WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. A CASE STUDY OF PRU AND ATEBUBU-AMANTEN DISTRICTS, GHANA
by
David Dei
(B.A. Integrated Development Studies)
A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND PLANNING
Department of Planning
College of Architecture and Planning
SEPTEMBER, 2011
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this piece of work is outcome of my own research, carried out under the able supervision of Dr. Imoro Braimah towards the award of MSc. Development Policy and Planning. With the exception of references made to other literature which has been duly acknowledged, no part or whole of the work is reproduction of another person for the award of any degree of the university or any other university.
David Dei ......
(Candidate: PG 3282909) Signature Date
Certified By:
Dr. Imoro Braimah ......
(Supervisor) Signature Date
Certified By:
Dr. Imoro Braimah ......
(Head of Department) Signature Date
ii ABSTRACT
Water is life and it is universally acclaimed as the most important natural resource. The end use of water is essential for every inhabitant and for a wide range of economic and informal sector activities
Pollution of water bodies through the use of toxic chemicals by fishermen, farming near and in river beds, higher temperatures and other anthropogenic factors have negative effects on water resources thereby limiting their economic potentials towards sustainable socioeconomic development. There are regulations regarding the sustainable use of water resources in Ghana. However, these regulations are not being adequately adhered to. Given the current trend of population growth and increasing demands both in quantity and quality, the issue of water resource management has become more sensitive than any time previously in the history of Ghana. In view of the effects of climate change on water resources, it is necessary to ensure that water resources are sustainably managed to avoid the adverse effects of climate change. Therefore the research sought to assess the level of application and adherence to water resources regulations for sustainable socio-economic development in the Pru and Atebubu-Amanten districts of Brong Ahafo region.
The study employed case study approach to carry out the research. Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources and was analysed by the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods. Results from the study indicated that, about 86% of the people in the study area derived their livelihoods either directly or indirectly from water resources in the area. The Water Resource Commission is the agency authorised under the Water Resource Act to regulate and control the use of water resources through granting of water rights and water use permits. The major laws that guide the regulation and management of water resources in Ghana are the Water Resource Commission Act, (No 522 of 1996) and the Water Use Regulation, Legislative Instrument (LI 1692 0f 2001).
The granting of Water Use Permit is considered a tool to regulate water abstraction and control pollution of water bodies in Ghana. With emerging water problems, it has become increasingly important that governments develop and implement clear policy priorities and establish enabling framework in the water sector to address under-development, water shortages and pollution, and to allow equitable and efficient access to water.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGE
DECLARATION ...... ii
TABLE OF CONTENT...... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ...... x
LIST OF TABLES ...... xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... xii
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 Background to the study ...... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ...... 3
1.3 Research questions ...... 4
1.4 Research objectives ...... 4
1.5 Scope of the study...... 5
1.6 Research justification ...... 5
1.7 Organization of the report ...... 6
CHAPTER TWO ...... 7
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS OF WATER REOURCE MANAGEMENT ...... 7
2.1 Introduction ...... 7
2.2. Integrated water resource management ...... 7
2.3 Characteristics of water sources ...... 8
2.3.1 Water Sources and Supplies ...... 8
iv 2.3.2 Physical characteristics of water resources ...... 9
2.3.3 Economic characteristics of water resources ...... 9
2.3.4 Social characteristics of water resources ...... 11
2.3.5 Political characteristics of water resources ...... 12
2.4 Impact of climate change on water resources ...... 13
2.5 Water resource management and development ...... 14
2.5.1 Market and government failures ...... 15
2.5.2 Optimal allocation of scarce water resources ...... 15
2.6 Water resources management experiences in Ghana...... 16
2.6.1 Customary land and water conservation practices ...... 16
2.6.2. Pre-independence common laws ...... 17
2.6.3. Post-independence common laws ...... 17
2.7 Coordination of water resources management and policies at the national level ...... 19
2.7.1Water Resource Commission ...... 19
CHAPTER THREE ...... 22
3.1 Introduction ...... 22
3.2 Research Methodology ...... 22
3.2.1 Research Design ...... 22
3.2.2 Sampling frame and sample Size Determination ...... 23
3.2.3 Key Variables and Unit of Analysis ...... 24
3.2.4 Sampling Technique ...... 24
3.2.5 Data Sources and Data collection ...... 25
3.2.6 Tools of Data Analysis...... 25
3.3 Profile of Atebubu-Amanten District ...... 25
v 3.3.1 Location and Size ...... 25
3.3.2Geology ...... 26
3.3.3Relief and Drainage ...... 26
3.3.4Climate ...... 27
3.3.5Vegetation ...... 27
3.3.6Soils ...... 28
3.3.7Population Size and Growth Rates ...... 28
3.3.8Age - Sex Structure ...... 29
3.3.9 Population Density...... 30
3.3.10 Rural/Urban Split ...... 30
3.3.11 Ethnicity and Religion ...... 30
3.3.12Poverty levels ...... 31
3.3.13Agriculture ...... 31
3.4 Profile of Pru District ...... 32
3.4.1 Location and Size ...... 32
3.4.2 Climate ...... 33
3.4.3 Vegetation ...... 35
3.4.4 Relief and Drainage ...... 35
3.4.5 Soil ...... 36
3.4.6 Geology and Minerals ...... 36
3.4.7 Population Size and Growth Rates ...... 36
3.4.8 Age and Sex Composition ...... 37
3.4.9 Household Composition ...... 38
3.4.10 Dependency Ratio ...... 38
3.4.11 Population Density ...... 38
vi 3.4.12 Rural/Urban Split ...... 38
3.4.13 Traditional Setups ...... 39
3.4.14 Religious Composition ...... 39
3.4.15 Ethnicity ...... 40
3.4.16 Migration Trends ...... 40
3.4.17 Major Economic Activities ...... 40
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 42
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 42
4.1 Introduction ...... 42
4.2 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents ...... 42
4.2.1 Age and Sex of respondent ...... 42
4.2.2 Marital status of respondents ...... 43
4.2.3 Educational levels of respondents ...... 44
4.3.4 Occupation of respondents ...... 44
4.4 Types of water resources in the study area ...... 47
4.4.1 Ownership of water resources ...... 48
4.4.2 Respondents knowledge of water resource regulations ...... 48
4.5 Practices that contravenes water resource regulations ...... 50
4.5.1 Use of unapproved fishing gears ...... 50
4.5.2 Washing, bathing and discharge of lubricants into the water ...... 51
4.6 Punishments for noncompliance...... 52
4.7 Reasons for noncompliance ...... 53
4.8 Climate change, biodiversity, water resources and wetlands ...... 53
4.9 Institutional responses ...... 55
vii 4.9.1 Ghana Meteorological Service ...... 55
4.9.2 Environmental Protection Agency...... 56
4.9.3 District Assemblies ...... 56
4.10 Institutional challenges ...... 57
4.10.1 Human resource capacity challenges ...... 57
4.10.2 Weak inter-agency collaboration ...... 58
4.10.3 Financial constraints ...... 58
4.10.4 Logistical constraints ...... 58
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 59
FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION...... 59
5.1 Major findings ...... 59
5.1.1 Economy of water resources ...... 59
5.1.2 Water resource management ...... 59
5.1.3 Inter institutional collaboration ...... 59
5.1.4 Ownership of water resource ...... 60
5.1.5 Law that regulate water use ...... 60
5.1.6 Compliance level ...... 60
5.1.7 Benefits of regulating water resource usage ...... 61
5.2 Policy recommendations ...... 61
5.2.1 Establishment of national water resource database ...... 62
5.2.2 Effective inter-agency collaboration ...... 62
5.2.3 Effective Monitoring and Evaluation ...... 62
5.2.4 Capacity building for agencies and water users ...... 63
5.2.5 Re-engineer society against climate change ...... 63
viii 5.3 Conclusion...... 64
REFERENCES ...... 65
APPENDIX I...... 68
APPENDIX II ...... 71
APPENDIX III...... 74
APPENDIX IV ...... 78
ix LIST OF FIGURES
CONTENT PAGE
Fig 2.1 Institutional frameworks for IWRM in Ghana ...... 21
Fig 3.1 Map of Atebubu-Amanten District ...... 26
Fig 3.2: Map of Pru District ...... 34
Fig 4.1 Occupational distributions of respondents ...... 45
Fig 4.2: Water resources and their percentage share of use ...... 47
Fig 4.3: The use of bamboos in fishing in the rivers and lakes...... 50
Fig 4.4 Washing of vehicle in water bodies ...... 51
Fig 4.5 Boats operating on the Volta Lake ...... 52
Fig 4.6 Small town water system submerged in the Volta ...... 54
Fig 4.7 Plant filters flooded due to the over flow of the Volta ...... 54
x LIST OF TABLES
CONTENT PAGE
Table 2.1 Legal enactments for setting up major water-related agencies...... 18
Table 3.1 Number of household questionnaires administered ...... 23
Table 3.2 Male – Female Split ...... 29
Table 3.3 Ten most populated localities in the District ...... 39
Table 4.1: Marital status of respondents ...... 43
Table 4.2 Cross tabulation of sex and marital ...... 43
Table 4.3: Educational levels of respondents...... 44
Table 4.4: Cross tabulation of sex and occupational distribution...... 45
Table 4.5: Fish Production in Pru District; 2006-2009 ...... 46
xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude and thanks go to the Almighty for His guidance and protection throughout my course of study. My supervisor, Dr. Imoro Braimah, deserves special thanks for his direction and guidance towards the success of this work. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by a diverse group of organizations and individuals; this research would not have been possible without their generous sharing of resources and information.
I am grateful for the enthusiastic support of the Environmental Protection Agency, Water Resource Commission, Hydrological Service Department, Pru and Atebubu-Amanten District Assemblies and the Department of Planning- KNUST for their time and expertise to assist me in this research.
Special thanks are due to my colleagues at Department of Planning (Development Policy and Planning Class of 2008-2011) especially Gyireh Fang-Veil Paschal, Yahaya A. Dokurugu, Mamud Mamud Osman Rev. Father Eric Anokye, Moses O.A. Amoah, and Rejoice Ametepe for their support and inspiration.
I especially thank Dr. Herbert K. Dei, a senior brother and advisor, for his invaluable support, instruction, and mentorship that he provided.
xii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
Water is life and it is universally acclaimed as the most important natural resource. The end use of water is essential for every inhabitant and for a wide range of economic and informal sector activities. It is vital for agriculture, industry, health and hydropower. Water is also an integral part of the natural environment and the habitat for many forms of life, be it human, animal and plant (Opoku-Agyemang 2005).
Water resources management is the integrating concept for a number of water sub-sectors. The use of an integrated water resources perspective ensures that social, economic, environmental and technical dimensions are taken into account in the management and development of surface waters (rivers, lakes, and wetlands) and groundwater. This integrated approach according to WaterAid (2007), requires water managers to understand not only the water cycle (including rainfall, distribution, ecosystem interactions and natural environment and land-use changes), but also the diverse intersectoral development needs for water resources.
Ghana‟s legal regime for the management of water resources combines both the formal and informal customary law principles. Under the customary law, water as part of customary land holding is vested in stools, committees, families as the case may be. In the formal sector the water resources are vested in the state and any use requires a permit or license from the water resource commission. In considering an application for water use in Ghana, the law requires consultation of the traditional institutions in determining the grant or otherwise. This ensures the consideration of traditional concepts and norms, such as the concept of water spirit and the holy days of water bodies. These concepts are essential for the sustainable management and conservation of water resources in Ghana (Opoku- Agyemang 2001).
Ghana is well endowed with water resources. The Volta river system basin, consisting of the Oti, Daka, Pru, Sene and Afram rivers as well as the white and black volta rivers, account for 70% of the country‟s water resources. Another 22% of Ghana is covered by the southwestern river system watershed comprising the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra
1 rivers. The coastal river system watershed, comprising the Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, Ayensu, Densu and Tordzie rivers, covers the remaining 8% of the country (WaterAid 2007).
Where water is unavailable in most rural communities or even in many urban communities, many communities find it convenient to live along rivers, forests, places where access to water is guaranteed. The tendency for communities to locate around water bodies is indicative of how important water is to life (Daily Graphic7th September, 2010). Water is indispensable to life and essential for food cultivation, household use, industry and sustaining the ecosystem. The availability and access to water is therefore, a fundamental right which should be considered as an integral part of any sustainable livelihood and poverty reduction programmes.
The achievement of the millennium development goals depend largely on improved water supply and sanitation in Ghana. The millennium development goals are important in their definition of a clear international agenda for focusing effort on poverty reduction. One of the goals is to stop the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and to halve by 2015 the proportion of people who cannot access safe drinking water (Desai and Potter 2008). This clearly relates to water and must be a focus to improve the role of water in poverty reduction. The role of water in achieving the MDGs is not confined to this issue, however, as water management can contribute to realizing all of the MDGs and is of particular significance for MDGs related to promoting health, reducing hunger, increasing income and improving the living conditions of the poor.
Given the current trend of population growth and increasing demands both in quantity and quality, the issue of water resource management is becoming more sensitive than any time previously in the history of Ghana.
Water resources in the Pru and Atebubu-Amanten districts of Brong Ahafo Region have been seen as one of the development potentials for curtailing the high incidence of poverty by improving the standard of living of the people through improved smallholder irrigation techniques, fishing, livestock production and domestic as well as industrial uses. They are seen as important in achieving some of the goals of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals of poverty reduction.
2 1.2 Problem Statement
Effective water resources management and development are central to sustainable growth and poverty reduction. Today, about 700 million people live in countries experiencing water stress or scarcity. By 2035, it is projected that 3 billion people will be living in conditions of severe water stress. Many countries with limited water availability depend on shared water resources, increasing the risk of conflict over these scarce resources (Daily Graphic 7th September 2010).
