FRIEND/Nile (FN) UNESCO-Flanders Science Trust Fund Project Code: 513RAB2042

Home , Bahr el Zeraf, Rusumo Falls, Semliki River, Sobat River, White Nile

THE UNITED NATION EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURE ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)

The Identification of Hydrological Unites in the Nile Basin

Data Availability

Prepared by:

Eng. Ahmed Fahmy Water Resources Consultant

July 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ii LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... iv LIST OF TABLES...... vi LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1 1- INTRODUCTION...... 2 1-1 General ...... 2 1-2 Objectives ...... 2 1-3 Deliverables...... 3 1-4 Outlines ...... 3 2- BASIN PHYSICAL FEATURES ...... 4 2-1 General ...... 4 2-2 Hydrology of the Nile...... 4 2.2.1 Equatorial Lakes Basin ...... 5 2.2.2 The SUDD Basin and the White Nile...... 6 2.2.3 The Ethiopian Plateau Basin...... 7 2.2.4 The Main Nile Basin...... 7 2-3 Climatic Regions and Precipitation ...... 8 2-4 Evaporation ...... 12 2-5 Sedimentation ...... 16 3- DATA AVAILABILITY IN THE NILE BASIN ...... 18 3-1 Hydrological Units ...... 18 3-1-1 Data Type ...... 18 3-1-2 Data Sources ...... 19 3-2 The Equatorial Lakes Basin ...... 20 3-2-1 Lake Victoria...... 21 3-2-2 Lake Kyoga ...... 27 3-2-3 Lake Albert: ...... 30 3-2-4 River Similiki Catchment...... 32 3-2-5 Albert Nile: ...... 34 3-3 Bahr El Jebel & Zeraf Basin...... 37 3-4 Bahr El Gazal Basin...... 39 3-5 White Nile: ...... 41

ii 3-6 Ethiopian Plateau:...... 42 3-6-1 River Sobat:...... 42 3-6-2 Blue Nile: ...... 46 3-6-3 River Atbara:...... 47 3-7 Main Nile...... 48 4- IMPLEMENTED PROJECTS WITHIN THE NILE BASIN...... 53 4-1 HYRDOMET ...... 53 4-2 TECCONILE...... 53 4-3 Nile Basin Initiative...... 54 NBI Objectives:...... 54 NBI Strategic Action Program: ...... 55 4-3-1 Shared Vision Program (SVP): ...... 55 4-3-2 Subsidiary Action Programs (SAPs) :...... 55 4-3-3 Moving Towards Implementation...... 58 4-4 LVEMP ...... 58 4-5 FAO/Water Resources Project ...... 61 4-6 NBCBN-RE...... 64 5- RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES ...... 67 5-1 General ...... 67 5-1-1 Nile Basin Challenges ...... 67 5-1-2 Nile Basin Opportunities...... 67 5-2 Proposed Research Opportunities ...... 68 6- CONCLUSIONS ...... 69 REFERENCES ...... 72

ANNEX A ...... A-1 1 ANNEX B...... B-1 1 ANNEX C...... C-1 1 ANNEX D ...... D-1 1

iii LIST OF ACRONYMS

AHD Aswan High Dam BCM Billion Cubic Meter CIDA Canadian International Development Agency COM Council of Ministers DST Decision Support Tool EH Eco-Hydrology EN Eastern Nile ENSAPT Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program ENTRO Eastern Nile Technical Regional Office ESTM Erosion and Sediment Transport Modeling FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FN Friend/Nile Projects GEF Global Environmental Facility HM Hydrologic Modeling HRI Hydraulic Research Institute HYDROMET Hydro-Meteorological Survey of The Catchments of Lakes

Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert ICCON International Consortium for the Cooperation on the Nile ICT Information and Communication Technology IDEN Integrated Development of Eastern Nile Projects IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project MCM Million cubic meter MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation NBCBN-RE Nile Basin Capacity Building Network for River Engineering NBI Nile Basin Initiative NEL Nile of Equatorial Lakes NRBAP Nile River Basin Action Plan NWRC National Water Resources Center, MWRI NWS Nile Water Sector PID Project Identification Document PMU Project Management Uint ppm Part per million

iv SAP Subsidiary Action Program SVP Shared Vision Program TECCONILE Technical Co-operation for the Promotion of the Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin TAC Technical Advisory Committee

