands and marshes. The Tharu also use different equipment depending on whether they are fishing in the paddy fields or water pools or in running water. Unsurprisingly, the region’s varied aquatic resources demand that the Tharu use a variety of fishing methods, including catching the resources with their hands and using indigenous traps. The methods and traps selected depend on factors such as the physiography of the water body, the nature of the fish to catch and the gender of the fisher. The fishing gears are described below:
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TABLE 1: FISHING METHODS
Types of fishing methods Descriptions Hulcar Net is fabricated from a circular metal frame (2.0-4.0 mm, diameter) fitted with a cotton or indigenous fiber net with a mesh 0.5-2.0 mm in size. It is used in the shallow pools of rivers where fishers can move easily and used for catching fish for domestic consumption. It is used to catch small fish like Puntius sp., Chela sp., and Colisa sp. A single fisherperson can, on average, catch 1.0–6.0 kg of fish in a day. Tappar The tappar is a dome-shaped trap made of six bamboo or wooden sticks arranged so that the lower end is shaped like a polygon that can tightened with a nylon rope. The woven netting material, which has a mesh size of 12-15 cm, forms a conical shape. The top end is tightened with the help of a metal frame so that the ends of the bamboo or wooden sticks meet together in a circular fashion. The height and the circumference of a tappar vary from 0.8-1.2.0 m and 0.5-1.0m respectively. At the top of the trap is a circular opening about 30-60 cm in diameter for fish to enter. The trap is used in big water bodies to catch Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Ctenopharyngodon idella. Sometimes fishers use this trap in rivers where whose water velocity is low. A single fisher can, on average, catch 5-15 kg of fish in a day. Thathi Made up of six bamboo or wooden sticks, the thathi is a dome-shaped trap similar to the tapaar. But unlike the tapaar, it has no circular opening at the top. During its op-eration four bamboo sticks and the net webbing they hold are kept underwater and two sticks and their net are kept above the water. The thati is used to catch small fish likePuntius sp., Amblypharyngodon mola, Channa sp., Colisa sp. in the shallow pools area of rivers with low water ve-locity. In one day, a single fisher can catch an average of 5.0 – 8.0 kg of fish. Dhimari This basket-shaped trap is made of split bamboos strips on the horizontal and vertical sides. They are knitted to-gether with nylon rope to make the trap rigid and strong. The top of the trap is tapered, while the bottom is flat. The height and length of adhimari vary from 0.5-1.0 m and 0.8-1.2 m respectively. There are two pairs of valves along the sides (altogether 4). This trap is placed vertically in slow-flowing water for about 10-12 hours so that water passes through it and fish enter through the valves. Once a fish is within, it cannot escape. It is used to catch fish likeChanna sp., Mastacembulus sp., Chanda sp. and Pun-tius sp. On average, a single trap catches 1.5-3.0 kg each time it is used, which is at night. Helka This hand-operated semi-circular scoop net is made of a semi-circular wooden frame and is woven with a netting material made of cotton or indigenous fiber. Its mesh size is 0.5-2.0 mm. Tharu women use this method in marshy areas to catch fish varieties likeChanna sp., Coli-sa sp., Osteobrama sp., Rasbora sp. and Puntius sp. On average, a single fisher can catch 1.0 -3.0 kg of fish with a helka. Khongiya These conical fishing traps vary in size from traps as small as 30 cm in diameter to traps up to with 1 m in diameter. They are used in large streams. The open end of the trap is placed in the current facing the direction of flow. The mouth is partly closed using an inner conical trap, making it impossible for the fishes to escape the trap. These traps are made of bamboo splits or stems of munj (Sacccharum spontaneum) and are tied together with string or bamboo strips.
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Hand picking This method uses either a bar hand or a semi-circular scoop. It is is primary used for collecting sedentary aquat-ic organisms like snail (Ghonghi, Bellamya bengalensis). With the ghonghi, Tharu women cook a nutritious dish for young and growing children. Basket stick trap (Thokray, The trap is made of a piece of bamboo 15-20 cm in diam-eter and 4-5 Dhariya) metres long with one end of the bamboo having an intact node. A number of full-length longitudinal splits are cut from the opposite end to, but not through, the node end. The free ends are tied with string to a bamboo ring approximately 1 metre in diameter holding them firmly apart. New rings of progressively decreasing diameter are fixed along the length of the trap to produce a rigid conical shape. Alternatively, the trap may also be constructed from individual sticks bound together at one end, and the trap shaped, as with the bamboo version, by adding rings of graduated diameters along its length. For fishing, the trap is used in both large and small rivers. The current must be fast and there should be a sharp fall in the bed, a small waterfall or rapids. The trap is set im-mediately below the rapids, with the open end facing the current. It is held in position by means of ropes tied from the open end to the shore. The lower end is tied to stones on the river bottom. Fishes swept into the trap are unable to swim out against the current. Taapi Made of jute fibers and bamboo sticks in the Taapi net has two split bamboo crossed like X. In the four corners, the net has small holes on which bamboo splits can be tied. Women use Taapi for fishing. It is set at the main section of fish movement. The fish moving towards the Taapi is trapped unknowingly and captured. Dondiya (Dhadiya) Thapne Fish trap made of small bamboo splits where the small & fine splits are weaved by jute fiber threads. Rope is tied to the end part of Dondiya and the mouth is made perme-able to fish but cannot return. It is set up to trap fishes in its movement points. Dondiya method are used in two ways: Sirka (Upstream movement trapping) and Khahra (Downstream movement trap). The choice depends on fish habit and migration period. The trap is set for 1 to 2 hours or in some case entire night. Male members use this method to capture fishes Jaal Hanne Made of silicon threads and small iron pieces known as Gotti in Tharu language. The iron pieces are set with the net and small pockets are formed to trap fish. After the fishes are trapped, they move towards the pockets of the jaal where they are captured. The locally handmade Jaal are more appropriate for sustainable fishing. However, larger and commercially used jaal kills huge population of fish and is not sustainable. Pahai/Barerwa Tekne This cone shaped trap is set in the middle of the stream/river after monsoon. To install this Pahai and Barerwa, wooden pegs are inserted in the river bed. Then weaved net of Gaular (Narkat-Arundo donax) or stem of the morning glories are attached with the pegs. Fishes move downstream are caught in the trap. Mahuraune (Herbal This practice is based on applying gram plant husk and pirya/birya to poisoning) debilitate the fished. Used in bank of Kakra-hawa khola of Middle Rapti watershed. Fishing with Iron Arrow; Tir This practice is mostly observed in West Rapti River, Dolai khola and Kochna (Tir Hanne) Praganna Kulo. This use the principle of simple machine. The Tir (Iron arrow) is set in wooden handle and the handle is set with rubber and a hollow bamboo pipe. The teenagers hold both wood pipe and handle and then stretch the elastic rubber and release it. The pointed Tir (Arrow) hits the fish killing it. Note: Some of the practices are not sustainable however. Tila In Tila Gaunpalika, Jumla, part of which is falls in Tila watershed, people practice fishing methods such as Duwali bujne, Niiya or Nai thunne, and Jharaula thapne which are not sustainable. Similarly in Middle Karnali Duwali bujne is one of the fishing methods practiced but is unsustainable. In Bogatan Lagam, Thuligad, Middle Karnali, Tila, Middle Karnali, Middle Rapti watershed and lower Karnali practices such as gill nets is increasing but is unsustainable.
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Fishing Techniques: Four main techniques are used to catch fish: i) the collection of fish and other aquatic organisms in pools and muddy water by hand, ii) the use of traps that redirect or block the flow of water, iii) damming waterways, and iv) the use of different kinds of nets. Fixed traps catch fish even when no fisher is present. Caste nets, commonly known as fekuwa jal, are used by individuals. Professional fisher communities use gill nets, but these are not popular among the Tharu.
About 20-25 years ago few people depended on fishing as a source of livelihood and used to barter fish with rice, corn, and cereals. They used hair of bulls, horse tails and Himalayan nettle to make a fish trap (paso). The paso’s opening would be small enough to catch big fishes (weighing up to 1.5 kilograms) and big enough to leave fingerlings flow through. In some case fishes as large as 3 kilograms would be caught.
The availability of thin nylon thread in the market have begun to change these traditional practices. As fisher people started using net made of nylon the useof traditional nets has declined. The nylon nets are made with small openings that also catch fingerlings and hatchlings. Elderly villagers say that nylon thread is used from March to May when fish starts migrating upstream and that results in higher fish catches in those months. The use of such nets threatens to wipe fish stock.
In recent period, fish stock has declined due to changes in fishing practice including use of new equipment/instrument. These and not necessarily more people engaged in fishing seem to have led to decline in stock. Excessive blasting during the construction of Karnali highway has also led to decline in the fish stock in some rivers of the Karnali basin. After blasting, large sized stones were thrown into the Tila River and they have destroyed fishKur (kind of fishes’ habitat). Fishing using electricity is another reason for destruction of fish and other aquatic animals. Such practices not only kill the fish-stock but also other species in the rivers. In places like Tallo Shera Bada and Bali snow trout that weigh up to 1.5 kilograms is available today but may disappear if the prevalent practices continue. People worry that, the entire fish stock may vanish by next 10 to 15 years without serious conservation efforts.
Methods of Cooking and Eating: The Tharu like fish, shrimps, crabs and snails with their main dish of rice. Tiny fish are washed and cooked dry without curry. Shrimps and snails are cooked separately if they are plentiful; otherwise, they are combined with other fish. The scales of big fishes are removed and the fish are cleaned, cut in pieces and cooked in a curry sauce. Depending on the body size, crabs are cooked whole or cut in pieces. Some fish species, like sidhri and guitna (Lepidocephalichtys guntea) are dried in the sun and stored in baskets. They are used in the dry season when fish and vegetables are scarcer’
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Fishing and Rice Farming: The subsistence-level food production and use practices of Tharu households is based on rice production in the monsoon and fishing throughout the year. The combination of rice cultivation and fishing are linked to the marshy environment of the Tarai and distinguishes the Tharu from other fisher groups: the Tharu fish and grow rice for household consumption not, as others do, to supplement the household’s income. While Tharus are essentially farmers, other fisher groups, such as the Goriya, Raji, Majhi and Kumhals, are not. The Raji, Majhi and Kumhal are riverside dwellers who make a living from providing ferry services and making pottery. Bote, Badi and Sonaha communities are involved in ferrying boat and in collecting gold particles from river sand. The Goriya and Majhi use cast nets, fish individually, and sell their catch. Tharu, on the other hand practice both individual and collective fishing and fish just to complement their diet. An entire Tharu village regularly goes fishing and catches are shared among all the households. For the Tharu, stable rice production depends on a network of irrigation canals d that tap stream and spring sources. Just before the rainy season, all irrigation canals are drained for seasonal maintenance and the entire village goes fishing in the canals and water pools with bare hands and hoop nets.
Identification and Relevance of ILKPs in the 12 Sub-Watersheds of the MKWR Basins In Table 2, we present those ILKPs in each of the 12 sub-watersheds that have been identified and are relevant to the support of freshwater biodiversity.
TABLE 2: ILKPS THAT SUPPORT FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY
Water-sheds Identified Knowledge Relevance West Seti •• Some communities, particularly the Puri and the Sanyasi Organic farming and the population around Khaptad National Park do not, for conservation of water sources cultural and religious reasons, dispose of solid or liquid can help maintain a symbiotic waste into the water, thereby maintaining good water relationship between the quality even in streams flowing close to their settlements. forest-use, agriculture and Although this practice is community specific, and highly water-use practices of a localized, religious and cultural values of a community can community and thereby contribute to maintaining riverine health. sustain ecosystem services. •• Farmers use organic manure to maintain soil fertility and The restriction of open bio-pesticides to control pests and diseases, yielding a defecation, animal grazing sustainable farming system and maintaining the integrity of and the construction of roads terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and related services. close to water sources is a •• People have a rich tradition of conserving and maintaining practice specific to some local sources of drinking water. settlements and communities •• They use the same water for both irrigation and micro that should be replicated and hydropower without conflict. promoted in other areas.
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Rara- •• People practice an organic farming system that integrates ILKP related to organic Khatayad crop, livestock, horticulture and forestry components farming; the harvesting of and is suitable to the local ecology. It offers market medicinal herbs, spices and opportunities, too, if organic produce is popularized. aromatic plants; and the •• People know much about the habitats of and methods and development of multiple-use times for harvesting and processing medicinal herbs as water systems are relevant well as about other natural vegetation that can be used as for integrated watershed spices, aromas, sources of essential oils (six fruits whose management. Khatayad oil is used domestically, including for lighting), but haven’t Rural Municipality’s plan to exploited such knowledge. A type of tea made with local promote organic farming is herbs is popular among locals and the visitors. worth sup-porting. •• The multiple-use water systems of traditional canals The need is the develop already integrate drinking water, irrigation and water mills, value chain for the medicinal and provide the opportunity to integrate micro-hydropower herbs and other vegetation systems and modernize the mills. products by developing processing units at the local level. Phoksun-do- •• Local people know where on forest, shrub and grassland The sustainable harvesting Suligaad medical herbs grow and how and when to harvest them. of medicinal herbs, organic In fact, harvesting medicinal herbs, particularly Cordyceps farming and transhumance sinensis is a major economic activity. However, such herbs grazing need to be promoted have be-gun to be overharvested in order to meet rising as they are central to market demands and some herbs are now endangered. minimizing human pressure •• Both transhumance, which is practiced with herds of sheep, on natural resources and yak, horses and mules, and sequential grazing (horses preserving the re-generative after sheep) sustain a large live-stock population. Cycling capacity of those resources as fallow periods with the cultivation of millet, buckwheat, well as sustainably managing naked barley and beans allows soil to recoup its fertility terrestrial and aquatic and farmers to maintain production levels for years without biodiversity. major external inputs. Tila •• People know much about where medicinal herbs grow The tradition of integrated and how and when to harvest them. In fact, harvesting, water use, including for processing and marketing medicinal herbs is a major irrigation, drinking water and economic activity, especially of those who live in the high mechanical and electrical mountains. power should be promoted to •• The community knows how to assess soil fertility and use maximize productive water. this knowledge to determine cropping patterns and crop Community knowledge management practices. Farmers practice green manuring about the sustain-able and mulching using leguminous vegetation brought from production and management adjoining forest areas to maintain soil fertility and conserve of medicinal herbs and moisture in the dry season. of water in paddy fields •• People have multiple-use systems which integrate drinking should be replicated in water, irrigation and water mill operation in community- other watersheds to help managed irrigation canals. They have recently added micro- household economies. hydropower schemes to the package in order to produce electricity to use domestically and to run small income- generating enterprises. •• In the upper reaches farmers have developed a network of irrigation canals that use water from the Tila and its tributaries that enable them to cultivate marshi rice, an endemic cultivar which thrives in low temperatures and helps sustain local food security. Farmers claim that their irrigation practice system—maintaining water flowing in and out of fields—maintains sufficient soil temperatures. The efficacy of this practice should be validated and promoted.
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Bogatan •• Rainwater harvesting through the integration of farm ponds Rainwater harvesting has Lagam and the maintenance of terrace bunds before pre-monsoon cushioned against water Karnali rainfall. scarcity for agricultural and •• Use of organic manure, particularly forest leaf litter, crop non-agricultural uses despite mulching, and animal manure, to maintain soil fertility and declines in snowfall and moisture. changes in rainfall patterns and prevented agricultural drought. Promoting this traditional practice will help people manage local water resources sustainably. Middle •• Household- and community-level rainwater harvesting ILKP about rainwater Karnali including the use of cascading ponds and of wallowing tanks harvesting and building to water animals, helps recharge local aquifers, but recent multiple-use water systems efforts to modernize these systems, particularly replacing that should be replicated earthen structures with cement-concrete-lined ones has made to improve local-level water them non-functional and disrupted the hydrological function. management. •• Community knowledge about soil fertility is used to choose suitable cropping systems and crop management practices, ones that maintain soil fertility. •• Traditional multiple-use water systems that integrate drinking water, irrigation and water mill operation in community-managed irrigation canals function well. Middle Rapti •• Jharahi, the mobilization of labor for the construction and Though it appears non- annual repair and maintenance of irrigation canals, is based equitable and coercive, the on the philosophy that all able men must volunteer their labor, jharahi system helps ensure irrespective of landholding size. This tradition has supported that there is a sufficient the development and upkeep of the Pargana Irrigation System, workforce to develop and which irrigates 6,800 ha of land in Deukhuri Valley. manage irrigation water and •• Farmers harvest rainwater so they can grow rice in the other natural resources. monsoon even without access to irrigation facilities. They increase the height of the bunds in rice paddies and repair The use of cascading farm them so they can capture the rainwater they need for ponds and the maintenance transplantation and healthy growth. Farmers develop and of vegetation along river maintain a cascade of farm ponds to rear native fish species. banks and bars reduces the They use the stored water for supplemental irrigation. risk of floods and is worth •• People maintain vegetation, especially the grass Saccharum promoting in sections with spontaneum on the bars and banks of rivers to control braided forms and wide flood stream bank erosion. plains. •• Tharu households store food grains and seeds in mud vessels called dehri. These vessels nicely maintain the viability of their contents. Jhimruk •• The one- or two-yearly cycling of fallow pe-riods with the Agro-forestry is suitable for cultivation of millet, buck-wheat, naked barley and beans this upland watershed and is helps recoup soil fertility and has sustained crop produc- sustainable in the long terms tion levels for years without external inputs. because it integrates field •• People practice agro-forestry in upland are-as, integrating crops for food, horticulture forestry, the cultivation of field crops (maize and millet), and spice crops for cash, and and spices (turmeric, ginger and Zanthoxylum piperitum), forage and fodder crops for horticulture (citrus trees, particularly oranges and limes) livestock. These three crop and forage and fodder crops to control soil erosion and components of a multi-tiered maintain soil fertility and conserve soil moisture. agro-forestry system should •• Sharing a source of irrigation water among several FMISs be promoted in upland areas respects downstream water rights through a rule-of- be-cause of the advantage it thumb proportional water-sharing arrangement. However, offers in con-serving soil and the replacement of traditional syauli dam (temporary water. In fact, agro-forestry brushwood diversion) with cement-concrete and gabion can help revive dried spring weirs to “improve” FMISs has aggravated disputes between and stream sources in upper up-stream and downstream irrigation users. and middle watersheds. •• People traditionally have extracted fibers from native plant species such as allo (Girardinia diversifolia) and ketuki (Agave americana), and now some women’s groups have used this knowledge to start a cloth and handicraft cottage industry.
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Thuligaad •• Farmers develop irrigation canals using locally available The plantation of materials and resources. While many of these canals Himalayacalamus brevi-nodus are small, they nonetheless fit the lo-cal need to irrigate (nigale bans) along stream cropped areas scattered along a stream course. The use courses and in landslide- of slate and boulders to line canal banks and bottoms prone zones has helped reduces water loss. The use of wooden aqueducts for cross control stream bank erosion drainage is unique to the area. and land-slides and restore •• People, particularly those in the lower reaches of the eroded areas. watershed, build and use earthen ponds to capture runoff from slopes and to water animals. These ponds have also maintained flows in natural springs and reduced the amount of sediment entering nearby streams. Rangun •• People constructed contour ditches, or ‘nauli’, to intercept IKPs relating to agro- runoff and allow it to percolate into the ground and forestry, the protection and recharge springs and, by doing so, succeeded in reviving restoration of spring sources some dried up springs. The Rural Village Water Resources and the production of organic Management Project (RVWRMP) has integrated this practice honey are relevant for in its efforts to conserve and restore the water supply both integrated watershed sources in the area. management and local •• People practice agro-forestry on non-irrigated upland IWRM. The successes of the terraces, where they integrate fodder trees, horticultural farmers in organic farming crops (particularly citrus fruits like oranges, limes, and practices should be promoted lemons), agricultural crops (maize, millet, beans, peanuts elsewhere. and black gram) and forage crops. This practice allows them integrate vegetative measures that conserve soil and manage soil nutrients, both critical steps to sustain upland cropping. •• Farmers produced organic honey production long before development organizations introduced modern apiculture. •• Since farmers are well informed about bee flora and their seasonality, they can produce honey year-round. Farmers in Ward No. 4 of Alital Rural Municipality were certified by the GoN as organic honey procedures. Lower •• Tharu communities collectively develop and man-age large Collective action institutions Karnali irrigation systems like the Budhi Kulo in Rajapur, Bardiya, enable people to manage and the Rani-Jamara-Kularia Kulo in Kailali District irrigation and prevent stream •• The Sonaha, Raji and Tharu communities practice non- bank erosion as well as deal destructive fishing practices, particularly those that use with water excesses and traditional traps, hooks and nets to capture fish but not kill water deficits on the flood fingerlings. plains. •• Communities along the Karnali launched an anti-poaching campaign to protect large terrestrial and aquatic animals, such as dolphins, otters, ghariyal and birds. Non-destructive fishing •• Vegetated revetment and spurs (bhakari) are used to control practices, together with stream bank erosion and trap sediment along banks. community-based anti- •• The lower karnali region has many wetlands and ghols that poaching campaigns, can help are being managed using local practices, such as removal promote the conservation of water hyacinth and regulate fishing. aquatic biodiversity in all river basins. Lower Ma- •• The collective management of irrigation systems, forest and The practices of harvesting hakali lakes and local campaigns for control-ling encroachment runoff, the creation of on lakes and maintaining floating vegetation create an vegetated barriers between ecosystem that supports the biodiversity of fishes, aquatic rivers and human settlements animals and birds. or agricultural land and •• The harvesting of runoff, particularly that after the first the non-destructive fishing monsoon rainfall, for use on irrigated farm lands captures practices of indigenous silt, which improves soil fertility. communities all conserve •• The non-destructive fishing practices of the Sonaha and freshwater biodiversity at Tharu communities, particularly the use of traditional the watershed level. These fishing hooks, traps and nets, kill neither fingerlings nor practices can be replicated large aquatic animals. and scaled up in a cost- •• The plantation of deep-rooted vegetation such as bamboo effective manner if local along the banks and beds of river to create a vegetated collective-action organizations revetment stabilizes banks. are entrusted and support-ed to promote these practices.
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Conclusions: The documentation and synthesis of IKPs in MKWR basins in this chapter had three objectives. First, we wanted to understand how an array of practices enables groups of people living in the basin to both manage natural resources and use them to meet their livelihood needs. Developing such an understanding is an entry point to any effort to analyze the sustainable use of the region’s biological resources. Second, we wanted to audit the value of IKPs in the present-day context as the region witnesses rapid changes in governance and institutional arrangements and the aspiration of locals and decision-makers for fast-paced development. Development is seen to rest on the growth of motorable roads, which, in turn, will increase connectivity, hydropower and urbanization and may overlook the concerns of the environment and ecological resources and their services although they are key to sustaining people’s livelihoods. An audit of these practices will point toward how they can be used to build synergy with the prevailing path to modernization using scientific practices. Third, we sought to identify how people have organized natural resources management approaches at the local level using their time-tested IKPs. This step will help us integrate such practices with other streams of knowledge.
The ILKPs related to forestry, NTFPs, food, watershed management, irrigation and fishery presented in this chapter are revenant for the sustainable management of natural resources in the region in three ways. First, IKPs respect and uphold system functions and support the links between ecosystems. For example, IKPs in the management of forests, NTFPs and pastures are not limited to their utilization at the local level; on the contrary, any extraction impacts water, soil and agricultural production systems within and outside a given local area. IKPs are also relevant because they promote an ethos of conservation that respects the regenerating abilities of natural resources and slows extraction to a rate that doesn’t impede natural succession. For example, NTFPs are harvested only at a particular time of the year so that they can produce enough seed to sustain their population. The third reasons ILKPs are relevant relates to their being integrated into a natural resources governance system characterized by collective action and equitable sharing and utilization of natural resources. Such an approach meets the demands of people at the local level and balances re resource extraction and utilization with ecosystem requirements. Local governance practices and social and ecological boundaries have defined the membership criteria, rights and obligations and rewards and sanctions of all those involved in collective action. People have crafted systems of natural resource management with years of learning and. If political and administrative decisions overstretch social and ecological boundaries, the tenuous balance between
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livelihoods and sustainability of the natural resources will be thrown off. The risk of imbalance increases as the interests of local governments, which are no empowered to govern natural resources, collide with the arrangements local communities have adopted to govern the utilization of natural resources.
ILKPs faces stress from the following changes:
• The younger generation is not very interested in pursuing natural resource- based livelihoods. • ILKPs have not been not systematically documented but are already being eroded due to the penetration of the market and the decline in self-reliance. Science needs to learn from ILKPs and that ILKPs can be informed by science. To address the stresses emerging in the MKWR basins, ILKPs needs to be assimilated and synthesized with the knowledge streams of natural science and social science. This new knowledge must be used to support practices of resource management. In an era of climate change, such a synthesis will help build resilience, replicate and scale up good practices, and diversify livelihood systems and, as a result, develop alternative livelihood for local communities. They will also create opportunities for conserving freshwater biodiversity.
Notes
1. In the High Mountain and High Himalayan regions people collect medicinal herbs such as Aconitum hetero- phyllum (atish), Aconitum spicatum (bish), Angelica archangelica (gananu), Ophiocordyceps sinensis (yarsagumba), Dactylorhiza hatagirea (hattajadi), Lomatogonium carinthiacum (tikta), Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (kutki), Paris polyphylla (satuwa), Phyllanthus emblica (amla), Diplazium stoliczkae (kalo liundo). Generally, only a particular part of a species is used as medicine. For example, only the rhizomes of aconites, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Neopicrorhi- za scrophulariiflora, Paris polyphylla,and Diplazium stoliczkae are used. However, the whole plant of the popular medicinal species Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Lomatogonium carinthiacum are used. The mode of application depends on the type of disease to be treated. In most cases, like when Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Paris polyphylla, Diplazium stoliczkae, or Phyllanthus emblica are called for, a healer prescribes the paste or powder of a particular part. However, some plants or parts are prescribed as they are (the rhizomes of aconites, Bergenia ciliata, and Paris polyphylla, for example) or, as is true for Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, and Lomatogonium carinthiacum, as a decoction. 2. in Middle Karnali, Tila watershed and Rara Khatayd watershed, Badi, Basnet, Budha, Rokaya, Malla, and Pariyar are also engaged in fishing. 3. Insight from discussion at Shera Bada, Ward No 8, Khadachakra Municipality, Kalikot District 4. Discussion in Dundelin ward no 9, Tila Rural Municipality, Jumla District 5. Details are not available. Some of the Tharus, may be selling their catch once or twice every month. Further, each and every Tharu household may not have enough land for paddy cultivation to maintain their livelihood throughout the year. These details are worth considering.
155 Identification of Indicators of Freshwater 6 Biodiversity and Freshwater Habitats
Background The literature on indicators of freshwater biodiversity reveals that one or more approaches are used to identify indicators, including diversity of iconic fish species, macro invertebrates, phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrophytes and the physical- chemical properties of water. Indicators are used to assess both the cumulative impacts of chemical pollutants and habitat alterations and the ecological health of rivers (Bunn and Davies, 2000) and water bodies such as lakes (Shah & Nesemann, 2011). Over the past three decades, hundreds of indices have been developed, 60 percent of which are biotic indices based on macroinvertebrate analysis (De Pauw & Hawkes, 1993). Benthic macro invertebrates are considered suitable for assessing ecological quality and for detecting several kinds of natural and anthropogenic stresses to rivers. In recent years, indicators based on benthic macro invertebrates have been used to monitor the changing climatic conditions too (Tachamo Shah et al., 2015).
Biotic indices are mainly based on two basic principles: i) the number of taxonomic groups declines as pollution levels in freshwater systems increase, and ii) sensitive species disappear first as the level of organic and inorganic pollutants increase in the freshwater systems (Czerniawska Kusza, 2005). Bio-indicators, whether fish or macro- invertebrate populations, are considered useful in most instances to screen the health of a natural ecosystem and its water precisely because they are alive. Bio-indicators are an important tool for detecting changes in an aquatic environment as well as the impacts of those changes on local communities, generally poor and marginal groups who depend on freshwater systems for their livelihoods and sustenance; whether they use the water for irrigation, drinking water supply, capture fishery or some other purpose. Indicators based on fish possess a number of advantages as indicators of the healthy ecosystem quality of a watershed because of their multi year life-spans, their mobility and their symbiotic relationship with water. The choice of indicators and indices for monitoring and assessing aquatic biodiversity differs by country and is determined by the importance accorded to monitoring aquatic environments and the use of evidential information in policy-making and arriving at management decisions.
If indicators to assess aquatic ecosystems are based only on aquatic organisms, the interdependence between terrestrial biodiversity and aquatic biodiversity is likely to
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be overlooked. The structure, function and biodiversity of any given freshwater system are intricately linked to terrestrial ecosystems within which they exist. Changes in land use and the exchanges of water and nutrients link the two systems. In addition, human interventions such as damming, diverting water for irrigation and hydropower generation, and the construction of embankments for flood control affect both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The haphazard construction of roads, deforestation and the excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in crop production are other haphazard landscape-based activities that degrade freshwater diversity. The environmental issues currently facing human and ecological communities reveal that management solutions are grossly inadequate if they neglect the inter-connection between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. A biosphere perspective is essential if tracking changes in aquatic biodiversity is to yield desirable results.
Objectives Indicators are usually developed and applied to track changes in conditions of freshwater ecosystems, watershed and aquatic biodiversity that determine the quality of ecosystem services; identify natural and human induced factors that are responsible for changes on their conditions. Indicators help develop an environmental monitoring system by helping to achieve three interrelated objectives: i) tracking changes in the attributes of biodiversity, ii) identifying organizations and personnel who could monitor and report the changes and iii) make inferences that can be used to inform policy and practices for freshwater conservation. For a monitoring system to be effective, a baseline must be established first. The design of freshwater biodiversity monitoring system begins with stakeholders’ agreeing on the identity of indicators within a framework. Indicators are generally specific to both, context the purpose, and serve one or more of the following purposes. They help measure change - position and condition, and may be used for other purposes too:
• To assess species (or communities) and the health of their habitats as well as the threshold physical, chemical and biological parameters for the healthy functioning of a freshwater ecosystem. • To assess the direction of pressure on aquatic ecosystems resulting from human interventions and/or interference in the aquatic ecosystem and their uses. • To assess the potential impacts of external stresses, positive as well as negative, on biodiversity and the consequences of those impacts for human and ecological communities linked to and dependent on the freshwater system both directly and indirectly.
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Approach The approach proposed—using indicators of freshwater biodiversity—is guided by the philosophy of using minimal data and an easily understood measurement procedure and analysis protocol. The approach should be instituted at the local (community and municipal) level as well as at the levels of the sub-basin and basin in order to plan, make decisions and take actions. To this end, a combination of indicators that capture the trends of changes (positive/negative) in freshwater biodiversity, the stressors as well the impact paths of both is proposed. Results will be best if we use a combination of indicators that simultaneously track pressure on both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and watershed health.
The PSIR, or Pressure-State-Impact-Response, framework is used as a useful entry point to combine the biotic and abiotic elements of both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. This framework combines i) Pressure (P), or the stressors that a watershed faces and that are responsible for the degradation of the entire watershed or of any of its resource (land, soil, water and biomass), ii) State (S), revealing the condition of the watershed or any of its resource elements, particularly their physical, chemical and biological properties and productivity, iii) Impact, the effects of the stressors on the watershed or any of its resource elements (primary impact) or any livelihood system based on them (secondary impact) and vi) Response (R), involving efforts made by the community and/or local, provincial and national governments to correct or minimize the negative impacts of the stressors. It can help create a baseline that can then later be compared with new condition. The comparison will help assess watershed health.
If we combine the indicators of freshwater biodiversity with PSIR framework, we expand the lens with which we can assess the ecological health of any given freshwater system and its biodiversity. This approach also provides an opportunity to combine all uses of water, productive, protective and cultural. The multiple uses of water in Nepal include productive uses like irrigation and hydropower generation; protective uses like drinking water and sanitation and environmental flow to maintain the health and wellbeing of aquatic and riparian plants and animals; and the cultural uses linked to the Hindu worship of rivers as pure and sacred mothers and goddesses. Taking a “holy bath” in a river is an essential prerequisite before performing many religious rites and bathing in rivers on some specified days is considered sacred. The last rites after the death are generally performed on the banks of rivers. Rivers also create opportunities for water-based touristic activities like rafting, canoeing, bungee jumping and sports fishery that support for generating employment and boosting
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economies at the local and national levels. River-based tourism has great scope in the MKWR basins though it has not yet been systematically developed.
The abstraction and/or diversion of water by dams, barrages and weirs not only change flow and sediment dynamics in upstream and downstream river reaches but also fragment the aquatic ecosystem by affecting the migratory behavior and breeding habits of fish and other aquatic animals. In addition, untreated solid and liquid wastes and non-point sources of pollutants, such as the washing away of agricultural chemicals and fertilizers into river courses and the disposal of spoils from road construction, as well as the haphazard extraction of sand and gravel affect the quality of the river as well as the natural habitats on which fish and other aquatic animals depend. Fishermen and other marginalized sections of the society that depend on fish and river resources for their livelihoods lose out first, before the rest of the population.
Combining the consideration above, we created a matrix of the attributes and indicators of freshwater biodiversity at the watershed, sub-basin, and basin levels.
TABLE1: THE PSRI APPROACH
Level Attribute Indicator Location of Frequency monitoring Watershed Health: Input side indicators Pressure Water abstraction/Diversion on % flow divert-ed/abstracted in wet and Before mon- up-stream dry seasons soon and af-ter monsoon to Effluent discharge from upstream m3/day, BOD and COD levels of the begin with, urban areas and population effluent discharged Mouth of then every watershed/ first day of the Amount of solid waste generated m3/day sub-basin month. Non-point sources of pollution Amount of commercial fertilizers and (Confluence pesticides used of tributary with the trunk 2 Road built Km/km of watershed stream) and (Non-engineered. earthen, black top and the points of green) abstraction for use in rural and municipal Sand and gravel mining from the river Number of locations, type (sand, gravel, water supply, Seasonal bed stones and pebbles, period of extraction 3 irrigation and and the volume extracted m /day hydropower generation. Upstream sand and gravel processing Number of locations, period of operation, plants quantity of effluent discharged/day
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State of Terres- Land use land cover % area under degraded forest, grazing Annual trial Sys-tem land, human settlement and water bodies Cropping intensity and the amount of Cropping intensity (%) and % farmers agro-chemical used using chemical fertilizers and plant protection chemicals Livestock production system and Total livestock population; Livestock management head per HHs; Total quantity of manure produced annually; Manure management practice at the local level Land degradation due to erosion, No of landslides gullying, landslide, mass wasting and Area covered by land-slide inundation Area under flood water Endangered terrestrial plants and Number of taxa belonging to IUCN red animals list category Impact of what stressors on Terrestrial and Aquatic Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Impact on Changes in the relative abundance and Increasing/decreasing Terrestrial distribution of selected indicator forest Biodiversity species (tree and natural vegetation) Changes in the availability of medicinal Increasing/decreasing herbs of economic importance Changes in the land-races/cultivars of Increasing/decreasing traditional food crops Changes in the relative abundance and Increasing/decreasing distribution of selected indicator/iconic wildlife Occurrence and dominance of invasive No. of invasive species species Changes in the live-stock herds Increasing/decreasing Aquatic Physical-chemical properties of water Temperature, Turbidity, pH, TDS, TSS, Biodiversity EC, Inorganic Phosphorus, Inorganic nitrogen, Zn* Changes in the relative abundance and Increasing/decreasing distribution of selected indicator fish species Changes in the relative abundance and Increasing/decreasing distribution of Macro invertebrate taxa Tolerance score of Macro invertebrate Low/Medium/High taxa Ecosystem Availability/constraints to quality Low/Medium/High Services drinking water supply Availability/constraints to irrigation Low/Medium/High water Availability of fuel wood/fodder from Low/Medium/High nearby forest Fish catch of local fisher community High/Medium/Low Exposure to water induced disaster Increasing/unchanged/ decreasing (floods, stream bank erosion, drought) of watershed community
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Response Community engagement/participation % of forest under community forest management in the management of natural Number of active social and natural resource user groups per km of river resources: stretch, including: •• Forest •• No. of buffer zone committees •• National Park/Wildlife Conservation •• No. of active irrigation and/or drinking water user groups •• Irrigation/Water Management •• Presence of federation of social and environ-mental groups. Integration of terrestrial and aquatic Number of local governments that have integrating terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity conservation agenda in biodiversity conservation in their annual and periodic development plans planning process of local governments Collaboration among local No. of local governments collaborating to further joint pursuit on terrestrial governments in responding to and aquatic biodiversity conservation terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity management [conservation needs] Development and enforcement of legal protection system concerning following areas of natural re-sources management: •• Abstraction of water from rivers and streams Yes/No •• Disposal solid and liquid wastes Yes/No •• Riverbed/pit mining Yes/No •• Destructive fishing Yes/No •• Open Defecation practices Yes/No *Nepal water quality guidelines for protection of aquatic ecosystem (source: Environmental Statistics of Nepal, 2008; Environmental Standard and Related Information Booklet, 2010, Ministry of Environment, GoN).
Table 2 list those fish species can be used as biological indicators for monitoring of the health of the aquatic ecosystems in the 12 selected watersheds. This list, which is currently being update, is based on the work of researchers at Tribhuvan University and Kathmandu University, interactions with the local communities and watershed health report developed by the Paani Project. We propose using the following biological indictors based on macro invertebrate taxa.
TABLE 2: PRELIMINARY INDICATORS FOR DIFFERENT SUB-WATERSHEDS OF THE MKWR BASINS
SN Sub-watersheds Indicators Remarks 1 Tila Schizothorax sp. Highly susceptible to environment changes, thrives in cold 2 Middle Karnali Schizothorax sp. conditions with high DO, highly migratory in nature Tor putitora 3 Lower Karnali Sahar(Golden Mahaseer), Found throughout the year, both insectivore and carnivore, Rawa, Thed, Kathlaggi, eel, mostly warm and cool water fish, highly susceptible to Rajbam, Karauwa, Baikha, environmental changes, highly migratory in nature. Could grow 4 West Seti Gobrela, Sujha, Bhoti, to be very big if left unharmed. Sauwari, Padhani, Mohi, Rohu, Gardi, Klanch 5 Thuli Gad Tor Sp. Tor putitora 6 Jhimruk Schizothorax sp. and Tor Highly susceptible to environment changes, thrives in cold Sp. conditions with high DO, highly migratory in nature.
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7 West Seti Pseudecheneis sulcatus The river has P. eddisi as endemic species, however, it is not as widespread as P. sulcatus. Since, belongs to same genus, it can attribute to the habitat quality of the endemic species and other fish communities present in West. 8 Mugu Karnali Schizothorax sp. Vulnerable species, migratory in nature 9 Suligaad Pseudecheneis sulcatus Has big fishes like B. bagarius and Tor and one endemic sucker and Tor Putitora fish Myersglanis blythi. P. sulcatus can be associated to indicate the endemism of the river while T. putitora can be associated to indicate the habitat quality for bigger carps. 10 Rangun Khola Tor tor Can be indicator for both big and medium carps. 11 Lower Mahakali Bagarius bagarius Giant River catfish, widespread, migratory 12 Middle Rapti Labeo pangusia Prevalent, big carp, nearly threatened Pangasius Pangasius Based on the literature review, surveys (2018 & 2019, KU) and interaction with the local communities. The detail information on the indicators will follow as the identification of indicative species is in progress with data collected in sites in the sub-watersheds of MKWR basins.
Monitoring System: Proposed In Nepal, the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) is responsible for monitoring water resources. It regularly measures meteorological and hydrological parameters like rainfall and flow discharge at existing stations but measures sediment discharge only occasionally. Its assessment of water quality is anecdotal; measurements are taken really only when universities or private sector environmental agencies carry out research. Ideally, the monitoring of flux and quality should be conducted at the watershed, sub-basin, and basin levels, but that is always not possible as the disjunction between hydrological and administrative boundaries poses challenges in selecting sites for monitoring. In the MKWR basins more than one municipality is situated in each watershed and the municipalities on either side of a river differ on their priorities for natural resources management. Thus, establishing a freshwater biodiversity monitoring mechanism will require a combination of top-down and bottom-up consultative process. Such a process should lead to the piloting of a mechanism and assimilating learning from monitoring in revising and replicating the system and practices.
During watershed level workshops multiple stakeholders suggested the following as possible monitoring mechanism:
• Province or federal level governmetns may undertake this responsibility and carry out through their sectoral office coordination, • A committee represented by Palikas that share the watershed boundary will monitor watershed condition using a basket fund that each Palika would contribute,
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• An expert team can be formed with mandate to monitor condition against the baseline, and • Services can be procured to periodically monitor the condition.
The above bullets are important insights that can be used as a guideline. A monitoring mechanism cannot be established in a single day and need continuous interactions and follow up. In many countries, and also including data is also collected by those who needs it. These entities may Universities, projects and private consultants and used for variety of purposes. In Nepal, these data types are fragmented and disparate Much more work needs to be done to make them accessible and useful.
The process should provide insights not only changes in freshwater biodiversity but also analyzing, aggregating and synthesizing the information collected. Different agencies have different roles, as shown in Figure 1. A three-level monitoring system is proposed: i) monitoring and reporting, ii) aggregation, analysis and synthesis, and iii) policy and planning. The rural and urban municipalities should monitor changes in freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity at the watershed level. They need to be involved for two reasons. First, establishing a database on local-level natural resources would inform local planning and decision-making processes. Second, involving municipalities will strengthen the monitoring and regulatory capacities of local governments in the area of environmental and natural resource management.
The institutional capacity of local governments is currently limited and they may not be able to monitor all the selected indicators of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Thus, they need to systematically build their capacity, a step, in line with meeting their obligations as defined by the 2105 Constitution. Specifically, each local government should create a fully functional environmental section or division within its organizational structure and head it with a qualified officer responsible for mainstreaming environmental concerns in the social and economic development plans of that local government. This unit or division must also be made responsible for monitoring changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and in developing a database at the watershed level.
Broadly reflecting the insights of the consultations mentioned above local government can employ a few personnel and seek collaborative arrangements with civil society entities. Paani program has already trained citizen-scientists to monitor water quality parameters and local governments in MKWR may engage them as initial pool of human resources. That said, for the citizen-scientists to engage effectively in ecosystem and
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Figure 1 : proposed monitoring system of ecosystem health and biodervisity
Provincial Planning Commission (NPC)
Planning Provincial Planning Commission Provincial Planning Commission and Policy Making
Provincial Government Ministry Ministry of Energy, Irrigation and Water Ministry of Forest and Environment Provincial Government Ministry (MoLMAC, MoPID) Resources (Federal Government) (Federal Government) (MOITFE)
Aggregation River Basin Office (DHM/ MoEIWR) Basin Watershed Management Office Analysis (DDFSC/ MOFE) and Synthesis DDC
Agriculture Knowledge Centre Division Forest Office (DFO) Local Government (Palika) (Envi-ronmental Section/ Division) Division Water Supply Division /Sub-division Office of Irrigation and Monitoring and Sanitation Office Water Resources Sanitation Office and Reporting Volunteers (Citizen Scientists/ Teachers/ Youth club/ Students)
biodiversity monitoring tasks, further capacity-building is essential. A well-designed capacity-building program aimed at using and assessing terrestrial, ecosystem and biodiversity indicators and developing protocols and reporting standards is needed. Once such a program has been set up, local governments can engage teachers, youths and students in the process and expand the pool of volunteers. Engaging teachers and students from local schools and colleges to monitor some of the indicators could be also be explored.
The local environmental section or division should play the following four roles: a) mobilize and coordinate volunteers, b) provide backstopping support for monitoring, c) document and report changes, integrate the data into an aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity information system, and d) analyze the information to produce annual local aquatic ecosystem reports. These reports should include a data base using a designed template that can be subsequently updated and inform local-level annual and periodic development plans and policy-making. The synthesis can help build awareness of citizens at the municipal level. The division offices of forestry, irrigation and water resources, and water supply and sanitation and agricultural knowledge centers can provide additional technical inputs in the process. They can also help
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analyze and synthesize watershed-level data on the health and biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems. District Coordination Committees (DCCs) can coordinate among local governments should a watershed boundary fall in the administrative jurisdictions of two or more local governments. It is essential to maintain a modest goal given low current capacity of the local governments. A period of five or six years may be needed for them to build capacity and institutionalized. Learning from the experience it would be useful to develop a kind of scoring system.
The second level in the proposed monitoring arrangement involves aggregating, analyzing and synthesizing information on ecosystem health and biodiversity at the watershed level. This analysis can help make inferences to feed into policy, planning and decision-making processes at the local, provincial and national levels. At present, the DHM has four river basin offices, one each in the Koshi, Narayani, Karnali and Mahakali river basins. Each office is responsible for developing basin-level water resource information system. The DHM falls under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI). The Department of Forest and Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management under the erstwhile Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation was merged into the Department of Forest and Soil Conservation (DoFSC) and falls under the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE). The MoFE has also constituted offices to start river basin-level watershed management and entrusted them with the responsibility of conducting research, analyze findings, promote technology and organize soil conservation and watershed management activities through division forest offices (DFOs) at the watershed and sub-basin levels.
Since the river basin offices of the DHM and the proposed basin-level watershed management offices of the MoFE have direct relevance to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity, their roles in the aggregation, analysis and synthesis of information on ecosystem health and biodiversity must be expanded. The DHM and the MoFE can work independently to aggregate, analyze, and synthesize information relating to water resources and water quality and ecosystem biodiversity and then combine the information to develop a rich picture of ecosystem health and freshwater biodiversity at the watershed, sub-basin and basin levels. The information processed by the river basin offices of the DHM and the MoFE needs to feed into provincial and federal government ministries and their planning bodies as well as into local government entities. The evidence should inform policy actions to sustain ecosystem health and freshwater biodiversity.
The third level in the proposed monitoring system relates to use of the information collected to inform the aquatic ecosystem health and biodiversity policies adopted by
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federal, provincial and local governments. The processed information available at the river basin offices of the DHM and the MoEWRI must feed into the relevant ministries of both provincial and federal governments to inform policies, plans and programs on the management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. At the provincial level the beneficiaries are the MoEWRI, Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoLMAC), the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Development (MoPID), and the Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment (MoITFE). Other beneficiaries include the Provincial Planning Commission (PPC) and the National Planning Commission (NPC). Each has a role in estimating the development and recurrent expenses of and the sources of revenues for programs and then allocating financial resources as needed. In order for the proposed mechanism to be effective, sufficient budget has to be allocated. Without adequate financial resources, there is only theory.
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7 Stakeholders and Champions
Background This chapter analyzes stakeholders and potential champions in the MKWR basins, individuals and organizations that will support efforts to conserve freshwater biodiversity and promote adaptation to climate change. The remote areas of the MKWR basins are being opened up to external influences as non-engineered roads are constructed, but this opening up is taking place in a rather haphazard manner and will need to become more systematic in the future.
This chapter has three objectives:
i) To map stakeholders in the MKWR river basins using both their ascribed and their demonstrated roles in policy- and decision-making and in developing and managing conservation programs and activities, ii) To identify and characterize potential champions, again, using their demonstrated roles and contributions, who could work with Paani program and beyond to conserve freshwater biodiversity, furthering freshwater policy reforms and practices for integrated water resources management; and iii) To identify methods and processes by which to engage with and define the roles and areas of contribution of these champions.
Mapping of Tasks Mapping stakeholders in the river basins presented challenges as they are involved in both the environmental resource and the use domains and work in a variety of sectoral programs. The literature uses the term stakeholders repeatedly, but there is, in fact, no universally accepted method to systematically map and analyze stakeholders to produce an analysis that could be used to increase stakeholder engagement, and in consequence, add value to a program. That said, the identification of stakeholders is straightforward in the context of a project whose intervention has a predetermined goal, a defined boundary and a certain desired influence. The geographical, hydrological, and beneficiary boundaries of a hydropower project, for example, are quite clear.
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However, if the unit of analysis concerns an ecological resource, such as a river basin (as MKWR basins of the Paani program does), none of the available methods for identifying and analyzing stakeholders can be applied unambiguously. A river basin involves a resource environment (water, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and biodiversity) and the services that such resources generate and users of the services. Interaction among these elements produces opportunities and constraints that affect individuals, families and communities in vastly different ways. Some of them may be stakeholders while others may be not be so. The outcomes of these interactions are also a result of how formal and informal institutions at different scales in the basin interrelate.
Interactions also occur as various agencies implement sector-specific activities. In any given watershed, sectoral agencies may be involved in activities to generate hydropower, provide irrigation water, mitigate floods, supply drinking water, offer sanitation services, conserve biodiversity, and promote recreational water and other tourism-related activities. Non-water related sector such as road building also impacts freshwater diversity while extractions of aggregate materials from river beds lead to directly threaten rivers and freshwater biodiversity. Even as the government department pursues its sectoral approach, private-sector and civil- society entities are involved at different stages of decision-making, implementation, use and management.
In short, in identifying stakeholders and analyzing their roles and their positions and how they engage, one must consider both ecological and sectoral aspects at multiple levels. It is a complex business.
Locating and identifying both formal and informal human agencies in the diverse geography of the three river basins was not the only challenge, though challenge it was. Another challenge arose when we tried to classify stakeholders by their roles (whether direct or indirect), interests, and claims as well as their use of power to influence decision-making and either facilitate or impede the use of the basins’ resources.
To identify the stakeholders in the basins we used an approach that considered both ecological and sectoral interventions and kept in mind the World Bank’s definition of stakeholders as “people and entities who can affect the outcomes, who get affected by the outcomes and who have interest both as mediator and facilitator and as potential or distant beneficiary (World Bank, 1996; DFID, 2002). We also kept in mind the inclusiveness of the conceptualization of Mitchell et al. (1995), who consider
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the stakeholders in a particular context to include “persons, groups, communities, societies, organizations and even natural environment and ecological communities”.
Accordingly, we identified stakeholders across two resource environments, i) terrestrial biodiversity, and ii) aquatic biodiversity.
In addition, the following seven sectors are also considered. i) Irrigation, ii) Hydropower, iii) Drinking water supply and sanitation, iv) Aggregate mining, v) Road building, vi) Tourism, and vii) Construction.
DRR and CCA were included as cross-cutting themes.
Ecosystem Balance While stakeholders do recognize that water faces serious threats that must be addressed, they do not agree on the way forward. In fact, those who advocate measures designed to enhance the efficiency, equity and sustainability of water use do not see eye to eye with those who advocate augmenting water supplies as the solution to water problems. In the past few years, there has been, however, a shift in approach toward supply augmentation. One indication of this shift is the fact that regulatory tools such as environmental impact assessments (EIAs), which are used to assess social and environmental costs, are used with less stringent standards despite the government’s commitment to sustainable development goals. In fact, the EIA is seen as a barrier to the speedy execution of projects and such immediacy may lead to increasing gap between development and environment. The persistence of gap may lead to further deterioration of environmental quality and consequently result in high social impacts. Bridging the gap and ultimately achieving a balance between the goals of economic development and environmental protection is necessary and this will require recognizing the drivers of change and responses to that change.
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The development, management, and appropriation of water sources in terrestrial landscapes, whether those sources are precipitation, rivers, snow deposits, springs, ponds, wetlands, or underground aquifers, involve individuals, government departments, utilities, systems managers, water users’ groups, entrepreneurs, contractors, commodity suppliers, tourism entrepreneurs, women, and marginalized groups. These agents can be classified into four broad groups: a) state agencies at national, and provincial level, b) developers and utilities that profit from investing in water infrastructures and from the services the infrastructures provide, c) social activists who highlight the unmitigated costs and the value of aquatic ecosystems, and d) those who rely on a given waterscape for sustenance and livelihoods.
Ever since the 2015 Constitution was promulgated and a new governance regime instated, a new institutional landscape in Nepal has been evolving. This arrangement includes a number of national, provincial and local governmental agencies, with non-government players, and private-sector actors that have a direct or indirect role in or influence on the conservation of freshwater biodiversity realigning with this landscape. These organizations maintain different perspectives about environmental, climate-related and development issues such as natural resource management, hydropower development, community empowerment, and disaster preparedness and response. Some of them directly address, make recommendations or implement programs. These actors can be grouped into three broad types—state, market and civil society. All are considered users in the conceptual framework we have adopted for political analysis.
TABLE 1: ACTORS AND AGENCIES
State organizations Market-based organizations Civil society organizations Government and semi-government Farmers and other primary- International NGOs, organizations sector producers Local NGOs Community-based organizations Federal and provincial ministries and Industries, including construction Users’ groups departments Federations of users’ groups Service-sector agencies Academics and educational Rural and urban municipalities institutions Media Bilateral and multilateral donors
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Each group assesses the costs and benefits of any given intervention in water management from a different perspective. Thus, each will have a different view of the social and environmental costs the intervention will have for the waterscape in which it is implemented and the aquatic ecosystems and people it affects. Their beliefs about how to best conserve that waterscape and mitigate the adverse impacts of interventions also vary. This approach to conceptualizing stakeholders helps us understand the likely response of any given stakeholder based on where that stakeholder falls in the social space. It will be especially important to consider the following six types of social groupings and the way each is engaged in the water landscape.
Government Agencies: Government departments are major players; in fact, they serve as focal points for activities related to water and play a key role in facilitating processes designed to maintain the integrity of water and aquatic biodiversity. The National Planning Commission (NPC) and sectoral agencies at the central and provincial levels are key players in offering a broad vision of wellbeing that balances development and conservation. It is within this vision that water and aquatic biodiversity have to be located. For their part, sectoral agencies help formulate measures useful in devising appropriate strategies that consider new constraints as they emerge. They are expected to play facilitating role in maintaining integrity of water and aquatic biodiversity.
Local Governments: Local governments can influence region-specific policies that either constrain or enable activities that aim to conserve water and aquatic biodiversity. Local government agencies need to be proactively involved in planning, program delivery, the policy implementation, poverty alleviation and natural resource management. These agencies need to increase their capacity to come up with best practices that help implement policies at scale and in a manner that resonates well with regional and local needs. Local governments should be able to learn from the results of research and pilot programs and use that learning to improve their own programs.
Research and Policy-study Agencies: Many educational communities in Nepal, including universities and think tanks, have focused their efforts on the study of the stock and flow of resources. They focus on the policy environment, too, and generate interdisciplinary knowledge for local governments, sectoral agencies, community groups and business entities to use. The business entities have not focused on role of freshwater biodiversity. The quality also grossly varies. In the MKWR basins this capacity is very low and needs to be systematically build.
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Private Sector: The private sector focuses on maximising profits and serving the interests of promoters, corporations and businesses. Direct business interests are the reason that, for example, enterprises are involved in water, whether through hydropower development or water and protected area and water-based tourism. Many farmers are involved in culture fishery as a private business and there are a very few private-sector entities involved in capture fishery, too. The construction industry has major implications for freshwater diversity, particularly due to its demand for construction-grade aggregates and sand. In most of the MKWR basins where road networking has been improved, riverbeds are being mined haphazardly. Construction requires the use development of the cement, reinforcing bars, and heavy equipment industries, all of which play a key role in the development of infrastructures such as transportation and hydropower as well as in the burgeoning of cities, where cement-concrete is used to make houses.
These industries are well-organized and have considerable clout and say in the socio- political and economic space. Their interest in conserving freshwater biodiversity, however, is low because profit incentives are less obvious than in other sectors. Even so, they can help in innovating and incubating new technologies and services and help local economies grow while maintaining ecological integrity. Improving mobility and communications, for example, is an important first step in helping populations diversify out of vulnerable livelihoods dependent on natural resources. The private sector can enable such diversification by pursuing an appropriate business model.
If the infrastructure development process is to contribute to Nepal’s overall development, reforms are needed in both policy and institutions. A unified infrastructure policy that includes approval-and-permit processes, regulations for public-private partnership, procedures for land acquisition and improvements in the management of the planning, design and execution of projects will have to be formulated and, equally important, stakeholders will have to focus on harmonizing development with environmental and freshwater issues so that they can secure sustainable outcomes. Both the public and the private sectors need to be involved in infrastructure development. In fact, the government has already prioritized seeking partnerships with the private sector.
Non-Governmental Organizations: In their approach to development, civil society organizations in Nepal have focused on livelihood-related activities and disaster risk reduction. They can play a supportive role in the pursuit of strategies and pilot initiatives that generate the sort of learning that can be replicated and scaled up by the private or public sector. They play a critical role in facilitating social protection
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measures that are outside the purview of government agencies and are seen as unprofitable by the private sector.