The environmental protection council in 1991 estimated that, freshwater resources in Ghana amounted to 40 million acre-feet from rain fall, rivers, streams, springs, and creeks, natural lakes, impoundments and ground water. However, Environmental Protection Agency in 2003 stated that, Ghana will experience water stress of 1700 cubic meters or less a person annually by 2025 (Daily Graphic 7th September 2010).
The effects of climate change are already being felt on water resources, with impacts across many economic sectors. The rising global temperatures are leading to an intensification of the hydrological cycle, resulting in heightened risks of more extreme and frequent floods and drought. Changing climate is having significant impacts on the availability of water, as well as the quality and quantity of water that is available and accessible. Declining crop yields are likely to leave hundreds of millions without the ability to produce or purchase sufficient food supplies (WaterAid 2007).
Pollution of water bodies through the use of toxic chemicals by mining activities, fishermen, farming near and in river beds, higher temperatures and other anthropogenic factors have negative effects on water resources thereby limiting their economic potentials towards sustainable socioeconomic development.
There are regulations regarding the sustainable use of water resources in Ghana. However, it appears these regulations are not being adhered to. In view of the effects of climate change on water resources, it is necessary to ensure that water resources are sustainably managed to avoid the adverse effects of climate change.
Issues of drought, flood, and extreme climate change have dominated the news in recent times and have caused the death of thousands of people. This has caused governments of
3 certain countries such as Ghana to take more stringent action on water resources management. The management of water resources is the concern of all stakeholders involved (Hagan 2007).
With emerging water problems, it has become increasingly important that governments develop and implement clear policy priorities and establish enabling framework in the water sector to address under-development, water shortages and pollution, and to allow equitable and efficient access to water. Enhanced water resources management and development are of immediate importance, especially for those communities where the inability to control water places food security in jeopardy. It was in view of this that the study seeks to delve into the extent to which water resources regulations are adhered to in the Atebubu-Amanten and Pru districts of Brong Ahafo Region.
1.3 Research questions
To help resolve the growing number of water resource issues, policy-makers are increasingly being called on to review and explain the conditions, problems and progress in the overall water sector for sustainable growth and development. Despite all the frantic efforts made in this direction, the issue of water resources drying up, polluted and more especially rivers, lakes and streams losing their productive potential remains development challenges in the study area. It was in this direction that the study intended to provide answers to the following questions:
What are the water resource regulations that exist? Do people comply with these regulations? Are there sanctions for noncompliance? How can the regulations be made more effective?
1.4 Research objectives
The objectives of this thesis work were to:
Find out the extent to which the water resource management will improve the living condition and standard of living to users in the study area. Ascertain the role of District Assemblies and other players in water resource management in the study area.
4 Identify and assess the existing laws and regulations protecting water resources in the study area. Provide recommendations on effective ways of managing water and water resources in the study area and the country at large.
1.5 Scope of the study
The scope of the study has two dimensions; geographical and contextual. Geographically, the study was carried out in two Districts in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana, namely Atebubu-Amanten and Pru Districts. These districts are strategically located along perennial water bodies (lakes, rivers, dam and streams) that could provide a lot of economic opportunities to unfold the development fortunes of these districts. Besides, due to financial and logistical constraints, only these districts were selected for study.
Water resources covered in the study includes rivers, lakes, streams and dams which are located in the selected districts in the region. This means that, these and other water resources which are located in the region but outside any of the selected study area were not considered in this study. The development potentials of these water resources to their respective districts, how these resources are managed; who manages them and more importantly the application of water resource regulations to protect the usage and sustainability of the resources were the focus of this study.
1.6 Research justification
Access and availability of water is the foundation of all development and as such, its inadequacy or absence is an insurmountable obstacle to helping oneself. Water resource is key to ensuring the sustainability of many types of new economic ventures that provide investment or employment opportunities for many especially the poor and that contribute to a wider process of national economic development.
Ensuring that water is available in the right quantities and quality for food production, fishing, domestic and industrial uses as forms of economic growth is itself a key focus for water investment and management activities. Many of difficult issues facing the poor can be traced to lack of access to water and water resources. Water is life and the foundation of all development and fundamental of relieving hunger. It is in this direction that, the
5 study was undertaken to provide a framework for managing Ghana‟s water resources to ensure its sustainability and increased productivity.
In addition, the findings of the study could serve as a springboard or point of initiative to all the players in the water sector; district assemblies, traditional institutions, non governmental organizations among others to understand and appreciate the important role of water resources to economic growth and development. Water resource has multiplier effects on socioeconomic development therefore water resource management should be paramount to all stakeholders.
Finally, the research serves as addition to knowledge of earlier work done, and also a database for similar work/study in the future.
1.7 Organization of the report
This thesis was structured into five chapters. The first chapter entails introduction, problem statement, objectives, scope, and justification of the study. The second chapter; the literature review presented a framework of analysing integrated water resources management, characteristics of water resources, water resource and development, impacts of climate change on water resources, and coordination of water resource management and policy development. The third chapter; methodology of the study, described the steps to achieve the objectives of the thesis. As such, this section looked at data collection methods, sampling techniques and methods of data analysis. Also included in this section was a brief description of the study area thus, general living conditions, physical and demographics. The fourth chapter focused on data processing, analysis and presentation. The focus of chapter five was on the findings of the study, recommendations and conclusion.
6 CHAPTER TWO
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS OF WATER REOURCE MANAGEMENT
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews relevant literature on water resource management for socioeconomic development. The aim is to provide a general framework of understanding on the relevant literature and also inform the discussion and analysis of the survey results from the study. The analysis will provide understanding on integrated water resource management, characteristics of water resources, impacts of climate change on water resources, and historical perspective of water resource management experience in Ghana.
2.2. Integrated water resource management
Integrated Water Resources Management has been defined by the Technical Committee of the Global Water Partnership (GWP) as a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Operationally, Integrated Water Resources Management approaches involve applying knowledge from various disciplines as well as the insights from diverse stakeholders to devise and implement efficient, equitable and sustainable solutions to water and development problems (Global Water Partnership 2000).
Similarly, Medalye and Kundell (2008) viewed Integrated Water Resources Management as a comprehensive, participatory planning and implementation tool for managing and developing water resources by balancing social and economic needs, and ensuring the protection of ecosystems for future generations at the same time. From the author‟s perspective, Integrated Water Resources Management is a process that brings together decision makers across the various sectors that impact water resources, and also brings the stakeholders to set policy and make balanced decisions in response to specific water challenges.
Water resources are recognised as essential for food security especially for the poor, not just from agriculture but also from fish, and other foods collected from aquatic ecosystems
7 and from livestock. Attesting to the importance of water resources, Water Resources Commission (1999) affirmed that water resources are used in various ways including direct consumption, agricultural irrigation, fisheries, hydropower, industrial production, recreation, navigation, environmental protection, the disposal and treatment of sewage, and industrial effluents.
Integrated water resource management should therefore be seen as the surest way of managing water resources. Hence a concerted and coordinated effort is needed to put all hands on the desk in making sure that, water resources are sustainably managed to foster socioeconomic development.
2.3 Characteristics of water sources
Water has sources and supplies, economic, social, and political characteristics which make it a unique and challenging natural resource to manage. Therefore, a more understanding of these characteristics is needed to improve the management of water resources and the delivery of water services.
2.3.1 Water Sources and Supplies
Water resources constitute the supply of groundwater and surface water in a given area. Water resources may also be seen as the potential value of the resource to the community and the environment. According to Medalye and Kundell (2008), the maximum rate that water is potentially available for human use and management is often considered the best measure of the total water resources of a given region.
Due to complexities and constraints that confront man regarding water resource management, humans have attempted to increase available water resources by increasing precipitation in various anthropogenic manners including cloud seeding. Humans have also attempted to decrease evapotranspiration by altering vegetation management scenarios, and sometimes through genetic manipulation. The benefits of alterations are usually minimal and most often temporary, and unfortunately often have serious environmental, social, economic, and legal ramifications.
8 2.3.2 Physical characteristics of water resources
Water is made available by the natural hydraulic cycle of the atmospheric-oceanic- terrestrial system. In most forms, water is a renewable resource since its continued flows are not affected by withdrawals or use. However, not all natural waters are renewable and renewable waters can become non-renewable by human actions such as contamination, watershed modification, or extraction in excess of inflow rate. Water is a vital resource for human and other animal and plant health. Water bodies provide habitats for aquatic life and riparian systems provide moisture for vegetation and terrestrial biota, transporting nutrients between one ecosystem and another (Gleick et al 2002). As well, large water systems provide regional and climatic weather services. Large-scale withdrawals or transfers of water can change ecological conditions and thus the in situ benefits of a water body.
Water use has grown rapidly in modern times. According to Medalye and Kundell (2008), the first 80 years of the 20th century saw a 200 percent increase in the world's average per capita water use, which accounted for a remarkable 566 percent increase in withdrawals from the world's freshwater resources. In addition, a significant portion of water resources have become unusable due to industrial and agriculture pollution. Diversions or transfers of water from watersheds to other regions have led to many ecological and human health disasters.
Gleick et al (2002) maintained that worldwide, more than 20 percent of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because of dams and water withdrawals. Also, groundwater aquifers are threatened by exhaustion and saltwater intrusions from overuse worldwide in places as far apart as India, China, and the United States. These inefficient and detrimental uses of water have led to concerns that its physical value is not reflected in its cost, an economic question.
2.3.3 Economic characteristics of water resources
In recognition of the above problems, the international development community clearly expressed the need for applying economic tools and principles to water. The International Conference on Water and Environment, held in Dublin, Ireland in January 1992,
9 concluded, among other things, that “water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good” (ICWE 1992).
Water is used in economic activities and hence must be allocated among competing uses. The commercial needs for water resources complicate matters, since water is a difficult to measure and identify. Water flows, evaporates, seeps and is transpired. This evasive nature entails that exclusive property rights are difficult to establish or enforce. As such it is difficult to subject water to market forces in a market economy.
Furthermore water has a long-term value to the sustainability of life and economic activity, over periods that dwarf those considered in conventional cost-benefit analysis. The value of useable water to future generations is hard to quantify and define and requires considerations of quantity, quality, timing, and accessibility. As well, the value of water to particular uses depends crucially on its location, quality, and timing. Its location determines its accessibility and costs. Its quality affects whether it can be used, and what treatment cost it will require. The time when it is available governs its reliability and its relative value for power, irrigation, environmental or potable uses (FAO 1995).
Moreover, many development economists agree that the widespread provision of water is a prerequisite for the transformation of poorer economies into modern economies. For instance, new industries can be constrained by lack of useable water. Currently, developed countries‟ industry uses more than 40 percent of total worldwide water withdrawals versus 10 percent in developing countries. The lack of control on pollution and consumption of water could lead to greater scarcity as developing countries pursue industrial growth.
Theoretically, managing water as an economic good entails that water can be allocated across competing uses in a way that maximizes the net benefit from the amount of water in question. Practically, the increasing financial burden on users to pay for clean water has social and political implications. For example, FAO (1995), observed that more than three thousand million people worldwide have daily incomes of less than $US 2, which places a severe limitation on their capacity to pay the full economic costs of water services. There has been growing controversy over the privatization of water worldwide as the economic principles of valuation, privatization, and efficiency are being applied to water, a resource that many consider a basic human need and right (FAO 1995).
10 2.3.4 Social characteristics of water resources
It is commonly accepted that access to water is a basic human right. The Dublin Conference in 1992 asserted that “it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price” (ICWE 1992). Moreover, it is argued that water is a social good in that the widespread availability of clean and affordable water improves both individual and social well-being. According to Gleick et al (2002) clean water reduces the prevalence of water-related diseases, a social benefit shared by all users of the same water source.
The public health impacts of inadequate water supply have serious social and economic consequences for all. Being a social good and private good are not mutually exclusive conditions. In fact, more water for one individual can mean less water for other individuals who share a water-supply system. Ensuring that the public receives an adequate supply of social goods requires some level of governmental action, since purely private markets often do not find it profitable to provide social goods (Gleick et al 2002).
Classifying water as a basic human right introduces further social complications in terms of equitable distribution. Only a fraction of water consumption is actually used for preserving life. A large portion of urban water is used for convenience and comfort. For example in the arid western United States, the per capita water withdrawal by households frequently exceeds 400 litres per day, about half of which is used to irrigate lawns and gardens, the remainder being used for toilets, bathing, and washing cars (FAO 1995).
Clearly with 1.1 billion people still lacking access to safe drinking water, the allowance for such frivolous usage is inequitable. Moreover, the moral dimensions of water management intersect with the property rights issues that underlie the economic allocation of water. If local people “own” or have a right to water in its natural place, they must be persuaded to voluntarily accept removal of water from its natural place (Gleick et al 2002).
In addition, water has cultural and symbolic importance. It is used in religious rituals such as baptism and it acts as a source of national identities for many native peoples (Graz 1998). As such, the value of water to people will differ across cultures and further complicates the characteristics of the resource.
11 2.3.5 Political characteristics of water resources
In addition, water is not evenly distributed throughout the world, and there are great variations in natural abundance. For example, mountain areas produce 80 percent of global water resources yet they have less than 10 percent of the global population (FAO 1995). This uneven distribution entails the need for large-scale transfers and agreements. Previously, large-scale transfers of water occurred within national borders. Agreements were common among nations that shared a watershed, such as the U.S. and Mexico (Gleick et al 2002).