UN United Nation UNDP United Nation Development Prpgram UNESCO United Nation Educational. Scientific, and Culture Organization UNOPS United Nation of Project Services WMO World Metrological Organization

v LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Normal evaporation over open water in the Nile Basin, in 13 mm/day. Table 2.2. shows total suspended Solids in the Nile Water (Hurst, 1955) 17

Table 3.1 Normal Discharge for River Kagera in mm 23 Table 3.2 Bar chart for Lake Victoria Discharge Sub-Catchment 23 Table 3.3 Normal Discharge for Lake Victoria Sub-Catchment 23 Table 3.4 Bar chart for Lake Victoria Gauge Sub -Catchment 24 Table 3.5 Max.-Mean-Min. gauge Reading for Lake Victoria Sub- 24 Catchments Table 3.6 Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. 26 Victoria Table 3.7 Bar chart for Lake Kyoga Discharge Gauge Sub - 28 Catchments Table 3.8 Normal Discharge for Lake Kyoga Sub-Catchment 28 Table 3.9 Bar chart for Lake Kyoga Gauge Sub -Catchment 29 Table 3.10 Max.-Mean-Min. gauge Reading for Lake Kyoga Sub- 29 Catchments Table 3.11 Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. Kyoga 30 Table 3.12 Bar chart for Lake Albert Discharge Sub-Catchments 32 Table 3.13 Normal Discharge for Lake Albert Sub-Catchment 32 Table 3.14 Bar chart for Lake Albert Gauge Sub -Catchment 33 Table 3.15 Max.-Mean-Min. gauge Reading for Lake Albert Sub- 33 Catchments Table 3.16 Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. Albert 34 Table 3.17 Normal Discharge for Albert Nile Coarse in mm3 36 Table 3.18 Yearly flow Jebel statical Parameters 39 Table 3.19 Bar chart for River Sobat & Baro 45 Table 3.20 Bar chart for River Pibor 45 Table 4. 1 SVP Regional Project Management Units 58

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1. Map of the Nile Basin 5 Figure 2-2. Illustrates the schematic distribution of the Nile yield in 8 units. Figure 2-3. Isohyetal map of the mean annual rainfall on the Nile 10 Basin till 1967 Figure 2-4. Map of the mean annual rainfall on the Nile Basin and the 11 distribution diagrams of Monthly rainfall (UNESCO, 1978) Figure 2-5. Mean annual evaporation from open water in the Nile 14 Basin Figure 2-6. Lines of equal actual evapotranspiration, mm/yr (Krouzun, 15 V., et al, 1978) Figure 2-7. Silt in the Nile at Wadi Halfa 17 Figure 3- 1. Main hydrological Units of Nile Basin 18 Figure 3- 2. Lake Victoria Rivers 20 Figure 3- 3. Equatorial Lakes Catchments 20 Figure 3- 4. Schematic of the Equatorial Lakes 21 Figure 3- 5. Kagera Basin 22 Figure 3- 6. Kagera Longitudinal Profile 22 Figure 3- 7. Lake Kyoga 27 Figure 3- 8. Victoria Nile 28 Figure 3- 9. Lake Albert Basin 31 Figure 3-10. Lake Edward Basin 32 Figure 3-11. Lake George Basin 32 Figure 3-12. River Semliki catchment 33 Figure 3-13. Drops in longitudinal Section in the Equatorial Lakes 34 Figure 3-14. Albert Nile 35 Figure 3-15. Albert Nile Basin 35 Figure 3-16. Equatorial Lakes Gauges & Discharges Sites 36 Figure 3-17. River Aswa Basin 37 Figure 3-18. Southern Sudan 37 Figure 3-19. Lake No 38 Figure 3-20. Bahr El Jebel Discharges 38 Figure 3-21. Bahr El Gazal Basin 40 Figure 3-22. Gauge and Discharge sites in the Sudd Region 40 Figure 3-23. White Nile reach 41