Community-based Organizations: Community-level natural resource management and development programs abound in the MKWR basins. Although very few were established to carry out initiatives related to water and aquatic conservation, they could nonetheless help implement approaches that minimize risks to aquatic biodiversity. Cooperatives, for example, can play a significant role in strengthening links with markets in order to ensure better returns for small-scale entrepreneurs while, at the same time, being sensitive to water concerns and minimizing the water footprints of and the pollution produced by the communities they serve.
Actors and their Influence and Outcomes Within the above conception, we consider stakeholders as those (Table 2)
a) who affect outcomes, b) who are affected by outcomes and c) who may be interested in serving as mediators or facilitators or are distant beneficiaries. (Table 2)
TABLE-2 GENERIC CATEGORIES AND SUB-CATEGORIES OF STAKEHOLDERS
Category Sub-category Individual/group/community/entity Those affecting Governance, policy and •• Federal parliament and parliamentary committees outcomes legislation •• Provincial assemblies •• Local government assemblies (Sabhas) Policy formulation and •• Policy and planning entities of federal, provincial and local governments planning •• Ministries of federal and provincial governments •• Executive councils of local governments Execution and regulation of •• Departments of the federal government policies and legislations •• Directorates of provincial governments •• Departments and units of local governments •• Development authorities and corporations •• Authorities of federal, provincial and local governments responsible for auditing accounts and performance Implementation, Public sector: management and •• Departments and units of federal, provincial and local governments provisioning of services •• Authorities and partially government-owned corporations Private sector •• Investors/Developers •• Contractors/Suppliers •• Banks and insurance companies •• Consultants •• Entrepreneurs
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Civil society actors Affected by Directly Households, groups and communities that live close to a project and/or terrestrial outcomes and/or riverine resources Marginalized groups and groups whose livelihoods are dependent on terrestrial and aquatic resources Terrestrial and aquatic ecological communities Groups defined by ethnicity, gender or age Indirect Residents of rural and urban settlements who depend on the resources and services of the MKWR basins but are located some distance away from it Business and commercial entities that depend on the resources and services of the MKWR basins but are located some distance away from it Interest/concern Direct Environmental and civil society actors and activists Academics, research institutions, and think tanks Media Potential users and clients Indirect Groups and business establishments that do not depend on the resources of the MKWR basins but are interested in those resources as citizens International community
Stakeholder Mapping The stakeholders of the MKWR basins can be mapped as follows (Table 3)
TABLE 3: MAP OF STAKEHOLDERS BY RESOURCE ENVIRONMENT AND SECTOR
Thematic Sector/ Sub-Sector/ Policy and Policy Implementation, Directly Indirectly Affected or Focus Theme Theme Planning Execution and Management Affected or Concerned Regulation and Service Concerned Delivery Ecological Terrestrial Forest MoFE-FG; DoF-FG; DoFSC-FG; DoPR- Forest Users Users of fuel Resources ecosystem and plant MoITFE-PG DoNPWL-FG; FG; DFO-PG (men, women, wood and NTFGPs biodiversity A-LG MoITFE-PG DSCO ethnic groups); away from forest; Office of National Communities Processors and Parks and Wildlife in Buffer Zone; exporters of medicinal Reserve- FG; Collectors and herbs and NTFPs; CFUG; BZMC & Marketers of Timber processor and BZUG; NGOs Medicinal herbs merchants; Tourism and NTFPs entrepreneurs; Wildlife MoFE-FG; MoITFE-PG Office of National People (men, Tourism biodiversity MoITFE-PG; Parks and Wildlife women, entrepreneurs; A-LG Reserve- FG; smallholders Tourists with CFUG; BZMC & and ethnic interest in wildlife; BZUC/G; NCT; minorities) in Transporters and tour WWF; NA buffer zone and operators suffering wildlife damage; Fisher Community; Bird watchers; Wildlife conservation groups/ advocates
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Cultivated MoALMC-FG; MoLMAC-PG; KGK-PG; EC-LG; Farmers’ Consumers of farm plants and MoLMAC-PG; EC-LG; CFTL-FG NGOs groups (small, produces; Millers and livestock A-LG medium and processors; Market large); Livestock actors s herders Use System Wetland MoFE-FG; MoFE-FG; DoFSC-FG; DFO- People (men, Educationists, MoITFE-PG; MoITFE-PG; PG; CFUGs; BZMC women, researchers and A-LG EC-LG and BZUC/Gs; ethnic groups) enthusiasts NGOs dependent on wetland for water, food, fuel, fodder and thatching materials; Aquaculture entrepreneurs; Tourism entrepreneurs Ecological Riparian MoFE-FG; MoFE-FG; DoFSC-FG; DoPR- People (men Educationists, use vegetation MoITFE-PG; DoNPWL-FG; FG; DFO-PG; and women researchers and system and wildlife A-LG EC-LG Office of National dependent enthusiasts Park and Wildlife on riparian Reserve; NA; vegetation NGOs for food, fuel, fodder and thatching materials Environmental/ MoFE-FG DoE-FG; DoED; NEA; IPPs; D/S Educationists, ecosystem flow MoWRE-FG; MoFID-PG MoFID-PG communities researchers and MoETFE-PG; dependent on enthusiasts; Bilateral A-LG river flow and multilateral donors (WB and ADB) Groundwater MoFE-FG; GWB-FG; DoFSC-FG Rural and Groundwater drilling recharge MoWRE-FG; EC-LG Division Office- urban residents companies; Suppliers MoUD-FG; DUDBC; dependent on of pumps and sallow WEC-FG; EU-LG groundwater and deep wells MoLMAC-PG for drinking A-LG and irrigation; Industries/ enterprises dependent on groundwater Water quality MoFE-FG; DoE/MoFE-FG; DoE/MoFE-FG; Rural and Suppliers of water A-LG MoITFE-PG; EU-LG urban dwellers filtration system and EC-LG dependent on treatment plants surface and groundwater for domestic, commercial and industrial uses Human Irrigation MoWRE-FG; DoIWR-FG; DoIWR-FG; User Farmers Suppliers of use MoFAGA-FG MoFID-PG; ID/SD Offices-PG; (small, medium agricultural inputs; system WEC-FG DoLIDAR/ IU-LG; NIFUWAN and large, men Farmers facing effect MoFID-PG; MoFAGA-FG and women, of water logging and A-LG EC-LG contract inundation along farmers/share the canal; Users of croppers); WUAs canal service roads; Multilateral and bilateral agencies investing in irrigation development; Irrigation consultants and contractors 176 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Hydropower MoWRE-FG; DoED-FG; AEPC- NEC; Private Householders Domestic, commercial, WECS-FG; FG; EC-LG Investors; FDIs; displaced or industrial and MoPID-PG; Community whose land and institutional users of A-LG Electricity Use private property electricity; Contractors Groups; CREEs; acquired in and consultants of IPPAN; infrastructure hydropower plants development; Drinking water MoWS-FG; MoWR-FG; NWSC; Water Users (men, Manufacturers/ supply and MoPID-PG MoSD-PG; EC-LG Supply women, ethnic suppliers of sanitation A-LG Management groups) of equipment and Board; IU-LG; water supply accessories; Water and and sanitation Contractors of water Sanitation services in the supply schemes Users’ Groups; rural and urban FEDWASAN areas Tourism MoCTCA-FG; NTDB; MoITFE- NTDB; Tourism Tourism Tour operators; MoITFE-PG; PG; EC-LG entrepreneurs enterprises- Trekking agents; A-LG and investors; hotels, home Ticketing agents Associations stay; People of tourism employed entrepreneurs- in tourism HAN, NTGTA, enterprises as NARA workers, guide, transporters (e.g. Horse Owner Association in Rara National Park) Riverine MoICS-FG; DoMG-FG; RU-LG; DCC Contractors and Users of aggregates aggregates MoITFE-PG MoITFE-PG Contractors and stone crushing located away from the A-LG EC-LG Stone Crushing entrepreneurs rivers Entrepreneurs and processors; and Processors Men and women) employed and using aggregate mining as source of livelihood.
Notes: A-Assembly; EC-Executive Council; FG-Federal Government; PG-Provincial Government; LG-Local Government; CFUG-Community Forest Users’ Group; BZMC-Buffer Zone Management Committee; BZMG-Buffer Zone Management Group; NA-Nepal Army; EU-Environmental
Federal Government Ministries/Departments/Entities: Unit; IU-Infrastructure Unit; RU-Revenue Unit MoFE- Ministry of Forest and Environment; MoWRE- Ministry of Water Resources and Energy; MoFAGA- Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration; MoALMC- Ministry of Agriculture, and Livestock Development; Ministry of Land Management, Cooperatives, and Poverty Alleviation MoUD- Ministry of Urban Development; MoCTCA- Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation; MoICS-Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Supply; WEC-Water and Energy Commission; DoIWR-Department of Irrigation and Water Resources; DoFSC-Department of Forest and Soil Conservation; DoNPWL-Department of National Parks and Wildlife; DoPR-Department of Plant Resources; DUDBC-Department of Urban Development and Building Construction; DoMG-Department of Mines and Geology; NTDB-Nepal Tourism Development Board; CFTL-Central Food Testing Laboratory
Provincial Government Ministries/Departments/Entities: MoLMAC-Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives; MoITFE-Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment; MoSD- Ministry of Social Development; DFO-Division Forest Office; KGK-Krishi Gyan Kendra
Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations: NCT-Nepal Conservation Trust; NIFUWAN-National Federation of Irrigation Users’ Association-Nepal; FEDWASAN- Federation of Water Supply and Sanitation Users’ Association; HAN- Hotel Association of Nepal; NTGTA-Nepal Travel Guide and Trekking Association; NARA-Nepal Association of River-Rafting Agencies
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Position of Stakeholders The parliament of Nepal is the supreme forum with mandate to issue directives and enact laws on contemporary issues related to the conservation and management of biodiversity. It also audits the natural resources conservation programs implemented in the country. In terms of policy directives in the sector the Environment Protection Council (EPC) is the highest body. The Climate Change Council (CCC), which is chaired by the prime minister and includes the ministers and secretaries of concerned ministries as members, is the highest body mandated to issue policy directives on climate change issues. The National Planning Commission (NPC) is charged with developing policies and periodic plans that resonate with sectoral policies governing forest and natural resources as well as the integrity and continuity of biodiversity.
Responsibility for the conservation and management of natural resources and biodiversity is shared by the federal, provincial and local governments. The roles of the federal and local governments are clear, but those of provincial governments are vague and ambiguous. The Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE) develops policies and maintains inter-sectoral coordination designed to secure the people- friendly conservation and management of forests and biodiversity in the country. The Department of Forest and Soil Conservation (DoFSC) implements the forest and biodiversity conservation policy of the MoFSC in coordination with people and their groups they organize, donors, development organizations and CBOs. At the district level, the development and forest management programs of the DoFSC are implemented through division forest offices (DFOs). The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan has proposed establishment of a 27-member National Biodiversity Coordination Committee under the chairpersonship of the Minister for Forest and Environment.
The Department of Plant Resources (DoPR) under the MoFE is responsible for developing the country’s knowledge and information about the plants and plant genetic resources located within its boundaries. Such knowledge and information are directly relevant to biodiversity conservation policies including those regarding the exploitation of plant genetic resources for social, economic and environmental gains. Under the new, federal governance arrangement the DoFSC is involved in conserving and managing land-based natural resources through its oil-erosion control, land management and watershed management programs, and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DoNPWLC) promotes the in-situ conservation of endangered wildlife, both flora and fauna, by maintaining and managing national parks and conservation areas and wildlife reserves.
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Also in the new arrangement, the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE) has been entrusted with the responsibility of serving as the nodal agency for developing environmental policies and standards, including those relating to the conservation and management of natural resources, and for, with the support of provincial and local governments, enforcing them through inter-sectoral and inter-ministerial coordination. The Department of Environment (DoE), Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) and Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) are entities that function under the directives of the ECC and the CCC.
Non-governmental organizations such as ActionAid, Care-Nepal, Clean Energy Nepal, ECO-Nepal, Forest Action, IUCN, Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development, Oxfam, Practical Action, UMN, and WWF Nepal are also actively involved in the conservation of the environment and biodiversity in various parts of Nepal, including the Koshi Basin. The GoN-supported Nepal Conservation Trust (NCT) promotes nature and its diversity and balances the needs of humans with those of the environment. Its programs focus on developing conservation areas, which are important locations for on- and off-site biodiversity conservation.
National-level federations of forest, irrigation, water supply and sanitation, and electricity users have been established. These civil society entities contribute to the development of policies and practices related to natural resource management. The Federation of Community Forest Users’ Nepal (FECOFUN) was established in 1995 to safeguard the interests of forest users and promote the collective action of community forest users’ groups (CFUGs) for conserving and managing forests and their biodiversity. ICIMOD is a regional and intergovernmental knowledge-and- learning center which works on the integrated development of natural resources and human capacity in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region in the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan. The NTC was established in 1982 to implement forest and biodiversity conservation programs through CFUGs. Its initiatives fall under the GoN’s community forestry program.
As of March 2019, 19,361 CFUGs have been formed and 1,814,478 ha of national forest has been brought under a community forestry regime in which local communities assume responsibility for forest conservation and management. Every year the MoFE allocates budget for the conservation of forests and natural resources as called for in the periodic plans of the ministry. Forest and natural resource conservation and management and climate change adaptation programs are supported through project- based funds (grants and soft loans) provided by multilateral and bilateral agencies and matched by the GoN.
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Households, communities and community groups whose dwellings are within or close to conservation areas, national parks, and wildlife reserves (Nepal’s three types of protected areas) face the direct consequences of development interventions but also enjoy the direct benefits of an improved environment and environmental services and access to natural resources. Those affected also include individuals, households and communities that are displaced or lose access to services or face the adverse consequences of the increase in wildlife threats that such proximity poses. They also include business entrepreneurs like tourist guides and the owners of hotels, restaurants, and river-rafting companies, all of whom benefit from the improvements in the natural environment and ecological services due to the conservation and management of natural resources. Individuals, enterprises and entrepreneurs located outside protected areas but whose business and income opportunities are linked to such improvement also have a stake in biodiversity conservation and management.
The EPC is the apex institution responsible for the conservation and management of the environment but it is currently non-functional, and while the legislative branch has stepped in to address environmental issues of social concern, it receives little support for its involvement in environmental matters. Other institutional arrangements for safeguarding the environment include the environment division of the NPC.
Most sectoral ministries and departments include environment sections or units in their organizational structure to look after sector-related environmental safeguards but the MoFE is the nodal agency with the greatest responsibility.
The present trend toward decentralization and devolution, is a welcome step but we need to monitor how federal, provincial and local governments build their capacity to manage and conserve freshwater biodiversity.
Freshwater Biodiversity: Influence and Power In a project regime, where a planned intervention has a predetermined goal to achieve, a defined boundary of geographical influence, and an identified population that is to benefit from goods and services, the identification of stakeholders is straightforward (Dixit, et al, 2018). In a project context, for example, stakeholder are persons, groups, or institutions who are directly or indirectly affected by a project as well as those who may have interest in a project or the ability to influence its outcome either positively or negatively (GoN, 2019) In a river basin, the intertwining of natural ecosystems, the services they generate, and the users and managers of those resources render inter-linkages complex indeed, thus stakeholders are many and diverse. The case
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of freshwater biodiversity workout on this count. Though Nepal’s laws and policies mention and recognize the importance there is no organizational container of freshwater and its conservation.
A preliminary stakeholders analysis shows that it is the multilateral agencies, United Nations and bilateral agencies can be grouped in the block of those who have the power and interest for conservation of fresh water biodiversity. Except for municipality and rural municipality that have power and interest most of the stakeholders in Nepal have little interests despite the power they hold. The matrix broadly echoes our logic that freshwater biodiversity conservation has no organisational container. In the following table we highlight the threat and opportunities for freshwater biodiversity conservation in the MKWR basins.
TABLE 4: STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS
High power high interest High power low interest •• Multilateral agencies •• Federal parliament •• UN and Bilateral agencies •• National Planning Commission •• Municipality, Rural Municipality •• Ministry of Forest and Environment •• Water and Energy Commission Secretariat •• Ministry of Energy, Water Resource and Irrigation •• Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development •• Cabinet of province •• People, enterprises and entrepreneurs engaged in supply and service chains •• Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration •• Department of Electricity Development (DoED) •• NEA, AEPC, IPP •• Contractors •• Local Government •• Department of Water Supply and Sewage (DoWSS) •• Department of water Low power high interest Low power low interest •• Department of Forest and Soil •• Environment Protection Council Conservation •• Climate Change Council •• Developmental organizations (NGOs/ •• Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation CBOs) (DNPWC) •• Sub Division Forest Office •• Department of Plant Resources •• Agriculture knowledge center •• FECOFUN •• CFUGs •• Business enterprises and entrepreneurs •• Fisher groups •• Nepal Agri Co-operative Central Federation Ltd (NACCFL) •• Households, communities and •• Consumers of Agriculture and Livestock Products community groups as beneficiaries and •• Flood Affected Community victims of development •• Department of Local Infrastructure •• Central fisheries promotion and •• DoLIDAR Conservation centre •• Municipal Association of Nepal •• Ethnic groups and occupational caste •• Farmer Producer group and farmer co-operatives groups •• District Coordination Committee (DCC) •• Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF) •• IUCN, WWF, ICIMOD
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TABLE 5: THREAT AND OPPORTUNITIES
Threats Opportunities
•• Destructive fishing practices (use of electricity, •• Enforcement of e-flow provision explosives and poisons) •• Enforcement of local aquatic animal conservation •• Overfishing (too many people, unregulated bill and legislation fishing implements) •• Strict implementation and monitoring of •• Over-extraction of construction grade river environmental safeguards (IEE/EIA) materials (sand and aggregates) •• Reducing entry of invasive species on natural •• Competition from invasive species, water •• Point and non-point source of pollution •• Promotion of ecofriendly agricultural practices leading to eutrophication •• Implementation of point source liquid pollution •• Climate induced hazards (landslides, flooding from settlements and local industries. leading to river turbidity and low flows) •• Regulation of solid waste disposal •• Upstream diversion of water leading to •• Promotion of ex situ conservation and farming depleted river section practices of native fish
Adapted from Wagley (2019)
Champions In the MKWR river basins, as well as Nepal the challenge is to pursue pathways for sustainable water resource management. Sustainable water resource management involves ensuring that water systems can “fully contribute to the objectives of society, now and in the future, while maintaining their ecological, environmental and hydrological integrity”. It involves democratic, transparent, integrative and adaptive management to deal with emerging constraints in an era of changing climate and implemented on a watershed scale.1 In relation to sustainable water resource management the three basic pillars of IWRM2 are:
• Moving toward an enabling environment of appropriate policies, strategies and legislation; • Developing the institutional framework to implement the policies, strategies and legislation and • Setting up the management instruments necessary for actions. Such an approach to sustainable water management in MKWR basins needs to take account of new political structure (federal, provincial and local governments), the geographical, climatic and social context and the institutional milieu. While these contexts are important, it is conceived that individuals within the state agencies, the private sector and civic society entities can bring innovations to the policy space and
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nudge it towards sustainability objective. It is envisioned that champions can play a constructive role in the pursuit of a balancing natural resources management with development. Gunderson and Holling (2002) define champions as individuals who
a) Use a scientific approach to management and learn from the implementation of ideas on the ground, b) Engage with external groups and with stakeholders involved in management processes and decision-making, and c) Considers the broad political context in which they are embedded.
According to Taylor et al. (2012) champions work towards implementing deep structural changes in order to improve water resource management. According to USAID, champions are those who support the principles of IWRM and benefit from its implementation. They are “individuals (men and women) in formal and informal entities (government, civil society, private sector) or their own capacity, who challenge the status-quo and who lead the reforms, transformations now and in future” (USAID).
Champions will broadly
a) Seek the reformation of institutions and policies, and b) Improve the delivery of goods and services by, for example, designing and implementing better production systems or promoting enterprise development with the intent of diversifying income and local livelihoods.
More specifically they would,
• Show commitment to the cause (biodiversity, for example, of the conservation of an iconic species like the dolphin and Mahaseer) • Support aquatic biodiversity conservation legislation regarding, for example, Province 6. • Take steps toward becoming a legal entity • Be interested in receiving funds from a Conservation Trust Fund if such a fund is established • Be willing to work with WECS new river basin offices • Support transparent governance systems
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• Be motivated to participate in opportunities to learn about freshwater biodiversity or other water themes • Internalize and disseminate common connecting factors and share experiences with a wide audience, and • Focus on GESI.
After considering the definitions of champions in the literature and holding discussions within the PEA study team, we defined champions for our purposes as those who would advocate for maintaining balance in the waterscape defined by the 12 watersheds of the MKWR basins. Such a waterscape would meet a variety of human needs, including that for aquatic biodiversity, within the framework of IWRM. Champions would strive for to ensure
“Non-polluted rivers in a balanced landscape for healthy aquatic biodiversity.”
Towards that end, champions would also engage in platforms created at the sub- basin level and strive to maintain the integrity of water and of aquatic biodiversity in those sub-basins. The platforms established will foster dialogue designed to achieve the objectives of water and aquatic biodiversity conservation. They will bring together policy-making agencies working across and within sectors, educational organizations, community groups and private sector actors in order to promote the sort of learning and sharing of knowledge that can inform decision-making processes. Local and provincial governments will be directly involved in these dialogues, while community-based and civil society organizations will share the approaches they use to address the issues of vulnerable communities, both human and ecological. This focus on communities and civil actors will ensure that these communities are not excluded or further marginalized as various policies are implemented.
Such champions are associated with the following groups:
• State agencies: Legislators at the local, provincial and federal levels. • Planning and policy-making entities: National Planning Commission, provincial planning commissions, Water and Energy Commission, and federal and provincial ministries. • Sectoral ministries: Federal and provincial departments and agencies concerned with hydropower, irrigation, forests and the environment, wildlife, agriculture and fishery, road and infrastructure development, and mining.
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• Community groups: Formal and informal groups and their federations. • Civic entities: Media, universities, research groups, think tanks, religious and cultural groups and charities, pressure groups, and political fraternities. • Private sector: Developers, contractors, consultants and their associations, including IPPAN, contractors, the Society of Consulting Engineers and Architects, industrialists and suppliers, and traders.
Criteria of Selection Champion could be selected on the basis of following criteria:
Personal attributes: −− General knowledge: Possessing general knowledge of water-related issues as well as specific knowledge about the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. −− Progressive: Engaged in and pursuing the reformation of agenda based on evidence and facts in order to balance the interactions of ecological and human communities in the MKWR basins. −− Openness: Strongly inclined to be innovative, creative and open to new approaches.
Experience and ability in public engagement, policy-making and networking: −− Uses the characteristics and skills of a leader in formal and informal set- ups to advantage, −− Is able to engage with diverse groups, and −− Engages in strategic networking to build relationships to achieve short- and medium-term goals.
Leadership Qualities: −− Articulates ideas, −− Questions the status quo, −− Navigates easily in political and managerial contexts, −− Enthusiastic and confident, −− Persists in pursuing a reform agenda, −− Appreciate that learning about freshwater conservation is an iterative process, and −− Well respected and has established credibility at the local level.
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TABLE 6: SELECTION CRITERIA OF CHAMPIONS
Criteria Explanation Sources of validation Experience (1) •• Worked to maintain balance between •• Community, ecological and human community and Paani brought or demonstrated positive change in the area of conservation and/or development in the interest of public (at large) Knowledge and skill (2) •• Is committed to healthy watershed, •• Partner agencies, conservation of river lakes and aquatic community and biodiversity, sustainable use of natural Paani Program resources, climate change adaptation, supported local livelihood, and conservation of aquatic species such as dolphins. Approach (3) •• Been applying fact and conservation friendly norms and values for advocacy and/or engagement, Leadership (4) •• Focused on good governance, hard work, •• Stakeholders commitment, time bound, and sharing and and community transferring knowledge to younger generation Opinion and Background (5) •• Has positive attitude, is non-controversial and •• Stakeholders, whose work is emulated or replicated community and beneficiaries Innovation (6) •• Involved in research, studies and creative initiatives Sensitivity (7) •• Been giving priority to conservation friendly •• Work products traditional knowledge and local knowledge, and performance skills and practices adopted by community and been promoting easily usable adaptive technology Coordination (8) •• Interested/ concerned in formulation and implementation of policy, or law , institutional innovation, organizational development and public dialogue
Capacity Assessment Potential champions need capacity support. Below we discuss the specific capacities and roles champions can play in helping to achieve the objectives of conserving water and aquatic biodiversity as the proposed forum develops. We also propose an approach to use for capacity assessment.
One key aspect of capacity is being able to access and understand information. Information supports the ongoing conservation efforts of communities, businesses, government agencies, and others in the same way that ecological relationships
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support the wellbeing of organisms in a natural ecosystem. All human systems need to perform a set of functions if freshwater systems are to remain unpolluted and their water high-quality. Capacity includes, for example, understanding the risks to natural ecosystems and biodiversity, the roles of different actors, and how to share and use relevant information.
In addition to be able to access and use information effectively, champions must be able to help in assessing, prioritizing, coordinating and implementing conservation measures. To take forward capacity-building forward, a set of capacity issues need to be raised and elements related to each issue identified. We do so in Table 7. Adopting this approach will help us to strengthen capacity related to the conservation of water and freshwater biodiversity.
TABLE 7: CAPACITY QUESTIONS AND ELEMENTS
Capacity issues Elements to look for
A. Aquatic •• A systematic assessment method. and terrestrial •• A method to account for bio-physical, socio-economic, and policy issues. biodiversity in the •• A process for assessing infrastructure, natural resource management, and social protection watersheds programs. •• Transparent methodology available to stakeholders. •• Building the capacity of local governments to conduct assessments over time. B. Prioritization of •• Infrastructure-, ecological- and social protection-based options. options •• Appropriate review of success stories so they can be replicated. •• Cost analysis which includes evaluating total costs and effectiveness •• Analysis of the environmental implications of options. •• Consideration of the social implications of options, including for women and marginalized groups. •• Engagement of a broad range of stakeholders in the selection of options. •• Processes for reviewing the options selected based on new risk assessments conducted over time. •• Public justifications of selected options by governments. C. Implementation •• Development of projects, programs, and policies to implement selected option(s). of selected •• Appropriate units tasked with implementation. measures on the •• Provision of sufficient budget. ground •• A system for reviewing the effectiveness of implementation. •• Clear statement of objectives and timelines by all projects, programs, and policies. •• Mechanisms for adjusting non-performing projects, programs, and policies. •• Mechanisms for integrating new risk assessment information into existing projects, programs, and policies. Adapted from Dixit, et al (2012)
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Preliminary Capacity-Building Outcomes The capacity-building process would get the champions to a stage where they can contribute to the following:
Livelihood • Help communities pursue agro-, natural resource- and off-farm-based livelihood opportunities in order to minimize effects on aquatic bio-diversity and support their growth. • Link target communities and their products with markets.
Water and Aquatic Biodiversity • Help conserve community water bodies in a sustainable fashion. • Work to protect natural forests and the wildlife in them, including aquatic species such as river dolphins and fish species. • Advocate for local governments to develop strategic conservation plans. • Work with schools to create and/or build awareness about the conservation of aquatic systems. • Help propagate the idea of citizen scientists who monitor and build a local-level database on aquatic ecosystems. • Conduct awareness-building activities including home visits and group discussions to build awareness about aquatic biodiversity at the community, municipality and province levels. • Help municipal authorities and other stakeholders to discuss issues that put stress on aquatic systems.
Policies • Take stock of local and federal policies and practices with respect to water conservation, aquatic ecosystems, and climate change adaptation and help establish their synergy with local legislations and practices. • Help identify gaps in the local capacity to comply with existing policies.
Terrestrial Conservation • Work with community groups and local governments to review conservation plans and support landscape-level conservation activities for aquatic as well as terrestrial wildlife in their locality.
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• Encourage the plantation of forests with species that meet the needs of local ecosystems and economies.
Disaster Risk Reduction • Help municipalities prepare land-use plans that include hazard maps and espouse the GoN-approved model strategies on resilience. • Work with media and other stakeholders to highlight the cost of non-compliance
Education • Develop and maintain links with universities and research groups.
Conflict • Help minimize park-people and wildlife-human conflicts.
Operational Aspects • Help build the operational relations of the Paani program with municipalities and other stakeholders. • Facilitate local-level mechanisms for fostering dialogue among various stakeholders and use the outcomes of these dialogues to develop local plans and deliver services effectively
Conclusion In the MKWR basins, conservation of freshwater diversity is embedded with many layers of challenges and achieving this objective would require approaches that promotes creative engagement among different stakeholders across scales. The champions can play a key role in this endeavor.
Notes
1. These are broad values endorsed by American Society of Civil Engineers (1998), UNESCO 91999), International Conference on Water and Environment (1992); World Water Council 2000; Global Water Partnership 2003. For a discussion, see Straith, et al. (2014) 2. Various methods have been proposed IWRM. These include the Global Water Partnership Toolbox for IWRM and the UNEP Handbook on the Development and Implementation of National Programmes of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. The 6th EU Framework Programme also led to generation of a body of knowledge. For details see UNEP (2012).
189 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Methods and Practices of IWRM for 8 Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation from Local to Basin Scale
Challenges to Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation Water in South Asia faces many challenges. Such challenges, which include availability, distribution, equity, pollution, quality, and competition over uses, encroachment of water bodies and loss of freshwater biodiversity, are beginning to creep into the Mahakali, Karnali and West Rapti (MKWR) river basins as well. Issues related to ownership, rights and entitlement have also emerged. On-going changes in demography and land use as well as urbanization have introduced new dynamics in supply and demand of water. One such change is the expansion of roads. They have provided some income-generating opportunities and in the delivery of goods and services, but significant efforts are needed to improve the quality of services. On the other hand, poorly built roads degrade the ecosystems and exacerbate losses and damages. The number of extreme rainfall events and of days without rain has increased. The flooding and droughts have become more frequent, and the seasonal scarcity of water has increased. The impacts of these phenomena cascade through social and economic systems and have serious consequences for marginalized communities, including women and the poor. Despite many efforts being made to address them, water-related problems have become more serious.
In most South Asian countries and in Nepal’s MKWR river basins, water development and management are a top-down, supply-driven process though efforts are being made to pursue bottom-up, demand-driven approaches with aims to capture the experience, knowledge and understanding of various local groups and people in management processes. These bottom-up, demand-driven approaches have not, however, been successful in all instances. Examining these disjunctions in the Koshi River basin, Dixit et al. (2018) identified the following four dynamics, all of which are applicable to the MKWR basins:
i) Across scales, water has multiple uses, ii) To address these uses, Nepal pursues a sectoral approach, iii) The interests of the state and of citizens are diverse, and iv) Priorities are different at the local, national and trans-national levels.
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In the MKWR river basins, water is available in various forms, including snowfall, snow deposits, glaciers, rainfall, river flow, wetlands, lakes, ponds, soil moisture and groundwater. The uses of water include drinking, irrigation, some industrial, energy (mechanical and electrical), water-based tourism, the maintenance of freshwater biodiversity and support for cultural and aesthetic functions. Different organizations are responsible for the governance and management of different sectors. Some of them are pursuing irrigation, hydropower, water supply and sanitation, watershed management, river training and flood control, and freshwater biodiversity conservation. The approach that each organization adopts is driven by a single, siloed interest and often oriented to provide a single service.
Thus far, this sectoral approach has failed to address the complex and interrelated issues concerning water governance. In fact, in many cases, this approach has increased disputes and the unequal sharing of water among different uses and users. Another flaw is that the sectoral approach does not consider the use and management of groundwater. Some rivers in the lower Karnali and Mahakali regions in the Tarai, especially those originating in the Chure hills, are only seasonal and flow mostly during the monsoon months. They do not meet year round needs and people in these sub-basins use groundwater to meet their needs. That said, groundwater levels are gradually declining because they are extracted at rates higher than recharge and as nature of rainfall changes, these emerging dynamics are not systematically monitored that can help understand the changes. In addition, the depletion of spring flows, erratic rainfall, low snowfall, and rising snow lines are other emerging trends that affect regional hydrology of rivers of the basin.
Such changes, likely to lower the river flows will add to seasonal scarcity. The changes in river flows intertwine with other changes in the riverine environment increasing stress on water. Haphazard development of road and bridges, extraction of riverbed aggregates to meet construction grade materials and disposal of untreated solid and liquid waste further degrade the riverine environment. These ongoing processes of degradation have serious consequences on the freshwater biodiversity which already face stress from overfishing. Other direct practices that stress freshwater biodiversity are use of illegal fishing methods such as poison, electric current and bomb. Thus, changes in regional hydrology due to climate change poorly planned and built interventions in upstream watershed and prevailing practices lower fresh water biodiversity population and other significant aquatic species.
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Challenges of Integration The prevalence of the sectoral approach in development and management of water has led to serious compromises in issues such as ecological quality, environmental justice and equity. This oversight was evident by the fact that even at the end of 1970s large section of the global population lacked access of basic drinking water, sanitation and hygiene services. This was also the case in Nepal as a whole and in the MKWR basins in particular. People has had very limited access to improved basic drinking water and sanitation services. The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–1990) saw governments begin to practice the sectoral integration of drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, but they had little success. Basic water services remained poor when the decade ended in 1990. Values such as gender, social inclusion and poverty remained peripheral in the prevalent approach. The cost of lack of safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene was high among children.
In 1992, the Dublin Conference on Water and Environment and the UN Conference on Environment and Development called for the comprehensive management of water using the river basin as the unit of planning and development activities, including consideration of women playing key role in management of domestic water. These principles recognized the need for at the very least integration within a sector. Today drinking water supply, sanitation basic health services, gender and social inclusion are recognized key aspects but the challenges remain. The other challenges in all of Nepal including MKWR basins are functionality of schemes built, water source degradation and depletion of spring sources that served many community based supply systems. Few years after the Dublin Conference the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM) emerged in the late 1990s. The concept reflected the need to reverse the siloed approach to water management that would meet the goal of efficiency, equity and environmental sustainability. The Global Water Partnership defines IWRM as “a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystem.” (GWP, 2000).
Achieving Integration however has been hard, despite examples of few innovations that have produced some learning at the local level. One example of the integration is Nepal’s indigenous farmer-built and -managed irrigation systems (FMIS), which are widespread in Nepal’s hills and mountains and can also be found in the Tarai and in the inner valleys between the Chure and Mahabharat called the doon valleys. These systems do, to some extent, demonstrate aspects of integrated water resources
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management in their knowledge of and practices regarding equity, sustainability, ecosystem integrity and the conservation of water and other natural resources. In a limited way, they have contributed to the welfare of local human and ecological communities.
Other innovations in Nepal involve integration of multiple uses and users within water systems. According to Shukla & Dhakal (2015) and Shukla et al. (2011), such organizations are multifunctional that also provide services in marketing agriculture produce, supplying input, serving as savings-and-credit cooperatives. The organizations suggest innovative cropping arrangements, ways to deal with dry season water deficiencies, manage water services as well as watershed management covering forestry. The other functions are water sharing arrangements between upstream and downstream users; the integration of irrigation, drinking water supply and micro-hydropower using the same canal; Lake Basin management for fishery. They are however limited to few local level systems.
Up scaling and replicating them at a large-scale have faced coordination, territoriality and political hurdles emanating from ideological position casting local approaches in opposition to centralized ones, supply-side in contrast to demand-side, community based versus state led, large versus small, and regulatory in contrast to market based approach. This indigenous knowledge and practice documented in bits and pieces in the literature on FMISs, watershed management, river training, community water supply and sanitation and micro-hydropower development are yet to receive larger empirical applications. The gaps exists different levels, in documentation and auditing of indigenous knowledge and practices and assimilating those that actually contribute to achieving integration with the prevalent social and natural science-based knowledge streams. While social and economic contexts undergo rapid changes, local practices useful in earlier era have major limitation, the new knowledge is yet to stake roots as incentives for large scale adoption hardly exist.
It is not possible at this stage to examine in detail if the global water discourse took into consideration this indigenous knowledge stream or if this knowledge stream would be able to address the deeper social and economic challenges that Nepali society face. Indeed, global discourse on water has recognized the need for policies and legal instruments that holistically consider environmental, economic, social and political factors in water development and management. It was argued that an integrated approach at the river-basin scale, one which considered the use and protection of surface and groundwater, would avoid the pitfalls of siloed practices.
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At least in theory IWRM has recognized that shift in approaches in dealing with water holistically is needed. Keeping in mind IWRM as its guiding philosophy, the government of Nepal (GoN) with support from the World Bank, formulated the Water Resources Strategy (WRS) in 2002. The WRS laid out a framework for water resource development using an integrated approach. In 2005, to implement the WRS, the GoN formulated the National Water Plan. The GoN did not find it easy to apply IWRM, however: for many reasons, there were several fundamental challenges that impeded the achievement of the envisioned results.
One challenge was that, in 2009, the Ministry of Water Resources was split into the Energy and Irrigation ministries (MoE and MoI, respectively)1, thereby fragmenting the GoN’s integrated water management agenda. A second challenge was that both these entities sought to aggrandize their own individual statuses, rather than working together guided by a holistic water development approach. Also hampering change was the fact that high-level officials in Nepal’s ministries continued to maintain that Nepal did not need to espouse IWRM because each ministry worked within distinct territorial and operational boundaries and its work did not interfere with that of any other ministry (Suhdriham et al, 2009). Political instability that began after the declaration of people’s war also complicated implementation of WRS. The war ended in 2006 but the political uncertainty continued and is yet to stabilize. The government in the meantime sought an easy way to deal with immediate problems at hand as the country faced prolonged power cuts. Hydropower developers, in an effort to reduce routine power cuts, were implicitly allowed to divert all river water into their penstock in order to increase power generation without consideration of the freshwater ecosystems in the downstream that this practice would entail. IWRM did not figure into designers’ plans. Even so, the electricity generated did not suffice and Nepal solved its energy gaps only after it began to manage electricity systems systemically and to import almost one-third of the electricity it consumes from India.
The implementation of IWRM gives rise to some fundamental questions regarding three of the GoN’s aims—economic development, social welfare and the conservation of vital ecosystem—all of which enshrined in Nepal’s 2015 Constitution and in the Sustainable Development Goals aspirations to economic development, social equity and environmental sustainability. One question is what institutional arrangement should be adopted to pursue IWRM in Nepal as a whole and in the MKWR basins in particular. Water problems are the outcomes of complex interactions among ecological resources, use systems, the social contexts of users and institutions and, as such, have become more complex and difficult to resolve. Water problems are
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interlinked with so many factors that resolving them requires knowledge outside conventional practices. Finally, IWRM working at the level of FMIS or a micro watershed scale may look promising but attempting it to scale it at the sub-basin and river basin scale would require resolution of governance and management challenges at multiple levels. In addition, with so little past practical experience in IWRM, the GoN has struggled and is struggling to achieve it. The changing nature hydrological cycle spawned by climate change, interventions at watersheds and prevailing fishing practices, as highlighted earlier pose major limitations. Inthe dominant water development imagination, freshwater biodiversity hardly exists and has implications for freshwater biodiversity.
Historically, water has been managed as a common property resource using community-based approaches. When social and economic changes occur rapidly, however, this approach faces inherent difficulty to respond the changes. At the same time, the public sector continues to dominate irrigation, hydropower and drinking water supply development. For example, municipalities assume responsibility in drinking water management while Nepal’s DoED and NEA are both building hydropower plants. The private sector is using economic instrument such as pricing in water management. The GoN allows private developers in hydropower generation, and public private partnership models are perceived as promising alternatives to public-sector delivery of drinking water service, especially in the country’s rapidly expanding urban areas. The private sector also runs water-based tourism enterprises like rafting. Local governments and the private sector are both active in the extraction of sand and aggregates from the rivers, but there is little regulation of such activity in any region of the country, including in the MKWR basins. This perverse practice is a barrier to internalize the value of IWRM in conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
Another problem is that although social equity and gender issues have been mainstreamed, both ethnic group and women continue to face structural barriers in meaningful participation in policy and decision-making. Though women have 33% representation in water user groups, their role in decision-making is limited. In addition, environmental impact assessments (EIA) are meant to translate Nepal’s legal support for environmental sustainability into practice; they are carried out irregularly and are often of poor quality. A further concern is that while the issues of groundwater management and flooding are important, they receive only episodic attention. Flooding, despite being annual, is forgotten after monsoon season is over, though flood water play important role in sustaining agricultural productivity and recharge of ground waters. The needs of ecological communities have not been
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prioritized either. The needs of ecological communities have not been prioritized either. Instead, the GoN has focused on using river water for energy and irrigation development. The main groundwater users are individual farmers spread across a large area which overlie the aquifers. They use shallow and deep wells. It is hard to regulate their behavior in extraction of groundwater and aim to balance across various water, uses and users.
Experiences with IWRM: Processes in Nepal In Nepal, IWRM emerged in the policy arena with support from donors like the Asian Development Bank and World Bank engaged in the development of the Water Resources Strategy and the National Water Plan, both aimed to promote IWRM but the philosophy has not yet been used as a decision-making tool to optimize water resource use and management at the national level. Water sector ministries are indifferent to the benefits of IWRM and maintain that it is useful only at local levels. In the context of large scale irrigation and hydropower development, IWRM is equated as a tool to support river basin-planning and to decide on and resolve inter-sectoral water allocation issues and ecosystem integrity and freshwater biodiversity are treated as peripheral issue. Few donors-funded local initiatives have used the concept of IWRM practices. The lessons have not been used to replicate or scale-up the approach or synthesized to inform the country’s water resource policy in a siloed approach.
The following sections summaries experiences with the implementation of IWRM. First, we explain the approach and processes. Next we offer learning and lessons:
WARM-P: In 1998, Helvetas began piloting its Water Resources Management Program (WARM-P) in Bajung and Baidi VDCs of Parbat and Tanahun districts, respectively. It aimed to support communities at the level of VDCs or clusters of VDCs in order to institutionalize a relatively broad approach to local water management through participatory planning. The program facilitated VDCs and communities in preparing water-use master plans (WUMPs) by helping them identify and locate all water sources and their current and potential uses and to prioritize those sources and uses. To help communities identify their water-related needs and to come up with solutions to them, WARM-P assisted them in conducting both social and technical assessments.
Technical assessments included the consideration of (i) water supply and sanitation (ii) irrigation and drainage (iii) environment and ecology, and (iv) other areas like energy self-reliance through micro hydropower development and provide backstopping support. Once a WUMP had been prepared by a VDC-level committee with community
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representatives, WARM-P supported the planning and implementation of whatever drinking water supply systems and sanitation improvements had been prioritized. To make decisions, a water and sanitation management committee (WSMC) was formed in each VDC. Local users performed all tasks that did not call for special skills or education and supplied those materials that were locally available. Their average contribution to the total costs of the project was 40 per cent.
Later, in collaboration with DoLIDAR, Helvetas implemented WARM-P in Nepal’s far-western regions. The program was then taken up by the Rural Village Water Resources Management Project, a Finish Government supported project being implemented in parts of the MKWR basins. The VDC-level WUMP is a standalone task. Since the WUMP has not been integrated into the National Water Plan under an institutional framework broader than the VDC, it is not connected horizontally across sectors or vertically across administrative levels. The lessons from this initiative were not been disseminated to other bilateral and multilateral donors to enable them to use its lessons to improve their own local-level water-sector support programs.
The WARM-P has morphed into Rural Village Water Resources Management Project (RVWRMP) funded by the GoN, the European Union, and the Government of Finland. It is running in the villages of Karnali and Far West Province of Nepal since 2006. The current Phase III started in 2016, and will end in 2022. Working with local people and Municipalities to achieving 100% access to safe drinking water supply and basic sanitation, the project aims to improve the nutrition and rural livelihoods of the local people by providing home gardens, income generation assistance, and by developing local cooperatives. In addition the project provides renewable energy for the people living in the poorest areas of Nepal, with a focus on micro hydropower, Improved Cooking Stoves, and Improved Water Mills. Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction are integrated in all project activities. GESI, local ownership, transparency, and accountability are core values of the project, integrated to all project modalities, activities, and implementation effort. It will be worthwhile for Paani program to explore of freshwater biodiversity conservation efforts could be dovetailed into this initiative.
WWF: This VDC-level initiative involved forming integrated resource management committees (IRMCs) at the selected catchments of Dudhkoshi and Indrawati sub- basins of the Koshi River Basin. The programme from 2008-2015 aimed to establish a platform for water-related community organizations and user groups to discuss water issues. With the WWF’s support, these committees were provided with capacity building support to decide on practice of IWRM at the catchment level (Aryal &
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Rajkarnikar, 2011). The executive bodies of these committees were created by electing functionaries who represented different groups of water users. The executive bodies were expected to develop catchment-level water resources management plans and advocate the execution of these plans by convening local-level consultations. Issues like water source protection, the allocation of water among different uses, pollution control, and the sustainability of downstream river environments were integral to the catchment-level plans.
Despite the promise of this initiative, its results were mixed. In most cases the committees did not function the way they were envisioned. The primary constraint on the operation of the committees was related to their recognition as legal entities. Because they intended to consider multiple water uses, they could not find an institutional home with any one sectoral government agency, whether one relating to irrigation, water supply and sanitation, micro-hydropower or watershed management. In addition, they could not be registered as collective action institution because Nepal did not have a law providing for the registration of any such cross- sectoral community institution. Finally, water users’ groups working variously on irrigation, water supply and sanitation, hydropower, forestry and soil conservation and watershed management refused to join and participate under the convening role of these committees while other civil society entities were also not cooperative (Aryal & Rajkarnikar, 2011).
Area Water Program: In Mai Khola, a tributary of the Kankai River in Ilam District in the eastern mid-hills, an area level water partnership (AWP) was initiated in 2002 (JVS,2002). This AWP aimed to function as a platform for stakeholders to meet, interact and develop a collective perspective on the management of water and other natural resources. Mai Khola is a rain-fed tributary of the Kankai River and faces constraints of water supply due to the depletion of its spring sources. The development of micro- and small hydropower schemes in two of its tributaries, the Jog Mail Khola and the Puwa Khola, resulted in conflict with downstream irrigation and water supply schemes. These conflicts motivated water users and civil society entities to create a platform to discuss various water-related issues and identify solutions agreeable to all stakeholders. The initial members of the AWP included representatives from government agencies, local governments, NGOs, irrigation and drinking water users’ associations, micro-hydropower users’ groups and other civil society entities in the basin. The ad-hoc committee still functions and on various occasions convenes dialogues on relevant issues. The forum is still not legally registered, but Ilam Municipality does recognize it’s to convene. Building on the
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experience of Mai Khola similar initiatives followed in the Rohini, Danda, and Tinau river basins in the western Tarai and in the Indrawati river basin in Sindhupalchok district but all remained intentional.
Begnas Lake: A third experience with IWRM relates to the management of Begnas Lake in Pokhara Valley in the western mid-hills. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI) and the Institute of Water and Human Resources Development-Nepal (IWHRD-Nepal) undertook action research in two stages. In the first stage, natural resources and their pattern of use were mapped, field inquiries were made and stakeholders’ consultations held. In the second stage, a multi-stakeholder platform was created to function as a collective action institution to facilitate the integrated management of the water and other natural resources of the lake. Members included irrigation and drinking water users, forest users’ groups, tourism entrepreneurs, and the boat operators and fisher communities whose livelihoods were entirely dependent on the lake. The stakeholders drafted a constitution, officially registered it as an NGO with the local government and prepared a 10-year plan of action. However, the platform was unable to take its activities forward due to a lack of support from water-sector agencies and the local government. The platform still exists, but it is dormant and losing its credibility.
The lack of clarity on the ownership of the lake and other associated resources has proved to be a major hurdle to the functioning of the platform. The dam and irrigation infrastructures in Begnas Lake are under the control of then Ministry of Water Resources and the Department of Irrigation, but the upstream forest is within the control of the Division Forest Office and 82 community forest users’ groups. Because the lake is located in the administrative jurisdiction of Pokhara Metropolis (once Lekhnath Municipality; now merged into Pokhara Metropolis), municipal governments claim ownership of the lake under the Local Government Operation Act. At the same time, local fisher communities have organized a fishers’ cooperative and maintain that they have prior right to use the lake for culture-and-capture fishery. The platform has not been able to make any breakthrough to resolve these multiple claims and thus is stymied (Shukla and Sharma, 2011).
Interdisciplinary water education: As we argue, the prevalence of siloed approach is in the paradigm and the education stream that evolved simultaneously stifling integration, the entry point of integrated management of water envisages integration of three entities- integration of water sources (surface water, springs, rivers, lake/ponds and green, blue and gray water groundwater), integration of uses (irrigation, drinking
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water and sanitation, hydropower, industrial recreation, religious, ecosystem and freshwater biodiversity,) and integration of users (household, community, public and private). The aim is to optimize the use with just distribution without undermining the sustainabilty of the ecosystem or equity. This notion is departure from the idea of sectoral optimality to comprehensive optimality. This shift requires revisiting sectoral water education to become interdisciplinary. Education has remained a cornerstone of IWRM discourse and Nepal been one of the firsts in the process. This is the fourth initiative in IWRM. It relates to beginning of tertiary level interdisciplinary water education as part of South Asia level program. In Nepal this program began in Nepal Engineering College in 2007, the initial support for the program came from DGIS of the Government of Netherlands. This programme attempts to achieve congruence between technical and social aspects of water resource management and development.
Of the five examples highlighted above, integrated river committees, AWP (and formation of multi-stakeholders’ platform for Begnas Lake) were standalone initiatives devoid of any link with national water plan under a broader institutional framework. The initiatives were neither connected horizontally (across different sectors) and nor vertically (across administrative hierarchies) within the water development framework. The lessons from these initiatives were not disseminated to create impetus for the government and other agencies in developing their water sector support programs. The learning from these initiatives has largely been lost. The IWRM education effort needs further beefing up and support. Since Paani Program already supports similar program in Mid -Western University, it will be helpful to keep track of what is going on.
The above initiatives show little scalable impact on the formulation of national policy on natural resources though meeting the policy objective of the WRS. The policy that aim to promote IWRM at the grassroots level must provide bottom-up institutional base. The next section further helps understand the challenges.
Position of Water Sector Agencies vis-à-vis IWRM The challenges identified above are exacerbated by differences in the viewpoints of Nepal’s many water-sector agencies. Table1 below presents the perceptions of Nepal’s key stakeholders in IWRM. This analysis is based on a literature review and multiple interactions with these stakeholders, including insights during our field study. The table presents the stakeholders’ views on four key questions: i) Is
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IWRM needed? ii) How does IWRM add value to the water resources development agenda? And iii) What aspects of IWRM (productivity, efficiency, equity or the sustainability of vital ecosystems) should be most sought? and What should IWRM be used for? The perceptions mapped clearly reveals the disjuncture in the position of key government agencies in internalizing IWRM as guiding philosophy processes and approach to water resources management. Department of Water Resources and Irrigation, and Department of Electricity Development, the two key agencies implementing irrigation and hydropower development programs express bias for large infrastructure and technology driven solution in irrigation and hydro-electricity development and inter-sectoral coordination and integration of ecological resources
TABLE1: KEY NEPAL’S STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTION ABOUT IWRM
Organization Perceptions Is IWRM How does IWRM add value What aspects of IWRM What should IWRM be used needed? to the water resources (productivity, efficiency, for? development agenda? equity or the sustainability of vital ecosystems) should be most sought? National Planning Yes Yes, to maximize water Coordination across uses and IWRM is imperative for the Commission (NPC) productivity for balanced users long-term health of water regional development without resources, social equity and compromising environmental economic development. sustainability Water and Energy Yes Yes, to optimize the productive Inter-sectoral coordination and IWRM is needed to inform Commission and protective uses of water the participation and inclusion policy, actions and practices Secretariat (WECS) while maintaining the functions of the most disadvantaged and integrity of ecosystems of communities in decision- making about sectoral water allocation, monitoring and evaluation. Ministry of Energy, Yes, in Yes, to sustain the productivity of Inter-sectoral water allocation Nepal needs to expand Water Resources theory large water infrastructures such to minimize inter- and intra- irrigation and electricity and Irrigation as irrigation and hydropower sectoral water conflicts. coverage. The concerns (MoEWRI) projects, which face water Establishing such an of equity, efficiency and shortages due to climatic arrangement is difficult. sustainability of ecosystems variability and competition for should be a barrier to water. expansion until the basic needs of all people are met. Department of Yes Yes, to ensure that there is Coordination across uses and The future development of Irrigation and Water year-round irrigation coverage users (irrigation, hydropower, irrigation depends on inter- Resources (DoIWR) in a large portion of area under water supply and sanitation). basin water transfers and large irrigation command Water use priority was set by reservoir projects that integrate the Water Resources Act of irrigation and hydropower 1992 to guide water-sector schemes. development
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Irrigation Division Yes Yes, to sustain the functioning Irrigation and crops must be The depletion of water sources and Sub-Division of extant and future irrigation linked and on-farm water is alarming and needs to be Offices infrastructures and services. management practiced in order tackled on a war footing. We to optimize water usage in must ensure water security and irrigation command areas. IWRM could be an instrument to this end. Ministry of Water Yes Yes, to sustain the functionality Coordinated development IWRM could be an instrument Supply of water supply schemes and the of surface and groundwater for protecting water sources coverage of water services sources so over-extraction and revitalizing depleted never occurs and water sources. It is crucial for pollution is not a concern. sustaining water infrastructures and services. Ministry of Forest Yes Yes, to sustain linkages Payment for ecosystem IWRM could provide a and Environment between terrestrial and aquatic services to build synergy framework for building synergy (MoFE) biodiversity between the upstream and between forest- and water- downstream areas of a sector agencies, uses and watershed. users. Department of Yes Yes, to sustain linkages Conservation must proceed IWRM could be an instrument Forest and Soil between terrestrial and aquatic simultaneously with the for increasing coordination Conservation biodiversity and investment development of infrastructure among forest- and water- (DoFSC) in irrigation, water supply, projects to see dividends sector agencies. hydropower and flood-control multiply. projects Ministry of Federal Yes Yes, to build the resilience The inclusion and participation IWRM processes and practices Affairs and General of local governments and of people, especially ethnic can build on the traditional Administration communities to climate vagaries minorities, women, youths, knowledge and practices of (MoFAGA) and water-induced disasters poor and disadvantaged local communities. groups are pre-requisite for the integrated management and use of natural resources, including water. Department of Yes Yes, to minimize the negative Inter-sectoral coordination IWRM could be used as a Local Infrastructure impacts of developing local of infrastructure projects lens to examine and mitigate Development and infrastructure such as rural without compromising on the negative impacts of Agricultural Roads roads, water supply and environmental dividends. infrastructure projects on (DoLIDAR) sanitation systems, human water sources and aquatic settlement and housing on water ecosystems. sources and aquatic ecosystems. Provincial Yes Yes, to minimize the negative Coordination among provincial Infrastructure development, ministries (Ministry impacts of infrastructure and local governments to especially roads for connectivity of Industry, development on water resources build synergy in the integrated and hydropower for energy Tourism, Forest and on the vitality of ecosystem management of water and sustainability, are priority and Environment; and services. other natural resources. sectors. While balancing Ministry of Physical Provincial government and environmental concerns are Infrastructure ministries are ready to extend a priority, too, this priority Development and institutional support to this should not impede road and Ministry of Land end. hydropower development Management, because such development Agriculture and is crucial to the social and Cooperatives) economic development of any Province 6 and given region. Province 7 Local governments Yes Yes, sustainability of water and Preparation of local-level IWRM provides a framework (rural and urban other natural resources create water resources management for developing a coherent municipalities (gaun assets for local level social and plans to serve as baselines plan for the development and and nagar palikas)) economic development now and for sustainable future water management of water and in future. resources development. other natural resources.
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Donor Agencies Yes Yes, IWRM is needed for holistic Systems thinking and inter- IWMR should be promote (Bilateral and and sustainable water resources sectoral coordination as much as possible in multilateral donors management the sectoral investment of in water and natural irrigation, hydropower, water resources sectors) supply and sanitation, and tourism. I/NGOs and civil Yes Yes, to sustain water and natural Inter-sectoral coordination and IWRM is a promising tool society resources and infrastructure and participation of all stakeholders for promoting equitable the services dependent on them. in decision-making, including and bottom-up decision- about choices of intervention. making and supporting the participation and inclusion of local populations in articulating local needs and aspirations. Irrigation, water Yes Yes, to promote the sort of inter- Inter-sectoral coordination at IWRM could provide a supply and sectoral coordination crucial for all levels—federal, provincial framework for building sanitation, and sustaining water infrastructures and local— while involving collaboration and co- forest users’ groups and services people and their institutions, production among sectoral especially those directly agencies and their personnel affected by intervention, in as well as among users directly decision-making and indirectly affected by the intervention.