Recently, as domestic, industrial, and agricultural demands for fresh water have grown, proposals for bulk water transfers are being made at the international level. Entrepreneurs have created a wide range of markets for water, leading to various forms of international water trading and exchanges. Thus, fresh water has become an issue in international trade negotiations and disputes. The lack of legal precedence governing the trade of water has placed water at the forefront of international concern and tension (ICWE 1992).
As well, it is historically common for regions to experience vulnerability to water availability. Disputes over shared water resources can lead to violence and continue to raise local, national, and even international tensions (Gleick et al 2002). Countries may be willing to go to war to defend their interests. There is a serious risk of water becoming a casus belli in some of the arid parts of the world (FAO 1995). Rising conflict is expected as populations expand, economies grow, and the competition for limited water supplies intensifies. Competition for and conflicts over water are not new, although the mismatch between expected supplies and expected demand is historically unprecedented (FAO 1995).
In addition, decisions about water concern many interested parties or stakeholders. The decision to use more water in agriculture, for instance, could have implications for power generation, for municipal use, for industrial off take, for in-stream uses such as fishing, navigation and recreation, and for the environment, including wetlands, deltas and game parks (FAO 1995). Decisions over water could also entail major public health risks, such as the spread of malaria. As such, national political implications regarding water management are also a characteristic of choosing among competing water uses. The above
12 physical, economic, social and political characteristics of water make it a unique resource in which a degree of government involvement is inevitable.
2.4 Impact of climate change on water resources
Access to water plays a key role in development thus; it sustains human life, both through direct consumption and use in agriculture (for food security) and industrial activities. While water availability for drinking purposes is essential, it cannot be separated from wider water resource management issues. Its use for industrial purposes is important to fuel economic growth, and competing demands from households, agriculture and industry can cause conflict over water availability and use. Today, more than one billion people still lack access to safe water, while over two billion lack safe sanitation (WaterAid 2007).
The changes to the hydrological cycle will deteriorate the availability of water for human populations, in terms of quantity, quality and accessibility of water supplies. These conditions will be further exacerbated by increasing natural disasters and their impacts on water for human populations.
As observed by WaterAid (2007) many of the world‟s countries are already struggling under existing water stress from pressures such as irrigation demands, industrial pollution and water borne sewerage. These pressures will be significantly exacerbated by climate change, which for many regions will result in reduced rainfall and increasing temperatures, further reducing the availability of water for drinking, household use, agriculture and industry. As these competing demands intensify under climate change, effective governance for balancing water demands will become essential, particularly in the face of strong pressures to prioritise industrial uses over other uses.
All regions of the world show an overall net negative impact of climate change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline are likely to face a reduction in the value of the services provided by water resources. The beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff in other areas are likely to be tempered in some areas by negative effects of increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff shifts on water supply, water quality and flood risks (IPCC 2007).
13 The future effects of climate change on water resources will depend on trends in both climatic and non-climatic factors. Evaluating these impacts is challenging because water availability, quality and stream flow are sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation. Other important factors include increased demand for water caused by population growth, changes in the economy, development of new technologies, changes in watershed characteristics and water management decisions.
In addition to the typical impacts on water management, climate change introduces an additional element of uncertainty about future water resource management. Water resources in the United States are heavily managed and supplies are scarce in some regions of the country. Strategies have been developed and continue to evolve to address these issues. Implementation of adaptation measures, such as water conservation, use of markets to allocate water, and the application of appropriate management practices will have an important role to play in determining the impacts of climate change on water resources.
2.5 Water resource management and development
Water resource is one of the most pervasive natural resource allocation problem facing development planners and other practitioners throughout the world. Water resource scarcity can be a result of decreased water quantity due to the growing demand or decreased quality emanating from degradation of freshwater resources, or both. According to United Nations Environmental programme (UNEP) (2003), by 2025, it is expected that, number of countries qualifying as „water-scarce‟ will have increased to 35 from 20 in 1990. To further illustrate the magnitude of the problem, it has been estimated that, globally, 12 million deaths can be attributed to water scarcity in many given years (Shaw 2005).
Throughout the world, water scarcity is perceived to be an important constraint on sustainable economic development and has major environmental, social, economic and political repercussions. Besides, sustainable economic development more especially for developing countries is threatened by flood events, stressing even more the need for appropriate policies for water resources management.
14 2.5.1 Market and government failures
Water services are public goods, and a market failure will result in the misallocation of resources. It is also evident that, some water services are characterised by economies of scale leading to monopolistic power and socially inefficient allocations. According to Desai and Potter (2008), three types of externalities can be distinguished when considering groundwater resources;
Groundwater resource is identified as a finite stock resource implying that, each unit of groundwater extracted is no longer available for others to use. As a result, there is little incentive to save water for future use, and this in turn leads to over pumping. Provencher and Burt (1993) call this the stock externality. In addition, as the water table declines with increasing extraction, the pumping cost to the firm increases, as do the pumping costs of the other firms exploiting the resource and since a firm does not take the other firms‟ cost into account, a second externality known as pumping cost externality is generated. Finally, there is externality (risk externality) which is caused by the inherent value of groundwater as a substitute source of water in times of surface water shortage.
Decreases in surface and groundwater quality are as a result of environmental externalities in production. In this case, the social costs of producing a good are ignored, leading to artificially low production cost and hence overproduction of the good that generates the externality. This situation is often enhanced by government failures that lead to misallocation of water resources. For instance, subsidies to agricultural production often lead to over exploitation of water resources for irrigation.
2.5.2 Optimal allocation of scarce water resources
Water supply and demand imbalances frequently occur, and water is not allocated efficiently among the resource users due to the market and government failures. Additionally, there are spatial and temporal considerations that need to be taken into account when valuing water, and these vary according to quality and its use, thereby making water a more challenging resource to manage efficiently (Desai and Potter 2008). They further put forward that, to attain allocative efficiency, the marginal value of water should be the same for the last unit of water consumed by each water user, and should be equal to the social marginal cost of supplying water. For this to be achieved it is much
15 important for policymakers to properly value the water resource and then apply the appropriate policy instruments.
2.6 Water resources management experiences in Ghana
2.6.1 Customary land and water conservation practices
Customary laws and practices in Ghana have existed over the years and covered the areas of water conservation, pollution control, protection of catchments and protection of fisheries. Kinship, reverence for ancestors and belief in the spiritual power of the earth combined to give land tenure and customary environmental protection their peculiar character.
Basically, the people believed that the earth has a spirit of its own, which can be helpful if propitiated or harmful if degraded. Even though the earth was regarded as possessing a spirit, the ancestors were believed to be the immediate spiritual custodians of the land and its resources. It was the ancestors, on behalf of the earth deity, who constantly kept watch to see that the land is judiciously used (Opoku-Agyeman 2001).
As well as the earth deity, the natives also believed in river gods, tree deities and sacred groves. People were forbidden to hunt in certain periods of the year or to fish on Tuesdays, and were to refrain from farming along riverbanks, which were considered the resting abode of the river gods and children. These laws were enforced through various sanctions usually dictated by fetish priests and priestesses. Today, however, it is difficult to identify any features of customary law beyond the priority given to water for domestic use, which is common throughout the country.
It is difficult to identify a separate water resource management law in Ghana prior to the promulgation in 1996 of the water resource commission Act. According to Opoko- Agyemang (2001), natural waters were managed as an appurtenance of land and therefore whoever owns a portion of land automatically may exercise certain rights over waters contiguous to the land.
Under Akan customary water law, Ollennu (1962) observed that, surface water is considered community property which can never be individually owned. He further stated that, where water is in abundance, a member of a community or family or a subject of a
16 stool may be able to utilize a stream or a pond which is naturally on his land without interference from the public or the community. According to Ofori-Boateng (1997), as pertains to traditional landholding, a person has only usufructuary rights to water but is not considered the owner. Therefore, in times of scarcity, the whole community must share the use of the streams, and rivers irrespective of whose land is closer to the water body. Simply put, under the customary law of water is a free common good; everyone is entitled in principle to its uses as a community good.
2.6.2. Pre-independence common laws
As early as the 1900s, the government recognized the need to control the use of water. According to Ministry of Works and Housing, Ghana (1998), the first attempt comprehensively to regulate the use of water, other than for domestic use, was the enactment of the Rivers Ordinance (CAP 226 of 1903). Section 10 of this ordinance states that it shall be unlawful to pump, divert or by any means cause water to flow from any river, for purposes of irrigation, mines or factories or to generate power, without a licence from the Minister. However, there was no follow-up to this ordinance, neither were regulations made, and the ordinance was overtaken by time and other enactments. The other enactments that followed contained specific provisions that enabled agencies to perform certain specific functions, and some of these provisions were water-related (Ministry of Works and Housing, Ghana 1998).
2.6.3. Post-independence common laws
A priority of government in the immediate post-independence era was to establish agencies and institutions with specific roles for water supply, irrigation and environmental management. Some legal enactments related to water management in post-independent Ghana are listed in Table 2.1 below.
17 Table 2.1 Legal enactments for setting up major water-related agencies
INSTITUTION RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY LEGAL ENACTMENT Meteorological Services Communications Administrative
Hydrological Services Division Works and Housing Administrative
Water Resources Research Institute* Environment, Science and NLCD 293 of 196 Technology Institute of Aquatic Biology* Environment, Science and NLCD 293 of 1969 Technology Irrigation Development Authority Agriculture SMCD 85 of 1977 Ghana Water & Sewerage Works and Housing Act 310 of 1965 Corporation Volta River Authority Mines and Energy Act 46 of 1961 Volta Lake Transport Company Transport and Communication Registered under Company Code of 1970 Environmental Protection Agency Environment, Science and Act 490 of 1994 Technology Forestry Commission Lands and Forestry NRCD 239 of 1974 * Two institutions now merged as Water Research Institute. Source: Ministry of Works and Housing, Ghana, 1998.
These attempts were sector-specific. Each sector agency managed, controlled and regulated its own activities with respect to water management, with little coordination and control. As observed by Ministry of Works and Housing, Ghana (1998), the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), now the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), developed, managed and controlled drinking-water supply and, to a very limited extent, sewerage services; the Volta River Authority uses raw water to produce electricity; the Irrigation Development Authority (IDA) develops and manages irrigation and associated land use for agricultural production; and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concerns itself primarily with the environmental implications of water treatment and usage. Subsequent water sector reviews identified institutional gaps regarding the coordination and integration of the various sector policies for water use in the country.
18 2.7 Coordination of water resources management and policies at the national level
2.7.1Water Resource Commission
In 1996, a significant step was taken by government to address the diffused state of functions and authority in water resources management and to put them into an integrated form. In light of this, the Water Resources Commission (WRC) was established by an Act of Parliament (Act 522 of 1996) with the mandate to regulate and manage Ghana‟s Water Resources and co-ordinate government policies in relation to them. The commission is comprised of the major regulators and users in the water sector, and provides a forum for the integration and balancing of different interests. Its composition, according to sources from the Water Resource Commission (2000) is made up of technical representatives of key institutions involved in water utilization and water services delivery.
The commission is composed of 15 members including a chairman, executive secretary, a chief and two other persons, one of whom shall be a woman. The rest are representatives of institutions such as Ghana Water Company Limited, Organizations producing potable water, Hydrological Service Department, Volta River Authority, Irrigation Development Authority, Water Research Institute, Meteorological Service Department, Environmental Protection Agency, Forestry Commission and Minerals Commission.
The water resource commission is responsible for the regulation and management of the utilization of water resource in Ghana and coordination of policy in relation to them. The responsibilities of the commission are wide ranging but the primary tasks are related to the allocation of water resources among various competing users.
According to Water Resource Commission (1997), the Act stipulates that ownership and control of all water resources are vested in the President on behalf of the people, and clearly defines the WRC as the overall body responsible for water resources management in Ghana.
The Commission, which provides a forum for integration and collaboration of different interests, is composed of the major stakeholders involved in the water sector. The responsibilities of WRC, which are spelt out in Section 2 (2) of the Act, can be categorized as:
19 Processing of water rights and permits; Planning for water resources development and management with river basins (catchments) as the natural units of planning Collating, storing and disseminating data and information on water resources in Ghana; Monitoring and assessing activities and programmes for the utilisation and conservation of water resources.
According to Water Resources Commission (1999), in practice, the Commission seeks to achieve the goals and pursue its responsibilities through:
Adopting the process of Integrated Water Resources Management in the management and regulation of the nation‟s water resources. Establishing an adequate and cost effective organization, which can assist and guide the Government of Ghana in order to achieve the goals of Integrated Water Resource Management and monitor the achievements. Establishing good working relations with all stakeholders in the water sector. Inviting existing institutions and the private sector to participate, through outsourcing and contracting of specific tasks, in establishing its tools and procedures.
The major laws that guide the regulation and management of water resources in Ghana are the Water Resources Commission (WRC) Act (Act 522 of 1996) and the Act and Regulations, Legislative Instrument (LI 1692 of 2001). Section 12 of Act 522 stipulates that „the property in and control of all water resources is vested in the President on behalf of, and in trust for the people of Ghana’. This implies that there is no private ownership of water in Ghana, but that the President, or anyone so authorised, may grant rights for water use.