vii Figure 3-24. Machar Marches 43 Figure 3-25. River Sobat 43 Figure 3-26. River Pibor Longitudinal Section 44 Figure 3-27. The Blue Nile 46 Figure 3-28. Longitudinal Section of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia 47 Figure 3-29. River Atbara Basin 48 Figure 3-30. The Main Nile 50 Figure 3-31. Longitudinal Section of Main Nile 52 Figure 4- 1 Lake Victoria Water Quality Stations (LVEMP) 60 Figure 4- 2 Lake Victoria rainfall Stations (LVEMP) 60 Figure 4- 3 Lake Victoria Evaporation Stations (LVEMP) 61 Figure 4- 4 NBCBN-RE Research Clusters 65 Figure 6- 1. Gauge and Discharge Sites 70 Figure 6- 2. Longitudinal section in the River Nile 71 Figure 6- 3. Independency between Ethiopian & Equatorial Plateau 71

viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The River Nile is one of the world’s great assets. However, famine, extreme poverty, instability, rapid population growth, deteriorating natural resources, and environment degradation are characteristic features of the Nile Basin today. In other hand, the river Nile is distinguished from other great rivers of the world by the fact that half of its course flows through countries with no effective rainfall. Almost of the water of the Nile is generated on an area only 20 percent of the basin. While the remainders are in arid or semi-arid regions where the water supply is minimal and where evaporation and seepage losses are considerably large. Therefore, a complete control of the river will help in improving the yield of the river in order at least to compensate the over – increasing population situation in River Nile Basin countries. Research activities are unavoidable for better management of Nile water resources in integrated and sustainable manner. To perform this research activities a set of diverse and accurate data and information should be made available for researchers and scientists. The first step for water resources data collection is to identify the various hydrological homogeneous units of the Nile Basin and the potential pilot areas within each unit for the research activities Within the framework of the FRIEND/Nile (FN) UNESCO-Flanders Scientific Trust Fund Project and based on the recommendation of the Sixth Project Management Meeting, It is required to support the preparation of a study on the identification of hydrological units in the Nile Basin with special focus on the data availability, types and records pertaining to the research components of the FRIEND/NILE Second Phase. The UNESCO Cairo office is supporting the preparation of this study from the project Budget. The Objective of this study is to identify various hydrological homogeneous units of the Nile Basin and the potential pilot areas within each unit for the research activities of the Second Phase of FN Project. Special emphasis will be given to the availability of potential data sources within the Nile Basin which can contribute to the successful implementation of the research activities of the FN Second Phase component. The FN research activities includes: Integrated Water Resources management (IWRM); Hydrologic Modeling (HM); Erosion and Sediment Transport Modeling (ESTM); Stochastic Modeling (SM); and Eco-hydrology (EH). Moreover, the study includes the review of already implemented projects in the Nile which can be potential sources of data in the Nile basin. The Study shows that there are many research activities could be done with regard to some Integrated Water Resources Managements: reservoir operations; Hydropower potentials; Sedimentations and Sand Encroachments; Deterministic and Stochastic Modeling; morphology; Conservation Projects; Environment; Erosion and Watershed Management; and others . Some lighting information for some research proposals are given in chapter 3 and chapter 5 of this study.