Source: Sudhriman(2009). Field work and informal discussions
Way Forward: Operating an Integrative Practice The basic idea of IWRM emphasizing economic development, social equity and environmental sustainability is emulated in global agenda such a SDG. There can be no debates on the basic premises. Yet, operationalizing the idea has major challenges. The above discussions highlight these challenges in pursuing IWRM. Very few examples provide a clear cut out way forward. These gaps further intertwine with Nepal transition to federal democratic republic, which further highlights the challenges and opportunities too. Conserving freshwater biodiversity has been a peripheral idea in the arena of Nepal’s’ water development. It has largely remained as a token issue addressed by placement of fish ladders in few weirs and provision of minimum flows in rivers. This later provision is not complied with and there are no mechanisms to ensure compliance. The imagination of Nepali state is guided by hydropower development and inter-basin water transfer projects and conservation of freshwater biodiversity remain as rhetoric.
The conservation of freshwater needs many things to be done at various levels; community, watershed, provincial and national levels. It requires multi-stakeholder dialogue and institutional innovation. The process must build synergy with regional and global practices. Nepal’s new political order is an opportunity to establish such an institutional process and there is no silver bullet answer. A systematic, reflective and iterative dialogue process is needed. Before we make our suggestions we present what such a platform could aspire for. 203 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Multi-Stakeholder Platform The platform need to bring together diverse stakeholders, including national and sub-national government agencies, donors, academics, local and international NGOs, community groups, the private sector and individuals engaged in the development of water and freshwater conservation issues for dialogue. Stakeholders will discuss ideas, suggest strategies refinement and suggest goals based on experiences of success and failure. The platform needs to accomplish the following seven goals:
Learning: Learning should be a cornerstone of the platform. Learning will come through exchanging information and creating networks of members and groups. The platform will help participants understand the values, interests, and capacities of a variety of stakeholders, and how these can be brought together to create a common set of goals and a cohesive strategy for achieving the conservation of aquatic biodiversity.
Build Shared Understanding: Our ability to address the challenges involved in minimizing the degradation of freshwater biodiversity will be based on how well we understand the environmental, social and economic change processes in any given river basin. To that end, formal, experiential, scientific, social and local knowledge must all be brought together to build synergy between policy and action. The platform should consider both successful and unsuccessful initiatives in order to derive lessons about good and bad practices for use in achieving its objectives. It should stress the need to understand how the users of knowledge and experts can come together to identify solutions, assess impacts and identify approaches suitable for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
Build Partnerships and Coalitions: The platform should help form the sort of cross- sectoral and cross-scalar partnerships necessary for building resilience to climate change and other stressors. The various aspects of such resilience building are discussed in subsequent chapters. Through knowledge sharing, participants will develop an understanding of who is doing what, what gaps exist, and entry points for action. This understanding will form the basis for building new partnerships and coalitions as new constraints and opportunities emerge. Such partnerships and coalitions will bring diverse stakeholders together to generate new ideas as well as a pool of resources, knowledge and capacities that can be tapped into to develop evidence-based proposals for freshwater biodiversity conservation.
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Integrate Risk Reduction: Both climate and non-climatic drivers stress human and ecological communities. The platform needs to discuss ways of incorporating risk reduction measures into minimizing exposure, reducing vulnerability of natural and human built systems and that of users. It must also help in identifying ways of reformation of institutions. It should focus on using the social capacity of any given community in order to identify initiatives that the community can itself implement and that will best serve it. It should nurture the on-the-ground solutions that stakeholders identify by adopting mechanisms to strengthen them.
Synthesize Knowledge: A key lesson from the idea of IWRM is the recognition that water development and management embraces both natural and social science disciplines and that, therefore, the prevailing sectoral approach is ineffective. The platform needs to bring together natural science, civic science, social science and indigenous knowledge streams as each impacts all the others.
Intellectual Independence: To meet the objective of water and aquatic biodiversity conservation, participants in the platform should question, critique and suggest ideas that pass the test of intellectual scrutiny and not become advocates of a specific policy. These are ideals that any platform should aim to achieve. One major challenge is engendering shift in the siloed way of functioning of natural resources agencies of the government. Champions can use the platforms to garner evidence and examples of practices to engage the government for pursuing and operationalizing IWRM as a goal.
Operational Independence: There are few multi stakeholder platforms that have consistently looked at IWRM challenges. Some have been ephemeral and survived as long as resources from an external donor were available. A successful platform should have access to independent funding for its operations. Operational independence can be achieved if financing arrangements include formulae that indicate the sources of funding and terms of the funding that ensure independence.
Suggestions for Actions The following actions at various levels will help in nudging agencies towards pursuit of IWRM as a guiding philosophy
Palika levels: Palika governments should: • Map water sources and prepare and implement local management plans for water and freshwater biodiversity conservation.
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• Adapt RVWRMP approach to analyze local contexts and identify solutions in the palikas of the MKWR basins. Since this approach is already in use, its lessons are easy to replicate. • Invest in the monitoring of local rainfall, temperature, flow of rivers within its boundary. • Palikas in Himalayan belts begin discussions how best to monitor snowfall. • Develop a protocol for data collection and quality control so that the data generated could form the foundation for local-level planning and decision- making. • In a few selected pilot areas, involve citizen scientists in the monitoring and collection of air temperature and rainfall and basic water-quality parameters (temperature, pH, BoD and coliform bacteria). • Begin discussion with Department of Hydrology and Meteorology to establish synergy. • Publish annual reports on temperature and rainfall within their area of jurisdiction in a way that supplements data generated by DHM. • Prepare a state of the art of early local flood warning systems currently in use and propose a strategy for upscaling. • Develop strategy of controlling the disposal of solid and liquid wastes from individual point sources at those sources themselves.
Provincial and the National Governments: Provincial and the national governments should pursue the following tasks: • Begin discussions with the DHM to prepare plan of action for monitoring selected water-quality parameters at its existing hydrologic stations. This first stage will help establish a river water quality base in the existing stations. • Paani has already worked with universities to identify proxi bio-indicators for quality assessment. Relate those proxies with water quality data base line and extrapolate to develop threshold for specific river stretch.
Interdisciplinary Water Education: The analysis shows that in order to address the challenges of conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins is rooted in the trajectories of water resources development and education that has promoted a supply driven approach, focused on engineering and large-scale infrastructure, a hierarchical style and pedagogy, that is blind to gender and social exclusion.2 At practical level, it is necessary to encourage universities and educational establishment to make water education more interdisciplinary. This effort needs to be backed by preparation of readers, case studies, capacity building process.
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Recapping the Intellectual Context. Clearly, IWRM can be a motif for resolving competition over water, reconciling diverse interests and minimizing conflicts in use while keeping focusing on conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the core. Nudging the water policy terrain towards a holistic path toward this end has major challenges given the lack of incentives in overcoming sectoral approaches rooted in the historical approach to water development that focused on adding more supply to solve water problem. This focus has led to increasing inefficiency, inequity and environmental degradation (Brooks, 2001). Improving efficiency, equity and environmental integrity requires very different approach that centralized departments that have evolved with supply side solutions. Improving efficiency, social equity and conserving freshwater biodiversity are inherently local activities and the course of action to achieve those depend on local geographical, hydrological, economical, technical and social context (Moench et al. 2003).
In the MKWR basins hydrological variability is very high, data on basic parameters such as snowfall, rainfall, daily rainfall at meso and micro levels are limited and so is data on stream flow, sediment load and water quality parameters. Climate change adds fundamental shift in hydrological stationarity, the emerging context is rife with uncertainty further being made complex by rapid pace of changes: penetration of information technology, expansion of road, creeping urbanization, increased flow of external goods and migration and quest of non-agricultural livelihood. These changes have wrought their own set of social and environmental externalities: pollution, river and natural resource degradation and loss of freshwater biodiversity. These challenges are compounded already by poor capacity water organizations which are in flux as Nepal’s federal republican order transits. The need for an adaptive approach is clear. Such an approach needs to create space for reflection, reiteration and revisions as context change and evolve.
Any effort of conservation of freshwater biodiversity in MKWR must build capacity at various governmental levels, in the private sector and among community-based organization and to nurture champions within each of these entities. Efforts should enable local governments to use available information to meet the objectives of freshwater biodiversity conservation. This is where the proposed champions can play a significant role. The champions also need continuous support to access and apply knowledge. The challenges are related to laws, policies and standards required for conserving natural ecosystem at the local level.
Notes
1 These two ministries have been again merged as Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation. 2 The challenges facing water management has become more complex while the approach to water education remains largely conventional. (Saci Water, 2003) 207 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Process and Pathways for Addressing Existing and 9 Impending Threats to Freshwater Biodiversity for Resilience Building
Introduction The concept of resilience directs our thoughts toward how systems adapt and successfully deal with new shocks and stresses. In 1973, C. S. Holling described the resilience of ecosystems as “the capacity to tolerate disturbance without collapsing into a qualitatively different state that is controlled by a different set of processes. A resilient ecosystem can withstand shocks and rebuild itself when necessary. If a social system is resilient it has the added capacity to anticipate and plan for the future.” Hollings’ conception of resilience makes the goal of a system to return to its previous state after it is disrupted by a shock.
The concept of resilience can be applied to human systems as well as ecosystems. Climate- and non-climate-related hazards often disrupt human as well as ecological communities, and the affected individuals tend to seek to return to the state before disruption. The Resilience Alliance, an international, multidisciplinary research organization that explores the dynamics of social-ecological systems, conceives of resilience as “the ability of the system to absorb disturbances, to be changed and then to re-organize and still maintain the same identity, that is, retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning.” Resilient communities, people, and systems possess the ability to reorganize, improve them and thrive when faced with a stress. In fact, after they recover, they develop the capacity, to successfully deal with greater stress in the future. In this conception, resilience is not only the ability to bounce back to an original state but also the ability to bounce forward as well.
Many examples of recovery from past disasters or shocks demonstrate how we can move ahead and build resilience. First, we must strengthen natural ecosystems and human-built infrastructures so that they are less vulnerable to climatic and non- climatic hazards and, thereby, that the chance of a cascading failure is reduced. Second, those individuals who use and manage natural ecosystems and human- built infrastructures must have the capacity to respond themselves as well as seek support from outside sources to deal shocks. With these skills, they can minimize the impacts; stay prepared for the future hazards and minimizes losses. Third, institutions or rules-in-use are important as they determine the effectiveness of both
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responses undertaken to deal with shocks as well as informed actions to reduce the vulnerability of users, natural ecosystems and human-built systems. If institutions constrain the ability of users and managers to take actions, recovery from shock is drastically reduced and resilience is lowered. To build resilience, we must understand the dynamics among a) increases in exposure, b) the fragility of systems, c) the low capacity and marginalization of users, and d) institutions. Each of these four elements governs resilience and each needs attention.
Application to Freshwater Biodiversity How does the idea of resilience as an outcome of the above four elements relate to conservation of freshwater biodiversity? Our analysis in the MKWR basins revealed that freshwater biodiversity faces threats from the following factors:
• A high sediment loads due to the collapsing of riverbanks, landslides and the disposing of material excavated during road construction directly into river channels. • Flooding, which further increases the sediment load in the water sources • Three environmentally disruptive fishing practices—the use of explosive devices, use of electric current using a portable generating set, and poison—all of which cause wide-scale destruction and death not just to fish but also to other aquatic life. • Overfishing. • The persistent discharge of organic and metallic pollution into rivers. • The development of water infrastructure (hydropower plants, irrigation systems and inter-basin projects) and the consequent upstream diversion of river water reducing and changing flow in the section downstream of the diversion. • Loss of habitats and exacerbation of flooding due to the excessive mining of sand and aggregate. • Alterations in river flow due to the erratic precipitation associated with climate change.
To differing degrees, our field experiences have shown that all eight of theabove factors have certain effect on the basin’s natural ecosystems and social contexts in the MKWR basins. On their own, marginalized communities that depend on fishing for their livelihoods are unable to stem river degradation and the consequent rise in their marginalization. If freshwater biodiversity continues to decline, communities like the Raji, Sonaha, Majhi and others could lose their livelihoods. By restoring the balance in the interlinked-human ecological system and preventing the degradation of freshwater bodies, we can enhance the resilience of freshwater systems, aquatic species
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and dependent communities, thereby benefitting society as a whole. Embarking upon such a restoration is relevant in theMKWR basins, for several reasons:
• The majority of the population depends on natural resource-based livelihoods now and indigenous community are likely to continue to do so in the future , • People and their formally organized and unorganized groups serve as custodians of natural resources and that role is linked to cultural mores, • Since the capacity for the regeneration and natural succession of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is inherent in these systems themselves and is facilitated by the edaphic and climatic regimes, even simple conservation efforts will support regeneration and natural succession, • Local communities possess the know-how to restore their ecosystems and can be instrumental partners in conservation, and • To build resilience, the rate of resource extraction should be kept within the ability of ecosystems, supported by conservation, to regenerate and restore them.
The above five points set the stage for expanding the concept of resilience across the broad context of stressors which affect freshwater biodiversity through changes not just in climate but also in land use, land cover and socio-economic conditions. Collectively, these stressors will create new risks for both natural as well as human- built systems and the services they produce. Enhancing the resilience of freshwater biodiversity means reducing its vulnerability to climatic and non-climatic stresses by taking a holistic approach that includes the fine-tuning of policies and programs and ensures that livelihood systems are maintained and appropriate opportunities for the marginalized communities dependent on them are created. The approaches adopted must aim to fulfill the following goals:
1. Maintaining the integrity and continuity of ecosystems and the links between terrestrial and aquatic systems, 2. Conserving and restoring freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity rich area, river stretches, including the aesthetic, cultural and religious artifacts found within them, 3. Designing infrastructure that is integrated with natural systems that strengthening and restoring natural infrastructures? Enhancing the availability of natural resources as a source of food, other products and energy, 4. Supporting marginalized communities so that they are able to deal with shocks, and 5. Regulating the extraction of resources, including wood, sand, aggregate, and water.
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While the above principles are relevant in all cases, how they are applied depends on the nature of the disruptions faced. Enhancing resilience requires minimizing human- caused, weather-related and natural hazard impacts, all of which combine with each other to exacerbate that impact. In addition, it is useful to focus on a) increases in exposure, b) the fragility of systems, c) the low capacity and marginalization of users, and d) constraining institutions1.
Exposure: Reducing exposure is often an important area of intervention. The impact of a hazard varies depending upon its nature and the exposure of the dependent communities. Most hazard affects human and ecological communities and the systems on which they depend in different ways. The nature of exposure to hazards is changing and new insights into how hazards interact with both system dynamics and the behavior of users in order to generate a particular outcome are needed.
Systems (natural and human-built): Building resilience requires minimizing the vulnerability of both natural ecosystems and human systems, a measure that reduces the risk of cascading failures in the event of a shock. System components and pathways need to include multiple approaches or substitutable components so that service delivery continues even when one part is disrupted. Ensuring the flexibility and diversity of system components, distributing them spatially and linking functionally to provide services builds resilience.
Users, Managers and Decision-makers: Building the capacity of users, managers, and decision-makers to anticipate and develop adaptive responses and increase access to services and support is an important component of any strategy to build resilience. The following attributes are important.
Ability to Learn: Overall, while learning is essential, learning is not just a matter of training, capacity-building or exposure to challenges. It also entails understanding social factors and how they interact with ongoing change processes to minimize or exacerbate local vulnerability. Responsiveness: Being able to respond to effectively deal with the impacts from shocks is central to enhancing resilience. Many factors that determine responsiveness relate to experiences in daily life, social practices of processing information, and perceptions. Resourcefulness: If users are resourceful and can access support, information, assets and capacities through social or business networks, they take a step towards a more resilient future. Resourcefulness can help diversify livelihoods, a development that itself builds resilience. Diversification not only provides
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alternative livelihoods, but it also decreases pressure on the resource base, thereby giving freshwater biodiversity a boost, especially if measures to ensure that neither the quality of water nor the integrity of aquatic ecosystems is reduced.
Institutions: Addressing those institutional factors that constrain the effectiveness of responses to minimize system fragility and undermine the ability of various actors to take actions is also key to enhancing resilience. The following attributes of institutions are important.
Rights and entitlements: Rights and entitlements determine ability to access resources and information, to change behaviours, and to assimilate diverse voices in planning and decision-making processes and thereby build the capacities and resilience of users.
Decision-making structures: Resilience is influenced by decision-making mechanisms. When natural and human-built systems are disrupted, the role local governments and support agencies play in making response decisions is key to building resilience. Nepal’s present local governance mechanism can contribute to recovery from disruption, but how effectively local governments will move forward in meeting this objective is unclear. Numerous local factors shape local risks. People perceive these risks differently and this divergence in views may lead to dispute. Conflicts between upstream and downstream communities on water use and benefit sharing in river basins, for example, are common.
Access to information: Access to information is key to building resilience. Appreciating freshwater biodiversity requires understanding that water regimes are becoming more uncertain. Having access to relevant information can help build such understanding. At the same time, that information must also be made available to local actors in languages they understand. Information must be locally relatable (James, et al, 2018) through local climate information services that are accessible and relevant to those who need it the most. To accomplish this, new mechanisms must be adopted. Rainfall information collected through community monitored rain gauges using citizen scientist, for example, can complement local weather and climate knowledge (CARE international, undated).
Learning and change: To build resilience, local institutions must support learning for reforms. Conservation measures, for example, must include mechanisms for iteration so that new information is incorporated in ever more effective strategies for preventing the degradation of freshwater biodiversity. Evidence on how iterative improvements can be achieved is, at present, limited.
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Gaps The above theoretical postulation is a useful starting point but enhancing the resilience of freshwater biodiversity in MKWR basins will require systematically addressing the gaps listed in Table1.
TABLE 1: GAPS TO ADDRESS TO ENHANCE THE RESILIENCE OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY
Elements Gaps Exposure Low understanding of the risks associated with the increase in exposure to geographic, geological, climatic, biological, technological, and human-induced hazards. Use systems Ecological Low level of services key to sustenance of freshwater biodiversity and limited continuity after a shock. Human-built Limited capacity to deal with hazard risks and to reduce the damage they do to freshwater biodiversity, human lives and properties. Users Communities Limited understanding, knowledge, and skill sets Municipal governments Limited capacity to analyse and respond to shocks (palikas) Civil society Few civil society actors/organizations present in the MKWR region and few of those engaged in freshwater biodiversity issues. Private sector Limited engagement of private entities and entrepreneurs in issues of freshwater biodiversity and its conservation. Institutions Institutional provisions for directing an organized response to local-level shocks.
To address the gaps, actors in the MKWR basins should follow the suggestions listed in Table 2 below.
TABLE 2: SUGGESTIONS FOR ADDRESSING GAPS
Element Tasks Exposure Palikas need to begin monitoring rainfall and temperature. They must coordinate with the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology to develop a protocol for measurement and mechanisms to ensure the quality of those measurements. Ecological Palikas must begin developing a database of freshwater biodiversity within their areas of jurisdiction. The management of conservation areas needs to continue to build Use partnerships with buffer zone committees and community forest users’ systems groups need to emphasize the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Designate new areas for terrestrial and aquatic conservation. Human-built National, provincial and local level governments should build environmentally friendly roads and sustainable hydropower projects and effectively manage solid and liquid wastes.
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Users Communities Communities should accord special attention to the needs of marginalized communities and support gender equality. Municipal Palikas must build their technological, legal and management capacity. governments They should also put in place a regular mechanism for monitoring freshwater (Palika) ecosystems using biological indicators. They should build space for citizen scientists to become engaged in this process. Civil society Civil society must continue to emphasize the values of equity and justice in the nation’s overall water development and management approach. Private sector Private-sector actors must begin constructively engage with other actors and create space for innovative solutions. Institutions The implementation of laws being framed at the local, provincial and national levels needs to be systematically monitored in order to derive lessons, assess performance and make revisions.
Final Observation Building the resilience of freshwater biodiversity is the collective responsibility especially of those sections of society, including all levels of governments as well as businesses, the non-governmental sector, communities, and individuals who are directly interacting with river resources. Shared responsibility is fundamental to resilience-building in general and in relation to freshwater biodiversity in particular. When actors work together and share responsibility, they can enhance resilience more effectively than any single sector working alone. In Nepal, however, the idea of resilience has not yet been seriously applied to the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, so there is no proven approach to this effort that can be applied to the diverse context of the MKWR and other river basins. The strategies adopted must continuously evolve as new information about the basin’s rapidly changing contexts is made available. In any case, emerging social, ecological, economic, and technological change processes will introduce new constraints that will render it impossible for any one-shot effort to meet the goal of resilience-building. Building resilience has to be a continuous process of action, monitoring and revision.
Notes
1 These are based on Tyler and Moench (2012). Also see Climate Resilience Framework, ISET-International
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215 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Freshwater Biodiversity in Nepal: A Review of Related Policies, Acts, 10 and Regulations
Background The availability of healthy freshwater biodiversity is a key indicator of a balanced human-ecological system, a system consisting of ecological resources (or ecosystems), users, use infrastructures and institutions (rules-in-use). Ecological resources include land, natural vegetation and cultivated plants, forests, wildlife and domestic animals, water and water ecosystems, minerals, human habitation, and livelihood on these resources. Ecological resources generate various ecosystem services, as so do human- built infrastructures. People use those services in various ways to sustain livelihood. When an ecological resource is exposed to new threats and its quality declines, use systems become fragile, and rules-in-use constraining, the vulnerability of freshwater ecosystems increases nd the communities dependent on them are seriously affected. Mitigating such threats will help maintain the quality of freshwater and the wellbeing of the communities.
Our conceptual framework uses this notion of interdependence to examine the emerging political-economic challenges in the MKWR basins with the objective of promoting the conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the basin’s rivers. In this chapter, we discuss policies, acts, and regulations related to conserving freshwater biodiversity. In addition, we examine sectoral policies, acts and regulations that are directly or indirectly linked to the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. The review also highlights gaps in policies and legislations. These insights are later used to suggest a way forward to achieve the objective of conserving freshwater biodiversity as envisioned by Nepal’s 2015 Constitution. The constitution recognizes ecological sustainability, intergenerational equity and social justice at all levels of governance. It states:
The State shall pursue a policy of conserving the natural resources available in the country by imbibing the norms of inter-generation judicious use of it and for the national interest. The policy shall ensure the fair distribution of the benefits generated by it by giving local people the priority and preferential rights.
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The constitution envisions that local, provincial and federal governments will share responsibility for conserving the country’s natural resources and its biodiversity. In Schedule 9, the constitution states that issues relating to terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity conservation; forest, wildlife, and water management, and the environment are under the concurrent jurisdiction of federal, provincial and local governments and calls for the synchronization of the policies and practices of all three levels. However, while new policies, legislation and institutional arrangements are being developed and implemented, policies framed before 2015 are yet to be adjusted to support the spirit of the new constitution. Instead, the governance of natural resources and biodiversity is guided largely by old policies and a few new policies and legislations.
Policy Formulation: Context Beginning in 1956, Nepal began to roll out five-year development plans, which, until 1975, accorded importance to the environment and natural resources in their support of agricultural production, infrastructure development and the promotion of tourism. The touristic focus aimed at capitalizing on the environmental, cultural and aesthetic assets of the country’s diverse topography, ecologies and cultural heritages and exploring ways to develop them. The plans did not consider the conservation of natural resources or the sustainability of the ecosystem services integral to social and economic development.
In 1975, toward the end of the fourth plan, the GoN did begin to recognize the importance of integrating environmental concerns with development planning, and, for the first time, the fifth plan (1980-1985) incorporated environmental and land-use policies in the country’s development strategy. Nepal banned the export of forest products and made the Theory of Himalayan Degradation, which attributed lowland flooding directly to upland deforestation in the hills, at the foundation of its policies. Later analyses debunked this theory and established that no ‘super crisis’ was imminent but nonetheless revealed that natural degradation and social disparity were serious concerns.
The end of the sixth plan (1985 to 1990) coincided with the collapse of the Panchayat political system but that system had introduced some changes to the way in which environmental and natural resources policies and legislation were formulated. Panchayat leaders considered environmental integrity as a pre-requisite in obtaining dividends from investments in social, economic and infrastructure development and
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made conducting environmental impact assessments (EIA) for major infrastructure projects to identify and mitigate adverse impacts on society mandatory. In 1988, for example, the then government prepared and endorsed a National Conservation Strategy (NCS) to support the conservation of natural and environmental resources. Its guiding principles were to i) ensure the sustainable use of land and renewable resources, ii) preserve biological diversity, iii) maintain essential ecological and life- support systems, and iv) use natural resources to meet the basic material, cultural and spiritual needs of Nepali people.
Following the reinstatement of multiparty democracy in 1990, sectoral policies began to accord greater attention to environmental concerns. The 1991 constitution recognised the interdependence of balanced natural and environmental resources and people’s social and economic wellbeing and that the State should take ownership, stewardship and obligation to maintain that provision. Article 26(4) proclaimed, “the state shall give priority to the protection of the environment and also prevention of its further damage due to physical development activities by increasing the awareness of the general public about environmental cleanliness and the state shall also make arrangement for special protection of rare wildlife, the forest and vegetation.” This proclamation recognized the role of the state as custodian of natural resources and biodiversity. In line with this philosophy, after 1991 directive principles, policies, acts and regulations were promulgated to promote internal-sectoral coordination and people’s participation.
In furthering environmental conservation, the government constituted the Environmental Protection Council (EPC) in 1992 and entrusted it with the responsibility of overseeing the formulation and implementation of environmental policies, plans and programs. The EPC was also entrusted to play a role in harmonizing sectoral policies through inter-ministerial coordination. Its key achievement was the formulation of Nepal’s Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP), which identified the environmental problems facing the country, including land utilization, forest management, water resource development and utilization, solid and liquid waste management, urbanization and industrial development, the protection of natural heritage and the development of infrastructures.
The plan was a welcome step but the country’s environment, particularly its water resources and freshwater biodiversity, were still undergoing incremental degradation. Table 1 compares the environment issues identified in 1993, in 2001, about a decade after the NEPAP was adopted, and in 2015, when Nepal promulgated its latest constitution. It demonstrates that environmental problems have persisted
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despite new policies and legislation and some success in conserving country’s forests and terrestrial biodiversity. This chapter aims to examine some of these policies and their gaps, especially those that may have contributed to environmental and natural resource degradation, and to use the analysis to suggest ways of overcoming those gaps using the lens of freshwater biodiversity.
TABLE 1: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FACING NEPAL IN 1993, 2001 AND 2015
1993* 2001** 2015***
•• Declining soil fertility •• Forest depletion •• Degradation of air quality •• Degradation of forest: species •• Land degradation •• Degradation of water sources composition and density •• Soil degradation •• Degradation of natural •• Sluggish growth of off-farm jobs •• Water pollution resources •• Increasing water pollution •• Air pollution •• Lack of solid waste •• Low sanitation coverage •• Inadequate capacity for management •• High poverty incidence-50% management of environment •• Degradation of surface water population below poverty line •• Loss of biodiversity quality •• Degradation of natural and •• Rapid urbanization •• Diminishing water resources cultural heritage •• Industrial waste •• Release of toxic pollutants •• Haphazard growth of •• Landslides •• Loss of biodiversity settlements •• Lack of agricultural land •• Impacts of climate change •• Air pollution •• Vehicular pollution •• Improper land use •• Poorly designed and built •• Indoor pollution infrastructures •• Environment education •• Increasing water induced •• Environment capacity disasters- flood, landslide and building. mass wasting •• Low institutional capacity to execute environmental management plan
* Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP), Integrating environment and development, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Environmental Protection Council 1993. ** Handbook on national environmental legislation and institutions in Nepal, For South Asia Cooperation for Environment Program (SACEP) Colombo, Sri Lanka Under the UNEP/SACEP/NORAD publication series on environmental law and policy (2001). *** Compendium of Environment Statistics, Nepal (2015).
The NEPAP emphasized the need for using EIAs to integrate environmental concerns into development. The EPC oversaw the development of the EIA guidelines that served as the foundation for sectoral guidelines. These guidelines called for EIAs be completed during the feasibility-study stage of infrastructure and development projects. The EIA guidelines for forestry, the first of their kind in the country, were developed in 1992 and gazetted in 1993. Two years later, in 1995, EIA guidelines for industries were formalized. After this, IEEs or EIA became compulsory for all public-sector development projects but were not made mandatory for private-sector projects until January 1997, when the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) was
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promulgated. Its regulations were promulgated six months later. Together they laid out regulatory provisions that guided sectoral and cross-sectoral approaches to environmental protection.
The EPA recognizes that a clean and healthy environment can be maintained by recognizing the interdependence between development and environment. It provides the legal basis for relevant authorities to ensure that the proponents or developers of projects of all types and sizes carry out an IEE or EIA and mitigate negative impacts on human and ecological communities. While the responsibility for deciding whether or not an IEE or EIA was needed was left to implementing agency, the erstwhile Ministry of Population and Environment (MoPE) approved EIAs and relevant departments approved IEEs. After the promulgation of the 2015 Constitution, the environment ministry was amalgamated with the Ministry of Forests and is now called the Ministry of Forests and Environment (MoFE).
The EPA empowers concerned authorities to impose restrictions on activities and on the use of equipment that can produce adverse environmental impacts (Section 7, Sub-section 3). It also lays down a procedure for appointing environmental inspectors with authority to inspect and examine mitigation measures adopted by a developer as identified in an IEE or EIA (Section 8). The act empowers the government to declare specific areas as having unusual natural amenity value, being a rare species habitat, having exceptional biotic diversity or otherwise being an environmental conservation area for its historic, cultural or ecological significance (Section 10, Sub- section1).
Between 2000 and 2015 there was little progress in environmental policy and legislation. The decade-long armed struggle led by the Maoist party from 1996- 2006 and the subsequent political uncertainty and peace processes led the national government to accord priority to peace-building and restorative justice and put environmental issues aside. That said, in 2007, Nepal’s Interim Constitution was promulgated with a milestone article: Article 16(1) guaranteed the ‘right of every citizen to live in a clean environment.’ This proclamation has been reiterated in the 2015 Constitution but with the addition of the word “healthy” before environment. Article 30 (1) of the 2015 constitution states that every citizen has the right to a clean and healthy environment and Article 30 (2) states that victims of pollution and degradation will receive compensation.
In 2011, the GoN formulated a policy on climate change which focused on reducing vulnerabilities associated with the phenomenon. This policy is now being revised.
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Within the purview of environmental governance, the 2011 policy advocates that adaptation and mitigation be pursued simultaneously to cushion the country’s social and economic landscape from the impacts of climate change and to address induced vulnerabilities. Two instruments adopted prior to this policy were the 2010 National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) and the 2011 Local Adaptation Program of Action (LAPA) had already established instruments for implementing the climate policy. The NAPA, LAPA and climate change policy propose a framework for including adaptation in sectoral programs at the national and local levels and pursuing a climate-friendly socio-economic development path.
Nepal’s 2015 constitution establishes the right direction for policy-making and streamlining institutional arrangements that will enable federal, provincial and local governments to assume the role of custodians of natural resources and biodiversity. The constitution’s three fundamental provisions with respect to conserving freshwater biodiversity are the following: i) Article (30) guarantees the right of every citizen to live in a clean and healthy environment and provides for compensation should they face health hazards and injury caused by environmental pollution or degradation, ii) guiding principles for policy-making, and iii) making environmental safeguarding the shared responsibility of federal, provincial and state governments.
The guiding principles stated in Article 51 (g) of the Constitution obliges federal, provincial and local governments to engage in environmental policy-making. Specifically, they must do the following:
• Protect, promote, and make environmentally-friendly and sustainable use of the natural resources available in the country in consonance with national interests and adopting the concept of inter-generational equity and judiciously distribute the fruits of those resources to local communities, according to priority and preferential rights, • Pursue the multi-purpose development of water resources, while according priority to domestic investment based on public participation, • Ensure a reliable, affordable and easy supply of energy in and make proper use of energy to fulfill the basic needs of citizens by generating and developing renewable energy, • Develop sustainable and reliable irrigation that takes aims to minimize water- induced disasters and promote river management, • Conserve, promote, and make sustainable use of forests, wildlife, birds, vegetation and bio-diversity by mitigating the possible risks to the environment
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stemming from industrial and physical development and raising the awareness of the general public about environment cleanliness, • Maintain forests over a large enough geographical area to maintain ecological balance, • Adopt appropriate measures to abolish or mitigate existing or possible adverse environmental impacts on the natural environment and biological diversity, • Pursue the principles of environmentally sustainable development, including the polluter pays, precautionary environmental protection, and prior informed consent, • Implement advance warning, preparedness, and rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures in order to minimize the risks of disasters.
A healthy environment includes healthy riverine ecosystems. The constitutional provision for a healthy environment needs to be harmonized with the legal instruments that the state will make to implement fundamental rights in the three years since the constitution was promulgated. We need to analyze the status of riverine ecosystems and the laws provide for their management vis-à-vis the duty enshrined in the constitution. Legislation must work towards achieving the fundamental right to a healthy right or be amended or repealed if they are unable to meet to need to conserve the environment and freshwater biodiversity as a healthy environment must do.
The 2015 Constitution requires the GoN to submit an annual report on the environment to the president. The report is to contain the actions taken and achievements made in the implementation of the directive principles of the constitution and the policies and obligations of the state. The president in turn shall redirect the report to the prime minister and the federal parliament (article 53). The parliament is then required to set up a committee to monitor and evaluate whether or not the directive principles, policies and obligations of the state have been implemented progressively or not (Article 54). The constitution also states that responsibility for implementing the directive principles, policies and obligations of the State are shared not just by federal ministries and other agencies but also by provincial and local governments. In addition to those policies and laws directed exclusively to environmental safeguards, a number of policies and laws on specific natural resources and biodiversity sectors reinforce the environmental safeguards provisioned in the EPA and its regulations. Provisions of sectoral policies, laws and regulations that address environmental and social safeguards are shown in Table 2.
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TABLE 2: ACTS AND PROVISIONS
Acts Provisions
Aquatic Animal Prohibits use of explosives and poisonous substances in the rivers and water bodies Protection Act- to safeguard aquatic biodiversity. It requires the developers who wish to construct a 1961 dam for electricity, drinking water or irrigation or some other purpose to construct fish ladder, to the extent possible, for passage of aquatic animal . In case construction of fish ladder is not possible, arrangements must be made for aquatic hatchery or nursery for artificial breeding of aquatic animal (section 5 (b)(1)).
National Park Lays down provisions to declare national parks, wildlife reserve and conservation areas and Wildlife and prohibitory activities in such areas. The act provisions compensation 30 to 50 per Conservation Act- cent of income from national parks to be used in social and economic development of 1973 communities in the buffer zone. The Act also makes compensatory provisions in the events of loss of life and properties.
Tourism Act- 1978 Lays down provisions to control pollution in mountaineering and trekking expeditions (Sectons-30 and 30A.
Soil and Watershed By defining prohibitory activities in protected areas and risk of slope failure and Conservation Act- mass wasting, the Act suggests that areas (patches) for the implementation of soil 1982 conservation and watershed management tasks be prioritized. Section-3 of the Act makes provision for declaring any area is protected watershed through notification in Nepal Gazette. Section-10 of the Act defines actions prohibited in the areas vulnerable to degradation and natural calamity.
Nepal Trust Complements ongoing efforts of the GoN in the conservation and management of for Nature nature, national parks and wildlife reserve by producing research and knowledge Conservation Act- insights (Section-9). 1982
Solid Waste Explains the role of responsible local bodies in waste management and highlights about Management Act waste reuse, recycle and reduction. Additionally, it also provides right to private and 2011 community sectors to manage waste.
Pesticide Act- 1991 Regulates the production, distribution and use of pesticides in crop and livestock production. Section-3 of the Act makes provision for formation of a Pesticide Committee to fix the standard for pesticide use in the country, including registration of all pesticides and issue prohibitory order on use of certain pesticides.
Industrial Section-5 of the Act says, Registration Certificate of the industry will be provided within Enterprise Act 15 days of the submission of the application, thereafter investor, if required, needs to 2016 conduct Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE).
Electricity Act- Lays down framework to minimize adverse environmental impacts during generation 1992 and transmission of electricity
Water Resources Defines priority of water use, compliance to water quality standard, effluent discharge Act-1992 and impacts on local environment from water uses.
Forest Act-1993 Lays down the institutional framework to conserve and manage forest and forest biodiversity.
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Thematic Focus: Policies and Legislation The policies and legislation related to the areas of thematic focus of the Paani program include aggregate mining, wetland biodiversity, freshwater biodiversity, sustainable hydropower, irrigation, roads, disaster risk reduction and climate change. In the following sections, we discuss the context, the provision related to freshwater biodiversity, and the gaps in addressing outstanding and emerging concerns.
Aggregate Mining The Context: All over the world, rivers are under immense pressure from natural and anthropogenic interventions. Whether wet or dry, river beds and bars are sources of construction-grade aggregates (sand, gravel and stone), and, in many countries, including Nepal, their mining has adversely affected river environments and freshwater ecosystems. In Nepal, the mining of riverbed materials has steadily increased over the past few decades as the pace of construction of houses, roads, bridges, hydropower projects and industries has increased, both in terms of the amount and rate of extraction. Substantial amount of aggregates from all the rivers of Nepal are mined legally and illegally though no exact amounts are available. In areas with good road access, aggregate mining is rampant and has damaged river ecology and freshwater biodiversity alarmingly.
The impacts of mining result in i) changes in the stability and morphology of river channels, ii) an increase in the turbidity and the deterioration of the physical and chemical quality of water1, iii) direct declines in aquatic biodiversity through temporary and permanent disruptions in food chains as greater turbidity decreases the production of phyto- and zoo-plankton and the benthos habitats and spawning nests of migratory fish species such as trout, mahasheer and eel and large aquatic animals are lost, iv) losses of riparian vegetation and its ability to retain sediments on the banks and beds, v) effects on soil- and landscape-building processes, vi) increased erosion and degradation of productive farmland and the loss of livelihood opportunities among ethnic minorities dependent on riverine resources for food and income, and vii) increases in vector-borne diseases (Kamboj et al., 2017).
Given that 68-85 per cent of construction-grade aggregates are met using riverine sources, it is impossible to ban extraction altogether. Instead, regulatory instruments, standard and guidelines must be deployed to regulate mining so that extraction remains at sustainable levels and will not irreparably damage riverine environments.
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Whatever measures are adopted, they must balance the amount of annual renewable deposits and extraction so that the risk of the degradation of riverine environments is minimized but the need for construction materials is not constrained.
To maintain balance, one or more of the following measures should be pursued: i) mining river beds in environmentally sustainable and socially responsible ways without impairing the long-term supply of aggregates, ii) mitigating and restoring mined sites to return river morphologies and environments to equilibrium, iii) limiting the risk of water-induced hazards by avoiding incision and aggradation close to hydraulic structures, settlements, and transport and communication infrastructures, iv) avoiding the pollution, water quality degradation and reduction of groundwater recharges, v) fixing the location and time frame for extraction and the quantity of material to be extracted to balance annual supplies, and vi) controlling illegal activities and fraudulence on part of mine operators, processors and suppliers.
Policies and Regulations: Nepal’s Mines and Minerals Act of 1985 and Mines and Minerals Rules of 1999 guide the extraction of riverbed aggregates. The act specifies the legal basis for issuing licenses (Section 5) and prescribes the use of safe mining operations which do not have a significant adverse impact on the environment (Section 11A). Section 3 of the acts makes minerals lying on or discovered under private or government-owned land the property of the government while Section 7 of Rules lays out special provisions with regard to the mining of construction-grade aggregate, including that extracted from riverbeds.
Together, the act and rules empower local governments to issue mining licenses and regulate mining operations by forming a local mines and mineral committee to decide on the location, periods and amounts of extraction. After a location and amount are estimated, the act and rules prescribe, an IEE must be carried out and adverse environmental impacts identified and mitigation measures suggested. An IEE is to be carried outa license for mining is issued as a competitive bid among miners and contractors. If there is no competition, however, a license is awarded directly.
Rule 33 of the Mines and Minerals Rule requires a mining operator to work in the manner that has the least effect on surface and groundwater; to manage the siltation of wastes, ponds and drainage so that water flow is not impeded; to use waste treatment ponds and measures, as required; to adopt methods that emit the minimum pollution if the mine is one that produces poisonous gas or large amounts of dust; to use the least noisy explosive goods and machinery possible, and to mine in a manner it has minimal adverse effects on flora and fauna and on natural beauty and cultural heritage.
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The rules also prescribe how profits will be spent: 20 per cent of the total revenue goes to the GoN’s treasury and 80 per cent is for local use. Under the current federal governance structure, the responsibility for maintaining up-to-date records on mineral and non- mineral resources and their conservation and management rests with rural and urban municipalities. Sub-section 11 of Section 3, of the Local Government Operations Act of 2017 (LGOA) empowers municipalities to generate revenue from the sale of aggregates mined form rivers and other places. They can levy taxes on the transportation, processing and marketing of such materials. Nepal’s 2015 Constitution empowers local governments to enact their own rules and regulations for the management of natural resources, including riverbed aggregates, as long as they remain within the framework of legislation adopted by the federal and provincial governments.
Schedule 1 of the Environment Protection Regulations of 1997 states that an IEE is required if 10-50 m3 of material is extracted per day, while Schedule 2 stipulates that an EIA is necessary if the amount extracted exceeds that rate. The operating manual prepared by the erstwhile Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (MoFALD) lays out methods for the environmentally safe and socially responsible extraction of river bed materials. It will be replaced by the new model that the Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration (MoFAGA) is currently finalizing. In addition, municipalities are expected to develop rules for the mining and extraction of riverbed materials. Table 3 summarizes the provisions that guide mining operations and the extraction of riverbed materials.
TABLE 3: PROVISIONS OF ACTS AND REGULATIONS
Policies/Acts/Regulations Provisions Relevant section Mines and Minerals Act-1985 Issue mining license; Obligatory compliance to (Section-5)_ safe mining operation without producing adverse local environmental impacts. Section 11 (A) Mining operations to be carried out without significant adverse effects on environment. The person undertaking such operations has to adopt corrective measures as directed by the Department Mines and Mineral Rules-1999 Mining operations not to harm surface and Rule 33,35, 36, 37 and 38) ground water; manage appropriate siltation of wastes, pond and drainage for water flow; treat affluent; adopt minimum pollution emitting method
Form local mines and mineral committee that will decide on location and period mining guided by IEE. Shares of revenue from aggregate mining; Mitigation and restoration of mining sites
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Local Governments Operations Collect taxes and service charge from sale and Section 11 (sub section 2 Act-2017 export of sand, gravel, stones, slate and such (gha) materials. Registration, licensing, renewal and termination Chapter-3 (Section-11, sub- of licenses for extraction of sand, gravel and section 2 -‘(Pa’) (7) stones.
Gaps • Two mutually contradictory outlooks guide Nepal’s existing policies on the extraction of riverbed materials. The first outlook is that Nepal, because it is a mountainous country, has abundant sand, gravel and stone that rivers annually carry and deposit downstream and that material should be used to generate revenue to fund local socio-economic development. With the promulgation of the Local Self-Governance Act in 1999 and the Local Self-Governance Rules in 2000, riverbed material became a new source of internal revenue for the erstwhile district and village development committees and municipalities. The second outlook, in contrast, aims to keep riverine resources intact and untouched. The existing policies do not suggest how to balance these two outlooks. • Growing urbanization and infrastructure development in Nepal and neighboring Indian states have increased the demand for riverbed materials and put more pressure on local governments to identify new deposits of aggregates and to issue permits to extract aggregates without cost to the integrity of riverine environments. No efforts are made, however, to factor into the revenue generated a consideration of social and environmental costs. For example, heavy trucks transfer extracted materials to where they are used and, in the process, cause major damage to road surfaces. This and other costs which are substantial are not accounted for. • Though rural and urban municipalities do have the authority to develop their own policies and regulations regarding the mining of riverbeds, few have the capacity to do so, so it is unlikely that a balance between amount extracted and integrity of riverine ecosystem will be achieved immediately. Even after they prepare guidelines, municipalities will have to work hard to ensure that they are complied with. • The Mines and Minerals Act and Regulations lay out a procedure for licensing and regulating the mining of metallic and non-metallic minerals so that their use can generate large amounts of revenue, but the procedure that applies to the extraction of construction-grade aggregates from riverbed and pit deposits is different as the amount to be mined is much higher larger, the associated
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transaction costs are higher and the value chains longer. These differences can act against enforcing social and environmental safeguards when it comes to riverbed extraction and could seriously compromise environmentally sensitive and socially responsible mining operations In the context of local governments already empowered to issue mining licenses and regulate mining operation, an umbrella law that sets the principles, standards and practices for the mining of riverbed and pit aggregates is needed. • Such legislation is necessary because sophisticated technology (e.g. heavy earth- moving machines, stone crushers, and sand-washing and aggregate-processing machinery) is being employed to extract aggregates. Because a long value chain and many market actors are involved, the risk of damage to the physical and riverine environments and freshwater biodiversity is increased manifold. The extraction, processing and marketing of riverbed sand and aggregates require new standards and practices of regulation to ensure that mining is environmentally sensitive and socially responsible. It is necessary to specify permissible extraction amounts as well as what can and cannot be done. • There are major gaps in compliance with existing regulatory provisions and rules. Decisions about mining sites and extraction volumes and periods are arbitrary and are made without assessing the annually replenishable amount. Regulations that guide mitigation measures regarding the operation and restoration of mined sites are not complied with (Aryal, 2016), thereby aggravating the environmental damage mining causes. In most cases, IEEs are done in name only and serve as a façade for awarding contracts for mining without proper assessment. • The operating manual for river bed aggregate mining rolled out by the MoFALD (now the MoFAGA) for environmentally sensitive and socially responsible riverbed aggregate mining does not incorporate concerns for freshwater biodiversity. The mining of aggregates from flowing river channels, dry riverbeds and sand bars along river banks have different impacts on riverine environments and biodiversity and therefore they demand different mitigation and restoration efforts (Kamboj et al., 2017). This gap means that the evidence offered to assess damage to riverine environments and freshwater biodiversity is inadequate and that ameliorative measures are ineffective.
Wetlands and Wetland Biodiversity Context: Seasonally or permanently saturated with water, wetlands are a life-support system on which the survival and wellbeing of human and ecological communities depend. Wetlands provide all four ecosystem services: provisioning, supporting,
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regulating and cultural and, as a sink, help transform the multitude of chemical, biological and genetic materials that flow into them. Because they recycle materials and perform environmental cleansing, wetlands are often referred to as the ‘kidneys of the landscape.’
Wetlands create a niche habitat for a wide range of aquatic flora and fauna and produce goods and services of different kinds for the communities living in their periphery. The Ramsar convention has identified 41 different types of wetlands around the world. Six of those types fall in Nepal: rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, marginal swamps and irrigated paddy fields. All are part of freshwater ecosystems. By geographical area, wetlands cover 5.57% of the total area of Nepal. Of that portion, rivers comprise 48.2%; lakes, 0.6%; ponds, 0.9%; marginal swamps, 1.5% and irrigated fields, 48.6% (Gurung, 2018).2 Nepal demonstrated its commitment to the conservation of wetlands and their biodiversity by signing the Ramsar Convention on December 17, 1987, and designating Koshi Tappu as its first Rasmar site. Since then, a total of nine sites covering a total of 34,455 ha have been designated as wetlands of international importance in Nepal.
Policies and legislation: The National Wetland Policy of 2012 (which replaced that of 2003) sets the framework for the conservation and management of wetlands and associated terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity. This policy aims to involve local communities in the conservation and management of wetlands and the sustainable use of their biodiversity, including the sharing of products and services. Building the capacity of local communities in conservation and management is a prerequisite of the policy. It emphasizes increasing the awareness about ecosystem functions, the production and availability of ecosystem services, and the utilization of those services without undermining the ability of wetlands to produce services. The policy also defines and categorizes the ownership of wetlands, addresses encroachment on wetlands, and regulates the construction of buildings and infrastructures within wetlands and in their periphery.
Other policies also emphasize wetland conservation as means of conserving terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity and their environmental services and aesthetic value. They include the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of 2014, Hydropower Development Policy of 2002, Water Resources Strategy of 2002, National Water Plan of 2005, Tourism Policy of 2009, Climate Change Policy of 2011, Forest Policy of 2015, and Forest Sector Strategy of 2016. A common thread connecting these policies is their pursuit of the integrated and participatory management of wetlands. The National Wetland Policy of 2012, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2014-2020)
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and Nature Conservation National Strategic Framework for Sustainable Development of 2015 are most explicit in emphasizing the conservation and management of wetlands.
Other existing acts and regulations that guide the conservation and management of wetlands include the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973, Aquatic Animal Protection Act of 1961, Soil and Water Conservation Act of 1982, Water Resources Act of 1992, Electricity Act of 1992, Forest Act of1993, and Environmental Protection Act of 1996. The National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 (Section 5, Clause i) and the Soil Water Conservation Act of 1982 (Section 10, Clause a) prohibit all human acts and interventions such as the blocking of the natural flow of water into the lakes, reservoirs, rivers and wetlands inside a national park or reserve and the diversion of the flow from such water bodies by making artificial channels inside a protected watershed.
The Aquatic Animal Protection Act of 1961 recognizes the value of wetlands as a habitat of aquatic animals and prohibits the use of poisonous, noxious and explosive substances and electricity with the intent of catching and killing fish and aquatic animals. The act also prohibits the killing of fish and aquatic animals by building dams, bridges, fish ladders or water systems. The National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of1973 lists protected birds, mammals and reptiles as well as other aquatic animals and birds wholly or partially dependent on wetland systems in its appendix.
The Soil and Watershed Conservation Act of 1982 identifies parameters necessary for the proper management of catchments of rivers and lakes. It provides legislative measures concerning soil conservation and watershed management to manage a catchment while at the same time supporting natural flow into wetlands. It also empowers the government to declare any area as a protected watershed within which the government could resettle people or relocate industries and businesses. The Act prohibits a long list of activities within protected watersheds, such as the clearing of forests, the quarrying of stone, soil and/or sand, interfering with water bodies, establishing industries, allowing livestock to graze (Sections 10, 11, 13 and 17).
The Water Resources Act of 1992 also strives to minimize environmental damage to wetlands, especially lakes and rivers, through the enforcement of water quality standards (Sections 19 and 20). It states that the persons desiring to make use of water resources for collective benefits should form a water users’ association. Section 18 of the act defines obligations with regards to complying with quality guidelines for the discharge of effluent into water bodies. Section 19 prohibits actions of all kinds, including the disposal of waste, and the discharge of industrial effluent, chemicals
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and hazardous waste of any kind. The Electricity Act of 1992 prohibits the blocking, diverting and placing of hazardous or explosive materials in rivers, streams, and any other water source. Section 24 of this act states that the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity should have no significant adverse effect on the environment by way of soil erosion, floods, landslides, or air pollution.
The 1993 Forest Act defines ponds, lakes, rivers, streams and riverine lands located within forest areas as national forest (Chapter 1, Section 2). This act also empowers the government to declare any part of national forest a protected area if it has environmental, scientific and cultural significance. The EPA of 1996 stresses that nobody can generate pollution in such a manner as to cause significant adverse impacts on the environment or be hazardous to public life and people’s health. This act gave the GoN the authority, by a notification in the Nepal Gazette, to declare any place containing natural heritage, aesthetic value, rare wildlife or plants, biological diversity, or places of historical and cultural importance a protected area, national park or heritage site.
Gaps • Although the National Wetlands Policy of 2012 articulated the need for a watershed approach and the participation of wetland-dependent communities in the conservation and management of wetlands, these good principles have yet to be effectively translated into action. Gaps exist at three levels: i) harmonizing the responsibilities and roles of the federal, provincial and local governments in internalizing the provisions of the National Wetlands Policy of 2012 and developing institutional arrangement for its implementation, ii) poor inter-sectoral coordination in the management of wetlands, and iii) unclear provisions regarding ownership and equity issues in the equitable sharing of benefits by wetland-dependent communities using their traditional knowledge and practices (sections 5.2.10, 5.2.11. and 5.2.13). The federal, provincial and local governments and their entities must better understand the ecological functioning of wetlands. Such understanding must be used to guide decisions about how to apportion responsibility for wetland conservation and management among federal, provincial and local governments. • Since there is no single law guiding the conservation and management of wetlands and wetland biodiversity, sectoral legislation prevails. While it could be argued that having sectoral legislation address wetland conservation and management is not an overriding gap, such a perspective ignores the need for intersectoral coordination and for considering wetlands holistically when its links
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with terrestrial and freshwater systems are examined. Applying a unidirectional sectoral lens may thus further fragment this important ecosystem. A separate law that can improve intersectoral coordination in wetland conservation and management would be useful in the present context of sharing responsibility for conserving and managing wetlands among federal, provincial and local governments. • The participation of communities dependent on wetlands and their biodiversity envisioned by the National Wetland Policy of 2012 is expected to be realized through the sharing of responsibility between state agencies and local communities. Ensuring participation involves organizing and managing conservation initiatives around wetlands and other natural resources. The Soil and Water Conservation Act of 1982, Forest Act of1993, Water Resources Act of 1992 and Electricity Act of 1992 also highlight participatory processes. Some of the overriding concerns in translating people’s participation to the ground are the valuation of direct and indirect products and services of wetlands, the investment and mobilization of financial resources in conservation and management initiatives, benefit-sharing arrangements, and the representation and voices of people, especially those belonging to disadvantaged groups, in decision-making. • These concerns need to be resolved using grounded evidence from the diverse wetlands in the country, in particular from the services they produce and the lessons from their management to date. Existing legislation does not take heed of these lessons. The Aquatic Animal Protection Act of 1961 is a case in point. This act does not envision the role and participation of local communities in the protection of aquatic animals and therefore is ineffective for most practical purposes. • Wetland conservation and management in Nepal does not have a single guiding piece of legislation (although the National Ramsar Strategy and Action Plan (2018- 2024) does recognize the imperatives of having a Wetlands Act) for two reasons. First, the 2015 Constitution makes the conservation and management of wetlands a responsibility of the federal government and second, because boundary and jurisdictional issues may become contentious in the new governance regime. The Local Governments’ Operations Act of 2017 empowers local governments to develop regulations and rules for the conservation and management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity as long as these rules do not conflict with federal and provincial legislation. This provision endows local governments with custodianship of locally available natural resources, including wetlands.
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Terrestrial Biodiversity Conservation Context: Nepal ratified the United Nation’s Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) in 1992 and subsequently made remarkable achievements with respect to the formulation and execution of policies and strategies regarding the conservation, utilization and management of biological resources in the country. In fact, even before adopting the convention, the GoN had made efforts to develop policies, acts and regulations that supported the conservation of those biological resources integral to the life-support systems of a large section of the Nepali population.
Policies and legislations: The ratification of the UNCBS in 1992 sparked a major shift in national policy on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity. Around the same time, the GoN began a participatory approach to forest and biodiversity conservation which paid special attention to the rights and responsibilities of communities dependent on forests. The Forest Act of 1993 and the Forest Regulation of 1993 aimed to ensure that local communities participated in meeting their basic needs through sustainable forest management. The Community Forestry Program which the Forest Act and Regulations supported successfully expanded the area under forest and improved forest health and biodiversity. Presently around 20,000 community forest users’ groups are engaged in the utilization, management and conservation of forests.
With the enactment of the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 the concept of using protected areas to conserve wild flora and fauna began in Nepal. Chitwan National Park was the first national park established under this act. Today Nepal has 12 national parks, one wildlife reserve, one hunting reserve and six conservation areas. This act, which was amended in 1993, envisions involving communities living in the periphery of national parks and wildlife reserves in conservation efforts and in the management of the parks and reserves. The amendment introduced the buffer zone management program, which aimed to lessen human pressure on national parks and minimize wildlife-people conflicts. Under the program, the GoN provides 30-50 per cent of the income generated by a national park to its buffer-zone communities. This money is used to implement social and economic development activities in buffer-zone activities and to support conservation education.