20 Fig 2.1 Institutional frameworks for IWRM in Ghana WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION NDPC/MFEP MWH Coordination of National Water resources planning and Development Plans National water policy management
FORMULATION Water policy implementation WR PLANNING INPUTS WATER USERS REGULATORY AGENCY CIVIL SOCIETY Water allocation PROVIDERS REPRESENTATIVES
IDA (MOFA) HSD (MWH) EPA (MES) NGOs Agriculture, Assessment Environmental Water of surface Livestock protection, conservation water monitoring and poverty Resources GWCL (MWH) and alleviation enforcement issues Domestic/indu strial water Supply (urban) WOMEN‟S WRI (MES) CWSA (MWH) FC (MLF) REPRESENTATIVE Assessment Domestic of water supply Forests and Gender and groundwater (rural) catchments poverty Resources protection alleviation issues VRA /VLTC Hydropower MC (MM) CHIEFS‟ MSD (MRT) and river Granting of REPRESEN Assessment Transport mining TATIVE of rights atmospheric Enforcement MC (MM) of traditional Water laws resources Mining
Source: Water Resources Commission, 2000.
21 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY AND PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
This chapter is divided into two main sections with the first part focusing on research methodology and the other on profile of selected districts for analysis. The understanding and appreciation of the importance of water resources to the socioeconomic development as well as the valid relationships and conclusions depend largely on the methodology. Following on from the background and the theoretical framework in the previous chapters, this chapter focuses on the research methodology (research design, sampling techniques and the analytical processes) and a brief profile of the selected districts for analysis.
3.2 Research Methodology
3.2.1 Research Design
A case study is empirical inquiries that investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin 1984). Through case study, the study will go beyond the quantitative statistical results and provide understanding of behavioural conditions through the actor‟s perspective. By including both quantitative and qualitative data, case study helps explain both the process and outcome of a phenomenon through complete observation, reconstruction and analysis of the cases under investigation (Tellis 1997). A case study is a useful approach for understanding the complexity and dynamism of social issues that require lasting responses (Chava and Nachmias 1992).
One of the reasons for choosing case study for this research is that it is concerned about the limitation of quantitative methods in providing holistic and in-depth explanations of the social and behavioural issues of water resource management.
22 3.2.2 Sampling frame and sample Size Determination
A total of 1,346 households across Atebubu-Amanten and Pru Districts constituted the sampling frame. The study employed a statistical model to determine the sample size at a 90 percent confidence level with 10 percent margin of error.
Formula: n = N
1 + N (α2) Where n = sample size, N = sample frame, α = error margin, 1 = constant. The total number of households of the two districts as at 2000 stood at 1,346. Therefore sample size was determined as; n = 1,346
1 + 1.346 (0.12) n = 93
Hence, 93 persons constituted the sample size that was interviewed from eight selected communities for the survey. The study communities were selected based on their strategic locations (nearness to water bodies) in the respective districts and the potentials of water resources in curtailing poverty in their economies. The number of questionnaires administered in each community was randomly selected since total number of households in these communities does not exist.
Table 3.1 Number of household questionnaires administered
S/N NAME OF COMMUNITY No. OF QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRICT 1 Yeji 18 Pru district 2 Parembo Nsuanoo 13 Pru district 3 Prang 10 Pru district 4 Kofi Basare 8 Pru district 5 Kadue 7 Pru district 6 Kramo Kura 17 Atebubu-Amanten 7 Tuseh 10 Atebubu-Amanten 8 Ahontor 10 Atebubu-Amanten Total 93 Source: Author‟s construct, 2011
23 During data collection, questionnaires were administered to household heads. The reason for this is to respect the custom and tradition of the societies and also to ensure true representation of the household and accuracy of the information to be provided. However, in the absence of the heads of households, other persons of the household that is believed to be capable were interviewed.
3.2.3 Key Variables and Unit of Analysis
The key variable of the study include economy of water resources, type of water resources, impacts of climate change on water resources, water resource regulations and compliance. The unit of analysis also includes Households, District Assemblies, Water Resource Commission, Environmental Protection Agency and traditional authorities. The inclusion of these units was to provide adequate information on the management techniques, those involved in the management and legal regimes.
3.2.4 Sampling Technique
Purposive sampling technique was adopted to select the study communities. The study communities were selected based on their strategic locations (nearness to water bodies). Purposive sampling technique was also used to these units of enquiry; District Assemblies, Water Resource Commission, Environmental Protection Agency and Ghana Meteorological Service. These units of enquiry were involved in the study due to their level of knowledge on the topic investigated.
In the case of the households, a simple random sampling technique was employed using the lottery approach to arrive at the required households interviewed. During the selection process, structure numbers were put into a box where required number of households picked at random without replacement. This was repeatedly done in all the eight selected communities to obtain total of 93 questionnaires administered. The number of questionnaires administered in each community was also chosen randomly since total number of households in these communities does not exist.
24 3.2.5 Data Sources and Data collection
Both the primary data and secondary data were employed for the study. The primary data was collected through observation, interviews and focus group discussions. The data was collected from Households, District Assemblies, Water Resource Commission, Environmental Protection Agency and traditional authorities. Secondary data was however, drawn from published and unpublished reports, journals, magazines and District Medium Term Plans and this helped underscore issues under study.
3.2.6 Tools of Data Analysis
The data collected from the field was analysed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The quantitative data was analysed using measures of central tendencies and dispersions through the use of Text Analytics for Survey (TAfs). The qualitative data analysis rested on comprehensive and analytical descriptions to responses by respondents with the aim of obtaining more insight to support results from quantitative data. The analysis of the data provided answers to the research questions and research objectives.
3.3 Profile of Atebubu-Amanten District
3.3.1 Location and Size
The Atebubu-Amanten District is one of the 22 districts in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. It is located between Latitudes 7o 23”N and 8o 22”N and Longitudes 0o 30‟W and 1o 26‟W. It shares boundaries with the Pru District to the North and the Sene district to the East, both in the Brong-Ahafo Region. To the South, it is bounded by three districts in the Ashanti Region namely Ejura-Sekyedumase, Sekyere East and Sekyere West Districts. The district capital (Atebubu) is about 155km from Kumasi and 158 km from the regional capital, Sunyani. The district has a surface area of about 1,996 square kilometers. Figure 3.1 shows the map of Atebubu-Amanten District.
25 Fig 3.1 Map of Atebubu-Amanten District
Source: District Planning Coordinating Unit (2010)
3.3.2 Geology
The rocks underlying the district are part of the Voltaian formation which covers about two-fifths of the surface area of Ghana. The rocks belonging to this formation are mainly sedimentary and exhibit horizontal alignments. Sandstones, shale, mudstones and limestone are the principal examples of these rocks. This formation has a demerit of posing difficulty in terms of underground water exploitation.
3.3.3 Relief and Drainage
In terms of relief, the district has a plain landscape with rolling and undulating land surface a general elevation of between 60-300 metres above sea level. The district is not associated with any significant highlands or hills.
The area is mainly drained by the Pru River which is a right tributary to the Volta Lake. It flows across the Northern part of the district. Other important streams in the district include the Nyomo and Bresuo rivers. The sluggish flow of these rivers permits the depositing of alluvial soils on the river beds and along their banks. The fertile nature of alluvial soils is a great potential for increased food production in the district.
26 The water table in the district is however very low, resulting in the drying of water bodies including wells and boreholes especially during the dry season. Water from the Pru River is currently been treated to be supplied to the inhabitants of the Atebubu Township and a few surrounding communities.
3.3.4 Climate
The district experiences the tropical continental or interior savanna type of climate; which is a modified form of the wet semi-equatorial type of climate. This is due to the location of the district in the transitional zone, between the two major climatic regions in Ghana. The total annual rainfall is between 1,400 mm to 1,800 mm and occurs in two seasons. The first rainy season begins in May or June whilst the second rainy season begins in September or October. The difference between the minor and the major seasons is hardly noticed because of the transitional nature of the area.
The mean monthly temperature ranges from a height of 30oC in March to as low as 24oC in August. Mean annual temperature ranges between 26.5oC and 27.2oC. In extreme cases temperatures rise to about 40oC as recorded in 1999. The district comes under the influence of the Northeast Trade Winds (Harmattan) between November and March/April. The district‟s climate is hardly stable. For example in some years, the rains delay or come in low quantities as happened in 1983 and 1994. In other years, the rains come in excess with stormy and torrential down pours, which are sometimes destructive to both crops and the built environment.
3.3.5 Vegetation
The district falls within the interior wooded savanna or tree savanna. However, owing to its transitional nature, the area does not totally exhibit typical savanna conditions. The savanna is heavily wooded, though most of the trees are not as tall and gigantic as those in the moist deciduous forest. It is believed that the transitional zone was once forested and that the savanna conditions currently prevailing have been the result of human activities. This may be evidenced by the existence of “fringe forests” found along the banks of rivers and streams and other areas where the impact of human activities are minimal.
27 Except along the margins of the moist deciduous forest, the trees are widely scattered in the district. Common trees species found outside the few dotted fringe forests include the baobab, the dawadawa, acacia and the shea nut trees, which have adapted to this environment. Grass grows in tussocks and can reach a height of 10 feet or more. There is a marked change in the plant life of this vegetation zone during the different seasons of the year. In the wet season, the area looks green as trees blossom and grass shoot up rapidly. However, soon after the rains, leaves begin to wither and the trees begin to shed their leaves. The whole area soon looks parched and desolate.
3.3.6 Soils
Soils in the district belong to a group called “groundwater lateritic soils” which cover nearly three-fifths of the interior wooded savanna zone of Ghana. These soils are formed mainly over Voltaian shale and granites. Most of the soils are fine-textured, ranging from fine sandy loams to clayey loams, and are mostly poorly drained. Crops that can potentially be supported by these soils include rice, vegetables, yams, cassava, maize, sorghum, groundnuts, soya beans, cowpeas and tobacco.
3.3.7 Population Size and Growth Rates
The population of the Atebubu–Amanten District has its own unique features. It has always experienced growth in numbers over the years and has a large youthful population which is male dominant. The population of the district is not evenly distributed, and the number of persons per square kilometre is also on the increase.
The population size, growth rate, structure and distribution of the Atebubu-Amanten District have been estimated from various census figures of the Atebubu District which has now been split into the Atebubu-Amanten and Pru Districts. Based on estimates from the 2000 population census, the Atebubu-Amanten District has a population of 63,519. From 1970 to 1984, the district experienced a population growth rate of 3.0%. This growth rate remained unchanged for the1984 – 2000 censal years. The current population growth rate of 3.0% of the district is higher than the regional population growth rate of 2.6%.
The high population growth rate of the district can be attributed to a number of factors including the large influx of settler farmers from the three Northern Regions, the opening
28 up of the area by the Kumasi-Ejura-Atebubu highway and the natural increase resulting from the low infant mortality rate of 50 to 1000 among other things.
3.3.8 Age - Sex Structure
According to the 2000 population census, the district has a relatively large male population compared to that of female (See Table 3.2). This structure is not different from that of the Brong Ahafo Region where the district is located. It however differs from that of the national sex divide which shows a female dominance. The large male population in the district is due partly to the continuous influx of settler farmers who come into the district to tap the district‟s agricultural potentials. It has been observed that most of these settler farmers if not all are males.
Table 3.2 Male – Female Split
Area Male % Female %
Atebubu-Amanten District 33,710 51.7 31,543 48.3
Brong Ahafo Region 913,035 50.03 911,787 49.97
National 9,025,019 49.02 9,387,228 50.98
Source: Ghana statistical service (2005).
In terms of age structure, the district has a large youthful population. The two cohort that contains most of the people are the 0-14 group and 15 –64 group.
Another significant feature of the district population is its large labour force. The cohort that falls within the active labour force constitutes 56.3% of the district population. This is a bit higher than the regional and national active labour force of 52.4% and 55.2% respectively. This large active labour force could be positioned to harness and maximize the vast agricultural potentials of the district. Though the dependent population of 46.9% can also be said to be high, the number of dependants could be lower since most of those in the aged senile age group could still be engaged in one or other form of agricultural production.
29 3.3.9 Population Density
The population density of the district has never been stable nor has it experienced any decline over time. The increase in population over time is reflected in the high population densities recorded for the period 1970, 1984 and 2000. The number of persons per square kilometre (density) as at each of the population censuses has increased from 11.82 persons in 1970 to 18.69 persons in 1984 and to 31.82 persons in the 2000. The increasing density in time shows the increasing pressure of the district‟s population on the land and its resources. This may be an indication of growing pressure on the district‟s fragile environment which may gradually result in environmental degradation.
There is high concentration of people in the two major towns of the district; Atebubu and Amanten. There are also pockets of concentration in the settlements along the main Kumasi-Ejura-Atebubu trunk road. This trend could be attributed to the availability of economic opportunities and social services in the two major towns of the district and the opening up of the area by the Kumasi-Ejura-Atebubu highway.
3.3.10 Rural/Urban Split
The population of the District is basically rural. About 55% of the people reside in the rural areas. The remaining 45% of the people can be found in the only two main towns of the district, Atebubu and Amanten. Apart from these two towns, the other settlements have their population figures below 5000. Atebubu and Amanten currently have population figures of 23,951 and 9,896 respectively.
3.3.11 Ethnicity and Religion
The district is ethnically diverse with Akans (Bonos) dominating followed by non-Akans. Most of the non-Akan tribes represent various ethnic groups such as Mamprusis, Dagaabas, Konkombas, Kusasis and Moshis who are basically coming from the Northern part of the country.
In terms of religion, Christians dominate, comprising 62.2% of the total population. The Muslim community forms 29.6% of the district‟s population. Most of the Muslims are settler farmers from the three northern regions. Traditional religion still has a place in the District and it is practised by 8.2% of the population.
30 3.3.12 Poverty levels
The incidence of poverty in Ghana is assessed at two levels: an Upper Level and Extreme Lower Level. The Upper Poverty line in Ghana refers to incomes of up to GH¢90 a year or GH¢75 a month. The extreme poor are people with incomes below GH¢70 a year or GH¢5.8 a month. The latest statistics on poverty estimates that about 40% of the Ghanaian population has incomes below the upper poverty line; while about 27% of the population has incomes below the extreme poverty line.