1 1- INTRODUCTION 1-1 General The River Nile is one of the world’s great assets. From ancient human civilizations until today, the flows of the river system have nourished livelihoods and played a central role in a rich diversity of cultures. Evidence of enduring human endeavor is apparent throughout the basin. While this endeavor has brought significant benefits, the task of developing and managing the River Nile sustainable for the Basin’s peoples is not over. Famine, extreme poverty, instability, rapid population growth, deteriorating natural resources, and environment degradation are characteristic features of the Basin today. The river Nile is distinguished from other great rivers of the world by the fact that half of its course flows through countries with no effective rainfall. Almost of the water of the Nile is generated on an area only 20 percent of the basin. While the remainders are in arid or semi- arid regions where the water supply is minimal and where evaporation and seepage losses are considerably large. A complete control of the river will help in improving the yield of the river in order at least to compensate the over – increasing population situation in River Nile Basin countries. The optimal development of the resources of the basin will depend on cooperation between riparian countries and the co-ordination of their water policies. Water resources management within the Nile basin, requires long and reliable hydrological records at the key sites within the river system. The dissemination of data and the improved understanding of the hydrological processes within the system are a necessary prerequisite for water management and utilization. Additionally, negotiations on the proposed development between the riparian countries are not useful without an agreed database, which must be formulated over the long term. Therefore, a database is, and will remain, part of the objective of the cooperation between the riparian countries in the basin for the development, conservation and use of the resources in an integrated and sustainable manner. Accordingly, a set of accurate and diverse hydrological and meteorological data and information should make available for researcher and scientists for proposing integrated and sustainable water resources projects.

1-2 Objectives The objective of this report is to identify the various hydrological homogenous units of the Nile Basin and the potential pilot areas within each unit for the research activities of the FRIEND/Nile project. Moreover to explore the availability of potential data sources within the Nile Basin which can contribute to the successful implementation of those research activities.

The data sources will represent multi disciplines of water resources research activities such as: • Integrated Water Resources management (IWRM); • Hydrologic Modeling (HM); • Erosion and Sediment Transport Modeling (ESTM); • Stochastic Modeling (SM); and • Eco-hydrology (EH).

2 The report will also present some already implemented projects in the Nile which can be potential sources of data in the Nile basin.

1-3 Deliverables The presented report will be in a professional technical form according to submitted proposal and the FRIEND/Nile project guidelines. The author will submit 5 hard copies of the report and a CD containing a softcopy of the full final report in MS Word format, including figures, tables, and all demonstrations.

1-4 Outlines This report presents the data availability within Nile Basin to identify potential research activities, in the following arrangements: • Nile Basin Hydrological Physical Features that includes rainfall, evaporation, evapotranspiraton, and sedimentations; • Identification of hydrological units; • Review the implemented projects within that could be potential for source data. • Identification of data sources, and potential research areas;

3 2- BASIN PHYSICAL FEATURES

2-1 General The Nile River with an approximate length of 6700 km is the longest river in the world stretching between 4o south and 32o north latitude and traversing diverse geographical and climatological zones. With an approximate area of about 2.9 million km2 equivalent to 10 % of African continent, the Nile basin is among the largest river basins in the world. The Nile River and its tributaries are shared by ten riparian countries namely Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Ancient civilizations have flourished along the banks of the Nile and its waters and soils have furnished the means of livelihood for about 300 millions of its basin population which represents about 40 % of the population of Africa.

2-2 Hydrology of the Nile The Nile obtains its flows from three independent sources that is the basin of the Equatorial Lakes plateau, the Ethiopian highland plateau, and the Bahr el Ghazal Basin in the southern Sudan. Almost 85% of the annual natural flow that used to reach Aswan, Egypt, originated from the precipitation on the Ethiopian Highlands and reached the main Nile by the way of River Sobat, the Blue Nile and the River Atbara. The remaining 15% arrived by the way of the White Nile. The contribution of Bahr el Ghazal is almost negligible.

The Nile Basin area being 2.9 million km2 covers a wide variety of climates, topography, geography, and other hypsographical, geomorphologic and hydrological characteristics. Certain parts of the basin are practically dry all the time whereas other parts receive annual precipitation of 1400 mm or more, bringing the basin annual rainfall to almost 1900 * 109 m3; Figure 2-1 represents map of the Nil Basin. Traditionally, the Nile basin was divided as; 1. The Equatorial lakes basin is composed of: - Lakes Victoria and Kyoga basin feeding the Victoria Nile; - Lakes George and Edward basin including River Semliki flowing into Lake Albert (Mobutu Sese Seko); and - Lake Albert basin from which emerges the Albert Nile, which eventually forms the Bahr el Jebel at Nimule town in Sudan at the border. 2. The SUDD basin and the White Nile; and 3. The Ethiopian and Eritrean part of the Nile basin is composed of: - River Sobat Basin; - Blue Nile River basin; and - River Atbara basin. 4. The Main River Nile (from Khartoum up to the Mediterranean Sea).