The enactment of the Control of International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Act of 2017 (CITES) is a milestone in the conservation of biodiversity in the country. This act addresses the illegal trade and sale of whole and parts of wild
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animals and plants within and outside the country. It aims to ensure compliance with the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, which was ratified by the GoN in 1973. The act empowers officers of national parks, wildlife reserves, conservation areas and hunting reserves to begin probing any person or group they suspect of poaching and smuggling wild animals or their body parts. Any Nepali citizen committing such practices can be taken to court under this act.
The Act includes provisions for a 12-member Endangered Wildlife and Flora and Fauna National Coordination Committee headed by the secretary of the MoFE. The committee can recommend necessary policy, legal and institutional measures to curb wildlife crime in the country. Unfortunately, the illegal trade and trans-boundary smuggling of endangered wild animals and their body parts are steadily increasing in Nepal with the collusion of in-country poachers, middlemen and traders connected to international racketeers and smugglers. The high value of hides and body parts of wild animals in the international market drives this trade.
The Forest Act of 1993 and National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 call for promoting the ex-situ conservation of plant and animal biodiversity through the establishment and management of botanical and zoological gardens and landscape- level conservation. Under this provision, the Central Zoo was established in 1932, and later the elephant, vulture and crocodile conservation breeding centers were established in Chitwan National Park. Some animals have been transferred to Bardiya National Park also. Besides these zoological gardens which support ex- situ biodiversity conservation, the Nepal has five landscape-level conservation programs: Tarai Arc, Sacred Himalayan, Kailash Sacred, Chitwan-Annapurna and Kangchenjunga. These programs aim to provide equal opportunities to all conservation stakeholders to work in a team to achieve cumulative outcomes that benefit biodiversity.
Agricultural biodiversity is an important aspect of terrestrial biodiversity conservation and management. It involves the living organisms of and interrelationships among plants, animals and microbial organisms in agricultural production systems. It encompasses i) agricultural genetic resources, including crop and livestock genetic resources, fishery, insects, micro-organisms of agricultural importance and the wild relatives of cultivated plants and domestic animals, ii) ecosystem services in agricultural production systems, such as the decomposition of organic matter, nutrient recycling and the maintenance of soil health, pest and disease regulation, pollination, carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, climate regulation and habitat
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conservation, and iii) social, economic and cultural linkages such as religious and cultural significance and agro-eco tourism. Agro-biodiversity encompasses the bases for food and nutritional security, livelihoods, poverty alleviation and ecological balance.
The GoN’s Agro-Biodiversity Policy of 2007 aimed to identify, conserve, maintain and promote the sustainable use of biodiversity of agricultural significance and establish the right of farmers to endemic agricultural genetic resources and traditional knowledge relevant for the conservation and management of agricultural resources. In 2014 this policy was amended to align it with the UN Convention on Biodiversity and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA).
The ITPGRFA MLS (Multilateral System) strategy and Action Plan (IMISAP) developed in 2017 to cover the period 2018-2015 includes guidelines for the exploration, collection, documentation and conservation of genetic materials of agricultural importance as well as guidelines for their export and import. This strategy also covers aquatic vegetation and wildlife that contribute to Nepali households’ food and nutritional security. The Seed Act of 1988 lays down legal provisions with regard to the registration and certification of seeds in the country. The Community Seed Bank Directives of 2008 and Procedures of 2009 define regulations concerning access to and the exchange, use and management of seeds at the community level.
In the conservation and promotion of biodiversity in the country, the 2015 Constitution of Nepal has envisioned that all three levels of government—local, provincial and federal—will be involved. The federal government is responsible for the formulation of national forest policy, the conservation and management of national parks, wildlife reserves and wetlands, and carbon trade (Schedule 5, Number 27) while provincial governments are responsible for the conservation and management of national forests, water and the environment at the provincial level (Schedule 6, Number 19). Environmental and biodiversity issues and boundary rivers are matters that concern both federal and provincial governments (Schedule 7, Number 13). Local governments, for their part, are responsibility for the management and conservation of watersheds and of agricultural biodiversity,3 wildlife and mineral and non-mineral resources (Schedule 8, Numbers 15, 18 and 21). Watershed conservation is the exclusive right and responsibility of local governments, but Number 7 of Schedule 9 makes forests, wildlife and biodiversity the concurrent responsibilities of all three levels of governments.
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Gaps • Policies and legislation aim to maintain balance the conservation and the sustainable use of biological resources in order to increase opportunities for enhancing local livelihoods. In some national parks, they have succeeded in maintaining ecological integrity, promoting harmony between communities and their environments and maintaining a balance between conservation and development. They have also helped increase the participation of biodiversity- dependent communities in the conservation and management of natural plant and animal biodiversity as well as of the biodiversity cultivated plants and domestic animals. However, freshwater biodiversity still faces challenges at two levels—it has no organizational carrier and face threats from demographic changes, urbanization and changes in climate and hydrology. • Environmental and social changes have led to the growth and spread of alien species, encroachment on forest areas, habitat degradation, increased wild animal-people conflicts, and more disease outbreaks and pest infestations. Increasing climatic hazards such as droughts and forest fires have exacerbated the risk of freshwater biodiversity loss. A second challenge relates to the operationalization of the policies and legislation on biodiversity conservation at the federal level. It is necessary to clearly set legislation to meet the provision of concurrent responsibilities of the three tiers of governments so that successes achieved in biodiversity conservation thus far are not diluted as the country transits to a new governance regime.
Aquatic Biodiversity Conservation Context: Rivers (snow-fed and non-snow-fed), lakes, swamps and other inland water bodies in Nepal support a vast array of aquatic wildlife, including fish. While lakes in the high mountains have glacial origins, those in the mid-hills are formed by tectonic movements and those in Tarai (ox-bow types) as rivers shift their courses. These water bodies in diverse eco-zones, from the tropical Tarai to the alpine High Himalaya, are home to diverse species of fishes and other aquatic animals such as freshwater dolphins, otters, and mugger crocodiles and gharials. The diversity of fish and other aquatic life decreases with the increase in altitude, yet as many as 191 native fish species have been recorded across the country. In addition, nine exotic fish species have been introduced through aquaculture development initiatives, bringing total fish diversity to 200 species (Sharma, 2008)4. The diversity by size is large: the largest fish ever caught, a sahar (Tor putitora) weighed 45 kg and was 1.8 m long,
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while the average zebra danio (Danio rario) is just 26 mm long (Shrestha, 1994). It is argued that native fish are disappearing at an alarming rate due to dam-building, over-fishing, illegal and destructive fishing practices, destruction of habitats, and water pollution by chemical and physical contaminants (Shrestha, 1994).
Fishery in Nepal has a long tradition among many local societies. Communities in the hills that depend on fishing and water-related occupations include the Jalhari, Majhi and Bote while those in the Tarai include the Mallah, Kewat, Sonari, Raji, Sonaha and Tharu. Some families also mend nets or provide boating services. Modern aquaculture began in Nepal in the early 1950s, when exotic carps were introduced. From 1960 to 1965, 14 state-owned fish farms and hatcheries were developed, creating the foundation for research and for extending cultured fishery across country. Capture and culture fishery together contribute nearly half of the total annual production of 37,427 metric tons of fish from country’s water bodies (Karki, 2016).
Policies and legislation: The conservation and management of aquatic biodiversity are dealt with by policies, acts and regulations developed for the management of wetland habitats as well as for fishery and aquaculture. These two sets of policies, however, are poorly synchronized. While the notion of managing habitat for some iconic species and enhancing aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity guides policies related to aquatic habitats, such as wetland management and wildlife conservation, policies on fishery and aquaculture aim to produce economic gains and contribute to food and nutrition security, poverty alleviation and sustainable economic development. The latter also aim to transform the existing small-scale aquaculture sector into a competitive and commercial enterprise.
Fishery and aquaculture development started receiving policy attention as a sub-sector of agriculture beginning in 1997/1998, when then the ninth five-year development plan was launched. The plan included three objectives with respect to the promotion of fishery and aquaculture: i) increase the supply of animal protein, ii) increase the incomes and living standards of small farmers, and iii) generate self-employment in rural areas. These objectives were further consolidated in subsequent plan periods by increasing public-sector investment in fishery and aquaculture research. These later plans supported the development and promotion of appropriate technology to expand culture fishery in ponds and inland water bodies.
Policies on wetlands, national parks and wildlife conservation, on the other hand, are guided by the desire to preserve natural habitats for iconic aquatic or terrestrial animals, wildlife or birds or to maintaining the pristine beauty of the landscape.
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These policies do not specify a direct concern for the conservation of fish habitats. Guided by the biodiversity and wetland policies, some freshwater bodies in the country have been declared protected areas and Ramsar sites. These include Rara Lake (Rara National Park) and Phoksundo Lake (Shey-Phoksundo National Park) in the high mountains and Ghodaghodi Lake in Kailali, Jagdishpur Reservoir in Kapilvastu, Beeshazar Tal and associated water bodies in Chitwan National Park and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in the lower Koshi in the Tarai.
In addition, some stretches of rivers are protected because they flow through national parks and wildlife reserves. A stretch of the Koshi River, for example, flows through Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, a stretch of Karnali River flows through Bardiya National Park, the lower Mahankali is contagious to Shukla Phanta Park, the Suligaad flows through Phoksundo and smaller rivers originate and flow through Rara and Khaptad national parks. The resultant protected statuses, even if it is not for an entire river, contribute indirectly to the conservation of natural fish habitats, endemic fish species and freshwater biodiversity.
The Forest Act of 1993 considers water bodies and wetlands which lie within national and community forests as integral to those forests. Organized community forest users’ groups who manage the forest and the natural resources within it use a set of management rules to define access to those resources and specify a mechanism of benefit sharing. The rivers and water bodies located within national forests fall under the administrative and management jurisdiction of division forest offices and are therefore under the direct custodianship of local governments. In most cases, however, their use and management are deficient and their resources are often free for all.”
The Aquatic Animal Protection Act of 1961 prohibits the use of poisonous, noxious and explosive substances as well as electricity with the intent of catching and killing fish and other aquatic animals. The act also prohibits the killing of fish and aquatic animals by causing damage to dams, bridges, fish ladders or water systems. Although enforcement is weak, some provisions of this act have been used in recent times in connection with the development of hydropower dams that potentially disrupt the migration and breeding habits of native fish species and consequently aquatic diversity. The 144 MW Kali Gandaki hydropower dam is a case in point. A fish hatchery was established as a collaborative initiative between the NEA and the Nepal Agricultural Research Council aimed to promote the mass production of indigenous fish species to offset the loss of economically and ecologically important indigenous riverine fish species. The restorative provision of the act mandates that integrating
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fish ladders be implemented to the extent possible in the construction of dams and similar flow-abstracting structures. In case such passage cannot be provided, a fish hatchery should be developed for the artificial breeding of aquatic animals (Section 5B). In this way, the act guided the integration of mitigation measure with dam development.
A recent development is the enactment of the Aquatic Animal and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 2018 by Chamunda bindrasaini Municipality in the Karnali basin. Five other municipalities in the basin have also enacted similar legislations. The following provisions of the act are worth mentioning:
• Electricity, bombs and poison cannot be used to kill fish • Net meshes should be 20-100 mm size • Fish ladders should be installed or, if that is not possible, hatcheries developed • At least 25% of the minimum flow should be releases as environmental flow • Riverbed mining is allowed only with the permission of the concerned municipality • A collaborative approach should be used to minimize disposal of polluted water in the river • Aquatic biodiversity conservation groups should be formed.5
Gaps The policies and legislation do focus on the conservation of iconic aquatic animals and birds but, although parks and protected areas are important in conserving wildlife, including aquatic organisms, they do not cover most of the important fish habitats in Nepal. The Syzothorax rarensis, for example, lives outside protected areas and is not protected. In addition, almost no water bodies are managed to conserve fish habitats. Instead, lowland wetlands included among Ramsar sites are managed to conserve the habitats of migratory water birds (Wetlands, 2005); fish habitats are not the main targets for conservation. Policies and legislation that support plans for the protection of aquatic biota, provide legal protection to species in danger of extinction, and develop a system of protected waters throughout the country (Moyle, 1995) are imperative if freshwater biodiversity is to be conserved and managed. The increasing trend of using destructive fishing methods (as specified above) and small- mesh gill nets destroy non-targeted aquatic organisms as well as small fish fry and fingerlings. Such practices may have unwanted impacts on aquatic ecosystems and
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aquatic biodiversity unless important fish habitats protected by laws (Swar, 2002) prohibiting the use of destructive fishing methods.
• The 1961 Aquatic Animal does prohibit the killing of fishes and aquatic biodiversity but has no provisions regarding the participation of communities. Policy related to fishery and aquaculture lacks an interactive perspective that linking conservation and the management of aquatic resources, fish biodiversity and the environment. A number of government agencies, international institutions and donors working in the country are developing state-of-the- art knowledge about protecting wildlife and their atural habitats but none has focused on conservation of freshwater biodiversity and fish. Organizations like IUCN and CITES have official lists of threatened animals and wildlife but while the IUCN recommends the legal protection of 10 fish species in Nepal that are either endangered (9 species) or vulnerable (1 species) (Shrestha, 1995) but its Red List does not include any of those fish species in Nepal. • Their implementation of the Aquatic Animal and Biodiversity Conservation Act locally needs to be monitored to draw lessons for scaling up and assessed to determine how much their implementation contributes to the conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
Water Resources Context: Nepal’s policies guiding water resource development aim to gradually move from a sectoral focus to cross-sectoral integration but such integration is still far from operationalized. The Water Resources Strategy (WRS) of 2002 recognized to integrate water resource development with social and economic development. The strategy suggests that i) the management of water resources be guided by the principle of integrated water resources management, ii) water utilization be sustainable to ensure the conservation of natural resources and the protection of environment, iii) water services be decentralized through autonomous and accountable public, private, community-based agencies and users’ groups, iv) use be dictated by economic efficiency and social equity, v) stakeholders participate and be consulted, v) water resource benefits be shared with riparian communities (also co-riparian countries) on an equitable, mutually beneficial basis s, vi) institutional and legal frameworks about resource management be transparent and accountable. In order to operationalize the strategy, the GoN endorsed the National Water Plan (NWP) in 2005.
The plan calls for an integrated water sector development approach and set targets to be achieved in 5, 15 and 20 years. It aims at a balanced approach that complements
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the national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, achieving food security, promoting public health and safety, increasing the standard of living and protecting the natural environment. The implementation of the WRS and the NWP were, however, put into limbo due to i) the splitting of the then Ministry of Water Resources into the Ministry of Irrigation (MoI) and the Ministry of Energy (MoE) in 2009 and ii) the sectoral approaches adopted by the MoI and. In the formulation of the WRS and the NWP, the application of IWRM was a donor precondition for funding water infrastructure projects. As no investment in infrastructure projects materialized, partly due to political instability and the resolution of the Maoist-led armed struggle created fluid political conditions, coordination between the MoI and the MoE and the pursuit of IWRM further waned. We examine this state of affairs in detail in chapter 10.
In 2016, the MoE and MoI were consolidated as the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI). The MoEWRI’s vision is to maintain a consolidated focus on the country’s water resource development. A white paper published on May 8, 2018 highlights irrigation, hydropower development and distribution, renewable energy, water-induced disaster management and the development of a water resource information system as key elements of the country’s water resources. The paper emphasizes the need for IMWR to optimize the multi- sectoral and multi-dimensional use of water at federal, provincial and local levels.
The white paper stated that the Integrated National Water Resources Policy would be reformulated to guide water resource development in the country. Accordingly, in 2017, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) introduced a draft policy on integrated national water resources. This policy emphasizes adopting a river-basin approach to water resource development and promoting balanced sectoral use and ecosystem integrity. Under the leadership of the WECS a national water resources master plan is being prepared. The plan will include a comprehensive assessment of water resources in the country, project water demand and availability at the basin and sub-basin levels and guide federal, provincial and local governments in pursuing integrated water resource development.
Policies and legislation. The Water Resources Act of 1992, and umbrella law guiding water-sector development in the country, embraces and upholds the ethos of environmental sustainability and IWRM. When this act was promulgated in 1992, environmental concerns and climate change-induced vulnerabilities had not been explicitly recognized as knowledge was evolving. In the 1990s, pollution, resource degradation, sedimentation and private sector participation were the key issues of
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water resource development. The key provisions of this act relevant to the pursuit of sustainable water resources development are as follows: i) priorities, in declining order, were identified as domestic use, irrigation, livestock, fishery, other agricultural uses, hydropower, and industrial, navigational, recreational and other uses (Section 7, Sub-section 1), ii) all kinds water sector development and use with a commercial purpose were to be licensed as specified (Section 9, Sub-sections 1-6 and iii) domestic and community uses did not need to be licensed (Section 4, Sub-section-2); iv) water users’ organizations were recognized and registered as self-governing and perpetual representatives water users (Sections 5 and 6) and v) water infrastructure and services would be transferred to organized groups of water users for subsequent operation and management, and vi) all uses of water, including effluent discharge from industries, had to meet water-quality thresholds (Sections 18 and 19) and viii) no water resource development of any kind could have an adverse environmental impact.
Gaps • Nepal’s predominant sectoral focus lead to such sizable gaps that neither the WRS nor the NWP could be implemented. Continuing political uncertainty and changes in government worked against their implementation, too. • The Water Resources Act defines the priority uses of water but says nothing about the conservation of water resources despite the fact that no use whatsoever is possible without conservation. • The division of responsibility for monitoring and ensuring compliance with environmental standard among sectoral agencies and national and local governments did not materialize. • The tolerance limits of rivers have not been determined, and the uses of water, including effluent discharges from industries, are not monitored • The fact that provincial and local governments have low capacities is problematic as local governments have been entrusted to monitor environments, maintain ecosystem integrity and manage natural resources. • The Water Resources Act of 1992 grants ownership of water resources to the GoN and provides usufructuary rights to domestic, community and commercial users of water. It however makes provisions for conservation except mentioning of water-quality standards. Its provisions do not address issues important to water resources sustainability, such as land-use and land-cover changes, urbanization and groundwater recharge. As climate change-led uncertainties become more dominant, they, too, must be considered in sustainable water resources management.
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• While hydropower has received preferential treatment, efforts to ensure compliance with existing legislation and to nudge hydropower towards sustainability are limited. The result is increasing costs for ecological communities, freshwater biodiversity and riverine ecosystems.
Irrigation Context: Since irrigation is a major user of water, irrigation policy and legislation are relevant to freshwater biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. Most irrigation in Nepal uses surface water sources but in the Tarai groundwater is also used. Surface irrigation systems are built within a single basin, so flow from irrigated areas stays within that basin.6 Surface irrigation systems are of two types, those built and managed by farmers and those built by public sector agencies like the DoI. Maintaining downstream flow and controlling pollution are too key issues. Policy and legislation reform in the sector began in the 1980s.
Policy and Legislation: Nepal’s first irrigation policy, which was introduced in 1993, was amended in 1997, 2003 and 2013. It now provides a framework for the organized participation of users in the development, operation and management of all types and sizes of irrigation schemes. The 2013 amendment aims to i) develop a framework for the optimal use of both surface and groundwater to produce year-round irrigation, ii) institutionalize users’ participation in the development and management of irrigation infrastructures and services, iii) internalize the principle of IWRM in the irrigation sector, iv) restrict the conversion of irrigated areas to other uses, and v) encourage the private sector to participate in irrigation development and management.
These measures underscore the importance of users’ participation in the design, development, operation and management of irrigation infrastructures and services. Today about 3,000 water users’ associations (WUAs) which manage all types and sizes of irrigation systems right across the country are registered with the government entities (district administrations, district water resources committees, and local governments). About 2,200 of them are associated with National Federation of Irrigation Water Users’ Association Nepal (NIFUWAN), which has 68 chapters across the country. Certain provisions of the irrigation policy, such as sustaining the operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures and services by collecting irrigation service frees (ISF), could not, however, be achieved because WUAs do not have a legal mandate to collect of such fees. In addition, the lack of legislation barred the private sector from getting involved in the development of surface irrigation systems and services.
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After the reorganization of the MoEWRI in 2016, the DoI was reorganized to become the Department of Irrigation and Water Resources (DoIWR). It is responsible for providing local governments with technical support for small irrigation development and provincial governments with technical support for the development of medium and large irrigation systems. The MoIWR is also responsible for coordinating the development of major irrigation infrastructures, including inter-basin water- transfer projects.
A draft irrigation bill prepared by the erstwhile MoI in 2015 was tabled in the parliament but has not yet been approved. The key provisions of the bill concern i) the private sector participation in the construction, implementation, operation and management of irrigation systems under a public-private partnership (PPP) model (Section 10, sub-Section 4, clause ii) the transfer of the operation and management of government-managed irrigation systems to WUAs (Clause 11), iii) prohibition of the conversion of land under irrigation command to other uses (Clause 16), and iv) provisions for the formation of irrigation management committees in large and major irrigation systems. Irrigation management committees are to comprise representatives from federal, provincial and local governments and are to issue directives with regard to the sustainable and effective management of irrigation infrastructures and services. Clause 29 of Section 8 provides for environmental protection and control. It mentions preventing erosion and its adverse impacts to aquatic life. Clause 4 of Section 8 calls for releasing downstream only that amount of “water in excess of that needed for users or service getters.” Section 9 mentions the need to ensure that irrigation water is good quality water.
Gaps • The gaps emanate from structural challenges. Past investments in irrigation have not yielded the desired dividends. Though agriculture, to which irrigation should add value, employs over 65% of the active rural population, it generates only 27% of Nepal's gross domestic product. Nepal’s supply-led approach has not established link with markets or provided good-quality extension support. Nepal is a net food-importing country. Existing irrigation schemes are degrading and food productivity is low. • Irrigation policy in is not sensitive toward he conservation of water resources; instead, it focuses mainly on their use. • The sector needs to deal with the current shortage of on-farm labor, feminization of the agricultural labor force, increase in the area of land left fallow, and
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decrease in agricultural production. Other challenges are that farmers exiting agriculture and migration and the growing dependence on natural resources since off-farm livelihood opportunities are limited. • The irrigation sector has not taken active part in discourse on freshwater biodiversity and environmental flows. The 2015 draft act seems to think that downstream flow is only the excess remaining after meeting irrigation needs.
Drinking Water and Sanitation Context: Until 2004, drinking water and sanitation sector development in Nepal was guided by sub-sector policies and piecemeal regulations. The sectoral policies did not differentiate between the water supply and sanitation needs of rural and urban areas though it did advocate an integrated approach to water supply and sanitation. The challenge is to direct the implementation of drinking water and sanitation schemes towards meeting the provisions of the 2015 Constitution. According to Article 34,
• Every citizen shall have the right to free basic health services from the State, and no one shall be deprived of emergency health services. • Every person shall have the right to get information about his or her medical treatment. • Every citizen shall have equal access to health services. • Every citizen shall have the right of access to clean drinking water and sanitation.
Policies and Legislation: The promulgation of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy in 2004 and the National Policy for Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in 2009 provided a basis for increasing basic water supply and sanitation coverage to the entire population by 2017. The 2004 policy defined water supply service levels, envisioned the participation of women and disadvantaged groups in decision-making and embraced a “demand-responsive approach” to providing drinking water supply and sanitation services. This policy articulated a cost-sharing approach to developing water supply and sanitation schemes: the GoN would contribute 80%; users, 20%. The legislation specifically dealt with drinking water and sanitation making provisions for the formation of water users’ associations. It also included a procedure for their registration and conditions for service utilization.
In order to deal with operational challenges, the GoN promulgated the Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy in 2009. The key provisions of this policy include the cost-recovery principle, PPPs and effective service delivery. The policy identifies four major implementation-level initiatives aimed at improving water supply and
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sanitation services in urban areas: i) Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project (STWSSSP), ii) Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Sector Development Project (KVWSSDP), iii) Urban Environment Improvement Project (UEIP), and iv) Integrated Urban Development Project (IUDP). The policy provides a basis for the continuation of these projects as additional financial resources are made available by the GoN and the donor community.
The LoGA envisages municipalities as autonomous government entities institutions with key roles in including water and sanitation services. The government has set 2019 as the target for achieving universal access to basic water services and for making the country free of open defecation while the government’ s Fourteenth Plan focuses at (i) improving functionality of schemes; (ii) enhancing service levels and quality; and (iii) deepening water and environment sanitation in municipalities.
Gaps • According to UNICEF (2018) Nepal must overcome the following major challenges: (i) poor drinking water quality, (ii) limited functionality of water supply systems, (iii) equity issues and regional disparity in access to WASH services for disadvantaged and marginalized populations and at schools and health care facilities, (iv) poor hygiene practices especially with respect to hand-washing with soap, menstrual hygiene and child faeces management, and (v) lack of resilience and adaptation of WASH infrastructure to climate changes and disasters.
Hydropower Context: Developing the country’s economic hydropower potential of 42,000 MW is seen as a way to bring prosperity to Nepal and to Nepalis facing poverty and underdevelopment. Achievements, however, were less than satisfactory. In 2018, Nepal had an installed capacity of 1000 MW and an average per capita consumption of 142 kWh. People still rely on traditional biomass, particularly firewood, as their primary energy source. Petroleum products provide 12% of primary energy use and grid-connected hydropower just 5%. Limited energy has continued to constrain the country’s social and economic progress and resulted in reliance on natural resource-based livelihoods. This dependence stresses freshwater biodiversity and the professed environmental benefits of clean hydropower have not been realized.
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Policies and Legislation: Following the political change in 1990, Nepal liberalized the hydropower sector by promulgating the Hydropower Policy of 1991 and the Electricity Act of 1992 to remove barriers to the private-sector finances for hydropower development.
Hydropower Development Policy of 2001: This policy focuses on improving the economic growth of Nepal by providing affordable electricity through the optimal utilization of available hydropower resources. It aims to develop hydroelectricity to meet household demand and aspires to expand rural electrification and export any available surplus. It allows for the use private sector finances to develop hydropower to fulfill the internal energy demand as well as for export. It stresses environment protection in that it sees hydropower as an alternative to biomass and thermal energy and emphasizes the mitigation of adverse environmental impacts likely to result from the operation of a project. It suggests that displaced families have to be resettled. Section 6 of the policy lays down provisions for environmental protection and Sub-section 6.1 makes EIAs compulsory to identify the environmental impacts resulting from the development of dams, power houses, tunnels, canals, reservoirs, and transmission lines. The policy calls for releasing either 10 per cent of the minimum monthly average discharge of the river or the minimum identified in the EIA (Sub-section 6.1). It calls for the identification and implementation of mitigative measures.
Electricity Act of 1992: This act governs the use of water for hydropower generation. It specifies provisions both for conducting project surveys and for generating and transmitting electricity. It provides licensing and sets out the powers, functions and duties of a license holder. The act lays out specific provisions related to royalties and tariffs and the import and export of electricity.
Section 4(1) sets out provisions for issuing a license to a person or a corporate body. An application must be submitted to the prescribed officer along with the economic, technical and environmental study and other prescribed particulars detailing the proposed survey, generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. Section 24 mandates that all activities related to the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity be carried out in a manner which has no substantial adverse effect on the environment, whether through soil erosion, floods, landslides or air pollution.
Electricity Regulations of 1993: These regulations set out the procedure for obtaining a license to develop a hydropower plant and define the functions and duties of license holders. A licensee has to provide information on the quantity of water sources to be utilized. A licensee has the right to use only those water resources specified in
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the license and only for the work specified. The place and quantity specified in the license must also be adhered to.
Rule 17 (e) highlights that any person or corporate body that desires to produce electricity must analyze the environmental effect of the proposal. This rule focuses on measures to be taken to minimize the project’s adverse environment, conserve aquatic environments and animals; mitigate social and economic impacts; utilize local labor and materials; and share benefits with local people after the completion of the project. It also mentions the capacitating local people during construction, maintenance and operation; the facilities required for a construction site; safety arrangements; effects on landowners, and the details of people likely to be displaced and a plan for their resettlement and rehabilitation. Many hydropower projects do, in fact, pursue the mandate to support social and development activities in the area affected by implementation of the project. Their success, however, has been mixed and compliance with EIAs, poor.
Electricity Regulation Commission: In August 2017 Nepal passed an act to establish the Electricity Regulation Commission. Section 19(1) of the Act stipulates that the ERC has the power to fine licensees that do not comply with orders or directions.
Gaps • The Hydropower Development Policy of 2001 and the Electricity Act of 1992 envision ensuring compliance with environmental mitigation measures by undertaking periodic environmental audits. The Environmental Protection Act and Regulations of 1997 made it obligatory for hydropower projects with capacities greater than 50 MW to carry out EIAs and for those smaller than that to carry out IEEs. The stipulated amount of downstream release (10% of the average seasonal flow), however, is not based on evidence regarding the amount needed to sustain freshwater biodiversity. Even so, all hydropower projects licensed after 2001 are obliged to follow this criterion. • The weirs of Jhimruk and Aandhi Khola hydropower plants and of the Babai irrigation project include fish ladders, but the performances of those ladders have not been systematically monitored and lessons have not been applied to other public and private hydropower projects. Also, there is little compliance with the law regarding the conservation of aquatic animals and environments [Rule, 17 (e)]. Kali Gandaki is the only public hydropower project that has established and operates a fish hatchery.
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• How the minimum flow criterion integrated into the design and operation of hydropower projects helps maintain the ecological integrity of the dewatered reaches of river needs investigation. The assessments available either look into the criteria used to decide what environmental flow is or whether or not the specified environmental flow is actually met in the actual operation of the project. How the amount released as the minimum flow sustains the downstream, in contrast, has little grounded evidence. For this reason, basing environmental flow releases on a fixed percentage of minimum monthly flows without looking at changes in the downstream habitats of target species gives a false perception of achieving ecological sustainability (Rijal and Alfredsen, 2015).
Road-Building Context: Constructing roads impacts terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity in major ways because roads increase pressure on watershed-based natural resources and change the hydrology, drainage patterns, and sediment production rates in the catchments where they are built.
Policies and Legislation: The Department of Roads (DoR) is the nodal government agency that plans for and develops strategic and district roads in the country. The policy and regulatory provisions that guide the construction of roads do consider environmental degradation and biodiversity loss and articulate the need to include mitigation and restoration efforts in road development projects.
The DOR’s Environmental and Social Management Framework of 2007 (amended in 2013) integrates environmental and social safeguards into the development and improvement of roads and bridges. The framework lays down procedural guidelines to minimize the environmental degradation and biodiversity loss caused when a road is developed and to correct and/or restore the damage caused. The DoR abides by the environmental and social safeguard policies of bilateral agencies such as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank, the key funding agencies of road and bridge development projects in Nepal. Table 4 summarizes key elements of the provisions of environmental acts and regulations applicable to road and bridge development projects.
Rural road development in Nepal is guided by the Local Infrastructure Development Policy of2006, which envisions integrating other rural infrastructures, such as water supply and sanitation, rural electrification, irrigation, solid waste management, rural housing and social infrastructures such as schools and health posts into road
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TABLE 4: ACTS AND REGULATIONS
Act/Regulation Relevant section Environmental Makes provision of IEE/EIA in any road development and bridge project, before Protection Act- implementation, as may be applicable depending on the type and size of the project. The 1997 IEE or EIA must also identify the measures. Environmental Defines the obligation of the proponents of the project to inform the affected people on Protection the content of the proposal and the pathways of social, economic and environmental Rule-1997 (with impacts, to seek their participation and support for the project. The proponent is required amendment in to issue public notice in national newspaper requesting inputs from institutions and 1999) individuals in the area likely to be affected by the project and suggestions received to be used in scoping the EIA or IEE undertaking. Forest Act-1993 Section-68 empowers the government to align road to pass through government managed forest, community forest, leasehold forest or religious forest only if alternatives are not available. In such case where road alignment passes through the forest area, the forest land used in the project and the trees cut are to be compensated as directed by the Guideline for the Use of Forest Land in the Projects of National Priority-2018. The guideline requires plantation of 25 tree saplings for one each tree cut as the project is implemented. Forest Rules- 1995 Elaborates legal measures for the conservation of forest and biodiversity. Forest Policy-2000 Policy provisions oblige the project proponent to avoid or limit the damages or effects caused to environmental resources as a result of implementation of road and infrastructure projects. National Park Prohibits road and bridge building activity in the protected areas (National Park, and Wildlife Conservation Area, Strict Natural Reserve and Buffer Zones). In case of lack of alternatives, Conservation Act- written permission from authorized government agency is required. 1973 Conservation Area Management Rule-1996 helps in screening project components based on listing of negative impacts. It also addresses the conservation of ecologically sensitive areas and wildlife- involving provisions of prohibition on wildlife hunting, construction of houses and huts and damage caused to habitat. National Presents guidelines on integration of environmental mitigation measures, particularly Environmental the management of quarries, burrow pits, stockpiling of construction materials and spoil Impact Assessment disposal operations of work camps, earthwork and slope stabilization, location of stone Guidelines-1993 crushing plants, as applicable to the road and bridge projects. Labor Act-2017 Defines the regulatory provisions concerning working environment of workers, their occupational health and safety hazards. National Transport Emphasizes the construction and management and improvement of roads and bridge Policy-2001 projects that have beneficial environmental impacts. The policy makes provisions with regards to disposal of battery, waste oil, grease and other oily substances at designated locations. Public Roads Act, Classifies roads as high ways, feeder roads, district roads, urban roads. Section 15 makes (1974) amended in provision for planting trees on both sides of road but makes no mention of aquatic 2010 biodiversity.
Climate Change Addresses the issues of climate change adaptation, mitigation and cushioning against Policy-2011 climatic hazards. The policy sets the guidelines for the mitigation risks pertaining to vulnerable infrastructures, such as roads and bridges, in relation to climate related disasters. Source: Environmental and Social Management Framework, DoR, 2013
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construction. The policy envisions that all Nepalis will have access to a motorable road after a two-hour walk in the Tarai or a four-hour walk in the hills or mountains. The construction of rural roads is guided by the National Strategy for Rural Infrastructure Development of 1997, a document which promotes labor-intensive, local resource-oriented and environmental-friendly practices in the construction of rural roads. This strategy also decentralizes the construction of rural roads.
District development committees (DDCs) were responsible for planning and executing rural road projects through district technical offices (DTOs). The Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) under the MoFALD was responsible for developing and improving the guidelines and standards for rural road projects. Today it is rural and urban municipalities that are responsible for the development of rural roads. Section 11 (Sub-sections ‘Chha’ and ‘Ta’) of the Local Governments Operations Act of 2017 empowers local governments to plan, design, implement, monitor and evaluate all local-level infrastructure development, including rural roads.
The Environmental and Social Management Framework of 2013 developed by the DoLIDAR elaborates the principles of and a framework for the environmental and social safeguards applicable to the country’s rural roads. Its main provisions are as follows: i) site-specific environmental management plans (EMP) are integral to rural road development projects, ii) IEEs are mandatory for rural road passing through national parks and protected areas, iii) a quarry site management plan was approved, iv) all rural road projects require social screening to identify their likely social impacts and provide rehabilitation support should a project lead to the loss of income and livelihoods among asset-deficient people, and v) an impact mitigation fund should be created with 3% of the project’s total cost.
The major gaps are related to poor compliance with environmental safeguards in deciding road alignment, draining road surfaces and building roadside protection works. Haphazard road alignment and the use of heavy earth-moving machines to speed up work have had alarming consequences. The scouring of hills, damage to trees and vegetation, damage to spring flows, landslides on both the upper and lower slopes of roads, and the direct disposal of the spoils in river channels all damage freshwater biodiversity. While only such disposal affects freshwater biodiversity directly, the collective impacts of road-building gradually cascade into local water regimes and local societies. This is also true across the country, including in the MKWR basins. EIAs should be conducted seriously, and local governments should monitor the implementation of the suggested management plan and take actions
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against construction companies that fail to comply with the recommendations. In theory, using a labor-intensive approach should minimize damages to local ecologies and societies.
Stakeholders in the MKWR basins stated that haphazard rural road construction had affected the rivers and freshwater biodiversity in their areas. Some of the consequences identified were i) drying and depletion of spring and stream sources, ii) increased incidence of landslides and mass wasting that damage people’s livelihood assets, iii) haphazard disposal of road spoils from road excavation damaging the spawning nests of fishes and aquatic animals, and iv) degradation of the quality of surface water bodies.
Gaps • The fact that the National Strategy for Rural Infrastructure Development of 1997 has never been revised reflects the GoN's indifference towards making rural road construction safer. Though it envisions the promotion of labor-intensive, local resource-oriented and environmental-friendly practices, the strategy is ignored by almost all local governments. • The Public Roads Act fails to consider the conservation of aquatic resources and biodiversity. It does not require implementing (or even considering) environmental safeguards when highways and rural and feeder roads are built. A new Public Roads Act that incorporates environmental and social safeguards in the form of executive and legislative powers as envisioned by the 2015 Constitution needs to be enacted.
Disaster Risk Reduction Context: Nepal is a multi-hazard country. Hazards result from the country’s high relief and rugged topography with steep slopes, its location in a high seismic zone and the concentrated of rainfall in the monsoon season. Multi-faceted socio-economic vulnerabilities and poorly developed infrastructures and services often turn these hazards into disasters. Nepal is among the top 20 most disaster-prone countries in the world and ranks 4th, 11th and 30th in climate change, earthquake and flood risk respectively (MoHA, 2016).
Nepal is highly susceptible to floods, landslides, glacial lake outburst floods and earthquakes (Petley et al., 2007; MoHA, 2011). According to the data published by the GoN, over the last 45 years (1971 to 2015), 22,372 disaster events were recorded. This figures averages to 500 disaster events annually. The disaster database also
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shows that fire is one of the most recurrent hazards in Nepal: there have been 7187 fires, 3720 floods, 3448 epidemics, and 3012 landslides. Of the different types of disasters, epidemics and floods and landslides (considered as one category) hold first and second positions in terms of loss of life, accounting for 47.5% and 35.6% of the total, respectively (DWIDM, 2015).
Over the years GoN has shifted its focus from disaster response to pro-active policies, strategies and approaches to disaster risk reduction and management. This shift to preparedness for and the mitigation of hazard risks aims to minimize loss and damage attributable to disasters. The principle of build back better (BBB) is the principle the GoN aspires to in its post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. In addition, it has tried to improve disaster-related legal frameworks and streamline policy, planning and organizational development in partnership with international communities. Some reforms were guided by the nation’s commitment to international conventions for disaster risk reduction and some by lessons from the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. International frameworks such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030), the UN Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (March, 2015) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) also guide these processes.
Policies and Legislation: The 2015 Constitution of Nepal sets policy directives related to disaster management. In Article 51(g) (9), it defines the obligations of the state with regard to disaster risk reduction and disaster management, including advance warning, preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation. In addition, in schedules 7, 8 and 9, it lays out the individual and concurrent powers of federal, provincial and local governments with regard to preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation from natural and human-induced hazards.
Till 1982 disasters in Nepal were managed on an ad hoc basis, as and when they occurred. The 1982 Natural Calamity Relief Act (NCRA) introduced a legal basis for handling disasters but was largely relief focused and did not consider all aspects of risk reduction and management. Subsequently, new policies, including the National Action Plan on Disaster Management of 1996; the Water-Induced Disaster Management Policy of 2006 and the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) of 2009, made disaster risk reduction and disaster management their focus and moved away from only providing relief. The NSDRM, in line of the Hyogo Framework, aimed at integrating disaster risk reduction into socio, economic and infrastructure development.
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The Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium (NRRC) was also established in 2009. It aimed to support the GoN in developing a long-term disaster risk management action plan (NRRC, 2013). The National Disaster Response Framework of 2013 (NDRF), the Local Disaster Risk Management Planning Guidelines (LDRMP) of 2012 and the National Strategic Action Plan on Search and Rescue of 2013 are all designed to streamline the responsibilities of different stakeholders in disaster risk reduction and management. While these were a welcome development, the notion of relief still guided disaster response, perhaps due to nature of the Disaster Act of 1982.
The Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2017 replaced the 1982 Act. It defines the roles and responsibilities of the federal, provincial and local governments with regards to disaster risk reduction, preparedness and response. It aims to decentralize disaster management activities such as preparedness, response, rescue and relief so that provincial, district and local entities assume as much of a role as the federal government. The salient features of this act are as follows:
• Considers the disaster management cycle in identifying the preparedness and response provisions. • Treats natural and human-induced hazards separately. • Provides for detailed action plans from the central government to the district and local governments, to implement disaster management plan. • Proposes that the National Council for Disaster Management (NCDM) be under the chairmanship of the prime minister. • Proposes that the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA) under the NCDM function as the focal point for disaster management and that it formulate appropriate strategies and plans for overseeing disaster management activities. • Proposes the establishment of provincial, district, and local disaster management committees under the leadership of the chief ministers, chief district officers (CDOs), and mayors and chairs of urban and rural municipalities respectively. . • Clarifies the roles, responsibilities and functions of security forces, including the Nepal Army, Nepal Police and Armed Police Force and provides for their deployment in disaster-affected areas. • Provides for the GoN to declare disaster-prone zones and mainstream the roles and responsibilities and involvement of local communities, relief agencies and humanitarian organizations in responding to the needs of affected communities.
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Other legislation that supports the 2017 Act are as follows: i) the Building Act of 1998 lays out regulations with regard to the construction of houses safe from earthquakes, fires, floods, and other climatic and geophysical hazards, ii) the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund Regulation of 2007 provides for the mobilization of resources to fund rescue-and-relief operations and the medical treatment and rehabilitation of poor and marginalized section of population. The Local Government Operation Act (LGOA) recognizes that local people and local governments are the most appropriate points of entry to meet local disaster management needs (Section 11, Sub-section ‘Na’) and authorizes rural and urban municipalities to assume the following DRR functions:
• Local-level policies, legislation, standards, and plans for the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of programs related to disaster management. • Disaster preparedness and response plans, early warning systems, search and rescue, stockpiling and distributing of relief materials, and coordination at the local level. • Local embankment, river and landslide control, river management and evaluation. • Mapping of hazards and identification of settlements at risk. • Coordination between federal, state and local level governments, local community organizations and the private sector in order to mobilize support and resources for disaster management. • Establishment and operation of a disaster management fund. • Plan formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation for disaster risk reduction. • Resettlement and rehabilitation after disaster. • Data management and study of and research about local-level disasters. • Development of local emergency work operation systems. • Implementation of community-based disaster management disaster risk management plans.
Gaps • Rural and urban municipalities differ greatly in their capacities for disaster risk reduction and response preparedness. They are also at different stages in the preparation of local disaster management and climate resilience plans.
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• There are major local-level gaps in the capacity to identify areas and communities vulnerable to natural and human-induced hazards, assess sources of vulnerabilities and systematically address them through annual and periodic development plans. Municipalities also lack the ability to formulate risk- informed socio-economic and infrastructure development plans and mitigate hazard risks.
Climate Change Context: Nepal is a climate change hot spot: climate change has changed its snow and water systems. In particular, its snowline has migrated upward due to rising temperatures in the High Himalaya and rainfall is increasingly replacing snowfall. The result is a less seasonal snow and ice storage and therefore limited melt-water production. The period for which downstream flows are low is increasing and the decline in sub-basin and watershed levels is affecting local hydrology. Springs and spring-fed streams are growing more vulnerable as basin sub-processes such as infiltration, inter-flow, percolation and groundwater flow, all of which are dependent on climate as well as topography, geology and vegetation, are affected. In steeply sloped mountainous sub-watersheds, most rainfall flows are surface run-off and most groundwater recharge tends on terraced landscape. Intense rainfall results in concentrated run-off so flash floods will become common. If the total amount of rainfall is constant but rain falls for fewer days, as climate models suggest will be the case, the resultant intensity on fragile slopes will increase their already considerable vulnerable. Thus, erosion rates and the frequency of floods and landslides, already serious concerns, are likely to increase. These impacts will cascade throughout the ecosystem and threaten food security, biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water and tourism. The agriculture, forest, livestock, disaster and health sectors are likely to be adversely affected and people accustomed to steady weather patterns will find it hard to deal with greater and more accelerated climate variability (Dixit, et al., 2016).
Policy and legislations: The Climate Change Policy of 2011 stresses the importance of low-carbon development and the building of resilience to climate change through planned adaptation. Its particular foci include the following:
• Adopting a low-carbon-emissions and climate-resilient development path for sustainable socio-economic growth (Section 8.2). • Reducing GHG emissions through the additional development and utilization of clean, renewable and alternative energy technologies and the formulation
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and implementation of plans to address the adverse impacts of climate change (Section 8.2). • Providing incentives to develop, transfer, and utilize appropriate technology for reducing, at source, the emission of air pollutants that increase the atmospheric temperature. • Auditing the energy intensity of industries every two years to promote efficiency and submitting audits to a designated authority for climate change. • Developing and promoting transport industries that use electricity (electric trains, ropeways, cable cars, and the like). • Encouraging low carbon emissions by providing financial and technical support and incentives. Other documents guiding climate change are the NAPA and the LAPA, both of which highlight the need to integrate climate change adaptation (CCA) into development at the national and local levels. They recognize that the focus must be on the most vulnerable of rural communities if the climate threat they face is to be reduced. The 2011 Climate Change policy stipulates that at least 80% of the climate budget is be used towards climate change adaptation at the local level and that efforts should target the most climate vulnerable populations. It also proposes implementing the "polluter pays” principle to generate resources as well as promoting the concept of paying for environmental services (PEA) and increasing the utilization of clean and green technologies to minimize carbon emissions.
Gaps • A major gap emerges from our inability to distinguish between the influences of climatic and non-climatic stresses on an ecosystem and its services. While the trends are clear, it is hard to attribute changes in local weather to climate change and tease out the impacts on freshwater biodiversity. It not easy to define where non-climate change impacts begin and where climate change impacts end. • It is not easy to monitor the provision to spend 80% of finances on climate change allocations for the most vulnerable because different metrics are used. Most programs implemented under climate change are no-regret options and it difficult to conceptualize what adaptation constitutes. Building local resilience, as we call for in our conceptual framework, is an appropriate strategy. The MoFE is currently revising its Climate Change Policy.
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Political-Economic Questions and Policy Implementation This review reveals two broad lessons: a) Nepal’s policies and legislation do recognize the importance of conserving biodiversity and b) complex interplay of external stresses overwhelm innovations in biodiversity conservation and policy interventions fall short of emerging challenges. Policy implementation is sectoral and siloed, poorly complied with, and weakly coordinated and harmonized. State agencies use IEEs and EIAs of infrastructure and development projects as the main instrument for environmental governance, but IEE and EIA provisions are poorly, often ritualistically, implemented, and their preparation and implementation is often neglected. Recently, the joint secretary of the MoFE claimed that there was “growing negligence in IEE/EIA reports” and that lack of clear direction had led to weak implementation (The Kathmandu Post, 2019). Efforts to minimize air and water pollution through compliance to emissions and effluent discharge standards have not been successful. Table 1, which compares environmental issues in 1993, 2001 and 2015, demonstrates that compliance is poor and that the challenges of environmental management in Nepal have increased.
The following factors lead to the gaps and ineffective implementation:
a) Multi sectoral and scalar issue: Fresh water diversity and natural resources issues are multi-scalar in nature, but sectoral approach is used for addressing them. The river basins are geologically and physically fragile regions with population made vulnerable due to poverty, out-migration including historically ingrained gender and demographic differentials. In the use of natural resources such as forests, water and even agriculture, the prevalent sectoral focus has led to the growth of singular, monocentric and technology guided responses that tend to ignore other perspectives. Rooted in the resource management approach that evolved in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this model accords primacy to meeting human needs for food, energy and water in well off urban, and industries while ignoring the role of water in nature. The approach fails to consider the risks to socially marginalized populations dependent on rivers, including women. This gap is exacerbated by social and political norms and thinking of Nepali policy actors presented below:
• Lack of system thinking: Sectoral policies do not recognize the interconnections and interdependence among ecosystems and their services and fail to provide overall dividends to communities.
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• Lack of instruments: The policies and legislation on the natural environment do recognize its intrinsic value but this recognition has not translated into appropriate instrumentation for large social benefits. For the majority of Nepalis, the decline in biodiversity is not a concern; a shortage of forest products, however, is. Interest in biodiversity is slight because people earn more cash outside of agriculture and livestock-based livelihoods than within and because the linkages between ecosystem services and farm-based livelihoods are changing (DST, 2008). Past efforts have aimed to address general degradation not endemic hot spots and while the protection of degraded forest may help regeneration, it does not help conserve biodiversity (NCVST, 2009). • Disciplinary education: Formal education related to water resources reinforces the government’s sectoral focus. The dominant discipline is civil engineering guided by a technocratic outlook that assumes that water development is socially and environmentally neutral, that there are no losers and that there is no need to consider that those in the social and economic margins are likely to be excluded (SaciWater, 2002). • Sectoral policies exclude conservation: The fact that there is inadequate effort to integrate the conservation of freshwater biodiversity and aquatic resources into sectoral policies, laws, programs and activities exacerbates the loss and degradation of those resources. b) Lack of institutional carrier: Landscape conservation processes do mention freshwater biodiversity even though they recognize sustainable freshwater system. Water sector policies are centered around pollution and its consequences to human health and wellbeing. They do not address the stresses on aquatic species. Both concerns are related and are stressed as quality degrades. Aquatic ecosystems have no organizational carrier and the conservation of freshwater biodiversity is not an agenda explicitly pursued by any organization. c) Ineffective coordination and monitoring/evaluation: There is no formal mechanism amongst various government agencies in coordinating policies that they make. Monitoring helps track changes and produce evidences to assess performance and the data helps identify reasons for good or poor performance and assess compliance. However, sufficient monitoring and reporting systems have not been established at different levels. There is no system of evaluating policies in Nepal. This has implication on learning and learning disabilities exist across sectors as little
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research for evaluation is carried out. The Hydropower Policy of 1997 states that “downstream release shall be maintained at either 10% of minimum mean monthly discharge or the quantum identified in the EIA study whichever is higher.” Though this number does not represent the diverse contexts of rivers and is a subjective figure, it nonetheless recognizes the water needs of downstream stretches. The proposed 2015 Irrigation Act goes a step backwards: all it states is that the water which remains after meeting all upstream uses will be released for appropriation downstream.
d) Lack of representation: There is hardly any representation of the affected people, and those with indigenous knowledge in the lawmaking process. The policy and law making process is hierarchical (Nepali society generally operates in hierarchical structure) controlled by elite. Some important legislation, such as the 1961 Aquatic Animal Protection Act, the 1974 Public Roads Act, the 1992 Electricity Act, and the 1992 Water Resources Act need to be revised so that they will ensure that harm to human and ecological communities, including riverine ecosystems, will be minimized. It is also necessary to align them to suit the changed political context. The government’s law-making process, despite the promulgation of the 2015 constitution, is largely non-participatory. This top-down approach is at the root of the present ecological crisis. Law-making processes and fora do not consider local people’s knowledge, aspirations or concerns. Laws are not inclusive, instead, they further the interests of the economically and politically powerful. In addition, there is a principle-agent problem, as the agent who are political leaders representing these groups have no incentive to raise their issue as policies are made.
The 2015 Constitution makes local governments the custodians of natural resources and thereby, as is appropriate, keeps decision-making about resource use close to the resource base. Elected political leaders, however, are incentived towards visible change in their constituency – that is more infrastructure development such as roads, water supply etc. and on issues that have tangible results rather than long- term outcomes emerging from conservation efforts. The interest of elected officials is guided not by pursuing natural resource and biodiversity conservation but by bringing more infrastructure projects, which as they create jobs, increase income and raise people’s quality of life, are harbingers of development. Not only have jobs not been created by this focus, it has placed the conservation of freshwater ecosystems in the periphery.Many times, environmental conservation is considered a luxury that poor countries like Nepal can ill afford in their march to development. There seem to be little incentive either in the short or the long term for conservation.
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Final Observations After democracy was reinstated in 1990, policy advocates within state agencies as well as in civic society and academies began to contest the provisions of the past. Their challenges result in reforms on issues such as equitable benefit sharing, GESI, environmental values. Many scholars within and outside of Nepal produced grounded evidence to spur those reforms. Now that a federal constitution has been adopted, however, there are new challenges to address. Most policies and acts adopted prior to 2015 need to be reconciled with the needs of the new governance architecture. This is an ongoing process, and streamlining and reformulating old policies and legislation in the changed context will take time. In that process, systematically monitored lessons must be used to demonstrate that the conservation of freshwater biodiversity can be a starting point for the balanced development of the country. The prevalent sectoral approach to water resources needs to be replaced with a more holistic one that meets needs of human and ecological communities and is integrated into the water development agenda.
The key is to align the policies, laws and regulations of the national, provincial and local governments so that horizontal and vertical synergy is maintained among institutions. Translating this vision into operation is the responsibility of governmental agencies. The shift will be fraught with major challenges that emerge from the political economic context. The shift will not be immediate, but it does need to be pursued systematically. Specifically, as lead agencies in water and environmental issues, the MoWERI, DoED and MoFE need to adopt measures for the progressive implementation of those provisions that promote the right to clean and healthy environment. They must focus on
• Conserving, promoting, and making regenerative use of natural resources by mitigating possible risks to the environment from industrial and physical development while at the same time raising the awareness of general public about clean-environment values, • Adopting appropriate measures to mitigate adverse environmental impacts on nature, the environment and biological diversity, and • Pursuing principles like the polluter pays, precautionary protection, and prior informed consent as instruments for sustainable development.
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The Paani program is helping to bring to the fore the importance of freshwater biodiversity as a key indicator of a healthy natural ecosystem and of healthy communities in the MKWR basins, and in Nepal as a whole. The program needs to engage with governmental agencies to highlight the inter-linkage between environmental and socio-economic well-being while helping build the capacity of champions at the local, provincial and national levels to meet these objectives. This strategy will require fostering continuous engagement among the MoWERI, WECS, MoFE, the newly established National Natural Resources Fiscal Commission (NNRFC), the Electricity Regulation Commission (ERC), local stakeholders, the private sector and the construction industry. The NNRFC has the mandate to oversee broad issues such as resource-sharing and conflict resolution while the ERC should look into the issue of compliance in the hydropower sector. The main users of construction-grade river sand and aggregates is construction industry. Its activities as a major actor have direct implications for the health of riverine environments and freshwater biodiversity. In the next chapter we will discuss the stress drivers and impact pathways of, and approaches to freshwater biodiversity conservation.
Notes
1 The parameters affected areTDS and concentrations of the toxic substances like arsenic (As), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn), 2 Nepal has only one reservoir, 3 Agricultural biodiversity includes all components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture as well as all components of biological diversity that constitute agricultural ecosystems (agro-ecosystems). These include the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels which are necessary to sustain key functions, structures, and processes of an agro-ecosystem (( CBD COP decision V/5, appendix). 4 Sharma, C.M. 2008. Freshwater fishes, fisheries, and habitat prospects of Nepal.Journal on Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, Vol 11. 5 Paani program has formed fishers’ groups that take part in fishing and conservation activities. It has also been supporting local communities to organize as community aquatic animal conservation groups and to register themselves at the respective urban or rural municipality. The law empowers the exec- utive (karyapalika) of a municipality to hand over a stretch of river or lake to the community aquatic animal conservation group as a community river or lake in a manner that allows the group to develop, conserve, manage and use in a sustainable manner the river or lake in accordance with the legislation to catch, kill or collect, sell and distribute aquatic animals, including fish, and equitably distribute the benefits derived. 6 The Kulekhani hydropower project transfers water to the East Rapti River. Other similar ventures are the Melamchi and Bheri-Babai diversion projects.
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Impact Pathways to Freshwater 11 Biodiversity Conservation
Impacts Impacts on freshwater biodiversity will come from i) changes in morphology and river channel stability, ii) deterioration of the physical quality of water due to increase in turbidity and chemical concentrations, iii) temporary and permanent disruptions of the food chain and the loss of benthos habitat and spawning areas of migratory fish and other aquatic animals, iv) adverse effects on riparian flora and fauna, v) the disruption of soil formation processes, vi) decrease in the amount of productive land providing livelihoods to households dependent on riverine environments, and vii) an increase in vector-borne diseases.
The already declining agricultural production may face cascading adverse impacts with potential indirect consequences on freshwater biodiversity. In the MKWR basin, agriculture depends largely on getting enough precipitation at the right time. Any deficit in monsoon or winter precipitation can reduce harvests. Similarly, changes in temperature also affect crop production, often negatively. In the hills, valleys and the Tarai the annual fluctuations in precipitation and temperature will affect agriculture- based livelihoods and increase the vulnerability of farming families, which, may cause them to either migrate or begin to use other natural resources for livelihoods. Both “solutions” are problematic, especially the latter, as the natural resource base would then be further depleted.