Based on these cut-off points it has been estimated that 14% of the district‟s population are poor whilst 59% are extremely poor. The findings corroborate the fact that poverty in Ghana is a rural phenomenon with the rural areas accounting for more than 70% of the poor. In terms of economic activity, poverty in the Atebubu-Amanten district is by far highest among food crop farmers.
3.3.13 Agriculture
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Atebubu-Amanten District economy. It employs about 70% of the economically active labour force. Nearly every household in the district is engaged in farming or agricultural related activity. Farming in the district is largely carried out on small-scale basis. The average acreage cultivated ranges between 4-6 acres for all crops.
Despite its importance in the district economy, much of the agricultural potentials in the district remain unutilized. For instance, out of a total of 22,261 hectares of arable land, only 3,167.6 hectares is currently utilized.The district‟s irrigation potential also remains untouched. Nothing concrete has been done to develop irrigation potential that have been discovered in about six localities of the district, namely, Abamba, Bankese, New Konkrompe, Amafuom, Nyomoase and Kunkumfo.
The soils in the area favour the production of a variety of crops. Currently, crops grown in commercial quantities in the district include yam, cassava, maize and rice. The district is particularly famous in the production of yam and cassava.
Statistics available indicate a decrease in production for the three major crops; yam, cassava and maize. The output of yam and cassava for instance dropped from 23,360
31 metric tonnes and 14,720 metric tonnes respectively in the 2004 cropping season to 10,694 metric tonnes and 7,226.1 metric tonnes respectively in the 2005 cropping season. This could be attributed to the change in focus on the part of farmers in response to low prices and the inadequate storage facilities.
Livestock production is one of the commercial agricultural activities in the district. Unlike crop production, livestock production is quite limited to some households. Livestock rearing is quite tedious, requiring so much time and attention. Production is on small scale though the area has favourable conditions (all year round availability of grass and water) for large scale livestock production. Poultry production is mostly about chicken, and can be found in most households in the district. Chicken is widely reared than livestock because it is relatively easy raising them.
Both crop and livestock production in the district is affected by the inadequate agricultural extension services. The district has only 8 agricultural extension agents who attend to about 3656 farmers, spread over 30 extension operational areas. This situation is compounded by the lack of motorbikes that hinders their mobility to most parts of the district.
3.4 Profile of Pru District
3.4.1 Location and Size
The Pru District was established under Legislative Instrument (L.I.1778) of 2004. The District lies between Longitudes 0030”W and 1026”W and Latitudes 7050”N and 8022”N. It shares boundaries with six (6) other districts, namely East Gonja to the North (Northern Region), Sene to the East, Nkoranza and Atebubu-Amanten to the South and Kintampo- North and Kintampo South to the West, all in the Brong Ahafo Region.
The Pru District covers an area of 2,195kmsq representing about 5.6% of the total land surface of the Brong Ahafo Region. It is about 223km North-East of Kumasi, the Ashanti regional capital and about 310km (Via Nkoranza/Techiman North-East of Sunyani in the Brong Ahafo regional capital and also 493km North of Accra, the national capital.
32 3.4.2 Climate
The District is located within the transitional zone, thus it experiences the tropical continental or interior Savannah type of climate, which is a modified form of the wet semi-equatorial type of climate. The total annual rainfall ranges between 800mm and 1400mm and occurs in two seasons. The first rainy season begins June whilst the second rainy season begins in September or October. The difference between the minor and major season is hardly noticed due to the transitional nature of the area.
The mean monthly temperature ranges from a height of 300C in March to as low as 240C in August. Mean annual temperature ranges between 26.50C and 27.20C. In extreme cases temperatures rise to about 400C
The District comes under the influence of the Northeast trade winds (Harmattan) between November and March/April. The climate in the District is hardly stable as in some years the rains delay or come in low quantities and in other years the rains come in excess with stormy and torrential down pours, which are sometimes destructive to both crops and the buildings.
33 Fig 3.2: Map of Pru District
Source: District Planning Coordinating Unit (2010)
34 3.4.3 Vegetation
The District falls within the interior wooded savanna or tree savannah. However, due to the transitional nature, the area does not exhibit typical savannah conditions. The savannah used to be heavily wooded, though most of the trees are not as tall and gigantic as those in the moist deciduous forest but due to the human activities, the current prevailing natural condition is not the best. There is therefore the need to embark on a Massive tree replanting under the youth in Agro forestry currently introduced by the government.
The existence of “fringe forest” along the banks of rivers, streams and other areas where the impact of human activities are minimal is evidence of the fact that the transitional zone was once forested. Trees are widely scattered in the district. Common trees species found outside the few dotted “fringe forest” include, baobab, dawadawa, acacia, sheanut trees, and mahogany which have adapted to this environment. Grass grows in tussocks and can reach a height of 10 feet or more.
3.4.4 Relief and Drainage
The topography of the district is generally plain with rolling and undulating land surface of an elevation between 60 – 300 meters above sea level. The district is unfortunately not associated with any significant highlands or hills except in the Abease and Benim (Buom) area where a few matured hills and caves can be found.
The Pru River, which is a right tributary to the Volta Lake flows across the Northern part of the district. The Volta Lake and the Pru River almost drains around the District. One does not leave the District without crossing the river and its tributaries. The sluggish flow of the river permits the depositing of alluvial soils on the river beds and along their banks. The fertile nature of alluvial soils is a great potential for increased food production in the district.
Due to the low water table, the Volta Lake is currently treated to supply the entire inhabitants of Yeji, Konkoma, and Sawaba-Parambo under the Small Town Water Supply System and Sanitation Project and a few surrounding communities. However, due to the recent floods (2009) the Parambo/Sawaba water system is down. There is therefore the
35 need for the Assembly to as a matter of urgency repair the system to prevent the occurrence of water related disease like Cholera, Guinea Worm among others. Other minor rivers/streams or channels of the Volta Lake and Pru River include Kpantwi, Gyebresi, Bonfra, Malakepo, Tanfi, Bumfari, Wansan, Pranbon, Bolepoase, Wotrewotre, Sele, Kefoose, Kalekya, Pre and Nyelase. The Volta Lake serves as a potentials resource for small scale irrigation schemes.
3.4.5 Soil
Soils in the district belong to a group called “groundwater lateritic soils” which cover nearly three-fifths of the interior wooded savanna zone of Ghana. These soils are formed mainly over Voltaian shales and granites. Most of the soils are fine-textured, ranging from fine sandy loams to clayey loams, and are mostly poorly drained. Crops that can potentially be supported by these soils include rice, vegetables, yams, cassava, maize, groundnuts, soya beans, cowpeas, tobacco and sorghum,
3.4.6 Geology and Minerals
The district is underlain by the voltaian formation which covers about two-fifths of the surface area of Ghana. The rocks belonging to this formation are rich in sandstone, shales, mudstone and limestone which can be harvested for constructional purposes in the district. There are also few deposits of clay which when given the needed attention can boost the pottery industry to generate revenue for the local inhabitants.
The rocks in the area are believed to contain gold deposits; however, no investigation has yet been carried out to corroborate this assertion.
3.4.7 Population Size and Growth Rates
The population size, growth rate, structure and distribution of the district has been estimated from various census figures of the then Atebubu District which was split into the Pru and Atebubu-Amantin Districts in 2004. Based on data currently issued by the Ghana Statistical Service, the District has a population of 98,077 in the 2000 Population and Housing Census and projected to be 126,604 in 2010.
36 The population of the district has witnessed rapid increase from a modest 23,488 in 1970 to 98,077 in 2000 with intercensal growth rates of 3.0 which is far higher than the regional (2.6%) and the national (2.5) average growth rates.
The high population growth rate of the district can be attributed to a number of factors including the large influx of settler farmers and fishermen from the three (3) Northern Regions, Volta, Accra, the opening up of the area by the Kumasi-Ejura-Atebubu High way and the natural increase resulting from the low infant mortality rate of among others things.
This trend of population growth have a negative effect on environment since arable lands are being reduced and degraded for settlements, which when not given necessary attention is likely to result in desertification and environmental degradation in the District. The Forestry Department and other stakeholders therefore need to be supported to effectively monitor and sensitize the people to protect our natural resources from the ravages of population pressure.
3.4.8 Age and Sex Composition
According to the 2000 Population and Housing Census, the district has a relatively large male population compared to that of female. This structure is not different from that of the Brong Ahafo Region where the district is located. It however differs from that of the national sex structure which shows a female dominance. The sex ratio, male to female is 103.1 compared to the regional of 100.8. The large male population trend in the district is partly due to the continuous influx of settler farmers and fishermen who come into the district to tap the districts agricultural and economic potentials. It has been observed that most of these settler farmers if not all are males.
The District has a large youthful population. The two cohorts that contain most of the people are the 0 – 14 group which constitute 42.9 and the 15 – 64 group which also forms 51.3% 65+ forms only 4.3%. The age structure depicts that the district has a large labour force (51.3%) while the regional and national active labour force are 52.4% and 55.2% respectively. This large active labour force could be positioned to harness and maximize the vast agricultural potentials and motivated groups to grow more trees to improve the vegetation of the district.
37 3.4.9 Household Composition
The composition and structure of the households reflects the general social structure of the society. According to extracts from the 2000 PHC, the average household size is 6.0 compared to the regional average of 5.3.
3.4.10 Dependency Ratio
Statistics from the 2000 PHC shows that the district has a dependent population of 47,832 (48.7%) with an economically active population (Age 15 – 64) of 50,245 (51.3%). The age dependency ratio therefore is 95.2 which is far higher than the regional average of 90.5. This has implications for savings and capital accumulation.
3.4.11 Population Density
The increase in population over time is reflected in the high population densities for the period 1970, 1984 and 2000. In 2000, the population density stood at 45 per km sq. With a static land size of 2,195kmsq and ever dynamic population, this means there is great pressure on the district‟s fragile environment and other resources, which if care or pragmatic measures are not taken, may gradually result in environmental degradation.
Settlements such as Sawaba-Parambo, Yeji, Prang, Zabrama, Komfourkrom, Abease, Buom, Adjaraja/Beposo, Cheremo, among others are growth points which continue to accommodate relatively higher population densities with corresponding pressure exerted on existing limited infrastructure facilities. This trend has led to the development of slums in the two main urban towns (Yeji and Prang) with its attendant socio-economic effects.
3.4.12 Rural/Urban Split
The population of the district is basically rural, with about 55% of the people residing in rural areas. The remaining population resides in major towns of the district like Sawaba/Parambo, Yeji, Prang, Zabrama, Abease and Komfourkromm. The population is unevenly distributed across the district with Yeji, the district capital, alone constituted about 19% of the entire population.
38 Table 3.3 Ten most populated localities in the District
No. Name of Locality Share of population percent 1. Yeji 18,593 19 2. Prang 7,146 7.3 3. Parambo 4,828 5.0 4. Dama Nkwanta 4,018 4.2 5. Zabrama 3,817 4.0 6. Abease 3,499 3.6 7. Sawaba 3,237 3.3 8. Komfourkrom 2,897 3.0 9. Beposo 2,175 2.2 10. Yawpare 1,858 2.0 Total 52,068 53.1 Source: Ghana Statistical Service, (2005).
3.4.13 Traditional Setups
The district currently has four Traditional Paramount Chiefs namely; Yeji Paramountcy, Prang Paramountcy, Konkoma Paramountcy and Abease Paramountcy. It is believed that, these paramountcies were once together under one traditional leadership structure, but due to a protracted litigation there was separation and each one became autonomous. Despite this, the four paramountcies collaborate in promoting the development of the District.
3.4.14 Religious Composition
The distribution of the population by the various religious denominations is not different from that of the region. Christianity forms about 62.8% compared to the regional figure of 70.8%. The Muslims (28%) are mainly the Mole-Dagbon, who are settler farmers from the southern region due to their proximity to the district through the Volta Lake for farming activities. The remaining 9.2% of the residents are professing traditional religion and or no religion at all.
39 3.4.15 Ethnicity
The district is ethnically diverse with people from northern Ghana forming about 65% of the population, among the northern tribes are Mamprusis, Konkonbas, Dagonbas, Gonjas, Dagaaba‟s, Frafras, Kusasis, Moshies and the Chumerus. The Battors, Gas, Adangbe and a few Akans follow. The natives, Nchumurus constitute a small portion of the population. Even through, the natives form a small portion, the population shows homogeneity which has positive implications for development.
3.4.16 Migration Trends
The movement of people into and out of the district is very prominent. The bustling fish and food crops market which runs from Sunday to Wednesday attracts many business men and women into the district. The fish market alone attracts about 2,500 people every week into the District. Out-migration is very low due to the fact that about 55% of the total population is farmers/fishermen who have access to fertile lands and well stocked (fish) water bodies for farming and fishing activities
The high in-migration has made labour cost cheaper and promoted economic activities, especially farming, fishing and trading. However, the outcome is much to be desired since the district‟s limited resources and social amenities are under pressure. They also have implication for security, health and environment.
3.4.17 Major Economic Activities
Agriculture (farming, fishing and fishing related activities) and related commerce/trading are the main economic activities in the District. Nearly every household in the District is engaged in either farming or fishing or both. Farming in the district is largely carried out on small scale with average cultivated land ranging between 4 – 6 acres for all crops.
The soils in the area favour the production of a variety of crops. Crops currently grown in commercial quantities include Yam, Cassava, maize and Rice. Major production centres include the Prang-Abease corridor, Kadue, Adjaraja Beposo, Parambo/Sawaba and Yeji. Farmers in the district still practice the traditional shifting cultivation, rotational, bush fallow or slash and burn, bringing about deforestation, soil erosion and decline in soil fertility.