Figure 2-1 Map of the Nile Basin

2.2.1 Equatorial Lakes Basin Lake Victoria Basin: This basin has an area of 262,000 km2 of which 67,000 km2 is the area of the lake. The elevation of the lake surface is about 1130 m. above sea level. An average rainfall of 1500 mm on the lake and 1150 mm on the catchment area surrounding the lake is received annually. Annual evaporation rate from the lake surface is about 1260 mm. The total net annual yield of water of Lake Victoria is 23.5 BCM. Flows from the lake are discharged through the Victoria Nile to Lake Kyoga. This stretch of the river has a length of about 80 km. Elevation drop between Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga is 102 m. The Owen Falls Dam and Hydroelectric Power Station that was constructed in the early fifties with the cooperation of Egypt and the U.K. administration of Uganda is at the outlet of Victoria Nile from the lake. In late 1990’s, an extension to Owen fall Dam (Kirra Dam) was constructed, and came into operation in year 2002.

5 Lake Kyoga and Victoria Nile: Lake Kyoga has an area of 1760 km2 and is surrounded by a swamp of an area of 4510 km2. It has an average elevation of 1031.80 ms above sea level. In addition, there is a catchment area of 75,000 km2 draining to the Victoria Nile and Lake Kyoga. Rainfall over the lake and its catchment area is about 1290 mm annually. In spite of such a high rainfall, an extremely high evapotranspiration (2230 mm/year) over the swamp surrounding the lake consumes much of the inflow resulting in a net water loss of about 1.0 BCM yearly. Therefore, the average annual discharge from Lake Kyoga, which receives 23.5 BCM per annum from Lake Victoria, is 22.5 BCM . The Victoria /Kyoga Nile flowing between Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert/Mobutu has a length of 410 km and drops a total of 412 m in elevation between the two lakes. It discharges an annual flow of 22.5 BCM to Lake Albert at its northern tip in Uganda.

Lake Albert: This lake has an area of 5300 km2 in addition to the Victoria / Kyoga Nile, which enters the lake at the northern end, the River Semliki discharges its waters at its southern end. The River Semliki carries run-off from its own catchment and flows from lakes George and Edward further south. Lake Albert /Mobutu has a catchment area of 17,000 km2. Lake George and Lake Edward have surface areas of 300 km2 and 2,200 km2 and catchment’s basin areas of 8,000 km2 and 12,000 km2 respectively. The River Semliki, which receives, flows from these two lakes and also runoff from its own catchment delivers a total of 4.0 BCM of water to Lake Albert / Mobutu annually. Evaporation over Lake Albert / Mobutu is estimated at 1200 mm per annum and rainfall is 710 mm .

Summarizing the inflow and outflow of the lake (average before 1960) is as follows: - From Victoria / Kyoga Nile 22.5 x 109 m3/year - From Semliki River 4.0 x 109 m3/year - From Lake Albert / Mobutu Basin 2.5 x 109 m3/year - Direct Rainfall 3.6 x 109 m3/year - Sub-total 32.6 x 109 m3/year - Evaporation Loss 6.3 x 109 m3/year - Net outflow from Lake Albert / Mobutu 26.3 x 109 m3/year

Lake Albert / Mobutu outflows discharge through the Albert Nile to Bahr el Jebel at Nimule town at the southern border of the Sudan. Taking water losses between Lake Albert / Mobutu outlet and Mongalla into account and considering runoff discharging into the river (Bahr el Jebel), the average annual discharge at Mongalla, which is considered the southern end of the Sudd, is about 30 BCM/annum. About half of this flow is lost by seepage, direct evaporation and evapotranspiration in the Sudd having an area of about 8,000 km2 and thus the average flow reaching Malakal from Bahr el Jebel and Bahr el Zeraf is 15 BCM per year.