All the drivers mentioned above are important and need attention. The following four processes also have direct consequences on the freshwater biodiversity of the MKWR basins: a) Improper fishing practices, b) pollution from point and non-point sources, b) downstream water release from dams, and c) use of rivers as a source of construction aggregates.
Improper Fishing Practices This threat has resulted from use of inappropriate fishing methods such as explosives, poison and electric current to kill fish. This has continued despite increasing stakeholder recognition of the harmful effects of such practices on fish stock and the livelihood of the dependent communities. The other threat comes from use of nylon
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nets. Further, fishing is practiced throughout the year without heeding to the period of spawning and migration.
Pollution from Point and Non-point Sources Pollution from point and non-point sources can threaten aquatic habitats and freshwater biodiversity alongside the growth of settlements. Untreated wastewater and solid wastes are sources of such pollution even though the present levels of dumping are low. There is also no systematic monitoring of pollution sources. Another source of pollution is agricultural runoff but given the diffused nature of agricultural land; this does not pose serious problems. Other pollution sources are soil mass eroded from agriculture land and from road excavation that is disposed in rivers. These deposits damage habitats on which freshwater biodiversity depends, and therefore the linkage needs to be recognized.
Downstream Water Release from Dams Hydropower development is a national priority. Seventy-five run-of-river hydropower projects and one reservoir project with a total installed capacity of 1,005 MW are operational in 48 rivers nationwide (DoED, 2019). Another 195 small and medium run-of-river projects with daily peaking are under construction in 116 rivers of the country (DoED, 2019). By 2026, the GoN plans to harness 10,000 MW through different private and state-owned projects (IPPAN, 2017). Some of the new dams will be built in the MKWR basins. Despite the dam building, Nepal has yet to effectively use the generated hydroelectricity to transit to cleaner forms of energy, create new jobs in the service and niche industrial sectors, and make agriculture more productive. Hydropower projects also have localized impacts.
One direct consequence of dam-building is a reduction in river flow immediately downstream of a dam. This affects downstream uses, including irrigation, the protection of riverine ecosystem health, freshwater biodiversity, and cultural and religious practices. The lack of concern about downstream flow may have undesirable consequences. Already many hydropower plants do not comply with the existing rules, however minimal, and there is little or no compliance monitoring. According to JVS (2016), a series of hydropower projects in Modi Khola in Kaski and Parbat districts have impacted fish passage and production. In Phidim District, release from the dam in Hewa Khola was not sufficient for downstream irrigation (Rijal, 2018). Shrestha and Crootof (2018) have also suggested that the lack of adequate water in the dewatered zone adversely affects livelihoods and the environment. In many
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cases downstream flow requirements are more than the amounts stated in EIAs, but less than that amount is mentioned and little justification is given. Often, too, EIA reports are not implemented and there is no monitoring on environment compliance by the regulator (JVS, 2016). Instead of protecting the environment, EIAs, have in effect become sources of conflict.
The example of Jhimruk Hydropower Project (JHP) highlights how lack of sufficient downstream discharge led to major conflict. The diversion of owfl at the hydropower plant’s weir so drastically decreased downstream flow that water for irrigation was limited and freshwater biodiversity declined. Farmers who had cultivated paddy using river water found themselves at a loss, especially as no plans had been made to mitigate this impact. Fishing communities were so badly affected and some families were even compelled to change their vocations or migrate. Though an EIA had been conducted, the predicted negative consequences were not properly mitigated.
Anger escalated during the Maoist insurgency, and the plant was bombed. At first, people from Pyuthan, Rolpa, and Arghakhanchi districts gathered atthe plant site to hold a peaceful protest against the NEA’s decision to implement daily power cuts. While this first protest went smoothly, the second turned violent. The protestors vandalized the property and set it on fire. Later, a high-level delegation from Kathmandu including ministers and BPC staff visited the area to address local concerns. The power cut was lifted and today locals have power 24 hours supply. Such a conflict could have been avoided with proper EIA and effective implementation of its recommendations.
Structural limitations also had a role in the poor downstream conditions. Before JHP was built, Nepal had only two major hydropower plants, the 60 MW Kulekhani and the 69 MW Marshyangdi both built in the 1980s. Neither project were required to have formal EIAs at the time and the only reason they had project specific EIAs and implemented mitigation measures was because it was required by multilateral banks that funded them. JHP, in contrast, was a smaller plant, so it was assumed that its impact would be low. But the conflict surrounding JHP demonstrates that in Nepal’s complex ecological-human interlinked system, such assumptions are inappropriate.
The minimum average discharge provisioned as environmental-flow is another issue of concern. Is a 10% release enough for downstream use? Should this minimum be applied to all types of projects, storage, peaking, cascade or run-of-river, and those providing irrigation and drinking water services? What kind of regulatory framework should be in place for compliance monitoring? These questions remain
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largely unanswered. In addition, there is little or no scientific study to support policy decisions on matters listed above. Such studies can help the potential freshwater biodiversity champions in MKWR basins to creatively engage in policy dialogue and other mediums of public discourse in their efforts. ialoguesD on e-flows in the context of water resource development in the MKWR basins is no longer a choice if aquatic biodiversity is to be protected.
Rivers as a Source of Construction Aggregates Bulk of construction aggregates used in Nepal is collected from riverine sources. Nepal must recognize three drivers in the political economic space: a) urbanization, b) hydropower and other water-use systems, and c) transport infrastructure. Aggregates and sand are used with cement-concrete in construction of urban settlements, hydropower facilities and transport infrastructure. The construction sector suggests has three major constituents: a) cement industries b) iron and steel industries, and c) heavy equipment trading enterprises. Given this political-economic context riverbed materials will continue to be extracted and it is not possible to totally ban extraction.
Urbanization: One of the major drivers of the use of river sand is urbanization. In 2015 33.5% of the urban population was concentrated in just 16 urban centers, each of which had a population of over 100,0001. Indeed, populations in the fastest- growing settlements are increasing by 5-7% every year. The average rate of growth was 3.4%. In December 2014, Nepal added 159 municipalities to make a total 217. About 15.4% of the total population now lives in urban areas. The proportion of the population living in urban areas is highest in the hills (21.7%), followed by the Tarai (15.1%) and the mountains (2.8%). One implication of urbanization is that far more houses are being built of cement-concrete. In addition, many of the 800,000 houses damaged in the 2015 earthquake have used bricks, cement and concrete in both rural or urban areas. The proportion of houses with cement-bonded outer walls in rural areas increased from 26.6% in 2014 to 33.4% in 2015/16. This percentage will be higher if roofing material is also considered. Even if a house has concrete walls, its roof may not be of concrete. It is estimated there are three times more concrete roofs in urban areas (48.9%) than in rural areas (22.6%). Nepal’s urbanization, however, is haphazard and increasing rapidly along major highways. The settlements have not been planned to promote economic development, increase welfare, enable inclusive growth and reduce poverty.
Hydropower and other water-use systems: Energy from hydropower and other platforms are needed to address energy poverty, increase wellbeing of households, develop
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the industrial and service sectors, and add value to agriculture. The development of other water-use systems such as irrigation and drinking water are equally important. Developing hydropower system requires acquiring materials for the headworks, tunnels, power houses and other ancillary services. Similarly, irrigation systems need material for canals and related structures as do drinking water systems. Hydropower projects to generate about 2,000 MW have been planned in the MKWR basins, and this estimate is likely to change upon completion of the designs.
Transport: Transport is essential for Nepal’s economic development as it can foster production of goods and services, help raise productivity, make distribution less costly and contributes towards improving the living standards. Road transport facilitates the flow of people and commodities and enables the spread of industries and other infrastructure such as irrigation and hydropower. Nepal’s transport infrastructure consists mainly of roads and civil aviation. The road networks move approximately 90% of all passengers and freight within the country. The objective of the development of the transport sector is strengthening regional inter-connectivity and reducing socio-economic imbalances by enhancing people’s access to basic facilities such as health services, market centers and education.
The road infrastructure is made up of the Strategic Road Network (SRN) comprising national highways and feeder roads, and the Local Road Network (LRN) comprising of district, urban and village roads. The LRN is further divided into the Village Road Core Network (VRCN) and the District Road Core Network (DRCN). The LRN constitutes a significant proportion (82%) of the Nepal’s roads. Around 51% of the LRN (57,632 Km) is seasonal, or usable only in the dry season. The length of the SRN will increase from 12,473 km following the completion of roads connecting Humla and Dolpa districts. Road maintenance remains a major problem, even following the formation of a board for the purpose under the public, private partnership (PPP) model.
The MKWR basin lies in the hills of provinces 6 and 7, where a significant proportion of road network (58%) is located. Only 10%of roads in these provinces are in the mountains. The other 31% lie in the Tarai region. Most roads in the mountains basic tracks and can be used only during the winter season. Provinces 1, 3 and 4 have a significantly higher share of fair-weather and all-weather roads compared to other provinces. The construction of new roads and bridges and the expansion/upgrading of existing ones will need more aggregates and sand. Thus, rivers are likely to come under more pressure. The amount of aggregates needed in the following three sectors is also important to recognize.
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Cement Industries: The cement industry is a key constituent of construction. The consumption of cement in Nepal almost doubled in the post-earthquake period. According to the Nepal Cement Market Report of 2018, the total consumption of cement in 2017 was 6.1 million tons. The annual average rate of increase was 8.1% and consumption is expected to exceed 10 million tons per year by 2023. Nepal’s cement factories produce 500,000 tonnes annually. Most raw materials like clinker are imported from India; domestic sources supply just 10% of the total demand.
Iron and steel industries: The consumption of iron and steel also increased after the earthquake, increasing from 50,000 tons per month before to the earthquake to 80,000 tons after. The annual demand for iron and steel currently stands at 2 million tons. Nepal has 16 iron and steel companies and the per capita annual consumption is 30 kg, which is increasing 10% yearly. (As a point of comparison, per capita consumption in India is 60 kg and in China, 200 kg.) Factories are capable of meeting the current demand for low-dimension steel but the high-dimension steel required for hydropower plants and other infrastructures has to be imported from India. In any case, most of the billets are imported from India.
Heavy equipment traders. Heavy construction equipment trade has emerged as a major addition to the construction sector. The demand for heavy equipment has increased due to road expansion and construction activities. The shortage of human resources and the desire to improve efficiency are other reasons for the increase. In the fiscal year 2016/17 alone, Nepal registered 12,712 such vehicles that were imported from China and India. This represents a significant increase over previous years: in 2012/13, 13/14, 14/15 and 15/16, when 3,332; 2,789; 4,236; and 8,328 heavy vehicles had been registered, respectively.
A preliminary estimate of construction grade material for Nepal is presented in table 1.
TABLE 1: REQUIREMENT OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS BY 20302 Sector Cement (m3 x103) Sand and aggregate (m3 x103)
Hydropower 3,675 27,621 Transportation and road 476 5,625 Water and sanitation 634 6,250 Urbanization (Housing/ Complex/Hotels) 29,841 352,500
Source: Calculation adapted from IIDS (2019)
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Revenue vs. Cost In 2007, Nepal’s economy was NPR 820.81 billion and ten years later in 2017 it had grown by almost 4 times and reached from to NPR 3 trillion. The growth of the construction sector, indicated by increasing import of materials (cement and billet) as well as heavy vehicles, was a major contributor to GDP growth. Nepal imported cement worth of NPR 2,100 million in 2007, which increased to NPR 31,178 million in 2017 – almost a 15-fold increase. The value of imported billet (for manufacturing iron bars) increased to NPR 4,986 million in 2017 from NPR 655.00 in 2007, an increase of 8 times. The average sales of heavy vehicles increased by 265% during this period. The contribution of construction and aggregate mining sector (at constant price) to GDP has remained at 10% in the last five years3.
Nepal’s 2015 Constitution and election of federal, provincial and local governments have raised expectations of rapid development and economic growth. This has meant an increased focus on infrastructure, transportation, connectivity, hydropower development, and urbanization. The dominance of cement as material of choice for houses in urbanizing Nepal and South Asia will remain in the absence of alternative technology and commodities. The import of cement/billets/heavy vehicles are also expected to grow alongside demand for construction grade sand. This study has estimated that by 2030 Nepal would need a total of 392,000 m3 of sand and aggerates to meet needs of infrastructure, including hydropower and urban development.
TABLE 2: GDP AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Year GDP (NPR Cement (NPR x106) 5 Billet (NPR x106)6 Number of registered x109)4 heavy vehicles7 2007 820.81 2,100.00 655.00 2008 988.27 4,032.00 461.00 3,643.00 2009 1,192.77 4,092.00 1,087.00 4,524.00 2010 1,366.95 4,050.00 1,181.00 1,969.00 2011 1,527.34 3,300.00 1,289.00 1,333.00 2012 1,695.01 9,425.00 1,615.00 3,332.00 2013 1,964.54 9,718.00 1,960.00 2,789.00 2014 2,130.15 10,125.00 3,197.00 4,236.00 2015 2,253.16 11,689.00 3,173.00 8,328.00 2016 2,642.60 24,032.00 3,665.00 12,712.00 2017 3,007.25 31,178.00 4,986.00 12,154.00
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TABLE 3: REVENUE VS. LOSS Year Revenue (NPR x106)8 Economic loss from disasters (NPR x106)9 2007 12.35 611.00 2008 17.43 1,890.00 2009 29.58 731.00 2010 29.68 1,508.00 2011 25.10 1,898.00 2012 48.55 16,219.00 2013 52.67 1,863.00 2014 68.08 608.00 2015 193.77 7,060,762.00 2016 289.52 2,091.00 2017 387.52 10,814.00 *It is assumed that the share of revenue from sand and aggregate is 70% of the amount the government gets from awarding mining licenses.
The material needed for development discussed above will but come from the rivers. As explained earlier, the extraction can serve as source of livelihood for the poor, revenue for the governments, and profits for those involved in the business. Unfortunately, the impact of this in terms of the cost to the riverine environment and aquatic ecosystem, and the larger will be huge though the actual costs remain to be assessed and quantified. Even a preliminary comparison shows that the cost is high when the revenue from licensing of mines (including sand, aggregates and limestone) is compared with economic losses from natural disasters. In 2007 the revenue was NPR 12.37 million and it increased to 387 NPR million in 2017 while, the economic losses caused by disasters have also kept increasing. The 2015 Gorkha earthquake led to an estimated loss of NPR 7 trillion and even if this loss is not considered, generally the economic losses from disasters have consistently surpassed the benefits. When factors such as ecosystem and habitat losses are also considered the loss would be much higher than benefits. Over the 10-year period the government earned NPR 960 million as a revenue from extraction of minerals and construction grade river materials, while the economy suffered the financial loss of NPR 38,233 million due to disasters. In other words, the loss outweighed gains by almost 40 times.
Fresh Water Biodiversity Conservation Diversion of rivers for generation of hydropower and other uses and riverbed extraction has implications for conserving freshwater biodiversity not only in MKWR but across the country. Reduction in flow in downstream reaches is higher in the dry
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season when river discharge naturally dwindles while the demand for electricity in the system rises. Under such circumstances, there is a propensity among hydropower companies to divert all water into the tunnel, convert it into kWh and cash despite the existence of the requirement to ensure ecosystem flow. This is because of lack of sanctions for non-compliance and little or no monitoring. No social auditors/ champions have brought this gap into public debate.
What mechanism can ensure compliance to existing policies is therefore an important question. Providing answers would first require an assessment of the existing mechanism, if any and examine practices that worked and those that did not. Evidence of release is important and so is the institutional mechanism that would use the evidence. A creative mix of community-based science and technology can be used to establish evidence, tested as a pilot and replicated.
The regulation of extraction of construction grade material from rivers is trickier. The mining in rivers of the MKWR and other basins of Nepal is a manifestation of the demand and the prevailing political economy. First, sand and aggregates are dominant construction materials used in infrastructure and building construction. In many places sand and aggregates harvesting serve as a source of livelihood for poor and marginalized groups. For local governments, sand and aggregates are sources of revenue and for those involved in the business, a source of easy profit. There is a nexus of local politicians, contractors and bureaucrats who have been aided by use of heavy equipment to increase the efficiency of extraction. These are the main driving forces of extraction that has serious implications on health of rivers, on freshwater water diversity, and the dependent communities. Local initiatives for conservation though important are unlikely to be effective if this linkage is ignored.
Many local measures need to be taken for conserving freshwater biodiversity. These include developing instruments, standards and guidelines to regulate the mining of riverbed materials, and ensuring compliance with the environmental law, including the implementation of social safeguards. Specifically, sand mining must stay within a pre-defined limit without irreparably damaging the riverine environment or freshwater biodiversity. The proposed measures should aim to balance annual renewable deposits and the amounts extracted to ensure minimum degradation of the riverine environment, while the construction industry can sustainably harvest the materials required. It is a question of tradeoff and balance: balancing freshwater biodiversity and infrastructure development remains as a major obstacle to sustainable development as it requires both local initiatives and larger socio-political commitments and efforts.
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Notes
1 For details see MoUD (2016) 2 The requirements for construction materials for transport sector (2019-2030) has been estimated based on: Average 10 m bridge length per km of road length for strategic road network, estimates of 814 bridges required for DRCN (based on study carried out by Local Road Bridge Program (LRBP) and Quantity calculated using the standard norms in practice. The ratio of mixture of cement to sand to aggregate for concrete to be used in bridges was taken as 1:2:4. The requirement of materials for household construction was calculated from the projected number of concrete roof, foundation and out- er wall of houses that would be built from 2019 to 2030. Average growth rate was calculated from past data of census and household surveys of Nepal. The ratio of mixture of cement to sand to aggregate for concrete roof and concrete foundation was taken as 1:2:4 and of cement to sand for outer walls was taken as 1:6. From estimation and valuation guidelines, the requirement of cement for an average household was assumed to be 600 sacks of 50 kg each. Average density of cement and natural mineral aggregates was taken as 3,150 kg/m3 and 1,600 kg/m3 respectively, See, Nepal Infrastructure 2030: Investment and Financing Needs Consolidated Report, Annual Household Survey 2015/16, Environment Statistics of Nepal 2019, http://nepalconstructions.com/cost-of-building-a-house-in-kathmandu/. The estimate does not include the volume of materials sold across the border. 3 Current Macroeconomic and Financial Situation of Nepal (Based on Annual data), Nepal Rastra Bank, 1 June , 2019; https://www.nrb.org.np/ofg/macroeconomic.php?tp=current_macroeconomic&vw=1000 4 ibid 5 Ibid 6 Ibid 7 Number of heavy vehicles registered, Government of Nepal, Department of Transport Management, 1 June, 2019, https://dotm.gov.np/uploads/files/type%20wise207374.pdf 8 Budget speech”, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Finance, 1 June, 2019; https://mof.gov.np/uploads/ document/file/speech_english_20180715091522.pdf 9 See Adhikary and Adhikary (2019)
273 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Conclusion and Recommended Methods and Practices for 12 Conservation and Management of Freshwater Biodiversity
Conclusion The MKWR river basins have a diverse geographical, ecological and social milieu in which terrestrial, aquatic and human communities live in conjunction with the larger political context and the dynamics of change, including regional geopolitical dynamics. The challenges in MKWR manifest differently in the bi-national, regional, the immense Himal-to-Tarai landscape. Geopolitics brings in Indian, Chinese and Bangladeshi interests in harnessing and use of the basin’s hydropower resources though this PEA does not cover these dynamics. Indeed, the basins are undergoing rapid changes on ecological resources, use systems, users and institutional context.
While the natural system is dynamic, human built systems such as drinking water network, irrigation canals and hydropower systems once built are deterministic and possess irreversibility character. In a completed drinking water network, the size of reservoir, diameter of pipes and number of taps, for example, are fixed. Within the range of stock and flow of water used by the system, the link between inputs and outputs are preset.
The stock and flow might vary within the hydrological cycle. The depletion of springs that feed many community-based drinking water schemes in the MKWR basins is a case in point. When the spring discharge depletes, the amount of water available in the system designed and built is lowered, and designated. The quality of services provided by the system is affected. This has major implications for household’s water security, health and hygiene and increases burden on women.
The waterscape of the MKWR basins—all its forms of water in the atmosphere, on the surface, in the soil and underneath the ground and their availability for different uses—are located within this environ and face stress of change. This stress is evident in the degradation of freshwater biodiversity in the basin. The challenges are outcome of intertwining of natural ecosystems and human-built systems—their services, users, managers and institutions—are symptoms of the larger problem (Rose, 2016). There are multiple reasons for degradation of the freshwater biodiversity and efforts to address them exposes more nested challenges (NCVST, 2009) that require plural solutions and multiple scales.
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The water and freshwater biodiversity of the MKWR basins faces multiple threats. In addition to those from the excessive mining of riverbed materials, the use of inappropriate fishing methods such as bombs, poison and electric current; and from physical interventions for generating hydropower and reaping irrigation benefits. Pollution and the disposal of sediment extracted while constructing non-engineered roads also threaten rivers and aquatic biodiversity. In recent years, the impact of climate change has become more evident.
Opening of roads and increasing urbanization are also triggering changes. With opening of new roads, households from higher hill slopes and ridges are shifting to road corridors and river valleys. Changes are also seen in the type of housing. The use of cement and concrete is common and gradually replacing the traditional materials such as stones, mud-masonry and timber as construction materials. This shift has created new demands on sand and gravel increasing pressure on rivers. Haphazard extraction of bed materials from rivers. Local governments receive revenue from sales of these materials while those engaged in the business profit from selling. In many places the members of poor and marginalised families collect river aggregates as a source of livelihood.
The challenges of conserving freshwater biodiversity in MKWR basin emerges from variety of factors relating to social and environmental regulation. The way forward for conserving the freshwater biodiversity of the basins needs to be sought within this complexity, at the societal level, so that a balance among social, economic and environmental goals is achieved. As is true elsewhere, given MKWR’s complexity, such interventions will produce winners and losers at the local, sub-basin and basin scales and equity concerns need to be addressed. Conventionally, to address them, the Nepali state has often sought solutions guided by technological and engineering rationalism. While technological and engineering solutions have a role, in themselves they are insufficient.
Many questions emerge. What is the starting point for conserving freshwater biodiversity in the basins? How does one localize framework such as Integrated Water Resource Management for conservation of freshwater biodiversity in MKWR basins? What types of interventions in the waterscape would lead to transition towards overall resilience? What do these concepts mean given that physical interventions for major hydropower and inter-basin water transfer projects been planned in the basins? Resilience-building or IWRM are processes that can lead towards a better outcomes but may not be totally achieved. IWRM and the notion of
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resilient system can help achieve equitable and sustainable outcomes even though operationalizing both concept continues to be challenge. IWRM enshrines triple objectives of achieving efficiency, equity, and integrity of the natural ecosystem. While one may not disagree with this concept, it is no “silver bullet” in context that calls for an approach requiring both adapting to context and engaging stakeholders with diverse interests. There are deep “institutional barriers” that limit application of IWRM across sectors and scales.
One of the reasons for this limitation is the inertia of prevailing sectoral approach to water resources development. This approach emphasizes on achieving maximum benefits within a particular sector, while disregarding others. The approach to hydropower development, for example, is guided by generating maximum MW (or MWh) from a specific natural asset (geography and river flow) while other needs including that of the river such as local irrigation, downstream users and that of freshwater biodiversity are given low priority. In the short term, this sectoral approach may do well, but when products of a sectoral intervention are evaluated, its benefits are neither so clear-cut nor efficient a. In fact, in many cases, the designed benefits are not achieved and while unintended social and environmental consequences remain unmitigated and have become self defeating.
Wicked problems by their very nature stir up unintended consequences. Thus over the long-term, as other uses and dimension of water receive less priority the sectoral approach renders outcomes at the watershed or landscape scale sub-optimal. The results are resource degradation; the loss of biodiversity, including that of freshwater; income inequality; population displacement. Climate change multiplies the threats of these results though it is not possible to precisely predict how the effects will cascade through the waterscape.
A prudent way forward for the conservation of freshwater diversity is to pursue the idea of achieving holistic optimality even if it means sub-optimal sectoral outcomes. A holistic approach must include many solutions and do many things simultaneously guided by larger societal consensus and informed political judgment. It will be necessary to identify tradeoffs as well as the powers, interests and incentives of various actors in the policy space so that their actions can be nudged towards holistic optimality. Achieving this objective will require accountable governance that embodies the ethos of collective responsibility but also engages the market to pursue innovation, healthy competition and fair profit. These must be supplemented by civic groups asking critical questions about action of the state agencies and
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the private sector. Pursuing such an approach is easier said than done, given the physical, institutional and historical complexity of water resources development and management including in the MKWR basins.
The following issues are worth emphasizing.
Power and interest: The way the legal powers of local, state and federal government bodies are organized is key to determining jurisdiction over decision-making. The federal government has key jurisdiction over the use of rivers and their water1 along with devolution of power to look after state and local level water resource management to respective governments. Currently, law and regulations are being revised as per federal principal adopted by the 2015 Constitution but there is tension that revisions focus on concentrating power of the federal government. The MOEWRI has drafted new electricity bill that will repeal the existing Electricity Act, 1992. In this new electricity bill, the provinces are allowed to issue licenses for hydropower projects with capacities ranging from 3 MW to 20 MW whereas local governments can issue permits for projects with capacities less than 3 MW. Any project above 20 MW is, by default, under the jurisdiction of the federal government. Because they have limited financial, technical and capacity of managing a hydropower project, provincial and local governments are unlikely to become immediate players in the game. That said, tensions between local, provincial and federal governments are emerging. Even if the local governments build their institutional capacities, it is unlikely that they will be able to increase their revenue base enough to be able to fund hydropower projects on their own or in partnership with the private sector and will need to borrow loans from external sources, most likely with approval of the federal government (Section 12(4) of Intergovernmental Fiscal Arrangement Act, 2017 and section 68 (1) Local Government Operation Act, 2017).
The Federal Government has not yet repealed Water Resources Act (1992) and brought a new act to replace it. Thus, beyond the broad functions conferred by the 2015 Constitution, there is still no clarity on specifics of the institutional roles and responsibilities of three level governments in water uses like irrigation, drinking water, industry and environmental conservation. However, Schedule 6 of national constitution has mentioned about allocation of State power for electricity, irrigation and water supply services, navigation and water use within State. Some of the local governments have started to prepare their water resource plan2 but such plan have no meaning until federal government brings its legal framework as envisioned by Article 57 (6 and 7) of Nepal’s 2015 Constitution. The legal amendments need to be
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done with enactment of new Water Resources Act which will repeal Irrigation Rules, 2000 and Water Resources Rules, 1993. The new Act need to define clear jurisdiction of state and local governments on bringing their own water resource management policy providing leverage to regulate excessive and inequitable exploitation of the resource.
The state and local governments should have flexibility to bring their policies to protect natural resources from excessive exploitation for industrial and commercial uses given these state and local governments have limited power to influence economic and commercial sectors including tourism and hospitality industries though local governments are considered as custodian of local water resources like ponds, lakes and other natural resources. They are in the front line to be approached for maintaining cleanliness of rivers and water sources, including ponds and wetlands, as well as proper management of solid and liquid wastes that contribute to minimise pollution of freshwater bodies. These entities are also entrusted with the responsibility of looking after local disputes related to water for drinking and local irrigation. However, because of low institutional capacity of local government, most of their activities are not able to yield tangible results. The local governments also have limited budget to move ahead on their own. Most of these local governments are not well sensitized about the sanctity of conservation of water resources. In many cases, poorly conceived construction of local infrastructure constructions have received the priority even though they have hampered water resources and their biodiversity. Likewise, many local governments allow extraction of sand from rivers with singular focus on royalty collection. The focus on other uses is largely peripheral.
As the rate of urban development increases the housing and the interest of real estate business is also going up. This business is evolving as one of the contributors to government’s revenue and can influence the government to modify decision in its favor. Further, all the three tiers of governments have focused on infrastructure development while conservation of environment, water and freshwater biodiversity receive less priority. Further, conservation of aquatic biodiversity is not included in scope of work of any of the federal ministries. In addition, ministries and departments with portfolio of physical infrastructure development are far more dominant than ministries and departments working on environment, climate change and conservation. The population also seek improved road connectivity and other infrastructure for higher level of services. These dynamics are leading to socio-political changes in the nature of political leadership too. Some of the elected personnel at local, provincial and national leadership play multiple roles, as contractor, business person, cooperative member and NGO/CBO personnel. In some sense this trend is
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leading to local elite capture of the natural resources, and alongside the weakening of traditional institutions in the face of increasing market driven penetration and improved connectivity, posing threats to conservation of freshwater biodiversity including the role the champions can play.
Multi sectoral and scalar issues: One of the challenges of freshwater biodiversity conservation in the MKWR basins results due to the pursuit of sectoral approach to address them. The approach is evident at all scales from local to national. The basins are geologically and physically fragile regions with a population already made vulnerable by poverty, out-migration, and historically ingrained gender and demographic differentials. Their vulnerability is further exacerbated by low agricultural productivity and production and dependence on natural resource-based local livelihoods and seasonal migration of unskilled labor. Agriculture in the region is, in most cases, rain-fed or dependent for irrigation on surface sources that are depleting due to land use changes and other interventions, damage to phreatic lines caused by the construction of non-engineered roads, land and the erratic precipitation patterns associated with climate change. These changes have a major impact on the ability of those in the basins to pursue strategies for producing food and achieving food security as well as for the health of natural ecosystems and the conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
Although there is still a degree of uncertainty regarding the impacts of climate change, particularly those related precipitation, the basins are already facing pressure. Snowfall is decreasing and the number of extreme rainfall events is expected to increase. Both these changes will impact water and sediment yields. Climate change projections made by modelling, observing historical trends and listening to local perceptions suggest that temperatures are likely to increase. This change will alter the water balance in the basins with major implications not just for water and livelihoods but also for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity as well as for strategies for adapting to stresses in general, including those from climate change. Variations in the current conditions of different groups in the basins mean each has a different set of vulnerabilities. Depending on the systemic interlinkages between livelihood systems, agriculture, and forestry as well as water development and management, the nature of those vulnerabilities will change as climatic and non-climatic stresses begin to exert themselves. The most common example of this dependence is the nexus of erratic rainfall induced micro hydrological changes, building of non-engineered roads, land use changes and depleting spring water sources. The combined effects hit those who are already in the social, political and economic margins.
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Although both the Nepali government and donors have made significant efforts and spent considerable resources on agriculture in the MKWR basins, this sector has declined. In fact, agriculture is on the decline across the country. The increasing penetration of the market coupled with the decline in production mean that local populations are becoming more dependent on the import of food and other items and on the conditions of external markets, and, as a result, more exposed to fluctuations in prices and external shocks. Food system security is affected by interactions among local production systems and markets, transport and production and distribution supply chains at the regional and transboundary levels. These cross- scale implications need to be understood better because their impacts will eventually ripple into freshwater systems. The most direct linkages are changes in surface run- off and sediment responses of the rivers in the MKWR basins. Three dynamics are important. The first is changes in runoff responses of the watersheds. The second is changes in sediment dynamics. Extreme rainfall adds more sediment to an already high sediment generating landscape. The third is changes in land use particularly due to road building and urbanization that lead to more paved surfaces. While these interactions are anecdotally known, systematic studies are lacking.
If, for example, more days without rain typify future climate conditions, irrigation will be essential to maintain the agriculture and fishery that contribute to local food system resilience. With the climate becoming more variable, reliable irrigation will be necessary for stabilizing food production (and thus food security) in the basins unless food-security alternatives are found. At the same time, the functioning of irrigation systems depends on sustained river flows, which may themselves be affected by changes in vegetative cover, rainfall pattern and snow and icemelt rates, all phenomena which occur at scales that communities are unable to act upon. Furthermore, it is not possible to irrigate in all areas of the basin, and the primary livelihood alternatives open to local populations will require either that they migrate or that they turn to other land-based, and thereby land-dependent, activities such as forestry, NTFPs and aromatic plants. Changing conditions, thus, may affect these alternatives, too, and, as a result, the communities, women, and marginalized households that rely on them to supplement their incomes might find their options severely limited.
Overall, how we understand the interaction between forest, agriculture, water management and livelihood systems on the one hand and, on the other, emerging stresses will greatly impact the development strategies we adopt to support freshwater biodiversity conservation in the MKWR river basins. To understand the likely impacts
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of stresses and responses to them involves understanding interactions across scales and sectors. Healthy rivers, which are the key to healthy freshwater biodiversity, depend on river flows, which are, in turn, likely to be affected by changing rainfall dynamics and snow and ice melt rates. These impacts are themselves affected by forest cover, forest fires, the opening of non-engineered roads, river-sand mining, and pollution. Supplemental incomes derived from the exploitation of terrestrial natural resources are also affected by changing climate dynamics and regional market systems, but local communities that depend on such resources may be able do very little to anticipate or control those effects. Despite these concerns, state agencies have not contemplated a systemic approach to freshwater biodiversity conservation.3
Coordination across sectors: Nepal has not been able to coordinate its development efforts well, particularly at the landscape and river basin scales and in the multisectoral context. The fact that every formal agency is guided by its own propositions and values results in it becoming preoccupied with its own existence and its desire to deliver services within its mandate and jurisdiction. With so much self-interest, little attention is paid to broad socio-ecological imperatives. Each agency ends up becoming a single-mission, empire-building enterprise with little interest in coordinating or harmonizing procedures with other agencies. These limitations are exacerbated by inconsistencies among policies and legislation related to development and conservation. Interventions to develop energy, infrastructure, industry, and roads, for example, have had negative effects on natural environments, aquatic biodiversity and riverine ecosystems, but in pursuit of the prioritized sectoral focus, this damage and consequential cost is ignored. This disjunction should not exist, however, as policies related to forests, soil conservation, environment and climate change do recognize conservation. Unfortunately, the desire to conserve has not translated into active steps to reverse losses in and the degradation of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
Guided by the rationality of minimizing risk, government agencies would prefer to reject risk taking approach. Cartelling and syndicate are synonymous with private sector in Nepal where competition and fair profit are largely absent. Yet the private sector continues to take risk with investment in hydropower development. The space where issues of increasing degradation, loss of freshwater biodiversity and inequity are highlighted is shrinking. When the policy space involves the government, the private sector and the critical civic groups, policy impasse is less likely. Impasse will result when one seeks to impose its perspective and excludes other’s perspectives. Articulation of different views and creative contestation among the government’s
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bureaucracy, civil movement and the private sector are fundamental for ideas acceptable to all emerge for conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Such engagement as a process can generate help “harnessing of creative contestation among these the government’s bureaucracy, civil movement, and the private sector actors”.
Environmental governance: The MKWR basins face stresses due to natural dynamics as well as human interventions. One stress, which has manifested itself in the drying up of spring sources, has become pervasive in the hills. The loss of such sources has serious implications for the functionality of drinking water and local irrigation systems. In the lower basins of the region, particularly in the bhabar zone and valleys, the groundwater table has dropped. Throughout the region, both surface and groundwater face increasing pollution. The over-exploitation of natural resources and poor management of wastes adds to the loss of terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity. The haphazard construction of non-engineered roads and the rampant mining of construction-grade river materials are other challenges to freshwater habitats and biodiversity, as is the fact that the impacts of climate change multiply all these threats. In short, the region faces serious challenges to effective environmental governance. The objective of environmental governance should have been to create locally based non-natural resource-based livelihoods, improve the levels of awareness, effectively enforce environmental policies, build capacity to target available resources to the designed program, and improve accountability. However, the challenges are yet to be addressed.
To improve environmental governance, the government established the Environment Protection Council (EPC) and the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE) and provided them a mandate to formulate national environment policy and programs and to implement and enforce safeguards. Nepal is also a signatory to a number of international conventions on the environment. Internally, it adopted instruments such as the National Environmental Policy and Action Plan 1993, Environment Protection Act 1997, and Environment Protection Regulations 1997, Forest Act 1993, Forest Regulations 1995, National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, and National Park and Wildlife Conservation Regulations 1974. All infrastructure and development projects listed in Schedule 1 and Schedule 2 must carry out environmental assessments (respectively IEE or EIA) and seek government approval before they are implemented. Government policies also state that the negative impacts of industrialization and physical development must be mitigated by promoting public awareness about cleanliness. The devil however, is in the detail. The quality of environmental impact assessment itself raises fundamental question. Most of these
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studies are conducted by private consultants and the report is approved by MoEF. It is alleged that EIAs are cut and paste job and monitoring and enforcement is poor.4
The government has yet to effectively utilize tools such as strategic environmental assessment in its formulation policy and programs. Environmental policy provisions are undergoing changes in Nepal’s new political architecture. Article 30 of the 2015 Constitution guarantees citizens’ right to live in a clean and healthy environment. It accords the governments of all levels to the right and responsibility to enhance environmental-friendly development goals and minimize pollution in their respective jurisdictions. Nepal’s law-making process itself brings challenges. The citizens are almost excluded from the process of law making. Laws that are meant to benefit conservation of ecological community hardly involve them, the community or civil society organizations. Getting a copy of a bill that is tabled in the House of Representatives is almost impossible unless one can exercise connection or relationship with members of parliament or civil servants. The process of making law reflects dominance state agency with interest of the ecological and human community remaining in the periphery. Law making process and participation of different stakeholders in the process is a subject of new analysis. The ongoing debates related to Guthi, and IT and information bill can highlight the nature of changing economic and political power. The law making process itself in controlled by people with economic and political power to further their interest than promoting holistic development within whose rubric the conservation of fresh water biodiversity is promoted. This aspect of law making needs in-depth analysis.
Whether or not these provisions will be effectively implemented in the country’s new system of federal governance is unclear at present. Local levels have the authority to implement infrastructure projects of a certain limited size. They can raise tax on natural resources such as construction-grade riverbed materials and forest products. However, local levels lack the personnel, resources and problem-solving capacity they need to enforce environmental and social safeguards. Without building this capacity, entrusting local levels with the right to harness natural resources to raise revenue may lead to the agencies pursuing desire to maximize revenue while compromising precautionary principles and may damage in the freshwater biodiversity. If such practices continue, some of the endangered aquatic species may face extinction. Not only, environmental acts and regulations need to be updated and adjusted to suit the new order of governance, the regulatory capacity to enforce law built. Provincial- level policies, acts and regulations regarding the conservation of natural resources must also be harmonized so that they match both the international conventions, treaties and protocols that Nepal has signed as well as in-country EIA processes.
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Beneft-sharing: The issue of whether and how benefits from the use of environmental resources should be shared among different levels of government will no doubt emerge as a key point, potentially one of contention. Benefits are direct and indirect. Two benefit streams that are currently shared are hydropower royalties and revenue from national parks. Part of park revenue is provided to communities living in buffer zones so that they can promote conservation and development activities. Though the buffer zone committees in MKWR basins are not yet as effective asthosein Chitwan, this arrangement needs to continue and guidelines to allocate benefits to productive sectors developed. Debate over the sharing of royalties has already begun. The Provincial Governments claim that local levels will conduct EIAs or IEEs and submit their assessments to provincial governments and that royalty will be divided 60-40, with local government getting the larger share. No local government in Karnali Pradesh, however, has given a share to that province5.
River infrastructure and conservation: River engineering infrastructure is regulated in three ways: through the monitoring of environmental impact studies of hydropower and irrigation projects conducted at the feasibility and construction stages. While assessment includes the monitoring of ecosystem flow, who will carry out such monitoring is not clear. One approach is to involve local governments; their role, however, has not been specified. A second way, the ideal one, for conservation would be to conduct assessment through basin planning. Review of licenses by the Electricity Regulatory Commission is a third way compliance could be ensured.
The creation of provinces and provincial governments has not yet changed patterns of strategic decision-making related to, for example, hydropower development. The only change that has been implemented is allocating licensing responsibility to provincial governments. The Water Resource Act is currently being reformulated and in that new formulation, provinces may allocate, get some authority for planning and monitoring as well as management. That said, provincial government is likely get authority for projects with capacities ranging from 3 to 20 MW. Despite the constitutional provision for protection, without an institutional structure, river conservation lies on a fault line. De jure water resources are solely the jurisdiction of the federal government, and federalization will not have much impact on the management and maintenance of local level water sources.
How these dynamics will be played out as Nepal’s political transition progresses is not clear. Thus, devising approaches to conserving freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins presents challenges in relation to existing institutions, knowledge systems and socio-political dispensations. The lack of organizational incentives, weak implementation of policies and legislation, and the lack of research are other main limitations.
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Recommendations
On the basis of the preceding analysis, we make the following recommendations.
Data and Networking: The number of rainfall monitoring stations in the MKWR basins is inadequate, and existing data sets cannot explain characteristics at micro scale. Given that the variation in local climates is very high, there is a need to expand our database and make data more representatives of micro conditions if changes and their effects are to be properly assessed. Data must be spatially representative and of good quality and must be collected over a long period. Stations must monitor rainfall on an hourly basis. To that end, data stations must include automatic rain recorders that can monitor intensity and thereby provide a good indication of both temporal and spatial characteristics.
Data collection need not be a high-cost endeavour requiring sophisticated methods. On the contrary, a sufficient range of data of acceptable quality can be collected by practicing “citizen science,” and engaging local institutions such as forest and water users’ groups or school students to do the work.6 Using students has the added benefit of allowing them to link classroom education with real-world situations. Data collected by citizens can supplement the national network and create a localized, scientific basis for better explaining local weather patterns and their implications for freshwater biodiversity conservation.
Monsoon process: Both monsoon and westerly rains are key to lives and economies in the MKWR basins. Systematic and detailed studies are needed to generate evidence about the nature of inter- and intra-annual variations in rainfall regimes and their impacts on the basin’s natural systems, including the water cycle. Studies should disaggregate data according to season—pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter—and daily extremes. Such analysis should seek answers to the following questions: a) why is any given year’s monsoon more active than average, b) what is the relationship between monsoon behavior and extreme rainfall, and c) how are macro and micro hydro-meteorological processes linked? Better explanations of linkages help us to clarify the changing nature of climate-related hazards and anticipate future impacts and thereby to minimize source of vulnerability for water, freshwater ecosystem and dependent communities.
Snow systems: The upper MKWR contains snow deposits that store water. Its melt- water supports local ecosystems and communities which rely on it to meet drinking water and irrigation needs. But the snow system is undergoing changes, and the
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amount of melt-water is declining. This change has both local and downstream implications. These are only intuitively known and systematic monitoring of how they are progressing is not available. Since these changes will obviously affect riverine systems, our knowledge about snow systems must be enhanced.
Periods without rains: Changes in the MKWR’s climate have led to a perceived increase in the duration of the dry season, but the exact duration of this increase and its spatial scale are unknown. There is a need for information on whether droughts occur randomly over landscapes, or if they occur across the entire MKWR region or in multiple sub-basins within the MKWR river basins.
Short-duration, high-intensity rainfall: Short-duration, high-intensity rainfall events have become commonplace during the monsoon, but how climate change will affect them—whether their intensity and duration will increase or not, for example, and what the magnitude of the increases might be—is unknown. The occurrence of extreme rainfall events needs to be understood and findings communicated to decision-makers and communities so that they can be better prepared to minimize the impacts of these changes on their lives and livelihoods.
Flow regimes and sediment processes: The proportions of river flow derived from snowmelt, glacier-melt, and monsoon and the westerly rains need to be assessed. Data about the stock and flow of the region’s three types of river basins (snow-fed Himalayan, non-snow-fed Mid-Mountain, and non-snow-fed Chure) will help us understand how variability will interact with aquatic ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity. Data on the discharge of the rivers flowing in the MKWR basins must be improved significantly in order to meet this objective. These ground measurements can be combined with geospatial monitoring and modeling tools that help estimate flow values for specific river/stream.
Because of widespread landslides and other mass movement processes, the MKWR basins have high sediment yields. As changes in rainfall pattern affect local hydrology, flow regimes and sediment responses, the behavior of rivers will change. Changes in sediment processes and the river morphology must be studied systematically so that long-term trends can be assessed. Local communities should be involved in these studies, and the studies themselves should be co-produced. In participating, local communities will increase their capacity to respond to the challenge of conserving freshwater biodiversity. A recent report supported by Paani sheds more light on the geologic make up and impacts on sediment dynamics on the Karnali River basin.
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This is an important addition to the knowledge on sediment dynamics contributed by point sources such as landslides, tributaries-rivers and the spike contribution of muck caused by excavation of roads at the watershed scale (Bennett, 2018).
Fish and Aquatic Habitats: The market demand for fish has encouraged people to over-fish the available supply. In addition, people are attracted to fast-growing and highly productive fishes, including, tilapia, an exotic variety that has threatened native species with extinction. Recent evidence shows that in lakes in Pokhara, tilapia eats the eggs and fingerlings of native fish species like sahar, rahu, naini, fageta, bhyakur, and katle and has caused their populations to decline, but fish farmers in Pokhara still favor tilapia as to its high production ability7. People should be made more aware of the damages invasive species can cause to native species. Vulnerable fish species should not be harvested. Lack of any regulatory measures for sustainable harvesting, however, means that unsustainable harvesting would continue.
Resilience and Adaptation: The prevailing approach to development has created winners and losers. In the conventional scheme of things, which recent changes in Nepal’s polity have not yet changed; those who lose out are located in the social and economic margins. The need for equity requires that we pursue a pro-poor pathway; otherwise, the marginalized will simply become even more vulnerable. Local evidence-based initiatives can help establish an inclusive approach. Approaches that rely on knowledge of local diversity and can scale up good practices in changing circumstances are needed for the effective conservation of freshwater biodiversity.
Nature-based Development: Human-centric ecosystem regulation is one of the main threats to freshwater biodiversity but can be offset by various measures. Different eco- friendly infrastructures such as fish ladders in hydropower dams, weirs and barrages, for example, allow species to carry out their normal activities, such as feeding, growth, and spawning, and to find refuge. Similarly, buffer strips can be created along rivers in order to minimize the amounts of sediments and pollutants that reach water courses. Conserving freshwater biodiversity will require implementing eco-friendly measures; a green development approach must be mainstreamed in regular development. The government needs to reformulate policies and develop laws along these lines.
Participation: The conservation of freshwater biodiversity will not be effective without the involvement of local communities as they are the ones who use resources and attach to them social, cultural, and emotional value. Conservation thus requires that we do the following:
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• Disseminate knowledge regarding the importance of aquatic biodiversity, including its role in ecosystem functioning. • Adopt the payment-for-ecosystem-services (PES) tool to promote conservation as an enterprise, incentivizing both those who conserve and those who use natural resources. • Declare certain river stretches as conservation and protected zones in order to preserve freshwater biodiversity. The Karnali-Geruwa and Mohana rivers are candidates, ones that also have trans-boundary dimensions. • Make special provisions to ensure that GESI concerns are included in policies, plans and programs.
Monitoring: Monitoring helps assess the condition of, stress on and actions taking place in aquatic ecosystems. It encourages dialogue among stakeholders and informs the public. Local governments and communities need to monitor destructive fishing practices, illegal waste dumping, water extraction for private and commercial purposes, and mining of river materials. The data collected will be useful for conserving aquatic ecosystems. Monitoring the physio-chemical and biological parameters of water is essential if we are to understand quality and status of aquatic biodiversity. Policies and regulations related to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity should be revised, updated and implemented effectively by providing incentives and instituting sanctions.
Policy and Legislation: In our efforts to make MKWR communities and freshwater biodiversity more resilient, it is essential to avoid the risks of top-down policies. Communities and users’ groups are involved in many local resource management and conservation initiatives which benefit them. Communities have organized themselves into fish cooperatives that both conserve fish and water and use them to personal advantage. These initiatives suggest that communities are interested in conserving freshwater biodiversity. Public policies should support such efforts to achieve sustainability. Existing policies, laws and legislation have a sectoral focus or have been developed with the objective of supporting water and natural resource development projects; they do mention the agenda of freshwater biodiversity but do not accord it priority.
Given the role of freshwater biodiversity in sustaining the needs of human and ecological communities, the GoN should consider developing an umbrella policy governing freshwater and aquatic biodiversity. Equally important is developing regulations to ensure the effective execution of that policy. Whatever policy and
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legislation is adopted at the federal level must allow local and provincial governments to frame their own policies, laws and regulations also aimed at conserving freshwater biodiversity. Because the institutional capacity of the local governments is low, mentoring by federal and provincial government agencies will be necessary. Education, research and knowledge institutions must help local governments to develop an appreciation of freshwater biodiversity and the importance of its conservation. Policies and legislation must cater to the specific needs of local governments representing diverse socio-economic and ecological realities.
A major debilitating factor is the structural context. As we discussed earlier one sector accords low importance to the policy pursued by the other. For example, the 2014 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan endorsed by the Council of Ministers is a policy of the Government of Nepal. It is not that of only of the MoFE. However, the ministries such as the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport, and the MoEWRI, hardly accord importance to the policies of MoEF. The overall approach to development needs to harmonize all sectoral policies, and promote conditions for their effective implementation. Only then will citizens can enjoy the benefits of clean and healthy environment envisaged in the constitution.
Localized IWRM: Developing and promoting IWRM is unlikely to gain momentum at the national or the river basin level because the current agenda prioritizes large infrastructures. Both federal and provincial governments are developing run-of- river and storage hydropower facilities and looking into inter-basin water transfers. These goals do not sit well with IWRM, an approach which, as a result, is likely to be ignored. That said, there are local success stories of management of natural resources that could be emulated. The existence of a large number of FMISs and successes in community forestry across the country testify to Nepalis’ ability to shared responsibility for and assume community custodianship of natural resources management. There are also examples of local-level water resources program in the mid- and far-western regions, micro catchment-level committees that oversee water resource management, an area water management program in Mai Khola, and the lake-basin management of Begnas Lake in Pokhara Valley. These models can help devise more localized integrated approaches to the management of the water and other natural resources in the basins.
The formation of local IWRM committees with a mandate to audit the water resources development programs of local governments can help ensure that the health of ecosystems and their services are maintained. Where the boundary of a rural or an
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urban municipality coincides with that of the watershed, the same committee can function at the watershed level and where they do not a separate watershed-level committee can be formed. Representatives of local governments, members of civil society, and individual with proven expertise in freshwater biodiversity conservation must be included in such committees.
Adopting this approach at the watershed, sub-watershed or local government level can establish processes and practices of management that will nurture ecosystems and communities both. Champions should work with local entities in monitoring their deployment, glean learning and then use the learning to proactively and collectively advocate for the conservation and management of freshwater biodiversity. Such an effort will create synergy for the implementation of bottom-up IWRM in the MKWR river basins.
Promoting Stewardship: Water and other natural resources face the risk of over- exploitation as local governments often perceive them as source of revenue and in most cases assume that they can mine riverbed materials in perpetuity to generate revenue that will fund local socio-economic development. Riverbed materials are part of ecosystem processes intricately linked to hydrology, sedimentation and soil- building, and the maintenance of riparian vegetation and aquatic biodiversity. In these interlinked processes, any change in one produces changes whose impacts ripple across social and economic space. The idea of balanced utilization must guide the extraction and utilization of riverbed materials. Stewardship underscores the sensible use of water and natural resources, use that results in fewest possible negative externalities. The constitution has entrusted governments with the role of serving as custodians of natural resources, and measures are needed to translate this provision into reality.
Watershed Health: Experiences elsewhere reveal that promoting watershed health monitoring practices is key to taking informed action at the local to the national levels. A mechanism for such monitoring cannot be designed and promoted in one shot; it has to be built using iterative-learning approach. Nonetheless, it is time that watershed health monitoring begins without delay—at the local, sub-national, and national levels begin. Local governments, civil society and people in general are concerned about the increasing degradation of natural resources and are willing to invest time, knowledge, experience and even financial resources in the conservation of natural resources. Local governments must tap into this willingness to help and use a set of indicators with which to collect data to assess watershed health. Local- level volunteers who collect data should be provided with regular support and
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capacity-building. The indicators are already elaborated in chapter 6 [Identification of Indicators of Freshwater Biodiversity].
Regulation and Compliance: For freshwater biodiversity conservation regulations must be improved on four fronts: a) the mining of construction-grade river materials, b) e-flow release, c) treatment of point sources of pollution and d) addressing of non- point sources of pollution. A national-level umbrella law that sets the principles, standards and practices for the mining of riverbed and pit aggregates must be adopted in order to guide and oversee local governments, which have been given the power to issue mining licenses and regulate mining operations.
It is necessary to systematically build local capacity to generate evidence of e-flow release in existing hydropower projects already built in MKWR basins and in other projects across the country. In the MKWR basins, Jhimruk and Babai barrages are two candidates where systematic examination should begin. This data should be used to judge the performances of those barrages and to assess their compliance with regulations. The evidence generated should be shared with stakeholders and operators and made public. The learning needs to be shared with relevant stakeholders so it can be applied to other, larger sized hydropower facilities and also used to build local capacity.
Widespread and excessive use of commercial fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural fields and the leachate produced are sources of non-point sources of river water pollution. More than 60% of farmers report that they buy from resellers who are normally non-technical persons.8 They are likely to mishandle or misuse or, worse, dispose improperly of such chemicals. While these chemicals initially threaten aquatic habitats, eventually traces will contaminate human food chains, too. Local governments must be proactive in enforcing the Pesticide Act of 1991 and the Pesticide Regulations of 1993, both of which came into effect in July 1994, as they are the laws which regulate and maintain pesticide use in Nepal. Local government must work with farmers in judiciously use the amounts of chemicals applied on agricultural field and farmers should be encouraged to use organic fertilizers. Farmers’ cooperatives should be encouraged to monitor the amount used and build awareness for minimising the use which is equally important.
Dissemination and Communication: Local communities must receive accurate information on water flow processes regularly if they are to effectively contribute to goals of conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Such data are also useful to hydrologists, engineers, planners, and ecologists as they develop approaches and
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practices designed to conserve freshwater biodiversity. Having real-time data of rainfall, river flow, and sediment can improve the quality of information needed for accurately forecasting floods as well as understanding river behavior FM stations, mobile phones, the Internet and social media platforms should all be used to improve the flow and availability of information. Despite the widespread proliferation of FM stations this is not done on a regular basis. Paani should encourage selected champions to begin work on these issues.
Capacity-building: The above discussions show that any effort of promoting conservation of freshwater biodiversity needs to focus on capacity-building of those involved in the endeavor (champions, functionaries in local governments, community groups and civil society organizations). Their skills, behaviors, and knowledge need to be continuously enhanced, strengthened and improved that can meet the overall goal of fresh water bio diversity conservation Capacity-building programs should also emphasize on using appropriate tools, equipment and resources to ensure that individuals and organizations can pursue activities that promote the sustainability of fish stocks. The approach adopted must focus on empowerment and minimize excessive reliance on outside experts who presume it is they themselves who understand localized freshwater issues best. Community capacity-building should promote the ability to develop, shape, and exercise enhanced skills and knowledge to solve physical, social, and economic problems and thereby promote resilience and sustainability. Such an approach is necessary as the challenge of freshwater biodiversity exist within these larger contexts and not as a standalone local issue. Many organization undertake capacity building activities but issues around freshwater biodiversity has not received any focus.
Conflict Management: Conflict is the result of disagreement between individuals, parties and organizations. It can be intra- (within an individual, party, or organization) or inter- (between agents) and arise due to misunderstanding, communication gaps, lack of planning, weak management, or external stress. Negotiation, compromise and other strategies can be used to minimize conflict, though each method has certain limitations. Conflicts are especially common over natural parks and benefit- sharing. Stakeholders also disagree about how to develop the water resources of the MKWR basin. For example, should hydropower plants be developed or should rivers be left to flow freely? Resolving disputes over the answer requires recourse to discussions rooted in information and interests. Specifically, it is necessary to focus on the following9:
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• Involve stakeholders, document opinions, and communicate, • Develop a vision • Develop steps to achieve the vision rather than the myriad of potential options, • Focus on stakeholder’s ability to pursue the steps on resolving disputes • Orient stakeholders towards the vision rather than assess performance against a plan.
Research and Documentation: While research on and knowledge of terrestrial ecosystems is abundant, that on aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity is limited and needs to be expanded by engaging universities, research organizations and government. In addition to making changes to the formal curriculum to incorporate freshwater biodiversity conservation, it is necessary to institute funding sources for grants to conduct research on and support activities related to freshwater biodiversity conservation. Conferences, workshops and dialogues on aquatic systems of the MKWR basins need to be held in order to add to the discourse. It is necessary to document and conserve indigenous and local knowledge on aquatic ecosystems, too. Paani should specify these as appropriate purposes for grants under the Nepal River Basin Conservation Fund.