40 Yeji is popularly known for the production of fish. The fish industry provides jobs for about 46.3% of the people in the district either directly or indirectly. The major challenge however, is the depletion of fish stock in the Volta Lake as a result of over fishing and the use of unapproved fishing gears and nets.
41 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents analysis and discussions of results obtained from the survey. This includes; economies of water resources, water resource regulations and the effects of climate change on water resources. Besides, the chapter also examined the roles of some selected organizations and institutions in water resource management in the region. The results are represented in tables, charts and figures thereby providing a visual impression of respondent‟s responses to sustainable water resource management for socioeconomic development.
4.2 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents
The inclusion of socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents in the analysis of water resource management is to provide grounds for understanding and appreciation of groups that derive their livelihood from water resources and how their very lives are affected by these resources. It is upon the understanding of these characteristics that, we can provide workable policy recommendations, guides and directions on sustainable water resource management.
4.2.1 Age and Sex of respondent
A total of 93 persons constituted the sample size for the study and the entire respondents fall within the age group 15-64 years. Besides, 80 respondents representing 86.02% are male whilst 13 respondents constituting 13.98% represent female.
The male dominance in the study was due to the fact that, interviews were granted to household heads. However, in the absence of the head, anyone deemed capable was interviewed. In the Pru and Atebubu traditional societies men are the heads of households unless otherwise the man is not available. It is also worth noting that, the entire respondent‟s fall within the economically active group and this could lead to excessive pressure or exploitation of the available water resources.
42 4.2.2 Marital status of respondents
The analysis of marital status of respondents revealed that, out of the 93 persons interviewed, 75 persons were married, 15 single and 3 respondents are widowed and this is shown in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Marital status of respondents
Marital status Frequency Percentage Single 15 16.13 Married 75 80.65 Widowed 3 3.02 Total 93 100 Source: field survey, 2011
A cross tabulation of marital status and the sex of respondents shows that, 14 male are single, 64 are married and 2 widowed whilst, 1 female respondent is single, 11 married and 1 widowed. This is shown in table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Cross tabulation of sex and marital
Marital status of respondents Sex of respondents Total Male Female Single 14 1 15 Married 64 11 75 Widowed 2 1 3 Total 80 13 93 Source: field survey, 2011
As the household heads, the provision of food and other basic life sustaining goods and services rest on the shoulders of men. Indicative from table 4.2, 64 male and 11 female respondents were married implying that, they had more mouths to feed and hence, must work extra hours to put food on the table and also make available other necessities. In this regard, more pressure is being exerted on the water resources since most dwellers in the study depend on water resources for their sustenance and this could lead to over exploitation and pollution of the resources.
43 4.2.3 Educational levels of respondents
As indicated in table 4.3 about 57 per cent of the respondents did not have any formal education whilst 43 per cent had only basic education. Therefore basic education was the highest level of education of respondents as none attained secondary and tertiary levels of education.
Table 4.3: Educational levels of respondents
Levels of education Frequency Percentage No formal education 53 57.0 Basic education 40 43.0
Total 93 100.0
Source: field survey, 2011
This low level of education of respondents has serious influence on their ability to manage these valuable natural resources sustainably. This in effect could impact their production negatively and as the cycle continues, the future of their children could become blur as the incomes from their economic activities cannot safeguard their immediate survival let alone the future. As a result, poverty becomes a vicious cycle and as such considered as a way of life.
4.3.4 Occupation of respondents
Agriculture is the dominant economic activity and the mainstay of the economy of both districts. The people are engaged in major activities such as farming, fishing and livestock rearing for both domestic and commercial needs. Others earn their living from washing cars, fetching and selling water from point sources using power trailers, and some brew local beverages such as pito. All these activities depend largely on water resources.
Analysis of respondents‟ occupational status indicated that, 49 per cent of the respondents engaged in fishing as the major economic activity, 35 per cent were into farming, 3 per cent were civil/public servants and 3 per cent were into livestock rearing. The other 3 per cent earned their living from boat operation, washing cars, fetching and selling water and brewing of pito. Figure 4.1 below depicts occupational distribution of respondents.
44 Fig 4.1 Occupational distributions of respondents
60
40
20
0 Farming Fishing Livestock Civil/Public Others servants
Occupation of respondents
Source: field survey, 2011
A cross tabulation of sex and occupation of respondents shows that men were dominant in fishing and farming; 48 males were into fishing and 24 into farming. Further investigation revealed that, whilst most men use the water resources for commercial activities, their counterpart women used the resource mainly for domestic activities such as cooking, washing, and other domestic uses.
Therefore, though women were identified with water resources worldwide, any attempt or efforts to protect water resources should target more men since the sustainability of the resource lies in their hands. Table 4.4 below indicates occupational distribution by sex of respondents.
Table 4.4: Cross tabulation of sex and occupational distribution.
Sex of respondents Occupation of respondents Total Farming Fishing Livestock Civil/public servants Others Male 23 47 3 4 3 80 Female 9 1 0 3 0 13 Total 32 48 3 7 3 93 Source: field survey, 2011
An analysis of the impacts of water resources on economic activities of the respondents show that, the resources influence their productive activities positively. However, when
45 respondents were interviewed on the effects of their economic activities on water resources, 89% said their activities had no negative impacts whilst 11% said their activities had impacts on the resources negatively in various forms. A cross examination of the responses from institutions (that is, District Assemblies and traditional authorities) revealed that, 89% of respondents claimed their activities were not detrimental to the resources was far from reality. In the views of these institutions, the activities of fishermen and fisherwomen, boat operators and those who wash cars, pollute the water resources. They further stated that, whilst these activities pollute the water resources, those who engage in these activities were ignorant about the effects and harm that they cause to the resources.
Information gathered from the Pru District Assembly shows that, the fish industry in the district alone contributes about 86% of the Internally Generated Fund (IGF) revenue of the Assembly and provides jobs for about 46.3% of the people in the district either directly or indirectly. Hence, there is a direct relationship between fish production and income generation of the Assembly. Further investigation and information obtained from the fishery department of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the Pru District Directorate, indicated a decline in production of certain fish species from 2006-2009 and this is shown in table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Fish Production in Pru District; 2006-2009
FISH SPECIES (in Tons) 2006 2007 2008 2009 Chrysicthys 5,073 7,324 11,117 7,299 Tilapiines 2,179 4,241 6,984 6,444 Synodontis 147 78 1,111 593 Cluipeidae 2,860 2,317 3,839 2,258 Labeo 24 169 812 753 Source: Yeji Artisanal Fisheries Station, 2010
The decline is attributed to the activities of fisher folks (the use of unapproved fishing gears and nets especially bamboo) and boat operators (discharge of lubricant and other substances into the water).
46 4.4 Types of water resources in the study area
As stated in chapter one, the study cover water resources such as rivers, lakes, streams and dams. Data obtained from the field revealed that, these four main types of water resources were in the study area and provided one form of livelihood or the other to the people. Apart from domestic use, these resources were put to different economic uses; fishing, farming, livestock rearing and as means of transportation connecting many destinations. River Pru and the Volta Lake stretching through Yeji served as the major transportation network in the area linking neighbouring communities within the catchment area and outside the study area.
A study of the local economy revealed that, 26 per cent of the people derived their livelihood from rivers, 45 per cent depended on the lake, 21 per cent on the streams and 8 per cent earned their living from dams. The low number of people who depend on dams and streams for their livelihood was linked to the few dams available and the drying up of major streams during the dry season due to high temperatures. Figure 4.2 depicts the types of water resources and the percentage share of use.
Fig 4.2: Water resources and their percentage share of use
45 40 35 30
25 45 20 Series1 15 26 21 10 5 8 0 Rivers Lake Streams Dams Type of water resources
Source: Field survey, 2011
47 A probe into the importance of water resource to socioeconomic development revealed that, with proper management of the resources, the people could transform their lives better as they could get more returns from their economic activities. This confirmed Opoku-Agyemang (2005) and Desai and Potter (2008) positions that, water is life, the foundation to all development and achievement of all MDGs especially those related to promoting health, reducing hunger, increasing income and improving the living conditions of the poor.
4.4.1 Ownership of water resources
The understanding of ownership and control of water resources has a bearing on the sustainable utilization and management of the resources. This also provides useful information for planning and allocation of water resources.
The study has shown that, water resource in the study area were not privately owned but rather owned by the entire community in which the resource was located. Though owned by the community, the resource was entrusted in the hands of the chiefs of the traditional area on behalf of the people. The study revealed that, 66% of the people were of the view that, the resources were owned by the community whilst 34% claimed water resources were gift from God and as such owned by God. All these responses are indications that, water resources were not individually owned and this confirms Opoku-Agemang (2001) observation that, surface water is considered community property which could never be individually owned.
However, individuals may use water resources that is found or located on his/her land for any economic activity without much or any interference from the community. This finding supported Ofori-Boateng (1997) assertion that, as pertains to traditional landholdings, a person has only usefructuary right to water but not considered the owner. Hence water should be perceived as public goods and coordinated effort is needed from everyone to make its use and management sustainable for socioeconomic development.
4.4.2 Respondents knowledge of water resource regulations
Freshwater is a strategic natural resource vital for life sustenance, socioeconomic development and maintenance of the environment. The resource is finite and indeed
48 vulnerable and there are already worrying cases of pollution and degradation of our water resources afflicted by both natural and human factors.
Information obtained from the field shows that, the respondents were well informed about the regulations regarding the use and protection of water resources. It was also found out that, 91.40% had knowledge on water resource regulations whilst 8.6% did not have any idea of water resource regulations pertaining to uses of the resources.
Some of the regulations enumerated during the interview include;
Use of unapproved fishing gears and nets Use of chemicals in fishing and farming along riverbeds not allowed Visiting the river at night and on Tuesdays is prohibited Bathing and discharge of substances into the water not allowed Sacrifices into the water bodies were prohibited.
Some of the regulations were enacted by the traditional authority holding the belief that, water bodies were places of ancestral powers and spirits. However, this belief helps to protect water resources from over exploitation. Table 4.6 shows respondents knowledge of water resource regulations.
Table 4.6 Respondents’ knowledge of water resource regulations
S/N Water resource regulations Frequency percentage 1 Use of unapproved fishing gears 37 39.8 2 Use of chemicals in fishing 30 32.2 Discharge of substances into the water 7 7.5 3 Washing and bathing in water bodies 6 6.5 4 5 Sacrifices into water bodies 5 5.4 No knowledge of water resource regulations 8 8.6 6 Total 93 100 Source: Field survey, 2011
As illustrated in the table above, 39.8% respondents were aware of more than two of the above mentioned regulations and 32.2% were aware of regulations prohibiting the use of chemicals in fishing. Besides, 7.5% respondents were only aware of regulations regarding discharge of substances into the water, 6.5% represent people with knowledge on
49 regulation banning bathing in the water. Others include 5.4% people who know regulations prohibiting sacrifices into the water and 8.6% people had no knowledge on or were ignorant about regulations listed above.
4.5 Practices that contravenes water resource regulations
Despite the fact that many of the respondents have some appreciable levels of knowledge about water resource regulations in the study area, they engaged in practices that contravened the regulations. The practices include the use of unapproved fishing gears, washing of cars in water bodies, discharge of lubricant from outboard motors, bathing and discharge of human excreta into the water bodies.
4.5.1 Use of unapproved fishing gears
The use of bamboo in fishing in Ghana is prohibited but most fishermen in the area still rely heavily on the use of the gear in fishing. According to most of the respondents, the bamboo work in such a way that, whenever fishes enters it, there is no way they can come out and also, it catches both the big and very small fishes.
Fig 4.3: The use of bamboos in fishing in the rivers and lakes
Source: Field survey, 2011
Further information obtained from the fisheries department of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture indicates that, the bamboo is mostly used to catch Cluipeidae. This type of fish normally hides in stumps in the water and whenever they see the bamboo they enter into them. Most often than not, it is the pregnant fishes that enter the bamboos because they are
50 looking for a place to lay eggs. They are often caught with the eggs thereby reducing the productive efficiency of the water resource. The worse of it is that, some of these fishermen often leave the bamboos in the water leading to depletion of quantity of the fish in the water since any fish that enter the bamboo cannot come out and this has accounted for the reduction in fish production in the study area over time.
4.5.2 Washing, bathing and discharge of lubricants into the water
There are only two car washing bays in the area and since these are inadequate to serve all vehicle and motor owners, most owners especially the commercial car owners choose to wash their cars in the water bodies near them. Others also chose to wash in the water bodies because of the GH¢1.00 that they may pay per vehicle if they should send their cars to the bay. Apart from lubricants that come from vehicles, the activity of boat operators is polluting water bodies faster than ever. They discharge premix fuel and other chemical substances into water bodies especially the Volta Lake at Yeji.
Fig 4.4 Washing of vehicle in water bodies
Source: Field survey, 2011
Besides, on weekends young women and children are often seen washing in or close to the water bodies with children bathing in the water. During the washing, used or dirty waters are thrown into the water bodies thereby polluting the resource hence; it is dangerous for direct consumption by humans and animals.
51 Information gathered from the department of fisheries indicated that, fishes suffer varying degree of effects when they come into direct contact with the discharge of chemical substances from vehicles, outboard motors and detergents. Furthermore, these substances suspend on top of the water resources making it difficult for oxygen to penetrate into the water for use by fishes leading to death and extinction of certain fish species.