Social Dialogue: The conservation of freshwater biodiversity requires a journey in which the government, communities, and the private sector involved in heavy equipment trade, iron and steel industries, and cement industries must be engaged. The key government agencies are the Ministry of Energy Water Resources and Irrigation (MoWRI), the Water and Energy Commission (WEC), the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE). To some extent Paani has engaged these agencies regularly. In addition, it must also engage with the Nepal Electricity Regulation Commission (NERC), that have recently been established and the MoFAGA at the central level as well as their branches in provincial and local governments. The Independent Power Producers Association, Nepal (IPPAN), local communities and other stakeholders also need to be engaged. In this dialogue process participants must examine assumptions that can assist in the formulation and effective implementation of locally contextualized policies and laws as well as in monitoring and improving the performance in conserving aquatic ecosystems.
Convener: The convener and facilitator must not be an implementer but must possess adequate authority and have a mandate. The National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission (NNRFC) could play this role as it does have a mandate to oversee resource management issues. Among its functions include the following:
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• Provide, if necessary, suggestions to the national and provincial governments for the proper distribution of revenue, and • Provide suggestions to the national and provincial and local governments for the conservation and utilization of natural resources.
NNRFC has a mandate to prepare suggestions and recommendations to protect the environment through pollution control and the pursuit of inclusive green growth in transportation, energy and urban services. The NNRFC is strategically positioned to adopt and deliver risk-tested, contextual evidence to assist in policymaking and to enable governments at all levels to deliver public goods and services effectively (Ukyab & Varughese, 2019). As a mediator, this commission can provide suggestions to the national, provincial and local governments about the conservation and management of natural resources. In addition to agencies like WECS Paani should also be engaging with the NNRFC that can begin playing a role in bringing together the government departments at all levels, civil movement, community groups and the private sector for constructive dialogue on issues of natural resources management. Paani should also begin engaging the NNRFC.
Final Observation Conserving freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins requires a multipronged approach that includes activities at the local, national, and international scales. Along with pursuing the issues mentioned above, it will be necessary to engage the private sector in this endeavor and to secure support from the real estate and construction industry. This has not been done so far. Nepal’s private sector has entered the sobriquet of Kleptocratic Network that is deeply hand in hand with government on infrastructure and related issues in particular. Under such scenario it is difficult to envision where and how the “new dialog” on river health begins. In the conundrum that afflicts rivers’ health, role of the construction side ofthe commodity chain is important to recognize. Mining of sand and aggregates from rivers is rampant because there is a huge market for the same. The market ranges from major infrastructure that improve connectivity such as highways, bridges, airports, hydropower plants, view towers, commercial buildings, hotels, high rise residential buildings and hundreds of thousands of private houses. Much stricter and more effective regulation that considers both supply and demand aspects will be needed. Balancing of supply and demand is imperative while meeting needs of river health promote the conservation of freshwater biodiversity and the needs for infrastructure of all types. The private sector has not been engaged in discussion
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along these lines and that alone is not a panacea. At the very least, it would help unearth assumptions, interests and power dynamics that can provide some leverage for policies and their implementation that eventually help towards conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins.
The next three chapters 13, 14 and 15 describe (a) the policy and institutional arrangements to facilitate engagement of champions in Paani Program, (b) Methods and Practice to build capacity of champions and CSO to support Paani Program and (c) outreach and media engagement plan for champions.
Notes
1 According to Government of Nepal (Allocation of Business) Rules 2015, Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MOEWRI) and Ministry of Water Supply (MOWS) in federal government are the key ministries to look after water resource management. Beside, ministries related to industry, tourism, environment, natural resourc- es and agriculture are also other key stakeholders to influence policies related to river and its water uses. 2 Bheri Municipality of Jajarkot and Bade Malika Municipality of Bajura have brought water resource management plan. 3 Paani is also working with the WWF on systems-scale planning exercise. Paani must also bring in private sector actors and government agency “branches in provincial and local governments” in moving forward on river basin platforms. The Paani program has begun highlighting these linkages but much more work in essential for creat- ing discourse, policy influence and uptake. 4 The debate around the proposed Nijgad Airport is the most recent example of such practice. 5 See https://www.kantipurdaily.com/news/2019/06/06/155982440286884106.html accessed on 7th May 2019. 6 According to See Poppe, et al (2018). “Currently, several hundred projects, mostly in the USA, Australia, India, Canada, and the Russian Federation, are conducted in different fields of science with over 1000 volunteers. The high number of CS projects can be attributed to an increasing public interest in nature conservation during the last century combined with decreasing financial support for ecological monitoring and the development of online resources and communication techniques, such as GIS-based information systems and graphical user interfaces, which facilitate the management of citizen science projects CS may provide a crucial part of IRBM through participatory processes, starting from detecting environmental problems via environmental monitoring data collection and assessment to the building a science basis for planning as well as supervising and evaluating projects.” 7 See Kantipur June 5, 2019. Invasive species of fish destroy native species and interfere with healthy ecosystem functioning (Chhaparia, 2005; Lal et al, 2003). 8 About 80% pesticides are used in vegetable cultivation. A recent study shows that the average pesticide used in Nepal is about 396 gm/ha (PPD, 2014), which was only 142 gm/ha in 1995 (IUCN, 1995). In the year 2016/17, more than 43% of pesticides were used in the form of fungicides followed by insecticide (31.58%) and herbicide (23.38%). The share of rodenticide bactericides and bio pesticide is very low as compared to above mentioned pesticide and it shares 1.91% ,0.01% and 0.001% respectively (PRMP,2012). WWF reports that the increased rate of disease, deformities and tumors in commercial fish species in highly polluted areas of the North Sea and coastal waters of the United Kingdom since the 1970s is consistent with effects known to be caused by exposure to pesticides (FAO, 1996) 9 Adapted from John Camillus (2008); Strategy as a Wicked Problem, Harvard Business Review:
295 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Policy and Institutional Arrangements to Facilitate 13 Engagements of Champions in Paani’s Program
Introduction This report identifies reforms needed on policies, institutions and support mechanisms to facilitate champions taking forward the agenda of freshwater biodiversity conservation in the Paani program. It then proposes approach to reporting towards that end. In the earlier chapters, following factors were identified as threat to freshwater biodiversity in MKWR basins: • Destructive Fishing Practices: People living in the watersheds of MKWR basins shared declining cases of fish population. They, however, lack knowledge and information on specific details such as quantities that have depleted due to lack of systematic data. Destructive fishing practices such as use of poison, bomb and electric current were relatively common. In recent times, with efforts from Paani program such practices have declined. Yet, people still use small sized nets that capture even the fingerlings. • Pollution: In MKWR basins, direct discharges of solid and liquid wastes from individual households and businesses increasingly pollute water bodies. Wastes are haphazardly disposed, and open defecation around the water bodies is still common. These practices lower drinking water quality and negatively affect people’s health. They also lead to negative impact on aquatic habitat. The pollutants also affect the freshwater ecosystem that becomes unfit for supporting healthy biodiversity. The level of pollution, however, is lower in rural areas than in towns where plastics is a major pollutant. Systematic monitoring of quality is sporadic. • Upstream Water Diversion: Increased construction of hydropower projects, irrigation canals have affected the freshwater ecosystem1. Both divert water either for electricity production or/and irrigation overlooking the needs of aquatic ecosystem and river ecology. They have also exacerbated local level conflict. • Unregulated Extraction of River and Bank Materials: Increased constructions of infrastructures and houses have significantly increased demands for river aggregates and haphazard extraction of river bed and banks. Such mining add to sediment loads of rivers, change the river morphology and affects fresh water biodiversity habitat. River sections are leased to contractors and in return they pay taxes to the local governments. Extraction is poorly regulated. Contractors
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often employ local people mainly belonging to low income families for collecting sands and gravels. They also extract river bed materials selling it to make a living. • Unregulated Construction of Non-engineered Roads: Construction of roads is highly prioritized agenda of many local entities. Roads are considered a harbinger of development. The Federal government also aims to connect remote parts of the country by building roads, thus improving mobility, access to markets and basic services. Many roads at the local levels are non-engineered and most are built without proper EIA and IEE. Mitigation measures are not undertaken even though proper planning and engineering roads can be constructed with minimum landslides, and lower sediments generation. Thus the supply of sediment to the river environment will be lower that can assists in the conservation of aquatic biodiversity. Well planned road can help minimize impacts of spring sources. • Watershed Degradation: Construction of non-engineered road, deforestation, use of chemical fertilizers in the agricultural land, overgrazing practices and other haphazard interventions in the landscape have led to the degradation of watershed. The consequences ripple on to rivers and their aquatic biodiversity. Drying spring water sources lead to increasing burden on women who are primary managers of water.
Collectively the above factors lower quality of the riverine environment that adversely affect aquatic biodiversity. Communities who directly depend on fishing for livelihood lose their livelihoods. They have little option to shift to new forms of livelihood and they seek migration as mean of coping with the distress.
Desirable Future Conserving fresh water biodiversity requires multiple activities to be done at different levels. These activities can lead to a desirable future. Elements of a desirable future are: • Appropriate Practices of Fishing: Destructive fishing practices are minimized and sustainable practices encouraged. Local authority and fisher community take lead in monitoring such practices and help in improving awareness on sustainable fish harvesting. They would encourage using methods such as Hulcar, Tappar, Taapi and Basket stick trap for catching fishes. All urban municipalities and rural municipalities will formulate aquatic species conservation act and take necessary measures to effectively implement it. The municipal authorities will impose sanction on those who still use bomb, poison, electric current and small sized net for fishing.
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• Treatment of Solid and Liquid Wastes: Waste management approach will pursue the principle of reduce, reuse, recycle, recover and refuse. The approach will promote zero waste concept and circular economy for conservation. Effort will be made to separate biodegradable wastes, compost them and later used as bio-fertilizer. The use of non-biodegradable products such as plastics will be minimized through improved awareness, regulations and policy implementations. Attentions will be given to discharge waste water in a pit and used in kitchen garden. Likewise, industrial wastes will be treated using applicable treatment method before discharged into rivers and other water bodies. Provincial and local governments will provide tax incentives to industries that use treatment technologies. • E-flow Policy Enforced: Assessment of e-flow will be carried out from interdisciplinary studies and involving community members. The research will seek to understand environmental flow for sustaining freshwater biodiversity. The assessment will help understand needs of a specific river ecosystem, examine minimum flow needed to maintain that ecosystem, identify procedure of comply with policies. The research findings will help make informed decision making.2 The local government would take initiatives to monitor of e-flow requirement is complied with. Community members will be involved in this process so that freshwater ecosystem and local livelihoods are supported. • Regulated Extractions of River and Banks Materials: Complete ban on extraction of construction grade river bed materials is not possible due to ever rising demand for sand and aggregates. Yet, extractions could be regulated through pursuit of recommendations of environmental impacts assessments and for mitigation. Local governments will regulate mining of river resources, form river users committee and impose sanction on illegal mining activities if companies and their activities adversely harm river ecosystem. Conservationists would work with owners of mining companies on sustainable mining practices for minimizing damage to the river ecosystem. • Sufficient Geological, Environmental Social Safeguards Used in Building of Roads: Prior to road construction, thorough geological and environmental studies and EIA will be done. Contractors will be regulated and will not haphazardly construct roads in hills. The muck will be appropriately dumped. In partnership with the stakeholder communities, local governments will locate all water bodies of significance within its jurisdiction. The data base will help in maintaining integrity of the ecosystem, its services and livelihood. Local governments will closely regulate local construction activities.
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• Watershed Conservation: Watershed conservation activities will be undertaken, green and important local plants protected. Forest user groups would pursue sustainable timber harvest and prevent overgrazing by cattle through stall feeding practices. Areas surrounding water bodies will be cleaned regularly and direct waste dumping into water bodies regulated. To lower eutrophication of freshwater and preserve freshwater biodiversity, the amount of chemical fertilizers used will be systematically reduced.
Multiplicity of Views The transit from the current degraded state to a desirable one is not straightforward and simple. This process requires fundamental reorientation of the approach including that related to water development and management. By its very nature, water has multiple meaning, users and uses at different scales. This diversity brings different perspectives, values and strategies about water use and management. These perspectives are represented by four social grouping as follows: 1. State agencies: They are elected representatives at the local, provincial and national levels; political parties, government departments; and donors, both bilateral and multilateral), 2. The private sector: It include independent power producers, suppliers and service providers, managers and operators, print and electronic media, innovators, and startups, 3. The ecological community: It includes academics, local leaders, associations, universities, research groups, INGOs/NGOs, CBOs, cooperatives, community radios, and 4. The common users: They are the marginalized (fishing communities, women, vulnerable and the poor, and indigenous groups).
Each type maintains distinct worldview regarding water, its use, nature of water problems and solutions. The state agencies, for example, are concerned about control and minimizing risks. The private sector is interested in making profit. The ecological community highlights that water ecosystem and freshwater biodiversity faces threat from the policy of the state or that of the private sector. As the above three pursue their strategies, the common people struggle to make a living. Each view has a point but one or two dominate and problem arises, may lead to policy paralysis with community and ecology losing out. In MKWR basins, the state and the private sector dominate over the the ecological community and the concerns of common people. This is one of the reasons for the increasing loss of freshwater biodiversity. Constructions of new dams and inter-basin water transfer projects are likely to stress water further. Only when
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policy space has each view is represented in the policy space heard and responded to, action on freshwater biodiversity conservation can move in the right direction. Platform can be such a space in which everyone participates, and some elements of their interests as well as that of the fresh water biodiversity are met.
Policy and Institutional Arrangement Chapter 10, “Freshwater Biodiversity in Nepal: A Review of Related Policies, Acts, and Regulations”, reviewed Nepal’s relevant policies, acts and regulation related to fresh water and its biodiversity. This section focuses on gaps in policy and institutional arrangements and reforms needed. The section will then discuss policy and institutional arrangements to facilitate engagement of champions and CSOs.
Key Gaps in Policies Nepal’s policies and legislation do recognize the importance of conserving biodiversity and the complex interplay of external stresses that overwhelm innovations in meeting the objective of freshwater biodiversity conservation. Policies are sectoral and siloed, poorly complied with, and weakly coordinated and implemented. Sectoral policies are harmonized with each other. Policy interventions fall short of addressing emerging challenges of conservation. State agencies proposed IEEs and EIAs of infrastructure and development projects as the main instrument for environmental governance, but IEE and EIA provisions are poorly, often ritualistically, implemented, and their preparation and implementation are often neglected. Even officials recognize that there is “growing negligence in IEE/EIA reports and that lack of clear direction had led to weak implementation”.3 Past efforts to minimize air and water pollution through compliance to emissions and effluent discharge standards have not been successful. The following sections highlight the gaps.
Aquatic Animal Conservation • The 1961 Aquatic Animal Protection Right does prohibit the killing of fishes and aquatic biodiversity but has no provisions regarding the participation of communities in the process. Policy related to fishery and aquaculture lacks an perspective that links conservation and the management of aquatic resources, fish biodiversity and the environment. A number of government agencies, international institutions and donors working in the country have developed knowledge on protecting wildlife and their natural habitats but little focus has been on conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Organizations such as IUCN and processes such as CITES have official lists of threatened animals and wildlife but while the IUCN recommends the legal protection of 10 fish species in Nepal that are either endangered (9 species) or vulnerable (1 species) (Shrestha, 1995), its Red List does not include any of those fish species in Nepal. 300 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Water Resource • The Water Resources Act of 1992 defines the priority uses of water but remains silent on the conservation of water resources despite the fact that no use whatsoever is possible without conservation. The division of responsibility for monitoring and ensuring compliance with environmental standard among sectoral agencies and national and local governments has not materialized effectively. The tolerance limits of rivers have not been determined, and the uses of water, including effluent discharges from industries, are not monitored. The Act grants ownership of water resources to the GoN and provides limited rights to domestic, community and commercial users of water. Its provisions do not address issues important to resources sustainability, such as land-use and land- cover changes, urbanization and groundwater recharge. As climate change-led uncertainties become more dominant, they, too, must be considered in sustainable water resources management.
Aggregate Mining • Two mutually contradictory outlooks guide Nepal’s existing policies on the extraction of construction grade materials from riverbed. The first outlook maintains that Nepal, because it is a mountainous country, has abundant sand, gravel and stone that rivers annually carry and deposit downstream and that the material should be used to generate revenue to fund local socio-economic development. With the promulgation of the Local Self-Governance Act in 1999 and the Local Self-Governance Rules in 2000, riverbed materials became a new source of internal revenue for the erstwhile district and village development committees and municipalities. The second outlook, in contrast, aims tokeep riverine resources intact and untouched. The existing policies do not suggest how to balance these two outlooks. • Growing urbanization and infrastructure development in the country and neighboring Indian states have increased the demand for riverbed materials and put more pressure on local governments to identify new deposits of aggregates and to issue permits to extract aggregates without cost to the integrity of riverine environments. No efforts are made, however, to factor into the revenue generated a consideration of social and environmental costs. For example, heavy trucks transfer extracted materials to where they are used and, in the process, cause major damage to road surfaces. This and other costs which are substantial are not accounted for. • Though rural and urban municipalities do have the authority to develop their own policies and regulations regarding the mining of riverbeds, few have the capacity to do so. It is unlikely that a balance between amount extracted and integrity of riverine ecosystem will be achieved immediately. Even after municipalities prepare guidelines, they will have to work hard to ensure that they are complied with. 301 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
• The Mines and Minerals Act and Regulations lay out a procedure for licensing and regulating the mining of metallic and non-metallic minerals and generate revenue for the state. The same procedure is applied to regulate the extraction of construction-grade aggregates from riverbed and pit deposits. The amount mined in the later case is much larger, the associated transaction costs are higher and the value chains deeper. The prevailing Act does not consider these dynamics. The use of same act can thus debilitate in enforcing of social and environmental safeguards for riverbed extraction. It could seriously compromise environmentally sensitive and socially responsible mining operations. • There are major gaps in compliance with existing regulatory provisions and rules. Decisions about mining sites and extraction volumes and periods are arbitrary and are made without assessing the annually replenishable amount. Regulations that guide mitigation measures regarding the operation and restoration of mined sites are not complied with, thereby aggravating the environmental damage mining causes. In most cases, IEEs are done in name only and serve as a façade for awarding contracts for mining without proper assessment. • The operating manual for river bed aggregate mining rolled out by the MoFALD (now the MoFAGA) for environmentally sensitive and socially responsible riverbed aggregate mining does not incorporate concerns for freshwater biodiversity. The mining of aggregates from flowing river channels, dry riverbeds and sand bars along river banks have different impacts on riverine environments and biodiversity and therefore they demand different mitigation and restoration efforts. This gap means that the evidence offered to assess damage to riverine environments and freshwater biodiversity is inadequate and that ameliorative measures are ineffective.
Hydropower • The Hydropower Development Policy of 2001 and the Electricity Act of 1992 envision ensuring compliance with environmental mitigation measures by undertaking periodic environmental audits. The Environmental Protection Act and Regulations of 1997 made it obligatory for hydropower projects with capacities greater than 50 MW to carry out EIAs and for those smaller than that to carry out IEEs. The stipulated amount of downstream release (10% of the average seasonal flow), however, is not based on evidence regarding the amount needed to sustain freshwater biodiversity. Even so, all hydropower projects licensed after 2001 are obliged to follow this criterion. But compliance to existing policies is poor.
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• The weirs of Jhimruk and Aandhi Khola hydropower plants and of the barrage of Babai irrigation project include fish ladders, but the performances of those ladders have not been systematically monitored and lessons have not been applied to other public and private hydropower and irrigation projects. Also, there is little compliance with the law regarding the conservation of aquatic animals and environments [Rule, 17 (e)]. Kali Gandaki is the only public hydropower project that has established and operates a fish hatchery.
Wetland and its Biodiversity • Although the National Wetlands Policy of 2012 articulated the need for a watershed approach and the participation of wetland-dependent communities in the conservation and management of wetlands, these good principles have yet to be effectively translated into action. Gaps exist at three levels: i) harmonizing the responsibilities and roles of the federal, provincial and local governments in internalizing the provisions of the National Wetlands Policy of 2012 and developing institutional arrangement for its implementation, ii) poor inter-sectoral coordination in the management of wetlands, and iii) unclear provisions regarding ownership and equity issues in the equitable sharing of benefits by wetland-dependent communities using their traditional knowledge and practices (sections 5.2.10, 5.2.11. and 5.2.13). The federal, provincial and local governments and their entities must better understand the ecological functioning of wetlands. Such understanding must be used to guide decisions about how to apportion responsibility for wetland conservation and management among federal, provincial and local governments. • Wetland conservation and management in Nepal does not have a single guiding piece of legislation although the National Ramsar Strategy and Action Plan (2018-2024) recognizes its imperatives. The reasons are two fold. First, the 2015 Constitution makes the conservation and management of wetlands a responsibility of the federal government. Secondly, in the new governance regime boundary of such bodies may overlap with administrative boundary resulting in contentious jurisdictional issues. The Local Governments’ Operations Act of 2017 empowers local governments to develop regulations and rules for the conservation and management of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity as long as these rules do not conflict with federal and provincial legislation. This provision endows local governments with custodianship of locally available natural resources, including wetlands. Since there is no single law guiding the conservation and management of wetlands and wetland biodiversity, sectoral legislation prevails. While it could be argued that having sectoral legislation
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address wetland conservation and management is not an overriding gap, such a perspective ignores the need for intersectoral coordination and for considering wetlands holistically when its links with terrestrial and freshwater systems are examined. Applying a unidirectional sectoral lens may thus further fragment this important ecosystem. A new umbrella Act need to harmonize these provisions.
Terrestrial Biodiversity Conservation • Policies and legislation aim to maintain balance between the conservation and the sustainable use of biological resources in order to increase opportunities for enhancing local livelihoods. In some national parks, they have succeeded in maintaining ecological integrity, promoting harmony between communities and their environments and maintaining a balance between conservation and development. They have also helped increase the participation of biodiversity- dependent communities in the conservation and management of natural plant and animal biodiversity as well as of the biodiversity cultivated plants and domestic animals. However, freshwater biodiversity still faces challenges at two levels—it has no organizational carrier and faces threats from demographic changes, urbanization and changes in climate and hydrology.
Irrigation • The gaps emanate from structural challenges. Past investments in irrigation have not yielded the desired dividends. Though agriculture, to which irrigation should add value, employs over 65% of the active rural population, it generates only 27% of Nepal’s gross domestic product. Nepal’s supply-led approach to irrigation has not established link with markets or provided good-quality extension support. Nepal is a net food-importing country. Existing irrigation schemes are degrading and food productivity is low. • Irrigation policy is not sensitive toward the conservation of water resources; instead, it focuses mainly on their use. • The sector needs to deal with the current shortage of on-farm labor, feminization of the agricultural labor force, increase in the area of land left fallow, and decrease in agricultural production. Other challenges are that farmers exiting agriculture and migrating and the growing dependence of the remaining on natural resources since off-farm livelihood opportunities are limited. • The irrigation sector has not taken active part in discourse on freshwater biodiversity and environmental flows. The 2015 draft act seems to assume that downstream flow is only the excess remaining after meeting irrigation needs.
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Road Building • The fact that the National Strategy for Rural Infrastructure Development of 1997 has never been revised reflects the GoN’s indifference towards making rural road construction safer. Though it envisions the promotion of labor-intensive, local resource-oriented and environmental-friendly practices, the strategy is ignored by almost all local governments. • The Public Roads Act fails to consider the conservation of aquatic resources and biodiversity. It does not require implementing (or even considering) environmental safeguards when highways and rural and feeder roads are built. A new Public Roads Act that incorporates environmental and social safeguards in the form of executive and legislative powers as envisioned by the 2015 Constitution needs to be enacted.
Market and Private Sector • There is general apprehension of private sector that they would break legal provisions related to environment and because regulation is poor, existing legal provisions are not implemented effectively. The inherent corruption and bureaucratic propensities for rent seeking does not help. • The GoN has not provided private sector sufficient incentives in promoting environmental agenda so that it gets greater buy in. The private sector also engages in allocating bribery to get their work done quickly. Thus, policies relating to environment, water and other are ineffectively implemented.
Reforms Needed • The implementation of the Aquatic Animal and Biodiversity Conservation Act 2017 needs to be monitored locally to draw lessons for scaling up and to determine how much their implementation has contributed to the conservation of freshwater biodiversity. • In the context of local governments already empowered to provide licenses and regulate mining operation, an umbrella law that sets the principles, standards and practices for the mining of riverbed and pit aggregates is needed. Such legislation is necessary because more sophisticated and powerful earth- moving machines, stone crushers, and sand-washing and aggregate-processing machinery are being employed to extract and process aggregates. Because several market actors are involved in the value chain, the risk of damage to the physical and riverine environments and freshwater biodiversity is increased many-fold. The extraction, processing and marketing of riverbed sand and aggregates require new standards and practices of regulation to ensure that
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mining is environmentally sensitive and socially responsible. It is necessary to specify permissible extraction amounts as well as what can and cannot be done. • How does the minimum environmental flow criterion in the design and operation of hydropower projects help maintain the ecological integrity of the dewatered reaches of river needs systematic investigation. The assessments available so far either look into the criteria used to decide the amount of environmental flow or whether or not the specified amount is actually released when the plant is operated. How has the amount released as the minimum flow sustained the downstream, in contrast, has little grounded evidence. For this reason, grounding environmental flow releases on a fixed percentage of minimum monthly flows without looking at changes in the downstream habitats of target species gives a false perception of achieving ecological sustainability. • The participation of communities dependent on wetlands and their biodiversity envisioned by the National Wetland Policy of 2012 is expected to be achieved through the sharing of responsibility between state agencies and local communities. Participation involves organizing and managing conservation activities around wetlands and other natural resources. The Soil and Water Conservation Act of 1982, Forest Act of1993, Water Resources Act of 1992 and Electricity Act of 1992 also highlight participatory processes. Some of the overriding concerns in translating people’s participation to the ground are the valuation of direct and indirect products and services of wetlands, the investment and mobilization of financial resources in conservation and management initiatives, benefit-sharing arrangements, and the representation and voices of people, especially those belonging to disadvantaged groups, in decision-making. These concerns need to be resolved using grounded evidence from the diverse wetlands in the country, in particular from the services they produce and the lessons from their management to date. A separate law that can improve intersectoral coordination in wetland conservation and management would be useful in the present context of shared responsibility for conserving and managing wetlands among federal, provincial and local governments. • Environmental and social changes have led to the growth and spread of alien species, encroachment on forest areas, habitat degradation, increased wild animal-people conflicts, and more disease outbreaks and pest infestations. Increasing climatic hazards such as droughts, flash floods and forest fires have exacerbated the risk of freshwater biodiversity loss. A second challenge relates to the operationalization of the policies and legislation on biodiversity conservation at the federal level. It is necessary to clearly set legislation to meet the provision of concurrent responsibilities of the three tiers of governments so that successes achieved in biodiversity conservation thus far are not diluted as the country transits to a new governance regime.
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Facilitating Champions and CSOs Engagement Policy and institutional arrangements is important for facilitating champions’ engagement for freshwater biodiversity conservation. The arrangement should encourage active participation, promote dialogues and recognize the roles of champions and CSOs. Since some of the champions suggested are already in policy- making position, engaging other stakeholders and CSOs could be easier especially during policy actions. Paani should engage policy makers understand the role of the champions and the contribution they can make in policy formulation. Likewise, the champions in policy making position will help bridge gaps between champions/ CSOs and policy makers. Some of the policy and institutional arrangements for facilitating champions and CSOs engagements are as follows:
• Recognition of Champions and CSOs: Facilitation of champions and CSOs engagement will be easier if they receive recognition among local, provincial and government institutions. In this process Paani can act as liaison to establish link between government bodies and champions/CSOs. Recognition should support credibility of the champions/CSOs and seek their consultation for conservation of freshwater and its biodiversity. • Empowering Local Government: Champions/CSOs engagement will be most effective if local governments function as custodians with federal and provincial government playing the role as support providers. Champions/CSOs have greater closeness to local government and can directly interact with local leaders. • Dialogues Between Champions/CSOs and Policy Makers: Regular dialogues between these two parties are essential to understand one another and for maintaining sound relationships. During dialogues process champions/CSOs can share their concerns and approach for conservation to inform the policy makers. Both can also discuss on local needs, sustainable resource utilization, emerging conflicts and its management. • Participatory Policy Formulation: Policy makers can involve champions/CSOs from the initial stage during policy making process. Diverse participation makes the process transparent, legitimate and can mitigate power imbalance4. Prior to policy formulation (for example: freshwater biodiversity conservation), policy makers can consult with the champions/CSOs to understand threats and conservation challenges. Subsequently, policy makers can share draft with them for review and comments and update accordingly. • Funding Support for Participation: Effective engagement of stakeholders including champions and CSOs requires time and money5. Donor agencies such as USAID or Nepal Government can support participatory approach where champions/CSOs can meaningfully take part for policy process and review.
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Supporting such participation and deliberation will encourage democratic process where issues of the marginalized can be addressed. • Formation of Champions’ Platform for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation: Paani program with support from Nepal government can form a champions’ platform to discuss freshwater biodiversity conservation. The platform can help in enhancing cooperation among champions, government agencies and Paani program. This platform can help to develop shared vision for healthy aquatic lives and sustainable livelihood of communities. • Delegation of Responsibilities to Champions and CSOs: Government institutions can collaborate with champions/CSOs and delegate some of its responsibilities to them for management of freshwater system and its biodiversity. Champions and CSOs can take lead to build awareness of freshwater biodiversity and also monitor activities that can potentially damage freshwater system. Moreover, such delegation will enhance sense of accountability among champions/CSOs and also engage government agencies.
Final Observation The above discussions reflect ongoing change processes generally and in the MKWR basins particularly. Historically, water and other natural resources in South Asia and Nepal were developed with a sectoral focus by centralized agencies. As construction of dams and barrages, road building, urbanization and aggregate mining progresses, environmental safeguards are compromised. Policies governing various sub-sectors lack harmonization, are poorly implemented, and are bedeviled by lack of legal and regulatory oversight with limited accountability and responsiveness to the users. The 2002 Water Resources Strategy and the 2005 National Water Plan of the Government of Nepal (GoN) aimed to achieve inter-sector coordination and avoid overlaps but success has not been forthcoming. Despite the gender and social inclusion (GESI), participatory management, and user group involvement in water and natural resource management strategies, the government’s approach has remained top- down. The challenge is to aim structural transformation to meet the objectives.
Principles such as IWRM have aimed to reverse past oversights but the prevailing political economy still regards infrastructure as the preferred solutions to all water problems. The GoN’s water-sector agencies have accepted IWRM, participatory management, and GESI and environmental audits as guiding principles of water- sector development. However, the implementation of these principles is weak and environmental safeguards, especially with respect to hydropower development and extraction of river materials such as sand and aggregates overlooked. The
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prevailing approach accords little priority to concerns of local groups, ecosystems, and biodiversity. In addition, compliance with policy provisions and regulatory requirement is poor and that local capacity to monitor ecosystem flow is weak. The gaps raise questions about compliance to environmental flows and sustainable water development.
Nepal’s elected local, provincial and national governments have a window of opportunity to develop and strengthen the capacities of those elected to play a proactive role in meeting the dual objectives of conserving freshwater biodiversity and meeting development needs. It will take time to overcome years of governance deficit as the political transition is not yet stabilized. The present state of degradation needs to be directed to a more desirable one when the threat to freshwater biodiversity are systematically minimized. This shift would occur within the complexity involving, geographical, social, ecological, political and technological variables of the MKWR basins. This transition is unlikely to be automatic and linear. There may be fall back too. The need is to put in place mechanism that is able to adapt and respond to new challenges as and when they emerge, that afflict integrity of freshwater and its biodiversity.
Notes
1 The overall impacts on aquatic ecosystem are discussed in previous milestone chapters submitted. 2 World Bank Group. (2018). Good Practice Handbook: Environmental Flow for Hydropower Projects. 3 Statement by the joint secretary of the MoFE (The Kathmandu Post, 2019) 4 Baldwin, E. (2017). Exploring how institutional arrangements shape stakeholder influence on policy decisions: A comparative analysis in the energy sector. 5 Irvin, R and Stansbury J. (2004). Citizen participation in decision making: Is it worth the effort?
309 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Approaches, Methods and Practices to Build Capacity 14 of Champions and CSOs to Support Paani’s Program.
Introduction In this chapter we discuss approaches, methods and practices to build the capacity of Champions and CSOs working towards conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins. The basins are experiencing major change processes due to increasing pollution, destructive fishing practices, excessive river mining, deforestation and degradation of natural resources, all which affect freshwater biodiversity. To help in conservation of freshwater biodiversity, in coordination with Paani, ISET-Nepal has identified champions, who are individuals working in or have the potential to contribute to the conservation objectives. Located in the legislative, government departments, civil society and local communities and the private sector, they would support, influence and lead efforts to meet the objective of conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins. For champions to be effective, continuous efforts are needed to enhance their capacity while support materials in the form of knowledge, technology and financial resources have to be in place.
Champions It is envisaged that champions would play critical and constructive role in the conservation of freshwater biodiversity in the MKWR basins. Harnessing available resources and agency, they would aim to replicate and up-scale successful lessons for enhancing resilience of freshwater ecosystem and more equitable society. The champions would start their work towards maintaining balance in the waterscape of the selected MKWR basins. Their contribution would not be limited to MKWR basins however. They would be guided by recognizing role of water in meeting different human needs including that for aquatic biodiversity guided by the principle of efficiency, equity and ecological sustainability.
This study has identified champions who are broadly grouped as working in • State: Legislators at the local, provincial, and federal levels, planning and policy- making entities, sectoral ministries • Community: Individuals; formal and informal groups and their federations • Private sectors: Developers, contractors, consultants and their associations, including IPPAN, contractors, the Society of Consulting Engineers and Architects, industrialists, suppliers and traders
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• Civic groups: Media, universities, research groups, think tanks, religious and cultural communities and charities and pressure groups, and political actors.
They would begin to play critical and constructive role while covering policies related to
• Inland fishery; • Pollution; • Environmental flow; • River bed materials extraction; • Road construction; and • Watershed management.
Approach and Methods: Engagement Platforms
They would engage in the following areas:
Water and Aquatic Biodiversity • Help conserve water sources, rivers, wetlands and water bodies including aquatic species such as river dolphins, gharials and fish species. • Work to conserve natural forests and the terrestrial biodiversity in them, • Advocate with local governments to develop strategic conservation plans. • Work with schools and educational establishments to create and/or build awareness about conservation of aquatic systems. • Conduct awareness-building activities including home visits and group discussions to build awareness about the importance of aquatic biodiversity at the community, municipality and province levels. • Help municipal authorities and other stakeholders discuss issues that put stress on conservation of aquatic systems. • Help propagate the role of citizen scientists to monitor and build a local-level database on freshwater ecosystems.
Terrestrial Conservation • Work with community groups and local governments to support landscape- level conservation plans and actions for aquatic as well as terrestrial wildlife in their locality and encourage periodic reviews. • Encourage plantation of local species that meet the needs of local ecosystems and economies.
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Disaster Risk Reduction • Help municipalities prepare land-use plans including hazard maps and use the GoN-approved model strategies on resilience. • Work with media and other stakeholders to highlight the cost of non-compliance.
Livelihood • Help communities pursue agro-based, natural resource-based and off-farm- based livelihood opportunities in order to minimize effects on aquatic bio- diversity and support their development. • Link target communities and their products with markets for fair benefits.
Education • Develop and maintain links with universities and research groups. • Help develop case studies and encourage students to undertake thesis in relevant themes.
Conflict Resolution • Work with local communities to help minimize park-people, wildlife-human and water sharing conflicts.
Operational Aspects • Help Paani and similar program build engaged operational relationship with municipalities and other stakeholders. • Facilitate establishment of local-level mechanisms for promoting dialogue among various stakeholders • Use the outcomes of the dialogues to develop local plans for conservation and deliver services effectively
Policies • Take stock of local and federal policies and practices with respect to water conservation, aquatic ecosystems, aquatic biodiversity and climate change adaptation and help establish their synergy with local legislations and practices. • Help identify gaps in the local capacity to comply with existing policies.
Building Capacity of the Champions and CSOs Active engagement of champions and CSOs require well planned and practical activities that will help enhance their capacity towards conservation. We suggested the following approaches, methods and practices towards that end.
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Training/Capacity Building Program The champions and CSOs need to be engaged in various types of capacity building programs that would help in conservation of freshwater biodiversity. Continuity and follow up should be key elements of such programs. It is key that champions and CSOs have access to relevant information and that as interlocuters they would share these with community groups to enhance their level of awareness. Some of the relevant themes are basic hydrology, river morphology, co-management and sustainable harvest of fisheries. They need to acquire skill on tools such as training of trainers. Paani has already begun some of the practical initiatives. These activities must be continued and champions should be encouraged to work towards sustainable management of freshwater resources, promote livelihood supporting activities including pursuit of new livelihood options.
To work effectively at community level, the champions and CSOs require capacity building activities on communication skills such as speaking, writing and making effective presentation, basic skills to connect with the audience and uptake of ideas. Strategic use of social and other media will help amplify the conservation messages. Champions and CSOs member should be oriented for effectively using such platforms and also suggestions on dos and don’ts. Likewise, university faculties can lead capacity building activities related to water quality assessment and monitoring of weather parameters by involving citizen scientists. In their part, citizen scientist can keep track of freshwater environment useful for strategic assessments.
The champions should be provided with trainings on Monitoring, Evaluation, Accountability and Learning (MEAL). The MEAL emphasizes analysis of information collected during monitoring and evaluation and support decision making process. The process includes sharing of information and project objectives to seek feedback and improve learning. It helps establish culture of ensuring accountability.
Exposure/Exchange Visit Champions and CSOs representatives need to be provided opportunities to participate in exposure and exchange visits to learn from activities conducted outside their community. Exposure visits provide opportunities to meet, interact and share knowledge and concerns with actors in new context. It will help them to get broader perspectives on the challenges of freshwater and aquatic lives conservation. During visits, participants can share their understanding on conserving freshwater biodiversity. Such exchange will motivate them to replicate the successful conservation methods and practices in their own areas. The visits will also help them
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network with like minded stakeholders outside their communities with whom they can collaborate for freshwater biodiversity conservation.
Mentoring Mentorship program for champions and CSOs will also help build their capacity. The mentors can organize discussions with champions and CSOs, guide them and provide suggestions when required. Mentorship can be carried out as one-one meeting, phone conversation or video chats once or twice a week. Champions and CSOs members can share their ideas, concerns together with the mentors and can explore ways to address the issues using creative approaches. Paani can designate mentors for them according to their subject area and work out modality towards that end.
Grants Paani program can make available certain grants to the champions to pursue innovative ideas to conserve freshwater biodiversity and conservation projects that benefit the community. Paani can solicit proposals for the projects and select them on the basis of innovativeness and relevance. Chosen ones should be provided with grants that will encourage champions and CSOs in the pursuit of freshwater biodiversity conservation and in problem solving. Participating in grant competition itself can enhance questioning capacity, build writing skill with long run benefits.
Formation of Network Paani can help establish a platform or a network of champions and CSOs to connect, know each other, share learnings and provide suggestions and feed back to each other’s work. The platform can be instrumental to become familiar with each other’s work and potential, strengthen inter-personal relationship, build alliance and advocate together for freshwater conservation. The network members can assess the problems and needs and explore solutions jointly. Since, in-depth knowledge and leadership are required for functioning of this network, Paani can delegate a staff to handle and facilitate the network. Once the network is established and begins functioning, champions and CSOs can take over the leadership. Paani can support them as and when necessary.
Conference, Workshop, Seminars Champions and CSOs need larger social visibility to address freshwater biodiversity conservation challenges. To that end Paani can provide financial and technical assistance to organize conference, workshops and seminars for discussion and
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knowledge sharing. If champions and CSOs take lead to organize such programs, they will gain confidence to organize similar programs in future, strengthen their network with diverse stakeholders.
Recommendations Building the capacity of Champions and CSOs will support Paani’s objectives of aquatic biodiversity conservation. This can aid the vision of Paani program not only during the project period but after it is phased out. To that end, we recommend following actions:
• Conduct capacity building assessment of champions and CSOs: Prior to any training, Paani needs to assess the knowledge and learning capacity of champions and CSOs and design the program accordingly. Champions and CSOs with different level of capacity should be identified and grouped. • Identify suitable trainer/experts and prepare a roster: For success, it is necessary to identify suitable trainers. Paani should prepare a roster of experts through call in social media and maintain their curriculum vitae. Paani team needs to regularly communicate with these experts and develop suitable training materials. • Develop training manuals: Experts should be supported to take a lead in preparation of training manual. They must maintain systematic and regular communication with Paani team. The manual should be simple, use pictures and infographics. It should be reviewed in detail and language to be copy edited. • Organize revision classes: The knowledge and skills that champions and CSOs gain through training require updating and revision. This step would sharpen their understanding and keep them engaged in conservation practices. • Identify locations with good practices for visit by champions: For exposure/exchange visit, Paani should identify places within country and outside Nepal where champions and CSOs can visit. The places selected must contain successful practices related to conservation, livelihood improvement, community engagements and local governance. • Make provisions of logistic for exchange visit: Paani should facilitate and share the information of the agencies that will assist champions and CSOs during the visits. Likewise, for effective results from visits, Paani should provide daily allowances and help in logistic arrangements. Paani can facilitate the process by providing formal letters and assist in visa process if required. • Identify mentors: Mentorship program can be successful only through active engagement of the mentors. Paani should identify such mentors and work with
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them. At the same time , provision of incentives (example: stipend, publication opportunity, media coverage) will encourage the mentors. • Form a review committee to assess proposals of projects:To assess the grant proposal, Paani should form a review team comprising experts from both science and social science background working in government, I/NGOs, research institutions, private companies and universities. • Provide continuous support (funding and others for champions and CSOs network): Any initiative related to champion and CSO capacity building will be successful when continuous support and facilitation of Paani program is available. Paani should provide initial financial support to conduct meetings of champions and CSOs network and help them leverage funds to ensure continuity of the network. Even after completion of Paani program, the team members should be available for providing advice and suggestions especially for the local community. • Provide technical and financial support in helping organize conferences/seminars/workshops: Paani should form a technical advisory team to help champions and CSOs organize conferences/seminars/workshops. We recommend Paani program to support such program financially and bring more partners to assist with funding.
Final Observation The integrity of freshwater biodiversity is a subject of least priority in discourse on development generally and that on water resources in Nepal, even though it remains at the foundation of overall societal well-being. The dominant political economy is guided by large scale modification of stock and flow of rivers for generating hydropower to achieve national development. This objective has remained sacrosanct vis-à-vis harnessing and use of rivers while their multiple functions in nature and society has remained peripheral. Can the political economy be changed? Even though, this is unlikely to happen immediately, or in the medium time scale, it is absolutely imperative that the narratives of multiple use and users of water be ensured to occur in the public discourse. A key narrative must focus on conservation of freshwater biodiversity. It must aim to play a leading role to remove an endangered aquatic specie from the red list indicating that such efforts do yield dividends and that water courses face less degradation. Such efforts can also underscore the fact that development and conservation are two sides of the same coin.
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Champions and CSOs are expected to be at the forefront of creating these public discourses. To that end, champions need to work in co-producing information from the geographical, social, political, and cultural context of MKWR basin. They need to recognize and work with stakeholders with different interests, perspectives, information, knowledge and power while guided by the ultimate goal of contributing to conservation of freshwater biodiversity. They must be able to share, learn, engage in conversation, listen, receive feedback, evaluate and embody the notion of mutual respect. They must aim to promote iterative deliberation promoting sector-and group specific knowledge, experience and perspective of both local practitioners and experts in order to improve the quality and effectiveness of decision making for conservation of freshwater and its biodiversity.
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Outreach and Media Engagement 15 Plan for Champions
Introduction and Context
Background This chapter is based on information collected during the Political Economy Analysis on the general media environment and audiences, based on information provided by informants of the PEA study. District- and media-specific surveys for planning communication were not available for verifying the information obtained from the field study. The report makes use of available information on media in sources such as the National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS), 2016 and Opinion Survey conducted by Sharecast Initiative (various years). Some information was obtained from other sources such as the Centre for Media Research (CMR), but information required for communication planning was not available as this study was undertaken for a different purpose.
The objective of this report is to fulfill the requirements under Task 7 in the task order. Activity 7.5 covers “identification of methods and media engagement to support champions’ campaign and mobilization and 7.6. comprises of recommendations on outreach and media engagement to support champions’ campaign and mobilization.
The PEA to Identify Champions for Freshwater Policy Change and Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity examined challenges and opportunities associated with freshwater biodiversity conservation in Nepal’s MKWR river basins. It examined water resources development and management alongside changing patterns in resource use in a context of a political and governance arrangement that is transiting from a unitary to a federated system.
Since 2015 Nepal has been moving towards federalized governance through 756 governments taking different decisions that could influence efforts to conserve freshwater biodiversity at the local levels in the MKWR basins. These include 753 municipal governments (including rural municipalities), seven provincial governments and one federal government with varying authorities and shared (concurrent) powers which also interface with water resources use and management. The main focus of the PEA was unpacking the dynamics in the governance approach
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and how that was affecting or could affect the work of the champions while also examining the overall environment and how this had been or could affect their work. This process also led to examination of the media environment to understand the potential opportunities it could provide to enable champions to make use of the media to propagate their visions and seek continued support to the work, amidst the dominant narrative of promoting hydropower development for attaining prosperity.
The focus of the PEA study allowed developing a macro-level understanding of the media that can be used for understanding the context for planning basin-level interventions in outreach and media engagement to support the work of the champions. This study has suggested some approaches that could be undertaken to support the work of champions through outreach and media engagement, which would need to be localized to derive action plans that could work locally in the different basins and geographies.
The study is organized in four sections. Section two analyses the media environment in general and in the MKWR basins, section three analyses the local media environment and potential engagement approaches and section four makes recommendations for the next steps. The annexures in the report include one on media presence and another on media that could be considered for engagements with specific audiences.
Analysis of the Media Environment
Paani Champions and Stakeholders The Paani champions represent diverse sectors. They are local level politicians, lawyers, businesspersons, teachers, members of civil society, media, experts on water, ecology and forest conservation, river users and fisher groups. All of these individuals have demonstrated a passion, interest, capacity and network to engage with policy makers for advocating the importance of maintaining freshwater biodiversity at the present levels. They comprise of diverse groups and therefore their capacities to communicate with policy makers, local villagers, and engage the media for outreach and communication vary. Similarly, work and outcomes of their efforts are influenced by a wide range of stakeholders including elected parliaments and councils (at three levels), ministries and executive bodies of local bodies, departments and regulatory arrangements in the three tiers of government, investors in water-related and development projects, contractors and suppliers, water users, including households, user groups and committees that use resources from the riverine ecology, among others. Another large group of stakeholders are the diverse people living in the MKWR basins, and also the general Nepali publici who, with the right outreach and communication could be the allies of the champions in their efforts to protect freshwater ecosystems. (See: Audience analysis)
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Definitions “Outreach” for the purpose of this plan is defined as work that Paani champions can do to engage with and generate support in their immediate and wider communities (including neighboring Gaunpalikas) while “media engagement” is understood to be the use of public platforms such as the mass media (including social media platforms) to spread their knowledge and messages and advocate the causes they stand for. Outreach is a continuous process including local discussions/consultations, advice and spreading knowledge. For the champions, this could include speaking at local platforms, casual discussions about subject matter, and local advocacy signage developed and posted by champions and their associates, organizing local rallies and mass meetings, group discussions, etc. Effective communication by the champions, including through media, can complement their outreach efforts.
The media and Internet-based communication platforms can provide the champions a new channel for communicating with specific groups of stakeholders at a scale that can transcend local boundaries. Both media and Internet-enabled platforms can be used for generating support, spreading knowledge and awareness, and influencing perceptions of audience groups, including the general public and policy makers, about the value of maintaining common resources (aquatic biodiversity and water) and the need for conservation. This report focuses on the approach to engaging with media for outreach and communication.
Engaging with media is important for meeting the conservation objectives of the champions, for visibility of their work and for building support for their activities. The outreach and media engagement approach suggested in the following sections provides the basis for detailing specific local plans of the champions (to be made to address specific priorities, in specific locations and matched to specific capacities of the champions, and budgets) for supporting their work. Such locally implementable communication action plans have to be prepared locally, working closely with the champions and based on their understanding and access to the local media and communication environments, also taking into account the budget available and their capacities and interest in communicating. Involving champions in the planning process can provide indications on their capacities that can also provide feedback for further capacity-building support that may be required for producing communication materials.
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Local Issues and Priorities The general local perceptions of changes that have been observed in the watersheds by local communities (see: Political Economic Analysis report) can provide a basis for planning outreach and communication in the MKWR basins in general. The messaging would be generic about the issues identified and how they could affect the watersheds. Some of the broad perceptions of issues reported in the PEA are:
• Higher temperatures (Days and nights are hotter than in the past) • Longer dry seasons (Dry periods are longer) • Delayed onset of monsoons (The onset of the monsoon is later) • Lower snowfall (Snowfall has decreased) • Frequent extreme events (The frequency of extreme rainfall, hailstorm and thunderstorm events have increased)
The communication priorities could change locally, based on local context and perceptions and would need to be adapted accordingly. Therefore, the need for local- level planning of outreach and media engagement. This is because perceptions and interests could be different in the geographies where the champions are working. That said, while the aggregated PEA findings apply to the watersheds generally, they may not be equally relevant to all watersheds and communities in the MKWR basins.
The major messages for media engagement and outreach would include information and knowledge of aquatic resources, and potential impacts of status quo (or non- conservation), community specific use and importance of freshwater resources and the potential impacts of overuse, mismanagement, etc. including but not limited to practices that were observed during the PEA: poisoning or electrifying river water for fishing, illegal sand and gravel extraction, as well as the effects of development (road building and other infrastructures) on the conservation of both terrestrial and aquatic resources. These issues need to be further sharpened for messaging to determine the priority issues and to make them ‘sticky’ based on local contexts and requirements of champions in getting the desired public attention and policy support for their work.
Audience Analysis The proposed approach to expanding local outreach and media engagement would require a localized analysis of audiences, their perceptions and understanding of freshwater diversity and its importance (interest), and how they could possibly influence local policy and efforts to conserve aquatic biodiversity. Some information on audiences and media availability was obtained during the PEA research but for effectiveness,
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would be useful to profile local audiences, and prioritize the communication based on the requirements felt by the champions for specific audiences. Some champions could desire focusing their outreach and media engagement efforts to influence work in specific watersheds and communities of influence, while others may have messaging aimed at influencing policy change at the provincial or even federal level. Such variables will determine the final nature of the plan.
The PEA study has categorized a number of actors and agencies in watersheds covered by the study, who can be broadly grouped as stakeholders that could be reached by outreach and through messaging in media.
TABLE 1: ACTORS AND AGENCIES State organizations Market-based Civil society Donors organizations organizations Government and Farmers and other International NGOs Bilateral & multilateral semi-government primary-sector Local NGOs donors organizations producers Community-based organizations, including Philanthropic Federal and provincial Industries, including the following: foundations ministries and construction Resource users’ groups departments Federations of users’ groups Municipalities and rural Academics and Service-sector agencies municipalities educational institutions Media
Source: PEA 2019
The actors and agents identified by the PEA are common across watersheds but also vary slightly in terms of presence in all basins. There was a general conformity in terms of key government institutions (municipal agencies and councils, for example) at the watersheds, but there were variations in the types of market-based organizations and service sector agencies present at different locations. This was true for the watersheds where even government agencies, even though present, were often woefully understaffed while the presence of market-based organizations was determined by the level of development and developmental aspirations in the watersheds and the business opportunities that could expand or shrink. The presence of civil society organizations also varied across watersheds.
Lack of adequate local knowledge of audiences at specific watersheds and issue- specific outreach and communication priorities can affect the effectiveness of a general communication approach. It is therefore suggested that detailed audience analysis and media consumption/availability studies be carried out for each watershed, or a cluster of watersheds with similar media access, and/or geography to determine
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actual messaging and approaches taking into account stakeholders, perceived issues related to freshwater diversity conservation, local priorities, and the interest and influence different stakeholder groups could have on the work of champions. The following are some typical questions/statements answers to which can guide the process of planning both the communication approach and messaging: • Who are the people and/or community we are trying to reach and influence? (prioritization by Paani and champions) • What is their level of knowledge of conservation of freshwater systems, aquatic biodiversity, and need for conservation (or the messages we intend to communicate)? (source of information: champions) • Where do the intended target audiences get information from? Ease of access? Levels of trust on specific media, and/or other platforms. • Media presence and quality of internet connectivity in specific locations? • Languages used widely for communicating at the local level. • What are the possible ways for people (or intended audiences) to use information provided by champions?
The range of stakeholders identified, and their interests and influence reported in the PEA suggests the need for an outreach/communication and media engagement approach with clear objectives on the intended results to be attained. In the case of champions, a general communication objective would be to obtain local support both policy and public, while also ensuring they make their work more visible that could be possibly engaging with media (local, regional or national media (based on the local priority/purpose).
Generally, the audiences for outreach and engagement through media would include all stakeholders identified in the PEA. For messaging purposes, however, it would be essential to understand their interests and influences as regards conservation of freshwater diversity within specific communities – upstream and downstream –or across entire basins. Once the messaging priorities are identified (with champions), the next steps would be deciding on media and approaches for engagement and outreach.
Broadly the stakeholders at the local level include local governments, local elected representatives, members of various users groups (water, forest, fisheries, and irrigation), hydropower developers, road contractors, river mining companies, community members, non-governmental organizations, academics, media persons, and people whose lives are affected by continued exploitation of aquatic resources in the basins.2
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The approach to unpack this finding of the PEA is to consult champions to analyze their audiences of interest and prioritize them for communication. This approach can also provide insights on the existing knowledge of priority issues among targeted audiences, the interest of champions in communication and outreach (and capacities). Planning of this nature can be done at a workshop on communication that could allow the champions to determine their priorities and also allow resource persons/trainers to help them plan their engagement approach. This is because the approach to communicate will differ in a community/watershed where elected local government representatives have interests in extraction of construction aggregates from rivers and/or construction industry (local contractors) than that in one where local government officials understand the importance of conserving freshwater diversity and watersheds.
The communication approach to overcoming the challenges discussed in the preceding section would be to work closely with the champions, who are experts in specific areas, and build and support their communication capacities to analyze local communication situations, and in planning and delivering responses. This need becomes evident from the criteria that was used to assess the champions and their competencies some of which were personal attributes (knowledge, already seeking reforms in related areas, open to learning), experience and ability to engage public and networking, leadership qualities (articulation of ideas, enthusiastic and confident, open to learning and respected), among others. Many of the champions identified were already engaged in addressing freshwater ecosystem conservation in different ways, including communication. Therefore, any communication and messaging planned and executed must also build on and complement what they have already been doing. For example, a local Gaupalika chairperson had introduced policies for stopping fishing during the breeding season and had also handed over stretches of the river to local management groups. The person could be a potential communicator about how it was done to inspire other local governments, and also serve as a local resource on what could happen in terms of the overall impact if rivers within other local jurisdictions were not protected. The local leader in this case could be assisted to secure interview opportunities in media with reach across the intended Gaupalikas, where similar change is desirable to maintain the quality of freshwater resources in the river basin.
Analysis of the Local Media Environment This section discusses the local media environment that comprises mainly of radio and some television outlets, newspapers and online portals. In the case of newspapers, given the low number of printed copies and difficulties in distribution it is likely
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that they are largely limited in terms of circulation to district headquarters or towns where they are published. Readership of local newspapers is also likely to be urban/ town-centered and among those with higher education – mainly government officials, teachers, local politicians, etc. There is some value in terms of reaching audiences who could potentially influence local policy but making any specific recommendations is contingent on knowledge of the actual readership.
Radio has by far the largest reach in the watersheds covered. This is evident in third- party surveys (Sharecast 2018, 2019) that show radio as the dominant media in most of the 12 river basins covered by the PEA. One reason why radio is also the medium of choice is the ease of access, particularly the low cost of obtaining and operating a radio set compared to television. However, because the radios are often located in urban centers and because FM signals can be blocked by high mountains, it can be safely assumed that the signals are not uniformly accessible across the entire districts. For the same reason, some stations with high transmission power and broadcasting from the plains districts, can also be accessed in some areas of the hills that fall in the line of sight of the signals.
Television audiences are growing across the country and have in some areas overtaken radio, but viewership of television is largely limited to urban areas and towns. The MKWR region does not have uniform electricity supply and can therefore the reach of television can be assumed to be lower than that of radio.
Information from Literature The 2011 Census had estimated that about 50 per cent of the population of the area was not reached by any media. (CMR, 2073) The study by CMR provides some indication of presence and reach of media in the Far-Western Region. It found that only 79 of 397 newspapers registered in the region were regular, while there were 50 radios in operation (of the 57 that had been licensed). There were 30 cable television service providers registered, while only 18 were in operation and of them 45 per cent were operating in Kailali district. The same study said the reach of daily newspapers in the region was 10 per cent, radio 48 per cent, television 20 per cent and cable television, seven per cent.3 The study had covered Kailali, Doti, Dadeldhura, Kanchanpur, Baitadi, Bajura, Accham, Darchula and Bajhang districts.
Further, 29 of 50 radio that were operational and had been consulted for the study did not have the practice of undertaking audience surveys, while the remaining 21 had done some surveys through written questionnaires, telephone, SMS, etc. However, it was not possible to obtain these reports for analysis. This suggests the need for specific studies on media use behaviors of stakeholders/audiences that the champions would like to reach before planning messaging and dissemination.
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Who is using specific media is another consideration for placing messages. The NDHS (2016) said television was the most commonly accessed form of media among both women (50%) and men (51%). It added that men were more likely than women to be exposed to the other two forms of media: 22 per cent of men and nine per cent women read a newspaper, while 36 per cent men and 28 per cent women listened to radio. Thirty-seven per cent of women and 31 per cent men had no access to any of the three media forms. The survey had covered men and women between ages 15 and 49 years.4
The NDHS had also reported on Internet use and found it relatively higher in urban areas compared to rural areas, the overall media use trend reported in the survey are:
“There has been a decreasing trend in exposure to mass media over the past 5 years. Seven per cent of women and 20 per cent of men were exposed to the (all) three mass media (forms) at least once a week in 2011, as compared with 3 per cent and 9 per cent, respectively, in 2016.
“Rural women are more likely than their urban counterparts (48% versus 31%) to have no access to the three media (newspaper, television, and radio). The pattern is similar among men (43% versus 25%).
“Internet use is least common among women and men age 40-49, those living in Provinces 6 and Province 7, those who are not educated, and those in the lowest wealth quintile.” (NDHS, 2016)
Information on Media in MKWR Watersheds5 Information obtained during the PEA has suggested that radio is by far the most accessible media in the watersheds covered by the study. The following section discusses media in specific districts but does not estimate the potential audiences. The information on those with higher audiences but could not be confirmed using secondary information because it was not available. It may be noted that there are multiple language speakers in the watersheds, but information could not be obtained on language-specific programming, which even in radios that claim to have it could be limited to musical shows. (See Annex-17 for details on media presence)
Rara (Mugu): There are five radio stations in Rara. Based on information from informants, two of them Radio Mugu and Radio Rara have highest audiences. This provides an indication of where to begin considering further investigations. The
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major languages spoken in the region were Nepali, Sherpa, Tamang and Magar. It was not clear if the station had programming in these languages, nor was it possible to review the programming grid of the stations – to obtain information for planning specific interventions. There were no newspapers published in this watershed.
Shey Phokshundo (Dolpa): There were three local radio stations in the Shey Phokshundo watershed, and among them one was said to have highest audiences. The area also had a newspaper. The languages spoken in the region were Nepali, Gurung, Sherpa, Dolpali, Tamang, Magar, Kham, etc.
Tila (Jumla, Kalikot): There were six radio stations and three publications (one online) in the watershed. Two of the radio stations had higher listenership. It was not possible to obtain information on newspaper readership. The major languages used were Nepali, Tamang, Sherpa, Magar and Kham.
West Seti (Bajura, Doti, Bajhang): There were 13 radio stations in this watershed, and one newspaper. Four of the radio stations were said to have higher listenership. However, it was difficult to place areas where the listenership was highest/lowest or associate the station with audiences in a certain geography. The languages used were Nepali, Tamang, Sherpa, Bajhangi, Newar, Doteli, Gurung, etc.
Middle Karnali (Accham, Dailekh, Kalikot): The watershed had 14 radio stations and 10 publications. Three radio stations and four newspapers were said to have higher audiences/readership. The languages spoken in the watershed were Nepali, Achhami, Doteli, Baitadeli, Gurung, Magar, Tamang, and Kham.
Thuligaad (Dadeldhura, Doti, Kailali): The watershed had access to signals from 25 stations, including national and regional stations. There also were eight publications (two online). Four of the stations were said to have higher audiences. Local informants also named four publications with higher readership. The major languages spoken in the watershed were Nepali, Magar, Tharu, Achhami, Dailekhi, Doteli, Maithili, Magar, and Bhojpuri.
Bogatam Lagam Karnali (Doti, Surkhet): Six stations covered the watershed and there were six publications (one online). One radio station and two publications were named as having more audiences by local informants. The major languages used in the watershed were Nepali, Magar, Tharu, Achhami, Dailekhi, Doteli, Maithili, Magar and Bhojpuri.
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Rangun (Doti, Dadeldhura): There were eight stations in the watershed and three publications (three online). One station and two publications were identified as having higher audiences. The major languages spoken in the watershed are Nepali, Doteli, Kham, and Magar.
Jhimruk (Pyuthan, Gulmi, Argakhanchi): There were nine radio stations and six publications (four online) in the watershed. Three stations were named as popular alongside one print publication. The major languages used in the watershed were Nepali, Newar, Gurung, Tamang, Bhote, Majhi and Kuman.
Lower Karnali (Kailali, Bardia, Surkhet): The watershed had 17 radio stations, including privately owned stations. On these, three were named as stations that had higher audiences. There also were 11 publications (five online), of which two were named as having higher readership.
Lower Mahakali (Kanchanpur): There were five radio stations in the watershed, of which three were named as having higher audiences. Of eight publications within the watershed, four were named as having higher reach. The languages spoken in the watershed were Nepali, Maithali, Tharu, Doteli, Magar, Bajhangi, Baitadeli, Bajureli, and Darchuleli.
Middle Rapti (Dang): The watershed had 14 radio stations and four publications (two online). One station and one publication were named by informants as having higher audiences. The languages spoken in the area include Nepali, Tharu, Avadhi, Kham, and Magar.
Possible Approaches for Outreach and Media Engagement The communication approach would have to consider both traditional media and other potential channels for engaging stakeholders that can be determined based on local media habits, media reach and availability, and use of other communication platforms both local and internet (say, Facebook based). Even though the PEA reported some data on media availability, detailed study of audiences against media was beyond the scope of the investigations.
Broadly, radio remains the medium with potentially highest reach, television was limited to areas with electricity, and newspapers were largely available in urban/ town centers. While the quality of Internet services available was area-specific with better quality available in the plains districts compared to the hills, there also were urban and rural variations.
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In September 2019, Nepal Telecommunication Authority (NTA) reported that broadband subscriptions had reached 74.4 per cent and mobile broadband, 54.7 per cent.6 The NTA does not report subscriptions for specific districts or regions, and therefore it is difficult to estimate that for specific watersheds. That said, it can be assumed that lower reaches of all watersheds have viable Internet connectivity while the same could be lacking in the hill and mountain districts. Also, it was likely that most of the internet connectivity was on mobile phones, making it a channel of communication with growing potential but the connectivity and ease of Internet access on mobile phones need to be determined before planning website/social media-enabled communication activities.
Third-party research on media audiences in Nepal also suggests that radio listenership is high in the mid- and far-western regions (Sharecast, 2019) and therefore the medium of choice is radio. Radio in the hill regions of the study area are largely run by NGOs, community radios, cooperatives, while there are more private ventures in the plains. Most radios in the hill districts of the MKWR basins are run by NGOs or cooperatives, call themselves community radios and are members of the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (ACORAB).
ACORAB is based in Kathmandu and, among other activities, runs a daily news bulletin, Community Information Network (CIN) that is used by member stations. This provides one option for producing and broadcasting messages applicable to all the 12 watersheds, particularly in the hills. In the case of the champions they would need to consider ways of identifying local radios with audiences they need to reach, and engage them for outreach. While CIN provides an option for broad communication (assuming the Paani Program would consider that), it might not be enough to reach audiences in the plains districts where there also are private stations. The approach for plains-based radios would need to consider short messages before major newscasts and before specific programs targeted to reach different audiences (musicals during day time hours, is assumed to be aimed at reaching people who are home during the time, for example). The same approach -- identifying television stations with higher audiences and targeting messages to them – is the general approach recommended for outreach on television.
The media use patterns discussed above suggest the need for a local focus in communication planning, particularly for media engagement. (Some champions could use national media for outreach and visibility, but the ability to do this depend on their capacity to prepare stories and opinion pieces for publication in national
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media), and backend editorial support that the Paani Program could provide. There would also be a need to consider other channels for outreach locally. For example, if the objective is to reach women, it is likely there would be other channels (meetings, through other women, etc.) to reach effectively them compared to regular media. The use of Internet, while increasing, also remains to catch up particularly in provinces 6 and 7; nevertheless if could be considered by some champions in the lower reaches of the MKWR basins.
Facebook, for example, has highest number of users in Nepal (about 5.6 million, Sharecast 2018)ii making it a choice as a communication and advocacy platform. However, what needs to be considered is that its use could be limited to urban centers and within specific age groups, and use could vary across provinces and districts. Sharecast (2018) said Provinces 3 and 4 had highest access to good quality Internet. Similar connectivity is not available in other provinces and particularly those covered by the PEA.
Most internet use in the watersheds included in the PEA was based on mobile data. Therefore, there are both cost and quality considerations that may restrict use by intended audiences compared to areas with access to broadband Internet. Another social medium, Twitter, is popular among the educated and urban dwellers but its effectiveness also depends on quality and cost of Internet connection available. Further, using social media like Facebook and Twitter would also require building followers for effectiveness and therefore could take time to reach the thresholds required for effectiveness.
While radio is seemingly the most accessible medium to majority of the intended audiences in the regions covered by the Paani Program, it has to be noted that radio stations are also largely scattered, and often operate and can be accessed only in certain areas. (Signals are most likely obstructed and not uniform in mountain districts). Further, some districts in the watershed have access to signals from radio stations broadcasting from areas outside specific watersheds or from downstream areas where specific conservation related issues that may differ from that upstream. Messaging by the Paani Program on common issues affecting all watersheds through all radio stations can serve to help audiences contextualize the messages they could be receiving from out-of-watershed/basin radio station.
Another point to be considered for messaging on radio is the time when audiences tune in to the stations. The practice of surveying media-specific audiences is rare in Nepal, and even though some radio stations did report having done some surveys
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in the CMR study, it was not verified by the PEA. Sharecast (various years) surveys show that the time when most audiences listen to radio are mornings and evenings, a time when most stations have either news and/or talk based political programming. This makes reaching audiences through the CIN a possible approach for general MKWR-wide outreach. The flip side of relying entirely on messages embedded in CIN is that it is packaged in Kathmandu and may not be a viable channel for addressing local communication priorities – hence the need for the champions to focus on local messaging.
The capacity of radio stations in the PEA districts is another factor that needs to be considered before planning local programming. Generally, most stations are understaffed and most of their content is either news (also from stations outside the watersheds) or entertainment, with talk-based shows limited to interviews with political leaders. However, some stations in larger markets (particularly in the plains) might have specific programs on conservation and environment. Where these exist, it might provide an opportunity for the champions working in those areas to consider using, in addition to messaging through news and current affairs programming.
Generally, print media audiences are lower than both radio and television across the country. However, certain print publications have considerable influence among audiences in major urban centers, including Kathmandu. News content of major print publications in Kathmandu are also often used by radio stations in morning programming to inform their audiences of major events of the day before. This has extended the audiences for newspaper content, provided it is included as news. Some stations also excerpt major op-ed pieces but this is rare. There are possibilities of using national newspapers to communicate some messages and for increased visibility of champions and this can be done through op-ed pieces and occasional letters to newspapers (which some newspapers in Kathmandu take quite seriously as they have devout readers of the letters sections).
Recommended Outreach and Media Engagement Approach The study makes the following recommendations for the outreach and media engagement that could be undertaken by the champions in their respective watersheds, with initial action planning and message development support from the Paani Program. This section attempts to group recommendations for easier understanding and for use as possible reference during the communication and planning workshop with champions.
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Objectives of the Outreach and Media Engagement Approach Each watershed in the MKWR basin unique in terms of the priority conservation issues and the experiences of people with freshwater ecosystems, development taking place in the watersheds, and corresponding impacts. The residents also have different experiences and understanding of climate impacts on the natural environments and livelihoods. Since communication and messaging can be effective when linked with the visible changes that people can relate to and/or impacts that they are familiar with or have experienced, it is suggested that a communication approach be used that accounts for both wider (even national) communication for visibility and focused local communication and outreach through the efforts of champions to engage local media. The key results/outputs of the proposed outreach and media engagement plan in the medium term (3-5) five years could be as follows:
• Increased awareness and understanding of communication among champions, including ways to engage with traditional media and on social media platforms (where applicable), and • Increased communication of key messages on conservation locally through local media and via other public platforms (social media).
The major activities that need to be undertaken for attaining the outputs/results above include the following:7
Output-1: Increased awareness and understanding of communication among champions, including ways to engage with traditional media and on social media platforms (where applicable),
Main Activities • Review communication activities being undertaken by champions to suggest changes/ enhancements. • Identify key stakeholders that need to be prioritized in communication locally depending on the situation in the specific watershed/location, and develop both generic and location specific messages for dissemination through different media platforms during engagement opportunities, including Internet-enabled platforms (where applicable). • Organize one training on communication (including strategic thinking /future orientation; key message/s development, and delivery, press release, story, and op-ed writing, etc.), and media management for 20 champions with interest and some capacity (writing and speaking skills) each year.
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• Explore use of social media/ mobile applications for communication and messaging in areas of watersheds with good Internet connectivity and orient champions on use of these platforms
Output-2: Communication of key messages on conservation of freshwater and aquatic diversity at selected watersheds through local media and other public platforms enhanced.
Main Activities • Support trained champions to prepare annual media engagement plans for outreach through local media, based on the ease of access to content disseminated and reach of media among different target audiences. Provide back-end technical support to trained champions to prepare and communicate priority messages using media and other public platforms (speaking opportunities, group meetings, public hearings, etc.) • Communicate (at Paani Program level) generic messages on freshwater conservation and its benefits uniformly across all watersheds through radio on all stations operating in the targeted watersheds (These messages could be inserts in CIN news bulletins that are broadcast on all stations in the hill and mountain regions and some in the plains; such messages would have to be placed before the main news bulletins in private radios as well) • Carry out a year-end review of communication undertaken throughout the year for planning activities and approaches for the coming year.
Notes
1 For details see: PEA stakeholder analysis 2 Please refer to the stakeholders and champions document for more information 3 http://research.butmedia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/MediaMappingOfFarWestProvince7_CMR.pdf (viewed: 17 Dec. 2019) 4 https://www.dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr336/fr336.pdf (viewed January 2020) 5 https://nta.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/MIS-Ashoj-2076.pdf (viewed January 2019) 6 Generally, it is said to be around 9 million, personal conversation with IT experts and https://napoleoncat.com/ stats/facebook-users-in-nepal/2018/09 (viewed: Nov 2019). More men used Facebook compared to women, and most users fell in the 25-34 age group. 7 These can be finalized with champions and broken down into sub-activities that would be needed to prepare for the main activities.
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16 Annexes
TABLE 1: GROUNDWATER BALANCE IN KANCHANPUR, KAILALI AND BARDIYA DISTRICTS
District Total Average Recharge (MCM) Land Area monthly Bhabar (33.6% of Tarai (22.2% of rainfall) Total (km2) rainfall rainfall) (m) Area Recharge Area Recharge (Km2) (Km2) Banke 1180.84 1.31 517.69 227.44 663.15 192.49 419.93 Bardiya 1375.94 1.62 344.54 187.57 1031.40 370.98 558.55 Kailali 1941.46 1.85 573.03 356.59 1368.43 562.63 919.22 Kanchanpur 1436.56 1.69 268.82 152.63 1167.74 438.05 590.67
TABLE 2: GROUNDWATER BALANCE IN KANCHANPUR, KAILALI AND BARDIYA DISTRICTS
Total Abstraction (MCM) Balance (MCM) Irrigation Use Domestic Industrial Grand DTW STW Total Use use Total Average Average Discharge @8 30% 25% Discharge @40 Nos. Total lps annual irrigation domestic Nos. lps annual operating hr use use operating hr of 720 1000 Private Government 25% 84.0 12.10 8819 2205 11024 228.59 240.69 72.21 18.05 330.95 88.98 38.0 5.47 6503 1626 8129 168.56 174.03 52.21 13.05 239.30 319.25 79.9 11.51 10805 2701 13506 280.06 291.57 87.47 21.87 400.90 518.32 62.0 8.93 8041 2010 10051 208.42 217.35 65.20 16.30 298.85 291.82
334 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Lower Karnali Lower Province no. 6 and 5: Bardia: 4 Municipalities Surkhet: 2 Municipalities Kailali :4 Municipalities NA NA Pre monsoon rainfall: 193mm Monsoon rainfall: 1,600mm Avg. annual: 1,400mm – 2,000mm 875.32 Number of streams: 59 Karnali, Geruwa, Aaurahi mountain High (3,600m) to Kalapani around 200m Alluvial Lower Mahakali Province no. 7: Bimdatt M Mahakali M 200-3600 Summer:27 Winter:12 Monsoon: 372 Post monsoon 20 Avg. annual rainfall: 1,706 310 No. of streams :16 Mahakali, Tilkeni Khola and Jogbuda Kamikate, Gahatadi, Malariya Bhuni Khola, Bonge Khola, Gandha Khola etc. High mountain Mid-hills Tarai Alluvial Middle Rapti Province no. 5 Lamahi M Rapti, Godhawa and Rajpur RM 200-1000 Winter avg: 14 Summer avg. 28 Pre monsoon: 167 Monsoon: 1,474 Avg. annual 1,641 1,304.33 No. of streams 47 Rapti, Arjun, Khabhari, Gurung, Supaila, Dolai, Narti, Koudiya Plain areas in south Siwalik hills in North Sandstones, siltstones, mudstone Lagam Bogatan Province no. 7 and 6 Badikedar and Bogatan RM (Doti), Chaukene RM (Surkhet) 313-2357 summer:30.5 winter:5.5 Pre-monsoon: 332 Monsoon:1,328 Avg. annual: 1,659 206 No. of streams 36 Serrigad, Bandgood, Guinado Khola, Pogade Khola, Barol Khola, Buda Khola, Bhatmare Khola, Kunadagaad, Dhomeli Khola Mid-hills Tarai Sandstones Mudstones Alluvial Thuligaad Province no. 6Jorayal RM Badikedar RM Mohonyal RM Chure RM NA Summer: 31 Winter: 15 Pre -monsoon:314 Monsoon: 1,558 Average annual 1,873 850 No. of streams 17, Karnaso, Kapadi, Kamaladi Hills Tarai Boulders Sandy Rangun Province no. 7 Parshuram M, Alital RM, Jorayal RM 300 – 2,500 Summer: 25 Winter: 10 Post monsoon: monsoon: Average annual 1,346.6mm 687.87 No. of streams 135 (Rangun, Punturagad, Sirshagad, Sun khola , Sandani Khola Mountains about 2,500masl to tarai 300 masl Mica-schist, Phyllite Jhimruk Province no. 5 Airawati M Gaumukhi M Jhimruk M Mallarani M Naubihani M and part of Mandabi and Sarumarani M Summer:40 Winter: 10 Post-monsoonn:24 Monsoon rainfall: 311 Average annual rainfall: 1516 680 No.of streams:7 Jhimruk, Lungri, gartang,chhepe, Jumri,Jhakerithan, Chundarikhola High and Mid Hilsl Middle Karnali Province no. 7, Athabis M Chamunda M, Bindrasaini M, Dullu Panchadeus/ Binayak M, Kamal bazar M Thantikadh RM Bhairabi RM Turmakhad RM NA Summer:26 Winter:9.05 Pre-monsoon:34 Monsoon:237 Avg annual:1293 903.66 No of streams:160 Ramghat Khola, Chinne Khola, Gunot Khola, Barele Khola, Belkhet Khola, Paduka Khola, Rakam Karnali, Dogade Khola, Ghatte Khola, Pulletala Khola Middle mountain High mountain NA Tila Province no. 6: Khodchakro M Tilogufo M, ShubhaKalika R M Tila RM and parts of Mahabai RM 738-4790 NA Monsoon:377 Post monsoon:10mm Average annual – 1530 767.48 No of streams:NA Padamgad, Himo, Boligad, Bhartagad, Dhand Khola, Kathina, Khallagad, Bhanchugad, Normagad High -mountain Mid- mountain Low mountains Sandy and Gravelly Suligaad Phoksundo Province no. 6 Shey-Phoksundo RM, Kaike Thulibheri and Tripurasundari Municipality 2130 – 6885 Summer:4.88 Winter:-8.22 Less than 300mm annually 964 No. of streams: 34 Ghyomp Kapuica Khola, Sagar Maduwa Khola, Pugma, AkheKhola and Jhuliberi Trans-Himalayan High Himalayan Mid-hills Rara Province no. 6 Chayanath – Rara Municipality, Khatyad R. M. 1145 -3956 Summer: 27.9 Winter: 25.1 Pre-monsoon: 90 Monsoon : 285 Post monsoon: 70 308 No.of streams: Khatyad Khola, Missichaur, Kawa, Thado, Bihani, Nakharj, Kahka, Nauli, Bui Chana, Dudhe, Lyachudi High Himal High Mountain West Seti Province no. 7 Gaumul RM Chabispathivara RM Durgathali RM Jaya Prithivi M Kanda RM Kedarsen RM Khaptad RM Masta RM Surma RM Jalkot RM Jhalara RM 750 – 3200 Summer: 19 -32 Winter: -4 - 19 Pre-monsoon: 193 Monsoon: 1408 Post monsoon: 64 1,488 No of streams: Setinadi, Kalangakhola, Bauligaad, Tarugad, Sunigad, Talkotgad, Thaloirgad, Jadarigad, Bhayagutegaad, Listigaad, Ghatganga Vidigad, Ganalgaad High Himal High mountain Middle mountain NA ) 2 Physical C) 0 Location Elevation (masl) Avg. Temperature ( Rainfall (mm) Area (Km No. of streams Name of tributaries Land form Soil
TABLE 3: MATRIX OF 12 WATERSHED DETAILS (NATURAL SYSTEM) 335 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Forest 55 Agricultural land34 Rivers and Streams 9, Grazing lands 2 Total population: 171,943 Male: 82,532 Female: 89,410 Janajati 61% (of which 89% are Tharu) Brahmin and Chhetri 26%, Dalit 8%, Others 5% Sal in the riverine areas along with Khair,Sisoo etc Agricultural land 35 Rivers, streams and ponds 12 Forest 29 Shrubs and grass lands 24 Total population: 143,852 Male: 69048 Female: 74804 BCT 53.2%, Adibasi janajati 15.2%, Dalits 26.3%, Newar: 0.5%, Others 4.8% Khair and sisoo forest in riverine area Sal forest Forest61 Agricultural land 30 Rivers 8 Grazing land <1 Total Population: 94,241 Male: 45,235 Female: 49006 BCT 20%, Janajati 66% (55% Tharu), Dali 6%, Others 7% Mixed hardwood Sal forest Bombax ceiba Kahir, laurel Sissoo, Bayer, Jamun,Bijaya sal etc Forest 80 Grazing land <1 Agriculture 18 Rivers and streams 2 Total population: 16,251 Male: 7962.99 Female: 8288 BCT 65% Janajati 7% Dalit 27% Others 1% Chirpine Rhododendron Mixed broad-leaved forestincluding Sal at lower and Quercuss at higher elevation Forest cover 85.6 Agricultural and Pastures land 14.7 Shrub forest mix 0.7 Total population: 47,612 Male: 23,806 Female: 23,806 BCT 59% Dalit 17% Janajatis 24% Mixed hardwood Pine forest Agricultural land 6.3 Forest 91 Grazing land 1.6 Rivers and streams 1.4 Total population 53,109 Female:27,562 Male 25,547 Brahmin 9.6 % Chhetri 66.2% Janajati 8.8% Dalits 15.2% Chirpine in the higher elevations Sal forest in the lower areas Quercus at higher elevations Forest 70 Agricultural land15 Grazing land 12 Shrub forest 3 Total population 145,005 Male 63802.2 Female: 81,202 Brahmin9.6% Chhetri25.8% Magar 28.7% Dalit 20.9 Pine forest in middle and upper region Sal mixed forest pre-dominates the lower reaches Forest 52%, Agriculture 30%, Grazing land 13% Rivers and streams 3%, Scrubland 1% , Other 1% Total population: 171,856 Male: 84,209 Female: 87,646 BCT 59% Janajati 10% Dalit 30%, others 1% Sal forest at lower elevation Chirpine at higher elevation Alder, Rhododendron, Quercus, Kharsyu and Kotau Cultivable land: 16 Forest and shrub: 56 Grazing land: 25 Barren land and rock: 2 River/stream: 1 Total population: 58,996 BCT 20%, 19%, and 37% respectively Kami: 16%, Damai/Dolhi 5% Magar 1%, Lohar 1% Sarki 1% Mixed Hardwood Bajh and OaK forest Sal and Pine mixed forest,Himalayan fir forest Sisoo Deodar Sal forest Total population: 2,258 BCT Aadibasi: Janajati: Hill dalit:, Newr, Tarai janajati: Bluepine forest, Evergreen forest Mixed decidous forest Alpine meadow 50 spp. of plants among them 46% total end emic Cultivable land 49.2 Forest 25.2, Grazing land 3.5 Lakes and water bodies 18 Barren land 20.3 Total population: 16,919 Male: Female: Brahmin/ Chhetri/Thakuri, Sanyasi 60% Dalit: 24% Janajati : 16% Oak Pine forest Himalayan fir Hard wood Deodar Black Juniper Forest and shrubs: 51 Barren: 13 Grazing land: 15 Cultivable land: 20 River and streams: 2 Total population: 130,539 Male: 61,423 Female: 69,116 Brahmin/Chhetri/ Jhakuri: 72.76% Dalit: 20.75% Janajati: 2.099% Disaggregate data available within these jurisdiction Mixedhardwood Sal forest Quercus sps Sisoo Pine forest Fir Deodar
n Land cover (%) Social Population Ethnic groups Literacy rate Migration (in/ out) No. of users groups / community groups No. of NGOs/ INGOs/CSO No. of Go organizations Natural resource Forest coverage
336 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Forest 55 Agricultural land34 Rivers and Streams 9, Grazing lands 2 Total population: 171,943 Male: 82,532 Female: 89,410 Janajati 61% (of which 89% are Tharu) Brahmin and Chhetri 26%, Dalit 8%, Others 5% Sal in the riverine areas along with Khair,Sisoo etc Tiger, Rhinos, Elephants, Deers 74 species of fish: Sahar, Rawa, Thed, Kathlaggi, Rajbaam, Karauwa ect. Tara Bahraiya Bhagaraiya Babai Orahi Pipal, bar, Ghodtapre, okhar, aaiselu Agricultural land 35 Rivers, streams and ponds 12 Forest 29 Shrubs and grass lands 24 Total population: 143,852 Male: 69048 Female: 74804 BCT 53.2%, Adibasi janajati 15.2%, Dalits 26.3%, Newar: 0.5%, Others 4.8% Khair and sisoo forest in riverine area Sal forest 46spp. mammals 423 spp. of bird 16 spp reptiles, Swamp deers, Tigers, Leopards, Chittal, Hogdeer Catfish, Sahar, Mahesheer, Asala, Snow trout and Rajabaam (69 sps of fishes) 21 natual lakes of which Rani Taal, Sikari Taal, Kalikitch Tal and Tarapunal etc Bijaya sal, bar, pipal Forest61 Agricultural land 30 Rivers 8 Grazing land <1 Total Population: 94,241 Male: 45,235 Female: 49006 BCT 20%, Janajati 66% (55% Tharu), Dali 6%, Others 7% Mixed hardwood Sal forest Bombax ceiba Kahir, laurel Sissoo, Bayer, Jamun,Bijaya sal etc Deer, Monkey., Elephant, Tiger, Porcupine,Chittal ,Hog deer, Four- horned antelope, Hyena,Wolf, Golden jackal, wild cat, Nilgai, Sloth bear, Leopard, Indian hare, Leopard cat, Yellow throated martin, Mangoose, Squirrel, rat (39 spp. of fish) Silver carp, Common carp, Rahu, Katla, Bam, Jhinga, Charings, Tyangno, Sidro, Gherta, Rawa Jakhera Banghushari Bankijakhera Harro, barro, kurilo, khayer, bakena, bayar, chutro, Sarpagandha etc Forest 80 Grazing land <1 Agriculture 18 Rivers and streams 2 Total population: 16,251 Male: 7962.99 Female: 8288 BCT 65% Janajati 7% Dalit 27% Others 1% Chirpine Rhododendron Mixed broad-leaved forestincluding Sal at lower and Quercuss at higher elevation Jackal, Rabbit, Squirrel, Fox, Monkey, Deer, Musk deer, Himalayan Thar, Wildboars, Leopard etc 17 sps of fish like Kuera, satto, Gerara, Oyara, Asla, Kaloch, Pangrar, Sueni, Githl, Geraj Sunpaal Taal, Libu Khola Tall Khola Debal and Taal Forest cover 85.6 Agricultural and Pastures land 14.7 Shrub forest mix 0.7 Total population: 47,612 Male: 23,806 Female: 23,806 BCT 59% Dalit 17% Janajatis 24% Mixed hardwood Pine forest 17 wild animal sps 9 reptile sps, 20 bird sps 27 fish species (Sahar, Jebra, Asala, Cheche, Rajabam 4 Brahm, Jwalaban, Rokxes and chhatiwan Agricultural land 6.3 Forest 91 Grazing land 1.6 Rivers and streams 1.4 Total population 53,109 Female:27,562 Male 25,547 Brahmin 9.6 % Chhetri 66.2% Janajati 8.8% Dalits 15.2% Chirpine in the higher elevations Sal forest in the lower areas Quercus at higher elevations Porcupine, Hare, Wild bear, Common Leopard, Fox, Squirrel, Malsopro, Bog deer ghoral, Monkey, Bat, Jockal, Langoor etc. Reptiles: Turtle, tortoise cobra, Dhaman, frog etc. Black eagle, WE, Kalofitra, Ranichari, crow, chyakhura, fisto, Julphejureli, Kuthurke 13 sps of fish (Asala, Katle, Sahar, Bunduna, Sanosohar, Chuchebam, Sanoasala, Fargate etc. Ali Tal Pipalkot Tal Kumad gad Not Available Forest 70 Agricultural land15 Grazing land 12 Shrub forest 3 Total population 145,005 Male 63802.2 Female: 81,202 Brahmin9.6% Chhetri25.8% Magar 28.7% Dalit 20.9 Pine forest in middle and upper region Sal mixed forest pre-dominates the lower reaches Musk deer, Redpanda 18 sps of fish (Rim maccha, Bai maccha, Jhinge maccha) water mussels, Otters and Ruddy shelduck Jamune Daha Barah lake Bijuwar Chiuri, Cinnamon Timur Chiraito Alaichi Kurilo Parse, Pakhanbed Allo Jatamasi Forest 52%, Agriculture 30%, Grazing land 13% Rivers and streams 3%, Scrubland 1% , Other 1% Total population: 171,856 Male: 84,209 Female: 87,646 BCT 59% Janajati 10% Dalit 30%, others 1% Sal forest at lower elevation Chirpine at higher elevation Alder, Rhododendron, Quercus, Kharsyu and Kotau Jackal, Monkey, Leopard, Fox, Langoor, Wildboar, Bat, Squirrel, Porcupine, Ratsnake, Katle, Harep, Lizard, Frog 46 sps of fish Jhumri Jamaki Thed Jagri Pate, Kala, Lohori, Bam, Budhuna, Asala, Bhoti, Phageta, Sahar etc None Kachur, Peepal, Bar, timoor, rhododendro, kurilo, amala Cultivable land: 16 Forest and shrub: 56 Grazing land: 25 Barren land and rock: 2 River/stream: 1 Total population: 58,996 BCT 20%, 19%, and 37% respectively Kami: 16%, Damai/Dolhi 5% Magar 1%, Lohar 1% Sarki 1% Mixed Hardwood Bajh and OaK forest Sal and Pine mixed forest,Himalayan fir forest Sisoo Deodar Sal forest Redpanda, Himalayan Muskdeer, Monkeys, Porcupine, Rabbit, Wildcat, Jackal, Nigolebagh, Charibagh, Jhar, Ghoral and Wild bear, Birds: Crow, Koilli, Kotero, Rubi, Munal, Parrot etc. Painted nose, snow traut, Khurpe/ Chepti, Buche, Asola, Chuche,OttarBaghe,Mada, Ghawai, Rahu etc., Paha frog, Gohoro, Himalayan Lizard Dhaman NA Somlata, Sugandowal, Silajit, Kakarsinghii, Padamchal, Panchaunle, Kutki, Morshorchid, Jatamasi, Sarpagandha, Yarshagumba, Chiraitoo, Pakhanbed, Jhyou, Kuriloo, Bhutkess, Satuwa, Aalo Total population: 2,258 BCT Aadibasi: Janajati: Hill dalit:, Newr, Tarai janajati: Bluepine forest, Evergreen forest Mixed decidous forest Alpine meadow 50 spp. of plants among them 46% total end emic Snow leopard, deer, Muskdeer, Jharal, Ghoral, Nour, Fox Hyena, Yak etc. 27 sps of butterfly 3 spp. of fish Phoksundotaal along with 14 other lakes Yarshaghumba, Kutki, Guchi -Chyau, KuriloChutro, Jatamasi,Padamchal, Pakhanbed,Majitho, Bish,Satuwa, Panchaaunle, Setakchini, Bojho, Shilajit etc Cultivable land 49.2 Forest 25.2, Grazing land 3.5 Lakes and water bodies 18 Barren land 20.3 Total population: 16,919 Male: Female: Brahmin/ Chhetri/Thakuri, Sanyasi 60% Dalit: 24% Janajati : 16% Oak Pine forest Himalayan fir Hard wood Deodar Black Juniper 52 spp. of mammals 214 spp of birds 2 spp of reptiles and amphibians Musk deer, redpanda, snow leopard , Himalayan jhar, Greywolf etc. 3 spp. of fishes (endemic) Schizothorax nepalensis schizothorox raraensis schizothorax pararica Rara Lake Kutki, Satuwa, Pakhanbed, Bikh, Lekhsatuwa, godano, Padamchal, Chuli, Kakarsinghi, guchechyau, ghoremocha Forest and shrubs: 51 Barren: 13 Grazing land: 15 Cultivable land: 20 River and streams: 2 Total population: 130,539 Male: 61,423 Female: 69,116 Brahmin/Chhetri/ Jhakuri: 72.76% Dalit: 20.75% Janajati: 2.099% Disaggregate data available within these jurisdiction Mixedhardwood Sal forest Quercus sps Sisoo Pine forest Fir Deodar 217spp of birds 18 spp of mammals 15 spp of Butterflies Asala, Kathyal, Chiu, Pate, Satto, Pande Surmasarovor, Timodaha, Khaptod, Taal, Lokundo Daha, Kharardaha, Urailekhko, Ramchadaha, Nilkhattikkunda Setakchini, yarsagumba, Katuki, Banlausn, Satuwa, Sandal wood, Panchaule, Jatamasi n Land cover (%) Social Population Ethnic groups Literacy rate Migration (in/ out) No. of users groups / community groups No. of NGOs/ INGOs/CSO No. of Go organizations Natural resource Forest coverage Terrestrial fauna Aquatic fauna Wetlands Herbs
337 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Lower Karnali 2 Strategic roads (Postal highway and East-West Highway) run through lower Karnali WS Gravel mining NA 4 FMIS Rani-Jamara- Kulariya irrigation in Kailali and Budhi kulo irrigation in Rajapur Tubewell, well, river, tap stone, piped water, spring, jar, bottle - Wood, electricity, kerosene, solar, biogas, LPG, Guitha, others Agriculture 54%, daily wages 25%, livestock rearing 4%, capture fisheries 3% Lower Mahakali 51 km district roads, 20 km strategic roads Gravel mining, Riverbed mining Tanakpur hydro electric power plant Large scale irrigation project implemented support, recently promote and commercialized by GoN of Nepal (11 numbers) Nepal drinking water corporation, hand pumps, well, waterfalls, rainwater, tubewell boring, surface water, commercial bottle jar - Wood, electricity, kerosene, biogas. LPG, solar, others Agriculture, fishing, seasonal migration, wage labor in mining site Middle Rapti 26 km national highway, 23 km feeder roads, 28 km district roads and 85 km rural roads mining Gravel NA Badkapath irrigation system and Praganna irrigation system Bore wells tube wells, streams and rivers Lamahi, Bhalubang, Gadhawa, Sisanhiya - Agriculture 52.94%, wage employment 2.4%, remittance 5% others 25% (poultry, livestock, dairy) Bogatan Lagam 80 km of roads (earthen), another 131 km planned for next decade Gravel mining Currently no hydro power plants operating, West Seti hydro power plant is planned to be operational by 2023 10 irrigation project Spring and streams Simichgchheda, Sunalekaur, Chamarachautara, Bagchheda, Sunalek - Agriculture 76%, livestock rearing 6%, seasonal migration 14%, wage employment 3.5% Thuligaad 50 km strategic road passes through the WS 4 sites are gravel mined 10 micro hydro plants Rainwater harvesting and river canal irrigation. Only 15% hhs have year around irrigation 16 small and medium size irrigation projects Pipe system 72 %, surface extraction 18%, Dug wells 2%, waterfall 4%, Tubewell boring 1% Bipinnagar, Laxminagar, Gadsera, Sahajpur, Ghanteshwor Wood, electricity, kerosene, solar, LPG, others Agriculture, wage labor, seasonal labor migration, gravel mining Rangun 47 km of graveled roads from Buder to Lipna and 119.5 km earthen road Gravel mining No large hydropower plant, 5 micro hydro power existing Rainfed agriculture 14 irrigation projects. Some do not run properly (ex: Upper Parigaon and Sandani) Mostly piped tap, Spout water, river on streams, wells Godam, Gaira, Gharelu, Jogbudha Wood, electricity, kerosene, solar, others Agriculture, livestock rearing, poultry, labor migration (seasonal and abroad fish farming) Jhimruk WS connected by khalanga- Bukeni- Chuja and Dharampani- Girichaur road mining Gravel 9 micro hydro power plants 24 irrigation schemes - - - Agriculture, Government service, agriculture, foreign employment, business, NGOs Infrastructure Middle Karnali 220 km rural roads and 116 km under construction Gravel mining (Particularly in Tallo Dungeswor and Rakum Karnali Upper Karnali hydro electric project, numerous micro hydro power plants 8 small irrigation schemes Piped water, surface water, springs, stone taps, wells, water falls - Wood, solar, electricity, kerosene, others Agriculture 70%, livestock rearing 12%, service based occupation 4%, remittance 3.5%, wage employment 3% and scattered work 8% (dairy farming, poultry farming, fishing) Tila 90km strategic road and 64.7km rural roads Potential place for gravel mining are Bali and Nagma 14 hydropowers (planed and operated) 83 irrigation canals managed by community Piped tap, Spout water, river or stream, well Bali bazaar, nagma bazar Wood, solar, electricity, kerosene, others Agriculture-44.25%, Government service-10.87%, trade business-3.31%, labor work-29.98%, multiple activities-11.59% Suligaad 6 keys roads total length 280 km 6 gravel mining sites 2 micro hydro plants 10 irrigation projects Piped tap, Spout tap, river or stream Dunai, Suligaad, Khalrupi, Kagani Wood, solar, others Animal husbandry, NTFP collection, tourism, agriculture handicraft weaving Rara No strategic roads, 91 km feeder road Aggregate (sand, gravel, boulder) mining 7 micro hydro plants 68 FMISs exist occasional support from Government and Development organization 94% public stand posts, Private taps 1.04% and remaining depend on spring and streams - Wood, solar, electricity, kerosene Agriculture, livestock rearing, fish capture, business, tourism, wage employment, collecting and marketing of medicinal herbs West Seti 106 km strategic road, 107 km rural road Riverbed, Gravel, Sand, Stone mining 11 micro hydro plants Mostly rainfed agricultural system except some lower land, 17 irrigation projects piped water, spring water, rivers, community taps stone spout Chainpur, Tamail, Deuda Micro hydro plants, forest firewoods, solar power, traditional lamp Agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry farming, daily wage labor, traditional ocuupation of dalit, seasonal labor in India, foreign employment, Connectivity/ road Mining No. of hydropower Irrigation Drinking water Key markets Source of energy for lighting, cooking Source of livelihood 338 TABLE 4: MATRIX OF 12 WATERSHED DETAILS (PHYSICAL SYSTEM) POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - Net casting, gill nets, traditional fish trapping, fishing hooks, draining water and trapping in paddy field, poison, electric current, jil net, use of light Bardiya NP Rice, maize, wheat, lentils, mustard, grams, vegetables - - - Fowl, cattle, goats, water buffalo, pig, sheep duck 74 species of sahar, fishes: thed, rawa, kathlaggi, rajabam, karauwa - Net casting gill nets, traditional fish trapping, fishing hooks, draining water and trapping fish in paddy field, poison, electric current, gill jil net, use of light Shuklaphanta NP Paddy rice, upland rice, wheat, millet, lentils, peas, sugarcane, mustard Chilly, onion, garlic - - Fowl, cattle, goats, water buffalo, pig, sheeps, ducks Sahar, mahasheer, Himalaya trout (Asala) snow trout, rajabam, (69 species of fish). Endemic fishes: cat fish, pseudoecheineis serracula - Helka, Taapi, diliya, jaal, dhadiya, pahai, khongiya, iron arrow, herbal poison, electric current, explosive Dharapani Temple Paddy, wheat, maize, lentils, mustard Potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, raddish, tomatoes, bitter guard, cucumber, pumpkins, onion, garlic Mango, litchi, pineapple, guava - - Silver carp, commom carp, rohu, katla, Bam jhinga, charinga, tyangna, sidra, gherta, rawa, chipi, saura, kathlaggi (39 species of fishes) - Traditional and modern methods: poison, gill net, explosive, electric current Kakrebihar Temple Wheat, millet, rice, maize, barley, buck wheat, mustard Ginger, potatoes Oranges Turmeric - 17 fish species: keura, satto, gerara, oyara, asala, kaloch, pangar, sueni, githi, geraj - Traditional methods (net casting, gill nets, fishing hooks, draining water and trapping fishing paddy fields. Non- traditional (poison, explosives, electric current) Saileswori Temple Rice, maize, wheat, millet, barley, buck wheat, mustard, tobacco, lentil, beans, soyabeans, sugarcane Potatoes - - Pig, sheeps, buffalo, cattle 27 fish species: sahar, jebra, asala, cheche, rajabam, buche asala, chuche asala, rajabam, gerudo machha, dudhe machha, satta, kalejunga, rahu - Gill nets, net casting, fishing hooks, draining tapping water and fishes in rice paddies, poison, explosives Ugratara Temple Rice, wheat, maize, millet, barley, buck wheat, mustard, tobacco, lentils, soyabeans Potatoes - - Goats, cattle, fowl, watr buffalo, pigs, sheep, ducks 13 species of fishes: Asala, Sano sahar, buduna, katle, sahar, chuche bam, sano asala, fargate, kalaunch, gardi, thend, dhami, snow trout, gerada, kadanga, crab - Net casting, gill nets, fishing hooks, draining water and tapping fishes in paddy field, poison, electric current, gelatin explosives Swargadwari Temple Maize, wheat, mustard, millet, ambriso, allo (nettle) Cucumber, ginger, Rayo, potatoes, tomatoes Orange Timur, Alaichi, Turmeric - Rim machha, Bai machha, Jhinge machha, common carp, rohu, grass crap, silver carp, big headed carp, naini, asala, bodana, Eel, baam, sahar, bagal, eki, gadera, ekey, chepa, haat katuwa - Poison, gill nets, dynamite, electric current Ramaroshan site Rice, wheat, millet, lentils, sugarcane Potatoes, Chili, onion, garlic, seasonal vegetables citrus fruits - - 46 species of fishes: Sahar, Asala, Rajbam, Jalkapoor, Goz, katle for livestock, energy source and drinking water for livestock, Nepalmap.org - Gill net, fish net (Mahajal), no destructive - Foxtail millet, chino, Jumli- marshi, buck wheat, horse bean, oil seed, maize, soft shell walnut Potatoes, seasonal vegetables, Apple, orange, banana, lemon Mehele, okhare He-goats, fowl, sheep, cattle, water buffalo, pigs, ducks 27 species of fish: Snow trout, sucker heads, loaches, stone carp, chuche asala, kabre, golden mahasher, shar, rajabam - Hooks, traps of plastic threads Shey- Phoksundo lake, Shey- Phoksundo NP Beans, maize, buck wheat, china rice, phaper, mustard, barley Raddish, Cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, coriander, potatoes, green leaf vegetables Apple - Choury/ yak,goats, sheep, cattle, fowl, water buffalo, pigs, ducks 3 Species of fishes: Buchhe asala, Chuche asala, Chepte fish - Fishing loop lines (tinker, tango) multiple nylon thread loops (varaula, tinker), baited with frog and snail, single loop nylon thread, traditional net, gill nets, electric current RaRa lake, NP Buck wheat, Kaguno, Uwa, China, beans, phaper, millet, soyabeans, rice, wheat, barley, allo Potatoes Apple, orange, banana, lemon, chestnut - Sheep, goats, buffalo, cattle, fowl, pig, ducks 3 endemic fish species: schizothorax rarensis, S. macrophthalamus, S. nepalensis and Rara lake frog. Other local fishers: Asala, Karange, Chuche asala, Chepte, dhami, buduna. Other aquatic fauna: water shrimp, lumbricolid worm, snail, ram’s horn - Poison, bomb, electric current Khaptad NP Rice, nettle, wheat, maize, mustard, marse, barley, lentils, millet, soyabean, mustard Seasonal vegetables, potatoes Apple, citrus fruits - Cattle, goat, foul, water buffalo, sheep, pig, duck Asala, Kathyal, chiu, Pate, Satto, Pande Information are from Paani doc and some are taken from Information are from Paani • Employment/ economy Fishing methods Tourist destination Agriculture Crops Vegetables Fruits Spices Livestock Aquaculture 339 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 5: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS TYPES IN THE MKWS BASINS
Eco-Zone Ecosystem Ecosystem Sub-Types Flora Fauna Types Tarai Forest Tropical Evergreen Forest Sal, Bombax ceiba,Trewia Royal Bengal Tiger,Asiatic Ecosystem nudiflora, Gaurage elephant, One horned pinnata,Holoptea,Khair, rhino,Gaur,Bluebull, Asiastic Sisoo wild buffalo,Lesser florican, Large grass warbler Grassland Savana Type Grass Land Narenga porphyrocoma, Royal Bengal Tiger, One Saccharum bengalensis, horned rhinocerous,Swamp Saccharum spontaneum deer,sambar, chital,hog deer, barking deer Agricultural Rain fed, irrigated lands and uplands Hills (Lower Forest Sub-Tropical Broadleaf Sal,Terminalia, Anogeissus, Tiger,Asian elephant, gaur, Hills- Shiwalik Forest Lagerstroemia,Acer Sloth bear,Giant hornbill, and Middle oblongum, Eugenia Oriental pied hornbill,Indian Mountain) tetragona, Eurya acuminate, grey hornbill, Peafowl, Hill Alder myna, Crested serpent eagle,Asian paradise flycatcher Sub-Tropical Pine Forest Chir pine,Quercus incana,Q. Goral,Barking deer,Yellow lanata, Rhododendron throated marten,Cheer arboretum,Lyonia pheasant, Spiny babbler,Rusty ovalifolia,Shorea robusta, bellied shortwing, Scaly Terminalia tomentosa breasted wren babbler, Nepal wren babbler Middle and Western Himalaya Broad Quercus dialata,Quercus Himalayan tahr, Asiatic black High Mountain Leaf Forest incana, bear, Q. semecarpifolia,Q. ilex, Common leopard,Himalayan Aesculus juglans serow, acer,Aesculus indica,Juglans Satyr tragopan,Koklass regia,Carpinus viminea,Alnus pheasant, nepalensis Impeyan pheasant,Cheer pheasant High Mountain Western Himalaya Sub- Tsuga dumosa,Picea Snow leopard,Himalayan blue Alpine Coniferous Forest smithiana, sheep,Himalayan tahr, Abies pindrow,Cedrus Himalayan musk deer,Great deodara, Tibetan sheep,Argali,Blood Cupressus torulosa,Juniperus pheasant, wallichiana,Rhododendron Satyr tragopan,Impeyan anthopogon,R. hypenanthum pheasant, Lammergeyer, Golden eagle,Himalayan griffon Grassland Western Himalaya Alpine Rhododendron anthopogan, Snow leopard, Himalayan blue Shrub and meadows R. hypenanthum,R. setosum, sheep,Himalayan tahr, Junipers Himalayan musk deer,Great wallichiana,Potentilla Tibetan sheep,Blood pheasant, frusticosa,Lonicera obovata, Satyr tragopan,Impeyan Sedges (Cyperaceae),Grasses pheasant, (Gramineae),Dicotyledonous Lammergeyer,Golden eagle, herbaceous plants Himalayan griffon
Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
340 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 6: NATIONAL PARKS
S.N. National Area coverage Administrative Province Elevation Buffer zone parks (km2) boundary (m) area (km2)
1 Shey- 3,555 Mugu and 6 2,130-6,883 1,349 Phoksundo Dolpa districts encompassing 11 VDCs 2 Rara 106 Mugu and Jumla 6 1,800-4,039 198 districts 3 Khaptad 225 Bajura, Accham, Doti 7 1,400-3,300 216 and Bajhang 4 Bardiya 968 Bardia and 5 152-1,441 328 Banke districts encompassing 17 VDCs 5 Shuklaphanta 305 Kanchanpur districts 7 174-1,386 243.5 with 11 VDCs
(Source: DNPWC, 2010 AD) Note VDCs clustered in rural and urban municipalities is not represented in the above table.
TABLE 7: SHEY PHOKSUNDO NATIONAL PARK
Ecosystem type •• Glaciers, snow and rock •• Xerophytic mat patches vegetation on rocks •• Rhododendron mesohygrophytic scrublands •• Xerophytic closed alpine mat and scrub •• Upper sub-alpine Rhododendron –Birch forest •• Upper sub-alpine birch-bluepine open forest •• Lower sub-alpine fir forest •• Open and dry montane Blue Pine •• Juniper forest •• Mountain oak •• Cypress forest with dwarf barberry •• Cedar forest •• Aesculus, Juglans riverine forest •• Chir pine forest with grass and Engelhardita •• Grasses- Artemisia Steppe •• High Altitude cushion plant formation •• Caragana gerardiana, Loniceraspinosa steppe •• Caragana brevispina, Artemesia steppe •• Caragana pygmaea, Lonicera spinosa xerophile steppe •• Myricaria-Hippophae-Salix riverine thickets •• Water Bodies
Wetland •• Phoksundo lake
341 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Terrestrial ecology •• 35 species of mammals are listed among them 19 species protected by CITES •• 208 species of Birds (Cheer pheasant, white breasted deeper, monal pheasant, Himalayan griffon vulture etc.) •• 10 species of mammals and 2 species of birds are classified as endangered and protected under Appendix I of the NPWC Act, 1973 •• Symbolic species: Snow leopard, Muskdeer, wild dog, blue sheep, Tibetan wolf Aquatic ecology •• Paani water profile reported that locals are unable to identify the fish species in the lower part of Phoksundo river. Recently, DNA of Barilius sp. CBM ZF 1131, Pethia conchonius, Garra sp. CBM ZF 11369, Schistura corica, Barilius bendelisis were identified through environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis conducted by CMDN Nepal. However, these are not the information obtained through fish capture and we cannot specifically state that we have found the fish. Macroinvertebrates: Betidae, species of Chironomidae, Oligochaeta, Polycentropodidae and Taeniopterygidae Flora •• 1597 species of flora •• 4 endemic flowering plants •• 174 Vascular plants •• 7 Gymnosperms •• 150 Dicots •• 17 Monocots •• 30 endemic species of flowering plants( Shrestha &Joshi, 1996) Culture •• Contains many Gombas and religious sites •• Jhashung Gomba built 900 years before to conserve wildlife •• Formation of eco-clubs and forest user committees •• Declared as a World Heritage site for its unique flora, fauna and traditional culture Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
342 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 8: RARA NATIONAL PARK
National parks Area(km2 ) Elevation Administrative Province number boundary Rara National Park 106 1800m-4039m Mugu and Jumla 6 District Ecosystem Type •• Mesophytic and hydrophytic mat patches and vegetation on rocks •• Birch forest •• Lower sub-alpine Fir •• Mixed blue pine- oak •• Open and dry montane blue pine •• Blue pine- spruce forest •• Juniper forest •• Mountain oak •• Deciduous broad-leaved forest •• Alnus nepalensis riverine forest •• Water bodies Wetland •• Rara lake covering an area of 1,583 ha Terrestrial ecology •• 51 species of mammals are listed among them 26 species protected by CITES •• 272 species of birds (danfe, munal, cheer pheasant, koklas pheasant, white crested kalij pheasant, chukor partridge etc) •• Symbolic species: Snow leopard, musk deer, redpanda, himalayan black bear Aquatic ecolo-gy •• 3 endemic species of Schizothorax species of fish are found •• Schizothorax macropthalmus, Schizothorax nepalensis, Schizothorax raraensis •• Lake frog (Paa rarica) •• Reeds(Phragmites), Bushes (Juncus), Sedges(Fimbristylis), Sessile plants, Water hyacinth Flora •• 1070 species of flora •• 16 species are endemic •• 88 Vascular plants •• 10 Gymnosperms •• 64 Dicots •• 14 Monocots Culture •• Eco-tourism destination •• Development of a trail along Rara lake for tourism promotion and patrolling •• Introduction of boating facilities in the lake •• Reduction in crop damage by wild boars through construction of five kilotmetre stone wall Buffer zone •• 198 km2 Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
343 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 9: KHAPTAD NATIONAL PARK
Ecosystem type •• Lower sub-alpine mesophytic fir forest •• Mesophytic montane oak-rhododendrone •• Mixed hygrophytic oak-hemlock-fir •• Collinean oak forest •• Mixed Oak-laurel forest •• Mixed chirpine-oak forest •• Chir pine forest with grasses and Engelhardita •• Alnus nepalensis riverine forest Wetland •• Khaptad Daha Terrestrial ecology •• 23 species of mammals are listed among them 11 species protected by CITES •• 287 species of Birds (Impeyanan pheasant, peregrine falcon, white-rumped vulture etc) •• 2 species of mammals and 2 species of birds are in Schedule I of the NPWC Act, 1973 •• Symbolic species: common leopard, musk deer, wild dog, himalayan black bear Aquatic Ecology •• Asala, Fagate, Sanoasala, Rajabaam, Sahar, and cold-water fishes Flora •• 567 species of flora •• 4 endemic flowering plants •• 295 Vascular plants •• 8 Gymnosperms •• 238 Dicots •• 43 Monocots •• 6 Pteridophytes Culture •• Khaptad baba ashram, where hindu pilgrims come to worship lord Shiva on the full moon of July-August each year and also during Jestha purnima •• Sahashra linga another religious site situated at highest point 3,200m. •• Tribeni confluence and a Shiva temple •• Included in tourism destination list
Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
344 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 10: BARDIYA NATIONAL PARK
Ecosystem type •• Upper Siwaliks chir Pine–oak forest •• Siwaliks chir pine-oak forest •• Tropical hill sal forest in inner valleys •• Terai tropical sal forest •• Khair-sissoo scrub and riverine forest •• Bhabar light Sal forest •• Tarai cultivated land Terrestrial ecology •• Species of mammals are listed among them 22 species protected by the Convention on Interbational Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) •• 407 species of birds (bengal florican, white rumped vulture, peacock, bar headed geese, and sarus crane) •• 52 species of reptiles and amphibians •• 10 species of mammals and 2 species of birds are classified as endangered and protected under Appendix I of the NPWC Act, 1973 •• Symbolic species: Snow leopard, muskmdeer, wild dog, blue sheep, Tibetan wolf Aquatic Ecology •• 125 species of fish (Sahar, Rawa, Thed, Kathlaggi, Rajbaam, karauwa, Gangetic dolphin, Gharial) Flora Species •• 839 species of flora •• 4 endemic flowering plants •• 173 species of vascular plants •• 1 gymnosperm •• 140 dicots •• 26 monocots •• 6 pteridophytes Culture •• Tourism plan and buffer zone management plan •• Many agroforestry plots in the park •• Researches in fisheries, agroforestry, ethnobotany and forest resources sustainability Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
345 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
TABLE 11: SHUKLAPHANTA NATIONAL PARK
Ecosystem type •• Tarai tropical sal forest •• Khair-sissoo riverine forest •• Tarai cultivated land
Wetland •• Rani taal, Sikari taal, Kalikitch taal and Tarapunal
Terrestrial ecology •• 46 species of mammals are listed among them 18 species protected by CITES •• 351 species of birds (Bengal florican, back- capped kingfisher, Finn’s weaver) •• 12 species of reptiles and amphibians •• Symbolic species: swamp deer, bengal tiger, asiatic elephant, hispid hare
Aquatic Ecology •• 28 species of fish (sahar, mahasheer, himalayan trout, Rajabaam)
Flora •• 700 species of flora •• 553 species of Vascular plants •• 410 dicots •• 125 monocots •• 18 pteridophytes
Culture •• Establishment of 422 users groups •• Specific researches on the effectiveness of community-based programs, wetland vegetation dynamics, population ecology of nilgai and swamp deer.