Fig 4.5 Boats operating on the Volta Lake
Source: Field survey, 2011
4.6 Punishments for noncompliance
There are several forms of punishment meted out to people who go contrary to water resource laws and regulations crafted by district assemblies in collaboration with traditional authorities. People who fall victims to water regulations are arrested by community task force or reported by patriotic community member to traditional authorities for interrogation and possible sanctions.
Sanctions could be given by the traditional authorities or the matter referred to the security agencies (Police and Navy) for further interrogation and appropriate punishment. This however depends on the gravity and magnitude of the offence committed. Cases that have to do with sacrifices into the river, visiting the river at night, fishing on Tuesdays, and fishing in prohibited area and fishing certain fish species are dealt with at the community
52 level whilst other cases such as the use of unapproved fishing inputs and gears and certain fish species fall within the domain of security agencies.
Punishments are given in line with the nature and magnitude of the offence committed. These sanctions include fees and fines, imprisonment and banishment. These are the three possible sanctions that one is likely to face if found guilty.
4.7 Reasons for noncompliance
Despite the fact that people are much aware of the laws regulating the use of water resources, 67% of the people do not comply with these regulations and standards. Simple reasons given for this unfortunate situation are that, people who violate the laws are not adequately punished. During the household interview, people expressed dismay saying in most cases, inadequate sanctions and at times no punishment at all is meted out to the culprits.
Some people are of the view that, the communities developed along lineage and clans and this patriachial relationship affect the kind of judgement that was given out. Besides, other people expressed their concerns that, they are of the belief that, some chiefs, headmen and security personnel enter into terms with the offenders to enrich their parochial interest. These various shared opinions by the respondents explain the basis for noncompliance to these well laid down laws and regulations.
4.8 Climate change, biodiversity, water resources and wetlands
Climate change is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere, and which is in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable time periods. Climate change is experienced and observable in the study area and has dire consequences on sustainability of man and other bio-organisms in the ecosystem.
53 Fig 4.6 Small town water system submerged in the Volta
Source: field survey, 2011
Fig 4.7 Plant filters flooded due to the over flow of the Volta L
Source: field survey, 2011
In the study area, climate change has brought about extreme temperatures leading to evaporation of streams, evapo-transpiration in plants and prolonged droughts, water pollution, heavy rains leading to floods, deforestation and disease infestations. Human activity such as deforestation is considered a factor which has led to extreme effects of climate change in the area. It is observable that, with the exception of the two district capitals (that is Yeji and Atebubu) other communities in the study area are rural and characterized by scattered hamlets. As most of the population can be found in these sparse settlements, deforestation is attributed to the people who, day in and day out, cut down smaller trees for charcoal and firewood, for domestic purposes in the rural areas, and in the urban towns.
54 However, food production in the study area depends solely on the climate (existing rain and weather patterns). Most people live on local products produced in the local economy for consumption and income generation. Food crop production and fishing remains the life-wire of the majority of the people in terms of food and employment. Access and availability of food is one of the main concerns of most of the population and accordingly, engaging in agriculture is a good source of income. However, as the people rely so much on the climate to boost agriculture production, with the fast-changing climate in recent times, agriculture production might be in danger.
Accordingly, climate change will directly affect future food availability, and compound the difficulties of feeding the rapidly growing population. This has the tendency of putting the growing population in jeopardy making them more prone to risk and vulnerability, or become food insecure during the lean season, or at the onset of a shock, natural, or man- made disaster.
In as much as we recognize the implications of the impacts of climate change on the lives of human beings, wetlands and biodiversity, frantic and collaborative efforts are needed by all stakeholders in the study area and beyond so that, lives and properties will be protected and the future safeguarded.
4.9 Institutional responses
Effective Water resource management depends largely on institutional collaboration among the various institutions and agencies concerned with environmental and natural resource management. Considering the position water recourses occupied in human life, the management of the resource should not be left at individual and household levels. The major body charged with water resource management in Ghana is Water Resource Commission. However, other institutions covered in the study had direct or indirect roles to play in sustainable management of water resources in and beyond the study area.
4.9.1 Ghana Meteorological Service
The primary functions of meteorological services include collating, processing and dissemination of metrological data to the general public and other collaborative agencies. Though they are indirectly involved in the management process, the meteorological
55 service provide the public with information on climate variability and rainfall patterns that are useful for effective and sustainable water resource management. Currently, the Ghana Meteorological Service is collaborating with National Disaster Management Organisation to educate communities especially those located in lowland areas to relocate to high grounds as rains set in heavily.
4.9.2 Environmental Protection Agency
The Environmental Protection Agency is the leading public body for protecting and improving the environment in Ghana. The Environmental Protection Agency was established with the mandate to grant licenses and permits to prospective developers who meet the requirement to locate in environmentally sensitive areas such as wetlands and watersheds near water bodies. The Environmental Protection Agency also requires people who intended to carry out activities at a scale that may have implication on the environment to obtain permit.
The agency also creates awareness to mainstream environment into the development process at the national, regional, district and community levels to ensure that the implementation of environmental policy and planning are integrated and consistent with the country‟s desire for effective, long-term maintenance of environmental quality. The agency ensures environmentally sound and efficient use of both renewable and non- renewable resources in the process of national development. Lastly, the agency guides development to prevent, reduce, and as far as possible, eliminate pollution and actions that lower the quality of life. As part of their operations in the districts, the agency on periodic visits conducts environmental audit on the activities of industries to ensure that, they comply with environmental regulations.
4.9.3 District Assemblies
District assemblies are created as the pivot of administration and development decision making at the district and therefore the basic unit of governance administration. District assemblies are assigned with deliberative, legislative and executive functions under law (that is Local Government Act, 1993, and Act 462).
56 District assemblies are the major stakeholder in water resource management at the district and community levels. Environmental management is one of the topmost priority and sensitive area of the Pru and Atebubu-Amanten districts and as such two main decentralised departments (that is fisheries and the environmental health departments) have been tasked to liaise with other agencies in making sure that the natural environment is safe and protected.
Over the years, these districts have embarked on a number of activities in their respective catchment areas to protect and conserve the environment from depletion. For instance, the Pru District Assembly has consistently for the past three year‟s liaised with the water resource commission to organise sensitisation workshops for assembly and unit committee members on sustainable water resource management. The assemblies had also organised a good number of sensitisation durbars and education programmes in communities along river banks to educate them on best practices. The assemblies also in collaboration with traditional authorities formulated bye-laws regulating water use in the area.
As part of the green Ghana programme, the two districts have entreated all communities‟ especially communities located along river banks to embark on vigorous tree planting in order to restore the adverse effects of climate change on water bodies. It is also worthy of appreciation that, the Pru district assembly is collaborating with the Navy to control activities on the Volta Lake.
4.10 Institutional challenges
The institutions covered in the study have acknowledged their individual and collective challenges so far as the country‟s water resource management is concerned. Despite all the enormous efforts by these institutions in making sure that the country‟s water resources are managed in sustainable manner, their efforts are thwarted by the under listed challenges.
4.10.1 Human resource capacity challenges
It became obvious that, all the institutions were faced with human resource problems. This human capital deficiency is identified to take two forms. The first problem has to do with acute shortage of well qualified personnel and the second problem being issues of
57 unqualified personnel occupying positions and performing functions that should have been performed by qualified people. At the moment, with the exception of the meteorological service which has a permanent weather station at Atebubu, the Environmental Protection Agency and Water Resource Commission do not have offices in the districts but they carry out their activities through selected staff of the assemblies using desk officers. For instances, the Budget Officer at Pru District Assembly is the Desk Officer for Environmental Protection Agency who liaises with regional officers.
4.10.2 Weak inter-agency collaboration
All the players operating in the water sector have functions and responsibilities that are linked and interrelated. In this direction, there is the need for effective collaboration between and among the various stakeholders in the water sector in order to avoid duplication of functions and resources. However, due to weak inter agency collaborations the limited resources of these institutions are duplicated.
4.10.3 Financial constraints
One of the major challenges faced by public sector institutions is financial constraints. Budgetary allocations and other inflows of funds from the central to public institutions are always inadequate and irregular to meet their demands. Besides, these institutions are unable to generate enough revenue internally to supplement what is received from government and other development partners. The inability of these institutions to raise funds internally is justified on the grounds that, the activities of the institutions are service provision to the public. In instances where fees are charged for services rendered, incomes from such activities are always not adequate to meet their growing demands.
4.10.4 Logistical constraints
Effective and sustainable water resource management depends largely on activities such as data collection, collating, processing and dissemination of information. The ability of the institutions to carry out these activities depends on availability of logistics and office equipment. The challenge on the ground is that, most of the institutions lacked these useful materials such as office accommodation and equipment, vehicles and motorbikes for effective functioning of the institutions.
58 CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
This chapter presents the major findings of the study, policy recommendation and conclusion on sustainable water resource management for sustainable economic growth and social development in the Brong Ahafo region in particular and the country at large.
5.1 Major findings
5.1.1 Economy of water resources
The Volta Lake and river Pru are the major water resources in the study area. Other minor rivers and streams found on the tributaries of river Pru and the Volta Lake include Kpantwi, Gyebresi, Bonfra, Malakepo, Tanfi, Bumfari, Wansan, Pranbon, Bolepoase, Wotrewotre, Sele, Kefoose, Kalekya, Pre, Nyelase, Nyomo and Bresuo River.
These water resources are used for different purposes such as domestic consumption, agriculture and industrial uses. About 86% of the populace derived their livelihoods from these water resources either directly or indirectly. Apart from household consumption of the resources, fishing and farming are the major use to which the resources in the area are put to. The streams support the cultivation of rice and maize on large scale.
5.1.2 Water resource management
The water resource commission is the agency authorised under the water resource Act to regulate and control the use of water resources through granting of water rights and water use permits. The water resource commission provides a forum for integration and collaboration of different interest of major stakeholders involved in the water sector.
5.1.3 Inter institutional collaboration
The importance of water resources requires a cross sectoral approach to ensure sustainable management of water resources. It was found out that, all the institutions or agencies covered in the study had links with each other though they operate in their respective departments as individual units. The kind of collaboration that exists among the institutions is identified to be very weak between and within the institutions.
59 However, the relationship between water resource commission and district assemblies in the study area is stronger, something these two bodies acknowledged and are quite satisfied with. The commission occasionally organises training workshops for the district assembly and its sub-structures on sustainable and effective water resource management techniques that ensures sustainable growth and development.
5.1.4 Ownership of water resource
Water resources and water services are considered public goods and as such not owned by any individual in society. Section 12 of the water resource Act 522 stipulates that, the control of all water resources is vested in the President on behalf of and in trust for the people of Ghana. This simply implies that, there is no private or individual ownership of water resources in Ghana, but the president or anyone so authorised may grant rights for water use in Ghana.
However, as the country‟s water resources are vested in the president, at the local or community levels, water resources are communally owned but trusted in the hands of traditional authorities on behalf of the people.
5.1.5 Law that regulate water use
The major laws that guide the regulation and management of water resources in Ghana are the Water Resource Commission Act, (No 522 of 1996) and the Water Use Regulation, Legislative Instrument (LI 1692 0f 2001). The granting of Water Use Permit is considered a tool to regulate water abstraction and control pollution of water bodies in Ghana.
Besides this constitutional provision, district assemblies in collaboration with traditional authorities had developed and passed bye-laws to regulate the use and management of water resources in the study area. However, these bye-laws must be gazetted by the general assembly to have a legal backing and as well provide a legal security to water users.
5.1.6 Compliance level
Despite the fact that 91.40% of the respondents are aware of one or more of water resource regulations in the area, their compliance to the regulations is low. Out of a total of 93
60 people who were interviewed, only 33% said they adhere strictly to the regulations as pertains in the area whilst 67% of the respondents do not comply with the regulations at all. According to them, their noncompliance is not because they are not aware of the regulations, but rather justified their position on the grounds that, people who fall victim to these regulations are not severely dealt with to serve as deterrent to others who are capable of committing such crimes.
5.1.7 Benefits of regulating water resource usage
Society enjoys enormous benefits for effective and sustainable management of water and water resources. First and foremost, water resource management or regulating water resource use provide basic but useful information for efficient planning as well as providing policy directions for effective resource management. This in effect ensures sustainable social development and promotes economic growth through conflict avoidance over water use.
Besides, regulating water resource utilisation ensures availability of water in adequate quantities and qualities to sustain nature, biodiversity and aquatic ecosystem. It also benefits society to minimise costs that are associated with treatment of potable water for human consumption.
Regulating water usage helps safeguard the health of water bodies as they are protected from pollution and contamination. This invariably safeguard the health of people downstream from coming into contact with polluted and contaminated water that may put the whole society at risk of falling victim to water related diseases.
5.2 Policy recommendations
The inability of the country to manage the utilisation of water resources are mostly as a result of activities of man and as such, can be addressed or reduced to appreciable level that is acceptable to all stakeholders in the water sector and society as a whole. It is in line with this that, the following recommendations are put forward which if adhered to could help achieve sustainable water resource management for sustained economic growth and social development.
61 5.2.1 Establishment of national water resource database
Sustainable water resource management requires a wide range of information for water resource planning and policy formulation. Therefore, there is the need to establish comprehensive water resource database at both national and district levels that will provide information on the country‟s water resources (both surface and underground water) in terms of quality and quantity available. Information on water resources should be made accessible to individuals, Non-Governmental Organisations and other Development Partners that may need them.
The creation of the database will form the first step in understanding and appreciating the state of our water resource and this will inform the kind of judgement and decisions that we make as a country so far as water resource management and utilisations are concerned.
5.2.2 Effective inter-agency collaboration
An integrated water resource management is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Therefore, Water Resources Management should be inter-disciplinary in nature, applying knowledge from various disciplines as well as the insights from diverse stakeholders to devise and implement efficient, equitable and sustainable solutions to water and development problems.