Based on Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book (2007)
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TABLE 12: STAKEHOLDERS IN NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION
Category Organization/Groups/ Roles Individuals Those who Federal Parliament Parliament issues directives on contemporary issues and undertakes auditing of determine natural resources conservation programs in the country. policies and the Environment EPC, constituted with Prime Minister of Nepal as chair and ministers of concerned development Protection Council ministries and secretaries as members, is the highest body to issues policy context (EPC) directives on environment and natural resources conservation issues. Climate Change Council CCC, constituted as Prime Minister of Nepal as a chair and the minister of (CCC) concerned ministries and secretaries as the members is the highest body to issue policy directives on climate change issues facing the country. National Planning NPC develops works on developing resonance of sectoral policies of forest, and Commission (NPC) natural resources conservation and management with the overall development of the country. This is reflected in periodic development plans of GoN. Ministry of Forest and MoFE works as nodal agency in developing environmental policy and standards, Environment (MoFE) including those relating to conservation and management of natural resources and enforces them through inter-sectoral and inter-ministerial coordination. MoFE also develops policies and maintains inter-sectoral coordination for pro-people conservation and management of forest and biodiversity in the country. Water and Energy assists different ministries relating to water resources and other related agencies Commission Secretariat in the formulation of policies and planning of projects in the water and energy resources.
Ministry of Energy, Establish rules, acts, policies and standards to monitor river discharge; conserve, Water Resource and manage and use of land near river areas. Research on climate change and Irrigation exchange information.
Addresses the food mitigation and control issues through policy formulation and its execution. Water Induced Disaster Management Policy-2072 sets the premise and framework to address different forms of water induced disasters-floods, landslides, erosion, sedimentation, and sand and gravel casting in agricultural lands. Ministry of Agriculture formulates agriculture- based policies and plans, carry out implementation, and Livestock monitoring and evaluation related to agriculture. It aims at conservation and Development sustainable use of natural resources and biodiversity. It promotes agro-biodiversity and manages use of pesticides, conducts research on aquatic biodiversity, assists fish farming and its marketing. Cabinets of Province 5, It includes Minister for Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment and Minister Karnali Pradesh, and for Land Management, Agriculture and Co-operatives that focus on development Sudur Pashim Pradesh intervention as well as environment protection.
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Those who Department of Forest Implements forest and biodiversity conservation policy of MoFSC in coordination involve policies and Soil Conservation with people and their organized groups, donors, development organizations and implementation (DoFSC) CBOs. At the district level, the development and forest management programs of and programs DoF are implemented through Division Forest Office (DFO). The department also development pursues conservation of land based natural resources through its program on soil erosion control, land management and watershed management. Department of Plant DoPR under MoFSC develops knowledge/information based on plants and plant Resources (DoPR) genetic resources in the country, which are directly relevant to biodiversity conservation policies including exploitation of plant genetic resources for social, economic and environmental gains. Department of DoNPWC works towards in-situ conservation of endangered wildlife and forest National Parks and species, flora and fauna by maintaining and managing national parks and wild life Wildlife Conservation conservation areas. (DoNPWC) Development ActionAid, Care-Nepal, Clean Energy Nepal (CEN), ECO-Nepal, Forest Action, Local Organizations (NGOs/ Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BIRD), NTNC, Oxfam, INGOs) Practical Action, UMN, WWF Nepal, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ), Bird Conservation Nepal (BCN), Wildlife conservation Nepal (WCN), Red Panda Network, Dalit Alliance for Natural Resource (DANAR Nepal)and Youth Alliance for Environmentare some of the development organizations actively involved in environment and biodiversity conservation in Nepal. Multilateral and UNDP, IUCN, SDC and FAO are major intergovernmental agencies that have carried bilateral agencies out various implementations at grassroots scale. Likewise, USAID funded Hariyo Ban, Digo Jal Bikash program was implemented by CARE-Nepal, WWF, FECOFUN and IWMI District Coordination Local government agencies that closely work with local community for natural Committee, resource management. Municipalities, Rural Municipalities, Subdivision forest office and Agriculture Knowledge Centre Community Forest User The programs of forest and biodiversity conservation are implemented through Groups (CFUGs) community forest user groups (CFUGs) promoted under community forestry program of GoN. To date 19,361 CFUGs have been formed among 2,461,549 households in the country. Total of 18,14,478 ha of national forest area has been brought under community forestry with the local community responsible for their conservation and management. Fisher group Promote conservation of aquatic biodiversity, monitor and control activities that harm aquatic life Those involve in Ministry of Finance MoF makes allocations for forests and natural resources conservation in the financing (MoF), GoN annual budget within the premise of periodic plans of the nodal ministry and NPC Multilateral Funding Forest and natural resources conservation and management, and climate change Agencies- the adaptation programs are supported through project- based funds (grants and soft World Bank, Asian loans) provided by Multilateral and Bilateral Agencies with matching grants of GoN Development Bank UN and Bilateral Bilateral agencies provide project based funding and matching grant to undertake Agencies- JICA, DFID, natural resources and biodiversity conservation and management programs. GIZ, SDC UNEP, UNDP, USAID
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Those directly Households, Households, communities and community groups with their dwellings within or affected communities and close to development projects and development interventions are benefitted as community groups a result of improved environment, environmental services and access to natural as beneficiaries and resources. The people, households and communities who are displaced, lose victims of development access to services or face the consequences of increased wildlife threats, are negatively affected. Business Enterprises Business enterprises (e.g. tourist’s guides, hotels and restaurants, river rafting and Entrepreneurs companies etc.) whose business emerges from improved ambience and ecological services as a result of conservation and management of natural resources. Those indirectly People, enterprises and People, enterprises and entrepreneurs located outside the conservation areas, affected entrepreneurs engaged whose business and income opportunities link to enhancement of ambience in supply and service and environmental services as a result of natural resources conservation and chains management programs. Others who have Federation of FECOFUN, established in 1995, is a network of forest user groups in Nepal direct concerns on Community Forestry and works to safeguard interests of forest users and their collective action in issues Users, Nepal conserving and managing forests and its biodiversity. At the district level, the (FECOFUN) activities of FECOFUN are coordinated through district level chapters. IUCN, WWF IUCN aims to conserve biodiversity to improve and secure livelihoods. It has worked in linking conservation with better livelihoods, mobilizing local communities and generating tangible results to promote biodiversity conservation, environmental justice and sustainable livelihoods.
WWF adopts three complementary approaches to forest resources: protect, manage and restore, with the overall aim of ensuring conservation of biodiversity and environmental resources at the landscape level. It continues on its mission to increase and manage populations of priority species, restore lost wildlife populations in their former range, improve and expand habitats, mitigate human- wildlife conflicts (HWC) and eliminate poaching and illegal wildlife trade transits in Nepal. International Center for ICIMOD is regional and intergovernmental knowledge and learning center which Integrated Mountain works on integrated development of natural resources and human capacity in Development (ICIMOD) Hindu-Kush Himalayan Region, involving Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan. National Trust for NTC, established in 1982, works to promote nature and its diversity and balancing Conservation (NTC) the human need with the environment. Its programs are focused to development of conservation areas and central zoo in Kathmandu, which are important locations for on-site and off-site biodiversity conservation.
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TABLE 13: PROPOSED LISTS OF LOCAL, PROVINCIAL AND NATIONAL CHAMPIONS PROPOSED LOCAL CHAMPIONS
S.N Name Designation Description Criteria met Bogatan Lagam 1 Purna Bam Local biodiversity Expertise in terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, local demography 1, 2 expert, Chanukada, and geography, and succeeded in getting water source protection Bogtan RM activities included in the Bogatan RM’s annual program because of his advocacy 2 Lal Bahadur Bikha Executive Director, Knowledge on biodiversity of the region, advocating for 1, 2 Source Nepal (local conservation of aquatic biodiversity and water resources NGO), Silgadhi, Bogtan conservation at district level, Dalit rights activist, and possesses RM good communication skills. Jhimruk 3 Shiva Raj Rijal Chairperson, Nau Proposed waste management and sanitation and eco-tourism 1, 2 4, 5, 8 Bahini RM plans. Has taken an initiative to control unmanaged waste disposal in coordination with police and emphasizes on maintaining personal hygiene by building public bath houses, committed to aquatic animal conservation and supportive of environment friendly rural roads construction 4 Basantaa KC Entrepreneur, Nettle products entrepreneur. Involved in the production of 1, 6, 7 Member of nettle purses, coats, pouches that are exported. She utilizes the FEDWASUN, Khalanga traditional weaving skills of village women and provide them income generating opportunities and skill development. Her products are environment friendly. 5 Nehar Singh KC Ward Chair, Thula Sim Involved in culture fishery, vegetable farming and beekeeping. He 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 and Member, Prime has also been executing three-year course in agriculture (CTEVT Minister Agriculture affiliated) and further plans to open a homestay to promote Modernization Project tourism. Has created employment opportunity to local women Board and has zeal for community development. 6 Netra Mani Acharya Entrepreneur, Jhimruk Demonstrated that fish framing is possible in Pyuthan district 6, 7 Aquaculture Group by farming fish in 12 ponds next to Jhimruk River. He has contributed to enhancing inclusive livelihood capacity for community and is planning to make the district self-reliant on fish. 7 Khadak KC Entrepreneur, Hurana A recipient of President Outstanding/Farmer Prize in 2072, he 6, 7 village, Ward No. has been promoting horticulture, and eco-tourism in Pyuthan. 4, Jhimruk Rural His entrepreneurial and leadership skills have empowered the Municipality community by engaging them in orange farming and home-stay business. 8 Nabil Bikram Shah Chairperson, Airawati Prohibited fishing during breeding season-April-July. Supporting 3, 4, 5, 8 RM formation of aquatic animal conservation group and handing over river stretch to them for management. 9 Vijay Shrestha Executive Director, Committed to conservation of aquatic biodiversity, is promoting 1, 2, 3, 5 MRDCC setting/formation of watershed level platform 10 Amar Reshmi Social Mobilizer Amar Reshmi Magar is committed to support aquatic biodiversity 3, 4, 8 conservation in Dangbang area of Airawati RM. He is coordinating with rural municipality for aquatic biodiversity conservation and other social works for local community. He is also facilitating to the local community for aquatic biodiversity conservation, leadership, and social inclusion. He is working as a bridge between rural municipality and local community for change.
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11 Bhoj Bahadur Basnet Former Social Bhoj Bahadur Basnet is a former PRO of Jhimruk hydropower. He 1, 3, 7 Development Officer, handled grievances related to downstream mitigation. In current Jhimruk Hydropower situation, he has been supporting to promote aquaculture in Jhimruk watershed. He is aware about invasive species control. He is had helped Paani staffs to provide water discharge during the biophysical survey. He is a champion of aquaculture. 12 Bishnu Kumar Giri Chairperson, Going to guarantee right to access to potable water by 1, 3, 4, 5, 8 Gaumukhi Gaunpalika provisioning of a water tap for each household in two wards in the next fiscal year by making the policy and allocating budget from the village assembly; persuaded Gaupalika to pass a resolution to provide zinc sheets for free to households that with thatched roof to only those poor households of which no member is in government service or getting a pension Lower Karnali 13 Vijaya Shrestha Secretary, Dolphin Advocates and work for bird/dolphin conservation, and has been 1, 2, 3,4, 8 Conservation Centre, engaged in conservation of Dolphin for over two decades (Lamki Chuha/Tikapur, Kailali) 14 Badhai Tharu Conservationist, Khata Dedicated for tiger conservation 1, 2, 3 Corridor coordination committee, Bardiya 15 Shanti Sonaha Chair, Sonaha Bikas Advocates rights of Sonaha group; engagement on sustainable 1, 5, 6, 7 Samaj, Rajapur, fish harvest Bardiya
16 Mamata Rawal Dhakal Treasurer/Project Established local groups- community based anti-poaching 1, 2, 5, 8 coordinator, BAFAR groups, community forest user groups, , engaged in awareness Nepal, Lamki Chuha, raising, coordination with municipality on environmental Kailali conservation work, and supporting upliftment of women of Sonaha community 17 Damodar Khadka Tikapur traditional Experienced in irrigation and has served as watershed 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 irrigation and management professional, conservation of natural resources and watershed biodiversity of Karnali region. management expert, vice chairperson, Tikapur Kailali Kularia Irrigation, chairperson, NFIWUAN (National Federation of Irrigation Water Users Association Nepal) 18 Kalu Hamal Agro-tourism Pioneer in promoting Banana through developing banana recipes 5, 6, 7 entrepreneur, Banana in his restaurant. Operates three banana restaurant in Kailali restaurant, Tikapur, district and has unique opinion on ecotourism development. Also Kailali an agriculture graduate and recognized as best farmer award from Honorable president Ms. Bidya Bhandari. 19 Ujir Singh Sunar Member, Lamki Chuha Established local groups such as CFUGs, engaged in raising 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 municipality, Kailali awareness and coordinating with municipality on environment and aquatic biodiversity conservation. 20 Contributed to resolve park and people conflict, committed to 2, 4, 8 Ghana Narayan Mayor, Thakur Baba conservation of biodiversity, trying to empower river dependent Shrestha Municipality communities such as Sonaha
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21 Prem Lal Chaudhari Citizen Scientist More than decade experience in CFUG mobilization, has 1, 2, 7 been supporting ant-poaching as a CBAPU mobilizer, Trainer on Climate change, DRR and also terrestrial biodiversity. Experienced in Water quality monitoring and spring shed Mapping 22 Chair-person, More than decade experience in mobilizing more than 2000 1, 2, 8 Community-based youth to protect wildlife from poaching, strong coordination and Hemanta Acharya Anti-Poaching Unit linkage with BNP and Local Government, Elected Ward member (CBAPU) of Thakurdwara 9 Lower Mahakali 23 Rishi Raj Lumsalee Water rights Campaigner for water right in trans-boundary issue of Mahakali 1, 5, 6 advocate, Bhimdatta River and involved in agriculture. Municipality 24 Ashok Bikram Jairu Executive Director/ NGO activist, working to empower and ensure the social rights 3, 5, 7 Chair,Nepal National of deprived, dalit and disabled; committed to conservation, Social Welfare sustainable use and equitable sharing of the benefits arising Association (NNSWA) from natural resources 25 Chair-District Engaged in advocacy for irrigation and distribution of water for 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 NFIWUAN, more than 15 years; supported irrigation users to unite and Kanchanpur, Vice organize them; and made the irrigation users group aware about Giriraj Sharma Chair, Sudurpaschim their rights and entitlements. province level NFIWUAN 26 Advocating with Ward Committee to make the gravel and 2, 5, 7 Vice Chair-Mahakali aggregate mining sustainable, Engaged in aquatic biodiversity Laxman Sonaha CAACG, Leader of conservation, supporting aquaculture as an alternative livelihood Sonaha community for fisher communities , retired person Nepal Army personnel 27 Bishnu Awasthi Coordinator, Mahakali Experienced on and been promoting water governance and 1, 2, 5, 8 Nadi Sarokar Samuha, advocacy for over 20 years, enhanced elected representatives’ and Chair-Indo-Nepal and others’ awareness on alternative media person, engaged in Joint Action Forum Paani’s activities also – PEA study, Entry, Exit MSCs (NJF), Kanchanpur Middle Karnali 28 Ghanashyam Acharya Former Teacher, Constructed first rainwater harvesting tank in a drought prone 2, 3, 6, 7 Dullu, Pauwa area of Dullu. Highly influential person interested in biodiversity conservation 29 Ghanashyam Mayor, Dullu Introduced the idea of cultural museum at Dullu, and established 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 Bhandari Municipality museum with public participation. Proposed an idea of constructing a reservoir to promote water tourism. Took lead in developing and passing Dullu Municipality’s Aquatic Animal and Biodiversity Conservation Act. 30 Surya Bdr. Shahi Mayor, Proposed the concept of well-planned environment friendly 1, 3, 4, 8 Chamundabindrasaini roads and endorsed aquatic biodiversity conservation act. 31 Khadga Raj Upadhyay Mayor, Aathabis Proposed an idea of fish breeding/ production, developed and 1, 2, 4, 8 got the aquatic animal biodiversity conservation act enacted from the and designating conservation area to support the aquatic biodiversity; ; promoting environment friendly rural roads 32 Puspa Raj Sharma Chairperson, Committed to conservation of forest and environment, actively 4, 5, 7, 8 Turmakhand RM contributed in the development of the local Aquatic animal biodiversity conservation bill and finally facilitated passage of the Bill form Turmakhand Village Assembly
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33 Min Bahadur Kunwar President, WAC-N Promoted the participation of local farmers in management of 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 small irrigation schemes. Supported multi use water system in different VDCs of Achham district and also promoted sustainable soil management 34 Maharup Khatri Chair, SAEWCC An active NGO leader; promoted water source protection and 1, 2, 4, 5 constructed multi user system (drinking and irrigation water scheme), supported bio-engineering, conducted sustainable forest management of CFUGs, and raised community awareness for environmental compliance 35 1, 2, 4, 5, 8 Deepa Bohara Deputy Mayor, Aathbis Former NGO activist, promoting integration of women and Municipality other disadvantaged groups’ entitlements in the municipality’s planning process; committed to environment friendly rural roads construction and aquatic biodiversity conservation 36 Sabitra Kumari Executive member, She is a member of the Executive of Dullu Municipality, well 3, 5, 8 Khadka Dullu Municipality known on local prospects of Dullu and around middle Karnali; committed to women’s right 37 Bom Bahadur BC Can contribute to response watershed issues of middle Karnali. 1, 2, 3, 6 President, Upper UKCC has established in context of proposed upper Karnali Karnali Concern hydropower project, and he leads this platform especially to Committee (UKSS) advocate sustainable hydropower. Middle Rapti 38 Uma Kant Pant Chairperson, CFCC, Active, well respected and trusted individual in Dang who has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Gadhwa contributed to environment conservation and education. Has 6, 8 strong social and political network. 39 Dalika Betalu Local leader, Sitalapur, Socially active, well trusted by locals and is involved in raising 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Lamahi awareness on issues such as social discrimination, conservation 6, 8 of biodiversity, etc. 40 Hari Prasad Bhusal Chairperson-FecoFUN, Possess good communication skill and has better understanding 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 Rapti RM of the local context. Actively taking part for biodiversity conservation, responsible for resolving users group disputes 41 Pateswori Prasad Chairperson-Baikha Actively involved in campaign against illegal fishing and raising 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 Chaudhary fisher group, Rapti RM awareness against the use of 3Bs‘(Bomb, Bidhyut, Bish) along with awareness raising to protect aquatic habitat and conservation. 42 2,3,4,5,8 Lok Raj KC Chairperson Rajpur Proactive learner and good advocate/leader of aquatic Rural Municipality biodiversity conservation. Allocated fund and supported to Raini AACG for IGA. Similarly, decision made to allocate budget to formation of AACG to all wards with technical support from Paani and HWEPC for aquatic biodiversity conservation based on AABC Act endorsed by RM.
43 Pradip Majgaiyan Chairperson, Promoted digging of recharge ponds and plantation activities 1, 2, 4, 8 Human Welfare as part of climate change adaptation. Policy level influence and Environment from Plastic free campaign (Ghorahi Sub metropolitan city has Protection Centre adopted this campaign’s idea and banned the use of plastic bags (HWEPC) of under 20 microns) 44 Bidya Saran Chairperson, Ward-2 Promoting integration of aq biodiversity conservation in rural 3, 4, 8 Chaudhary Rapti RM municipalities’ policy and programs.
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45 Leading irrigation system, good contribution during fish VA and 2, 3, 4 Raghunandan Chairperson, AABC Act preparation, representative of potential stakeholder for Chaudhary Barkapath Irrigation aquatic biodiversity conservation. System Phoksundo Suligaad Involved in lake conservation and advocacy, a community leader. 1, 4, 8 Member, Snow Leopard Conservation, 46 Tsewang Gyalbo Lama Ringmo He is ex. School teacher of TAPRIZA school. He is founder 4, 8 of TASHI-D organization and it works on education, cultural heritage, adult education, women courses, health and hygienic, environment and Yak projects in Phoksundo and nearby the Chairperson, TASHI-D, areas. Possess good communication and coordination skill and Dolpa and Managing has better understanding of the local level context. Actively Director of TAPRIZA taking part for biodiversity conservation too. He also active in 47 Semduk Lama School social work and has ability to influence and lead the community. Laxmi Gurung Chairperson, Riyachi Work towards women rights and empowerment, has been 3, 4 48 (Rokaya) Mahila Samuha encouraging women for equitable access, active in social work Work towards forest and biodiversity conservation, a teacher 1, 2, 4 Chairperson, by profession, has been active in social work, and has ability to 49 Sher Bahadur Budha FECOFUN, Dolpa influence and lead the community Involved in various activities such as biodiversity conservation, 2, 3, 4, 8 waste management and hotel entrepreneur in Phoksundo. He is ex government teacher. He has good communication and coordination skill. He constructing drinking water facility in Ringmo Village supported by the Fund Board. He is promoting Chairperson, eco-tourism in Dolpa. He has better understanding of the local Phoksundo Buffer level context. He also active in social work and has ability to 50 Phurba Tenzin Budha Zone User Committee influence and lead the community. Involved in various activities such as Ankhe Khola Micro 3, 4, 5 Hydropower construction. He also is active in social work and has 51 Chandra Singh Karki ability to influence and lead the community. Promoting collection of tourist wastes in trekking routes. Working 2, 3, 4, 6 and promoting reduction of solid wastes inside the national park area including hotels and producing manure from the produced 52 Norbu Lama Nature guide wastes. Rangun 53 Mane Singh Bohora Local farmer Operates nursery, fish pond and local reservoir. 3, 7 54 Min Bahadur Bohara President, Bhagawati Has been engaged in community forest for about 25 years. 1, 7 Community Forest, Constructed a pond in the forest to avoid man-wild life conflict Beldangi mainly tiger, and well aware of impacts of deforestation. 55 Manwati Bohara, President, Ekta Samaj Expert in beekeeping and has ability to mobilize group, train 4, 6, 7 Mauripalan Group others in beekeeping.
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56 Kailash Kumar Chair-person, Led different movements for the advocacy of drinking water 1, 2, 5 Pandeya Churia Sector Forest facility, launched campaign to control open grazing which and Environment ultimately helped in forest conservation and thereby water Conservation source protection, been serving as a Chair-person, CSFECCC) Coordination collaboratively conducted with support from Terai Arc Committee (CSFECCC) Landscape/Hariyo Ban Program since 2015 for biodiversity conservation Rara Khatyad 57 Jerman Nepali- Civil society actor and Involved in the promotion of grass root innovations on 1, , 3, 5, 6, 7 advocate food security through promotion of natural resource based enterprises for livelihood diversification, and engaged in advocacy for the economic and social upliftment, and capacity building of the Dalit community 58 Hari Jung Shahi Mayor, Chhayanath Policy and Program for developing masterplan for development 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 Rara Municipality of Rara Lake, establishing Disaster Management Fund, developing Municipal Preparedness Plan, promoting indigenous crops, and ecotourism 59 Birkha Bahadur Farmer and local civil Mediated with Rara National Park in rolling out conservation plan 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 Rokaya, society actor involving people at the buffer zone, involved in construction of sustainable micro-hydro, and promoted WASH programs 60 Ubjan Bahadur Shahi, Chairperson, Khatyad Succeeded developing a policy and getting it approved by the 1, 3, 4, 8 Rural Municipality executive council to conserve Khatyad Khola and its aquatic biodiversity.
Thuligaad 61 Bala Singh Bohara Chairperson, Masani Dedicated farmer involved in community forestry and native 1, 2, 4, 8 Community Forestry, fish conservation in Thuligaad watershed at Nakhhu and Matse Jorayal RM, Doti area, designated confluence of Kamala river and Thuligad as fish conservation area 62 Hukum Bohara Ward chairperson, Community leader, promoted establishment and operation of 1, 2, 4, 7 Ward no. 1, , Chure CFUGs, and been campaigning for environment conservation RM for the past 20 years, supported a lift irrigation project and promoting construction of rainwater harvesting ponds. 63 Bhairab Saud Chair, RCDC (NGO), Worked for rural development and watershed management; 1, 2, 4, 5 Badi Kedar RM established local groups such as CFUGs, engaged in raising awareness, and coordinating with rural municipality for environment conservation, and advocating for promotion of sustainable aggregate mining. 64 Dammar Singh Saud Dedicated community leader/worker, established local groups 1, 2, 5 Chairperson of CFUG such as WSS, Irrigation groups and CFUGs, engaged in raising and Water Supply awareness, advocating for promoting sustainable fishing and and Sanitation (WSS) prohibiting destructive fishing, and promoting eco-tourism in and project, Ward no 5, around Solta Mohanyal RM 65 Jamuna Bohara Vice-chairperson, Key informant for local context, political economy, socio- 2, 3, 4, 8 Jorayal RM economics and key issues and challenges of the area, been promoting formulation and implementation of aquatic biodiversity conservation law, working to regulate environmentally unsound rural road construction, and emphasizing on sustainable riverbed mining
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66 Chairperson, Kedar Established local groups such as CFUGs, engaged in raising 1, 3, 5, Top Bahadur Chand Gramin Bikas Sewa awareness, advocating for release of water by the micro Kendra Badikedar hydropower in summer season and coordinating with Rural municipality on environmental conservation, engaged in advocacy and capacity development for the upliftment of members of disadvantaged community 67 Promoting culture based fisheries and in situ farming of snow 2, 4,5, trout in Gadshera Gad, raising awareness to cultivate local Lila Dhar Bista Gadsheri Basamati rice, engaged in conservation of Chhatiwan Jadshera, Ward no 5, Tal and Rachhas Tal Jorayal RM 68 Kaitini Badi Badi Leader and Been working to protect and promote rights and entitlements 2, 4, 6, 7 Minority advocate, of Badi community, raising awareness on negative effects of Jorayal Municipality destructive fishing 69 Padam Raj Joshi Hydro Power Committed to sustainable hydropower development and has 2, 3, 8 Developer and been trying to contribute to the development of aquatic animal Community Advocate, conservation law B P Nagar Tila 70 Birkha Bahadur BK Ward Chairperson, Advocating for protection and promotion of Dalits rights 3, 4, 5, 8 Ward 2, Khadachakra and contribution in conservation of aquatic and terrestrial Municipality biodiversity 71 Ratan Nath Yogi Chairperson, Tila RM Deep concern of minimizing deforestation and proposed law for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 conservation of aquatic biodiversity. Against social discrimination and believes in all round development rather than just roads. 72 Man Raj Shahi Vice-Chairperson, Politically active and favors forest conservation, herbs protection 2, 7, 8 Mahabai RM and biodiversity. 73 Lila Ram Neupane Lawyer, NGO and A lawyer with good experience in advocacy. Has been involved in 1, 2, 3 Social Worker, Tila NGO sector for a long time. Has a very good social capital. Riverside 74 Ashok Nath Yogi Civil Society Activist Leading different non-governmental, and social organizations, 1, 3, 4, 5 non-controversial with positive attitude, been supporting community development, social mobilization, and natural resource management advocacy , and supported institutional development of AEFC- Agriculture, environment and Forest Committee
75 Amar Bahadur Rokaya Chair, RSN Jumla Fisheries entrepreneur, NGO federation chair, and has worked 1, 3, 5 with UNDP in the sector of enterprises. 76 Bijaya Bista Deputy Mayor, Proposed law for conservation of aquatic biodiversity, and 1, 2, 8 Khadachakra committed to reduce deforestation. Municipality West Seti 77 Hirendra Rawol Chair, Buffer Zone Local leader with strong passion to save the river, buffer zone 3, 4, 5 User Committee, conservation activist ward no. 3, Khaptad Chhanna, Daru Gau
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78 Narendra Bahadur Chairperson, Passionate for protection of local water sources and understands 3, 4, 5, 8 Singh Naura, Jaya Prithavi the importance and needs of water for sustainable livelihood. Municipality Ward-6 79 Member, Himawanti GESI activist, supporting victims of gender based violence to get 1, 4 Geeta Shahi justice, on the perspective of natural resource management. 80 Mangal Bahadur Former secretary, Has knowledge of biodiversity conservation and good at 1, 2, 8 Khadka FECOFUN, Bajhang coordination, been working for natural resource management for the past 15 years 81 Gyan Singh Bahadur Chair, Sahara Nepal Has worked towards establishing good governance, environment 1,2,3, 4,8 Bohara conservation, community development, livelihood promotion, and youth networking and mobilization. 82 Gangu Devi Khadayat Vice-chairperson, Engaged in community forestry and women’s right movement, 1, 3, 8 Thalara Gaunpalika supported drinking water schemes, committed to environment friendly rural roads construction 83 Station Manager, Has worked towards establishing good governance, environment 1, 2, 7 D.B Bista Khaptad Awaaz conservation, and community development through the media campaign, and promoting public discourse against the adverse impacts un-engineered rural road construction 84 SDC Nepal Has worked towards environment conservation, community 1, 3, 5 Lokendra Prasad Giri development and livelihood promotion and social mobilization, and raising awareness against destructive fishing. 85 Citizen Scientist Dedicated to aquatic biodiversity conservation as a citizen scientist, involved in maintaining the natural state of Saipal Basant Bohara Mountain by preventing and controlling pollution caused by Yarsagumba collectors
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TABLE 14: PROPOSED PROVINCE CHAMPIONS
S.N Name Designation Description Criteria met Nepalgunj 1 Dev Bahadur SSP, Nepalgunj Training Center Believes that issues of the society should be looked 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Bohara Commandent without prejudices, trying to mainstream human rights in law enforcement agency’s works, acknowledges the importance of proper monitoring in every sector Surkhet 2 Sanjit Kandel Program Coordinator, Good knowledge on environment conservation. Young 1, 2, 5 Beautiful Nepal Association and motivated for environmental cause. 3 Dila Acharya Provincial officer, Women for Working for rights of women, mostly single women and 3, 5, 8 Human Right, Province-5 has good ability to coordinate Dhangadi 4 Dandi Raj Subedi General Secretary, Sunaulo Working on women empowerment, scientific 1, 2, 5 Bhawisya forest management and monitoring of EIA and IEE implementation 6 Unnati Chaudhary Executive Director/CEO Has been actively engaged in promoting women’s right 2, 3, 7 kerninews.com and is an influential person among young females.
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TABLE 15: PROPOSED NATIONAL LEVEL CHAMPIONS
S.N Name Designation Description Criteria met 1 Arya Gautam Planning, Monitoring and Has been working towards bringing inclusion in and 1, 2, 7 Social Safeguard Specialist, attention to issues such as water rights , discrimination, land SIP acquisition in implementing projects 2 Ashok Kumar President, MUAN and Mayor, Supporting sustainable water management, has been 4, 5, 8 Byanju Shrestha Dhulikhel municipality working to make Dhulikhel municipality clean and green 3 Kumar Pandey Vice President, IPPAN Working on effective development of hydropower and 4, 5, 8 improving coordination between independent power producers and the government 4 Arun Rana Aquatic biodiversity Engaged in conservation of aquatic biodiversity and have 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 conservationist and angler been dedicated to prevent destructive and unsustainable fishing and advocating for conservation of Golden Mahseer as protected fish species 5 Madhav Bellbase Secretary, Ministry of Government secretary indulged in different department like 2, 5, 7, 8 Drinking Water Water and Energy Commission (WECS) Nepal, Department of Irrigation, Water expert, has led various studies and planning done on water resource planning and management 6 Dr. Subodh Ecologist, Registrar, Registrar of Kathmandu University, Served as Head of 1, 2, 5, 6 Sharma Kathmandu University Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University, Felicitated by the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh State in India and conferred a gold medal by the Zoological Society of India (ZSI) for his outstanding researches and academic contributions in the field of aquatic science. 7 Dr. Bimala Rai Member, National Assembly Former member of the National Planning commission of 2, 4, 5, 8 Paudel at Federal Parliament of government of Nepal, secretary at the personal secretariat Nepal of the president for development affairs, member of the steering of the office of the Millenium Challenge Nepal, President of Women Advancement Program of GoN,, Member of civil society Advisory Group(CSAG) for UN women, Specializes in the field of rural livelihoods, gender equality and social inclusion mainstreaming, natural resource governance, climate smart agriculture, and disaster risk reduction 8 Chandra Kishore Media person Writes extensively on issues like water, disaster and several 2, 3, 8 social issues of Tarai 9 Gehendra Climate Expert, Practical Has intensively worked in the field of climate change, 1, 2, 7 Gurung Action developing and delivering programmes and projects for the benefits of poor people who are vulnerable to disasters and impacts of climate change, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) expert 10 Mana Devi Chief of license department, Actively involved in fair license issue for hydropower 2, 5, 8 Shrestha DOED development. 11 Bharati Pathak Chairperson, FECOFUN Has been working for women’s rights and community rights 1, 2, 8 over natural resources and for conservation for decades. Has played a major role in opposing the recently amended government’s forest bill which is deemed controversial. 12 Ms. Rashmi River water analyst Has extensively worked on rainwater harvesting, flood issues 1, 4, 5 Shrestha and on e-flow and other aspects of hydropower. Promotes youth leadership and encourages their participation in works that benefit the environment and communities.
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13 Narendra Babu Terrestrial Biodiversity Contributed to conservation of wetlands and wildlife. Has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Pradhan Conservation; played a major role in Nepal’s battle against poachers. 6, 7 14 Gagan Thapa Politician As a political leader, has influenced large group of people, 3, 4, 8 mostly youth. Has also been involved in agribusiness 15 Dr. Sanjay Secretary, Ministry of Has also worked as a research engineer, and as joint 2, 5, 8 Sharma Science and Technology secretary in Water and Energy Commission Secretariat 16 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 Prof. Chhetra Central Department of Research and analysis on aquatic biodiversity, management Mani Sharma Environment, Tribhuvan of wetland and capacity development University 17 Abdullah Mia Environmental Journalist, Has been regularly reporting on biodiversity conservation 1, 2, 5 , 6 Kantipur publication and wildlife conservation issues. Recipient of WWF Media in Conservation Award in 2009 and was also awarded Secretary of Nepal forum of ‘Community Forest Journalism Award-2018’ for his reporting Environmental Journalists on forest conservation and environment. (NEFEJ) and General Secretary of Nepal Muslim Journalists Association. 18 Pragati Shahi Sub editor, Kantipur An award-winning independent environment writer who 2, 5, 8 publication has covered local and global environment and development issues, disasters, and also frequently reported on issues ranging from minority groups, women and children to migrant workers. Published investigative features on wildlife conservation and challenges, climate change, disasters and wildlife crime in Nepal. During her eight-year journalism career, Pragati has won various awards and fellowships including WWF Media in Conservation Award, Best Environment Reporting Award, South Asia Climate Change Award, and British Council Climate Champion. Her features have also appeared in several international media including Time, The Atlantic, Public Broadcasting Service, Broadly, UCANews and Al Jazeera.
19 Dr. Smriti Assistant Professor, Passionate researcher and teacher who have contributed in 1, 2, 7 Gurung Kathmandu University knowledge generation focusing on aquatic biodiversity. She has published her papers in peer review journals mostly on macro-invertebrates, fish, water quality and high altitude limnology. 20 Megh Ale Founder and president Locally known as “River Man”. Also the founder of Karnali 1, 2, 4, 5 6 of the Nepal River River Waterkeeper for protecting wild and free river in Conservation Trust (NRCT), Nepal. So far organized three National River Summits and and the Managing Director advocating for keeping Karnali and few other rivers free of Ultimate Descents Nepal flowing. Has lead scientific treks from Tibet to Holy Ganges to and the Borderlands Nepal. promote a fact-based dialogues for river conservation 26 Sanjeevani Wildlife Conservation Nepal Working for conservation of wildlife and focusing on 1, 2, 6 Yonjan improving environment education in Nepal 27 Rajesh Sada Water resource specialist, He is currently leading freshwater program in WWF Nepal 1, 2, 7 WWF Nepal and has authored numbers of publications in climate change, water security and urbanization thus contributing in knowledge generation 28 Dr. Guna Nidhi Water Expert Has worked on preparing basin plans for rivers in Nepal, 1, 2, 6 Paudyal developing sustainable water supply systems. 29 Tej Kumar Naturalist and zoologist Fish expert, contributed scientific papers, articles and 1, 2, 3, 5 Shrestha authored number of books on aquatic biodiversity of Nepal. Has been closely associated with the wildlife conservation movement of Nepal.
361 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
ANNEX-16: POSSIBLE COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA ENGAGEMENT APPROACHES AND AUDIENCES
Approach Audience Radio General audiences, (including farmers, fisher groups, user groups members, marginalized (Community and private FM station) and vulnerable populations, contractors, -- sand and gravel mining, road construction-- security personnel, elected representatives, teachers, etc.) in areas with signal coverage. However, there will be need to determine specific placements in terms of programs, timings, etc. Television General audiences, (including farmers, fisher groups, user groups members, marginalized and vulnerable populations, contractors, -- sand and gravel mining, road construction-- security personnel, elected representatives, teachers, etc.) in areas with signal coverage. However, there will be need to determine specific placements in terms of programs, timings, etc. Newspaper/Magazines General audiences, (literate, generally urban centered, students and youth, policy makers, donors and potential donors, etc.) Social Media Generally younger urban audiences, particularly youth, national and international journalists and others interested in freshwater policy and aquatic biodiversity conservation. Letters, emails, policy positions Newspapers, policymakers, politicians, experts, academicians, other advocates of similar causes
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ANNEX-17: INFORMATION ON MEDIA PRESENCE IN MKWR BASINS
Name District Local Local FM stations Local Popular FM Popular Most languages newspaper/ station newspapers/ common magazine magazines source of information Rara Mugu Nepali, Sherpa, Radio Mugu 107.4MHz No local Radio Mugu NA Radio Tamang, Magar, Radio Rara 106 MHz newspapers 107.4MHz others Radio Sauryadaya 92.4MHz published Radio Rara Radio Nepal 100MHz currently 106 MHz Mugali Chalchitra Vikash Sang 106.6MHz
Phoksundo Dolpa Nepali, Gurung, Radio Dolpa 101.4 MHz Himali suskera Radio Dolpa Himali Suskera Radio Sherpa, Dolpali, Radio Nepal 100MHz (saptahik) 101.4 MHz Tamang, Magar, Se Foksundo Samudayik Kham, Others Sanchar Sahakari Sanstha Limited 106.3MHz
Tila Jumla Nepali, Tamang Radio Karnali 105.2 MHz Karnali post Radio Karnali Karnali Radio Kalikot Sherpa, Magar, Radio Chankheli 98.8 MHz daily(online) 105.2 MHz newspaper Kham, others Karnali Integrated Rural Karnali Radio Development and Research newspaper Chankheli 98.8 Center(KIRDARC/Karnali FM MHz 105.2 MHz Radio Nepal 100.0MHz (Planned Station not yet Hamro Karnali operating) Khabar Radio Chankheli 98.8 MHz Mission News Radio Naya Karnali 102.8 MHz
West Seti Bajura Nepali, Tamang, Radio Bajura 104.0 MHz Seti Sandesh Radio Kedar Seti Sandesh Radio Doti Sherpa, Radio Nepal 98MHz | saptahik 91.6 MHz saptahik Bajhang Bajhangi, Newar, Bajhang Saipal Radio Doteli, Gurung, Radio Doti 98.05 MHz 100.6 MHz others Radio Tribeni 94.4 Radio Seti FM Radio Ghanteswor Online 93.6 MHz Radio Shaileswori 105.9 Radio Bajhang MHz FM 91.0 MHz Radio Janamukhi 97.0 MHz Radio Miteri online Radio Kedar 91.6 MHz Saipal Radio 100.6 MHz Radio Bajhang FM 91.0 MHz Radio Seti FM 93.6 MHz | Chainpur Bajhang Radio serofero 90.2 MHz | Bungal, Bajhang
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Middle Achham Nepali, Achhami, Radio Panchadewal 88.6 Ramaroshan Radio Achham Ramaroshan Radio Karnali Dailekh Doteli, Baitadeli, MHz Daily 94.8 MHz Daily Kalikot Gurung, Magar, Radio Ramaroshan Khaptad News Dullu FM Khaptad News Tamang, Kham, 92MHz|Achham daily 101.5 MHz daily Others Radio Vaijnath FM 88.2MHz Baidhanath Janapriye FM Hamro Tesro |Achham daily 102.4 MHz Aankha Radio Achham 94.8 MHz Achham news Hamro Karnali Radio Society FM 89 MHz daily Khabar Radio Janapriya 102.4 MHz Aacham khaber | Achham (online) Radio Panchakoshi Samudayik FM 104MHz|Dailekh Dullu Dailekh Dhurbatara FM 89.9 MHz News(online) Dullu FM 101.5 MHz Hamro Tesro Radio Jwala Samudayik FM Aankha 100.4 MHz Sajha Radio Chankheli 98.8 MHz Pratibimba Radio Bhek Aawaj 101.2MHz Hamro Karnali Radio Chulimalika 101.8 Khabar MHz Mission News Radio Naya Karnali 102.8 MHz
Thuligaad Doti Nepali, Magar, Radio Doti 98.05 MHz | Paschim today Dinesh FM Paschim today Radio Dadheldhura Tharu, Achhami, Silgadhi-1, Doti Sudur Sandesh 93.8 MHz (Kailali) Kailali Dailekhi, Doteli, Radio Tribeni 94.4 MHz | Khaptad news Radio Sudur Sandesh Maithili, Magar, Dipayal, Doti Saileshwori Amargadhi (Kailali) Bhojpuri, others Radio Ghanteshwor Online post 97.4 MHz Saileshwori | Budar, Doti Ghanteshwor Parsuram FM post (Doti) Radio Saileshwori 105.9 (Doti) 91.2MHz Ghanteshwor | Doti Radio (Doti) Radio Amargadhi 97.4 MHz Dhangadhi Saileshwori | Amargadhi 5, Dadeldhura Post 105.9 | Doti Parsuram FM 91.2MHz | Dhangadhi Parsuram, Dadeldhura Khabar (online) Aafno FM 104.8MHz Kailali Khabar Paschim Nepal Media (online) Aviyan 96MHz |Dadeldhura Radio Sudur Aawaj 95MHz Samudayik Vikash Tatha samajik Naya Manch 97.4MHz
Dinesh FM 93.8 MHz Fulbari FM 93.2MHz Hamro Malika FM 99.0 MHz Radio Pradesh Seven Online Radio Paschim Awaj 104.7 MHz Kantiur FM 101.8MHz Khaptad FM 98.2MHz Radio Sakhi 95.8 MHz Radio Dhangadi 90.5 MHz Radio Koseli FM 97.0 MHz Radio Sunaulo FM Gochali FM 90 MHz Tikapur FM 101 MHz Radio Namaste Online Ghogaghodi FM 100.4 MHz.
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Bogatam Doti Radio Doti 98.05 MHz | Saileshwori Radio Doti Nepal Path Radio Lagam Silgadhi-1, Doti Post 98.05 MHz daily Karnali Surkhet Radio Tribeni 94.4 MHz | Ghanteshwor Ghanteshwor Dipayal, Doti Daily Daily Radio Ghanteshwor Online Nepal Path | Budar, Doti daily Parsuram FM 91.2MHz | Parsuram, Dadeldhura Radio Bheri 98.6 MHz | Kankrebihar Birendranagar-8, Surkhet Daily Jagaran FM 90.8 MHz | Hamro Naya Birendranagar,Surkhet Nepal Daily Bulbule Khabar (online)
Rangun Doti Nepali, Doteli, Radio Doti 98.05 MHz | Ghanteshwor Parsuram FM Sudur aawaj Radio Kham, Magar, Silgadhi-1, Doti Sudur aawaj 91.2 MHz Amargadhi Dadheldhura others Radio Tribeni 94.4 MHz | Amargadhi post Dipayal, Doti post Radio Ghanteshwor Online | Budar, Doti Parsuram FM 91.2MHz | Parsuram, Dadeldhura Radio Amargadhi 97.4 MHz | Amargadhi 5, Dadeldhura Paschim Nepal Media Aviyan 96MHz |Dadeldhura Radio Sudur Aawaj 95MHz Samudayik Vikash Tatha Samajik Naya Manch 97.4 MHz Jhimruk Pyuthan Nepali, Magar, Radio Mandavi FM 97 MHz Aarthik Radio Mandavi Naya yugbodh Radio Newar, Gurung, | Khalanga, Pyuthan Pyuthan FM 97 MHz (From Dang) Gulmi Tamang, Bhote, Radio Sworgadwari FM 88.4 Radio Majhi, Kumal, MHz | Pyuthan Gulmi Saptahik Sworgadwari Arghakhanchi others Radio Mahila Aawaj FM Patrika FM 88.4 MHz 90MHz | Khalanga Pyuthan Gulmi news Radio Mahila Community Radio Sky FM (online) Aawaj FM 90.4 MHz | Tamghas, Gulmi Gullmi Dainik 90MHz Radio Shringeshor 104.4 (online) MHz | Chhatrakot, Gulmi Ruru FM 94.8 MHz | Gulmi Arghakhanchi. Radio Nepal com (online) 100MHz|Resunga Aghakhanchi Radio Resunga Online | Saptahik Tamghas-1 Gulmi (online) Suryodaya FM 94 MHz | Sandhikharka -1, Argakhanchi
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Lower Kailali Nepali, Maithili, Dinesh FM 93.8 MHz | Dhangadhi Dinesh FM Rajapur Dainik Radio, Karnali Bhojpuri, Kailali, Dhangadhi Post 93.8 MHz Dhangadhi Newspaper, Bardiya Tharu, Avadhi, Hamro Malika FM 99.0 MHz Dhangadhi Radio Paschim Post TV Achhami, Doteli, | Lamki, Kailali Khabar (online) Awaj 104.7 Surkhet Bhojpuri, Magar, Radio Daily Mail 94.6 MHz Kailali Khabar MHz Newar, others | Kailali (online) Tikapur FM Radio Pradesh Seven 101 MHz Online | Kailali Rajapur Dainik Radio Paschim Awaj Churekunja 104.7 MHz | Lamki Chuha Weekly Municipality-2,Kailali Babai Weekly Radio Sakhi 95.8 MHz | Bardiya Online Josipur VDC 7, Kailali (online) Radio Dhangadhi 90.5 MHz Bardiya Times | Dhangadhi, Kailali (online) Radio Koseli FM 97.0 MHz | Kailali Kankrebihar Radio Sunaulo FM 105.6 Daily MHz | Masuriya, Kailali Hamro Naya Gochali FM 90 MHz | Nepal Daily Tikapur, Kailali Bulbule Khabar Tikapur FM 101 MHz | (online) Tikapur, Kailali Kites FM 91.8 MHz | Tikapur, Kailali Radio Namaste Online | Kailali Radio Tiger 99.2 MHz | Bardiya Radio Gurbaba F.M 106.4 MHz | Bardiya Radio Bheri 98.6 MHz | Birendranagar-8, Surkhet Jagaran FM 90.8 MHz | Birendranagar,Surkhet Lower Kanchanpur Nepali, Maithali, Radio Belauri 105 MHz | West Nepal Shuklaphanta Manaskhand Radio, Mahakali Tharu, Doteli, Belauri, Kanchanpur Daily FM 99.4 Api today Newspaper, Magar, Bajhangi, Shuklaphanta FM 99.4 | Newspaper of Radio Abhiyan dainik TV (STS TV, Baitadeli, Kanchanpur Far Western Kanchanpur Paschim nepal Barasinghe) Bajureli, Radio Kanchanpur FM 90.2 University FM 90.2 MHz Darchuleli MHz Manaskhand Radio Rastriya Radio Rastriya FM (online) Api today FM (online) Radio Prabhu 102.6 MHz Abhiyan dainik Kanchan today Janasarokar post Paschim Nepal Middle Rapti Dang Nepali, Tharu, Radio Prakriti 93.4 MHz | Goraksha Radio Naya Yugbodh Radio Avadhi, Kham, Tulsipu-5, Dang National Daily Swargadwari Magar Radio Madhyapaschim 91.4 Sisne Online 102.8MHz MHz | Ghorahi- Dang (online) Radio Hamro Pahunch Tulsipur Online Online 89MHz | Tulsipur, (online) Dang Naya Yugbodh Radio Nepal 98MHz| Dang Dang FM 107MHz Indreni FM (Pal Pal Ko Saathi) 92.4MHz Radio Ganatantra Rapti 95.1MHz Radio Highway 103.5 MHz Radio Naya Yug 107.3MHz Radio Jharana 88MHz Radio Saryu Ganga 104MHz Radio Swargadwari 102.8MHz Radio Tulsipur 100.2MHz Super FM 106.4MHz
366 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
367 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Abbreviation A Assembly ADB Asian Development Bank AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Center AMSL Above Mean Sea Level As Arsenic BBB Build Back Better BCT Brahmin, Chhetri and Thakuri BCTS Brahmin, Chhetri, Thakuri and Sanyasi BNP Bardiya National Park BOD Biological Oxygen Demand BZMC Buffer Zone Management Committee BZMG Buffer Zone Management Group CBOs Community Based Organizations CBS Central Bureau of Statistics CCA Climate Change Adaptation CCC Climate Change Council CDMCs Community-Based Disaster Management Committees CDOs Chief District Officers CFTL Central Food Testing Laboratory CFUG Community Forest Users’ Group CHAL Chitwan Annapurna Landscape CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CMDN Centre for Molecular Dynamics Nepal COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CTGI China’s Three Georges International Corporation DCC District Coordination Committee DDC District Development Committee DFID Department of International Development
368 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
DFOs Division Forest Offices DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid DoE Department of Environment DoED Department of Electricity Development DoFSC Department of Forest and Soil Conservation DoI Department of Irrigation DoIWR Department of Irrigation and Water Resources DoLIDAR Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads DoMG Department of Mines and Geology DoNPWLC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation DoPR Department of Plant Resources DoR Department of Roads DoWSS Department of Water Supply and Sewage DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DTOs District Technical Offices DTW Deep Tube Well DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction EC Executive Council eDNA environmental DNA EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPC Environment Protection Council ERC Electricity Regulation Commission EU Environmental FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FECOFUN Federation of Community Forest Users’ Nepal FEDWASAN Federation of Water Supply and Sanitation Users’ Association FGDs Focused Group Discussions FG Federal Government
369 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
FMISs Famers Managed Irrigation System GDP Gross Domestic Product GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion GHG Green House Gas GLOFs Glacier Lake Outburst Flows GMR Grandh Mallikarjuna Rao GoN Government of Nepal HAN Hotel Association of Nepal HDI Human Development Index HEP Hydropower HHs Households HPC Himalaya Power Consultant ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development IEE Initial Environmental Examination IMISAP Implementation Strategy and Action Plan IT PGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture IMT Integrated Mahakali Treaty INGOs International Non-Governmental Organization INPS Integrated Nepal Power System IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISF Irrigation Service Frees ITPGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IUDP Integrated Urban Development Project IU Infrastructure Unit; RU-Revenue Unit IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management JHP Jhimruk Hydropower Project KGK Krishi Gyan Kendra
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KIIs Key Informant Interviews KISAN Knowledge-Based Integrated Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrition KU Kathmandu University KVWSSDP Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Sector Development Project KW Kilowatt kWh Kilowatt hour LAPA Local Adaptation Program of Action LDRMP Local Disaster Risk Management Planning Guidelines LG Local Government LGOA Local Government Operation Act MAP Medicinal Aromatic Plants MCM Million Cubic Meters MLACPA Ministry of Land Management, Cooperatives, and Poverty Alleviation MKWR Mahakali, Karnali and West Rapti MoALMC Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development MoCTCA Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation MoE Ministry of Energy MoEWRI Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Irrigation MoEWRI Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation MoFAGA Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration MoFAGA Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration MoFALD Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development MoFE Ministry of Forest and Environment MoFE Ministry of Forest and Environment MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs MoI Ministry of Irrigation MoICS Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Supply MoITFE Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment MoITFE Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forest and Environment
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MoLMAC Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives MoLMAC Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment MoPID Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Development MoSD Ministry of Social Development MoU Memorandum of Understanding MoUD Ministry of Urban Development MoWRE Ministry of Water Resources and Energy MSFP Multi-Stakeholders Forestry Program MW Megawatt NACCFL Nepal Agri Co-operative Central Federation Ltd NA- Nepal Army NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action NARA Nepal Association of River-Rafting Agencies NCCSP Nepal Climate Change Support Program NCDM National Council for Disaster Management NCRA Natural Calamity Relief Act NCS National Conservation Strategy NCT- Nepal Conservation Trust NCVST Nepal Climate Vulenarbility Study Team NDRF National Disaster Response Framework of 2013 NDRRMA National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority NEPAP Nepal’s Environmental Policy and Action Plan NGOs Non-Governmental Organization NHPC National Hydro Power Corporation NIFUWAN National Federation of Irrigation Water Users’ Association Nepal NIFUWAN National Federation of Irrigation Users’ Association-Nepal NLBI Nepal Lake Biotic Index NNRFC National Natural Resources Fiscal Commission
372 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
NORAD Norwegian Agency for International Development NPC National Planning Commission NPC National Planning Commission NPC National Planning Commission NPR Nepalese Rupees NRB Nepal Rastra Bank NRBCF Nepal River Basin Conservation Fund NRRC Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium NSDRM Strategy for Disaster Risk Management NTDB Nepal Tourism Development Board NTDB Nepal Tourism Development Board NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products NTGTA Nepal Travel Guide and Trekking Association NWP National Water Plan ODF Open Defecation Free PAHAL Promoting Agriculture, Health and Alternative Livelihoods PDA Project Development Analysis PEA Political Economy Analysis PES Paying for Environmental Services PG Provincial Government PMP Pancheswar multi-purpose project PPC Provincial Planning Commission PPP Public-Private Partnership PSIR Pressure-State-Impact-Response PSRI Pressure-State -Response-Impact RVWRMP Rural Village Water Resources Management Project SACEP South Asia Cooperation for Environment Program Se Selenium SIP Small Irrigation Programme
373 POLITICAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
SLDs Shared Learning Dialogues SMEC Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation SMS Short Messaging Service SPNP Shey Phoksundo National Park STW Shallow Tube Well STWSSSP Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project TAL Tarai Arc Landscape TDS Total Dissolved Solid TROSA Transboundary Rivers of South Asia TSS Total Suspended Solid UEIP Urban Environment Improvement Project UMN United Mission to Nepal UNCBD Nation’s Convention on Biological Diversity UNDP United Nation Development Program UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USAID United State Agency for International Development USD US Dollar VDCs Village Development Committees WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WB World Bank WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat WEC Water and Energy Commission WRS Water Resources Strategy WUAs Water Users Group WUMP Water Usage Master Plan WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Zn Zinc
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