The relationships between and among the various institutions and stakeholders in the water sector should not be passive but rather should be an active relationship that will whip and stimulate people‟s interest in playing active roles in the management of the country‟s water resources. Therefore, there is the need to coordinate the activities of all the stakeholders involved in the management and utilisation of water resources to prevent duplication of functions and resources.
5.2.3 Effective Monitoring and Evaluation
All polluted water by households, industries and agriculture goes back into the environment, which in one way or the other finds its ways into water bodies posing health hazards to lives and the environment. In this regard, there is the need to increase and
62 sustain monitoring and evaluation by necessary agencies on the activities of all water use to make sure that, people comply with water use regulations and environmental management standards. Likewise, the creation of a data bank as recommended earlier will provide useful information on the state of Ghana‟s water resources and this will serve as feedback that will guide future planning and decision making.
5.2.4 Capacity building for agencies and water users
Water resource management should assume a multi-disciplinary approach involving people from diverse background such as planning, management, environment and science among others with different understanding and appreciation of water management and utilisation. Therefore, there is the need to build the capacity of planners, water resource managers and user communities on best practices which will inevitably deepen their levels of collaboration so far as water resource management is concerned.
The Ministry of Water Resource Works and Housing and District Assemblies should organise periodic training programmes to build the capacity of the personnel and also provide financial resources to agencies concerned with water resource management. The ministry should not only provide funds to agencies in the water sector but should formulate and implement policies that will foster and enhance the capacity of the institutions to deliver effectively. District Assemblies should also provide information and support to Non-Governmental Organisations for water resource planning and management. Besides, District Assemblies must establish water resource service extension units to operate within their catchment areas and these extension service officers should be in close contact with the user communities in terms of planning, management and utilisation of water resource in their respective localities.
5.2.5 Re-engineer society against climate change
Access to water plays a key role in development of agriculture (for food security) and industrial activities. The changes to the hydrological cycle will deteriorate the availability of water for human populations in terms of quantity, quality and accessibility of water supplies. These conditions will be further exacerbated by increasing natural disasters and their impacts on water for human populations.
63 It is therefore recommended that, there should be social reconstruction of societies to accept and appreciate the fact that, climate change is real and more pronounced in recent times. In this regard, communities should be sensitised through community foras and durbars to embark on vigorous tree planting along river banks to reduce evaporation and drying up of water bodies.
If society is re-engineered on the importance of water resources to individual and group development, then people can take maximum interest in protecting and managing our water resources.
5.3 Conclusion
Water is essential to life, community welfare and the proper functioning of the national economy. Water resource management can contribute to realizing the Millennium Development Goals related to promoting health, reducing hunger, increasing income and improving the living conditions of the poor.
Ghana is well endowed with water resources but the quantum of water available changes from one season to another. Water resources constitute about 75% of the country‟s landmass. The availability of water is decreasing owing to rain variability and drought, rapid population growth, increased environmental degradation and pollution of water bodies. Whilst, the amount of water resources available decreases markedly from year to year, there is a growing competition for the use of water resources among the various economic sectors.
The growing demand for water resources called for effective allocation of the resource among the competing uses to ensure sustainable availability of adequate water of good quality for all socio-economic developments for now and in the future. The 75% of the country‟s water resource endowment can only be referred to as such and only if all hands are on the desk to make sure that, the present needs of society are met and that of the future safeguard. Hence, there is the need for a rational management and development of the country‟s water resources to promote sustainable economic growth and protection of life sustaining ecosystem.
64 REFERENCES
Atebubu-Amanten District Assembly (2010) Medium Term Development Plan (2010- 2013) under Ghana Share Growth and Development Agenda, District Planning Coordinating Unit.
Chava F. and Nachmias D. (1992), Research Methods in social sciences, fourth edition, St Martins Press Inc, United Kingdom.
Daily Graphic (7th September, 2010), the effects of mining activities and the health of water bodies in Ghana
Desai V. and Potter R.B. (2008), The Companion to Development Studies, Second Edition, Hodder Education, UK.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1995), Water sector policy review and strategy formulation: A general framework, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, Italy.
Ghana statistical service (2005) 2000 Population and Housing Census, Report on Districts and Localities, GSS, Accra
Gleik, P.H., Wolff, G., Chalecki, E.L., Reyes, R. (2002), The New Economy of Water: The Risks and Benefits of Globalization and the Privatization of Fresh Water. Pacific Institute. Oakland, California.
Global Water Partnership (2000), Toward Water Security: A Framework for Action to Achieve the Vision for Water in the 21st Century, Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden.
Graz L. (1998), “Water source of life,” FORUM: War and Water, International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva, Switzerland.
Hagan Isaac (2007), Modelling the Impact of Small Reservoirs in the Upper East Region of Ghana, Lund University Press, Sweden.
65 International Conference on Water and the Environment (ICWE) (1992), the Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development, Ireland
IPCC (2007), Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Medalye J. and Kundell J. (2008), Water governance, Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment, Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland , Washington, D.C.
Ministry of Works and Housing, Ghana (1998), Water Resources Management (WARM) study –information building block, Accra, Ghana
Ofori-Boateng J. (1977), Environmental Law, Ghana Water Laws, Review of Ghana Law, Accra
Ollenu N.A (1962), Principles of Customary Land Law, Sweet and Maxwell, London
Opoku-Agymang M. (2001), Shifting paradigms: towards the integration of customary practices into the environmental laws and policy in Ghana, securing the future, Skelloste, Sweden
Opoku-Agymang M. (2005), African Water Laws: Plural Legislative Frameworks for Rural Water Management in Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa
Provenchur B. And Burt O. (1993) the externalities associated with common property resource exploitation of groundwater, Journal of environmental economics and management, 24(2):139-58.
Pru District Assembly (2010) Medium Term Development Plan (2010-2013) under Ghana Share Growth and Development Agenda, District Planning Coordinating Unit
Shaw W.D. (2005) Water Resources Economics and Policy, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing
66 Tellis Winston (1997), Introduction to Case Study, The Qualitative Report, Volume 3, Number 2. Accessed from (http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html) on 18th January, 2011
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2003), Vital Water Graphics, Nairobi: UNEP. Accessed from www.unep.org/vitalwater on 17th January, 2011
Water Resource Commission (1997), Regulation Building Block, WRC/MWH, Accra, Ghana
Water Resources Commission (1999), Institutional framework for water resources management in Ghana, WRC/MWH Accra, Ghana
Water Resources Commission (2000), Water resources management problems identification and prioritization, WRC/MWH Accra, Ghana
WaterAid (2007) National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana, Environmental Resources Management, London W1G 0ER
Yin, R.K, (1984), Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications
67 APPENDIX I
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
College of Architecture and Planning
Department of Planning
MSc (DEPP)
Questionnaire on water resource management for socioeconomic development in Pru and Atebubu-Amanten Districts of Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana
Questionnaire for Households
1. Interviewer‟s name...... 2. Date of interview: ………………..…………………………………… 3. Time of interview: ……………….…………………………………... 4. Name of town/village: ……………...………………………………… INTERVIEWEE'S PERSONAL INFORMATION
5. Age: ………………………………. 6. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] 7. Marital status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ] 8. Educational level: (a) None [ ] (b) Primary [ ] (c) J.H.S [ ] (d) S.H.S [ ]
(e) University [ ] (f) Others (Specify)……………………………
9. Major occupation: a. farming [ ] b. fishing [ ] c. livestock rearing [ ] d. civil/public servant [ ] e. Others (please specify)......
68 10. Name the water resources mentioned above a. Rivers...... b. Lakes...... c. Stream...... 11. How does the water resource mentioned in 10 affect your production?
a. Positively b. Negatively c. Not in any way 12. Does your economic activity impact these water resources anywhere?
a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ] 13. If yes in 13, how?
......
14. What do you do to minimise the impacts of your activities on these resources?
a...... b...... c...... 15. Do you know any regulations or laws regarding the use of the water resources?
a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]
16. Please, name them
a...... b...... c......
69 17. Do you comply with these regulations?
a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]
18. If yes how?
a...... b...... c......
19. Are there sanctions for noncompliance? Yes [ ], No [ ]. If yes specify
a...... b......
70 APPENDIX II
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
College Of Architecture and Planning
Department of Planning
MSc (DEPP)
Questionnaire on water resource management for socioeconomic development in Pru and Atebubu-Amanten Districts of Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana
Questionnaire for District Assembly
The questions are designed to seek your view on water resource management. The confidentiality of your information is highly guaranteed. Your co-operation is highly anticipated. Thank you.
Interviewer‟s name......
Date of interview: ………………..……………………………………
Time of interview: ……………….…………………………………...
Name of district: ……………...…………………………………
1. Which of the following water resources exist in the district? Tick
a. Rivers [ ] b. Lakes [ ] c. Stream [ ] 2. What uses is/are the resource(s) ticked above put to?
a...... b...... c......
71 3. How are these resources managed?
a...... b...... c...... 4. What role does the assembly play in the management process?
a...... b...... c...... d. ……………...………………………………………………………………… 5. What problems are associated with the management process?
a. ……………...………………………………………………………………... b. ……………...………………………………………………………………… c. ……………...………………………………………………………………… d. ……………...………………………………………………………………… 6. Is climate change being experienced in the district?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
7. If yes, how does it affect these water resources?
…...... ……………………………………………………………………......
.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
8. How are these effects managed?
a. ……………...……………………………………………………………….... b. ……………...………………………………………………………………… c. ……………...…………………………………………………………………
72 9. Are there any by-laws and or regulations regarding the use of water resource in the district?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
10. If yes in 10, then mention them
a. ……………...……………………………………………………………….... b. ……………...………………………………………………………………… c. ……………...………………………………………………………………… 11. Are these regulations effectively adhered to? Yes [ ] No [ ]
12. If no why......
......
......
13. How can the laws and regulations be made more effective a...... b...... c......
14. What are the sanctions for noncompliance? a. .. ……………...…………………………………………………….... b. ……………...………………………………………………………... c. ……………...…………………………………………………………
73 APPENDIX III
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
College of Architecture and Planning
Department of Planning
MSc (DEPP)
Questionnaire on water resource management for socioeconomic development in Pru and Atebubu-Amanten Districts of Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana
Questionnaire for Environmental Protection Agency
The questions are designed to seek your view on water resource (Rivers, Lakes, Stream) management. The confidentiality of your information is highly guaranteed. Your co- operation is highly anticipated. Thank you.
Interviewer‟s name......
Date of interview: ………………..……………………………………
Time of interview: ……………….…………………………………...
Name of district: ……………...…………………………………
1. What are the major uses of the water resources in the region?
a......
b......
c......
2. How are the water resources owned?
a. individually
b. collectively by the community
74 c. owned by the state
3. How are these resources managed?
a......
b......
c......
4. Who is responsible of the management of the resources?
a......
b......
c......
5. What role does the EPA play in the management of these water resources?
a......
b......
c......
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
e......
6. What challenges do you face in the management of the resources?
a……………...………………………………………………………………...
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
75 7. What do you do to deal/solve the above challenges?
a……………...………………………………………………………………...
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
8. Is climate change being experienced in the region?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
9. If yes, how does it affect these water resources?
a…...... ……………………………………………………………………......
b.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
c.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
d......
10. How are these effects managed or minimised?
a……………...………………………………………………………………....
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
11. What are the water resource regulations?
a…...... ……………………………………………………………………......
b.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
76 c.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
d......
e......
12. Are these regulations effectively adhered to by all water users? Yes [ ] No [ ]
13. If no why......
......
......
1.4 How can the laws and regulations be made more effective a...... b...... c......
15. What are the sanctions for noncompliance? a.. ……………...……………………………………………………....
b……………...………………………………………………………...
77 APPENDIX IV
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
College of Architecture and Planning
Department of Planning
MSc (DEPP)
Questionnaire on water resource management for socioeconomic development in Pru and Atebubu-Amanten Districts of Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana
Questionnaire for Hydrological Services Department
The questions are designed to seek your view on water resource (Rivers, Lakes, Stream) management. The confidentiality of your information is highly guaranteed. Your co- operation is highly anticipated. Thank you.
Interviewer‟s name......
Date of interview: ………………..……………………………………
Time of interview: ……………….…………………………………...
Name of district: ……………...…………………………………
1. What are the major uses of the water resources in the region?
a......
b......
c......
2. How are the water resources owned?
a. individually
b. collectively by the community
78 c. owned by the state
3. How are these resources managed?
a......
b......
c......
4. Who is responsible of the management of the resources?
a......
b......
c......
5. What role does the HSD play in the management of these water resources?
a......
b......
c......
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
e......
6. What challenges do you face in the management of the resources?
a……………...………………………………………………………………...
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
79 7. What do you do to deal/solve the above challenges?
a……………...………………………………………………………………...
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
d……………...…………………………………………………………………
8. Is climate change being experienced in the region?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
9. If yes, how does it affect these water resources?
a…...... ……………………………………………………………………......
b.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
c.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
d......
10. How are these effects managed or minimised?
a……………...………………………………………………………………....
b……………...…………………………………………………………………
c……………...…………………………………………………………………
11. What are the water resource regulations?
a…...... ……………………………………………………………………......
b.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
80 c.…………...... …………………………………………………………………
d......
e......
13. Are these regulations effectively adhered to by all water users? Yes [ ] No [ ]
13. If no why......
......
......
1.5 How can the laws and regulations be made more effective a...... b...... c......
16. What are the sanctions for noncompliance? a.. ……………...……………………………………………………....
b……………...………………………………………………………...
81