2.2.2 The SUDD Basin and the White Nile Bahr el Ghazal receives flow of several rivers draining western and southwestern Sudan bordering Congo and the Central African Republic. The catchment has an area of 526,000 km2 of which about 40,000 km2 is swamp. Almost all of the inflow to

6 Bahr el Ghazal from tributary rivers and direct rainfall estimated as an average of 900 mm / year on the swamp is lost in the swamp with only about half a billion cubic meters of water per annum reaching the White Nile at Malakal. Considering this net contribution of flow (i.e. 0.5 BCM) from the Bahr el Ghazal basin, the total discharge from the Sudd to the White Nile at Malakal comes to 15.5 BCM per year. Thus the average annual flow of the White Nile at Malakal that is considered as the northern end of the Sudd region is as follows: - Contribution from Bahr el Jebel and Zeraf 15.00 x 109 m3/year - Contribution from Bahr el Ghazal 0.50 x 109 m3/year - Contribution from Sobat River 13.50 x 109 m3/year - Total flow of White Nile at Malakal 29.00 x 109 m3/year This figure after deducting losses becomes 24 BCM at Aswan in Egypt.

2.2.3 The Ethiopian Plateau Basin Sobat River: The Sobat River, which is mainly made up of the two rivers of Baro and Pibor / Akobo coming from the Ethiopian highlands, joins the White Nile just south of Malakal and contributes an average annual flow of 13.5 BCM . The Blue Nile River: The Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian highlands. The river at the outlet from the lake has an average annual discharge of about 4 billion cubic meters. It is joined by several rivers originating in Ethiopia, which discharge into it within Ethiopia. Two of its tributaries which have their catchments mainly in Ethiopia, namely Dinder and Rahad, join the Blue Nile in the Sudan The Blue Nile joins the White Nile at Khartoum to form the Main Nile and discharges an annual flow of 54 BCM. This flow is estimated to be equivalent to 50 BCM at Aswan. The Atbara River: The River Atbara is known as Tekezze in Ethiopia drains the adjacent highlands north of the Blue Nile Basin. It joins the River Nile at Atbara town in the Sudan and discharges an annual flow of 12 BCM into the Nile, which is estimated to be equivalent to 11.5 BCM at Aswan. The Blue Nile and the Atbara rivers that drain the western highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea obtain most of their annual flow during the three months between mid-June and mid-September. Their flows are therefore torrential, characterized with violent floods and with heavy loads of silt. The fertile Nile delta in Egypt has been formed as a result of the silt carried down mostly by the two rivers, i.e. Blue Nile and Atbara.

2.2.4 The Main Nile Basin Startingٍٍ from Khartoum where the Blue Nile and the White Nile join, the river is known as the Main Nile up to its outflow into the Mediterranean Sea. The Main Nile has a length of 3065 km. The annual average, flow of the Nile estimated at Aswan is 84 BCM. If we divide this yield into water units each amounting to 12 BCM the annual yield at Aswan would be composed of 7 units. The flows of the various tributaries at selected points in their equivalent units at Aswan are as shown in the following: - Bahr el Jebel downstream Lake Albert / Mobutu 2 Units - Bahr el Jebel downstream the Sudd 1 Unit

7 - River Sobat 1 Unit - White Nile at Malakal 2 Units - Blue Nile River 4 Units - River Atbara 1 Unit - Main Nile at Aswan High Dam 7 Units

Figure 2-2 Shows the Schematic Distribution of the Nile Yield. A Schematic Showing the Nile Yield from Different Tributaries

Unit = 12 Milds m3 Total Annual yield =12*7= 84 Milds m3

ASWAN 7

R. Atba ra Lake Tana Atbara 4 KHARTOUM 2 Blue

Nile

h W 1 Bahr el Ghazal Malakal R. Sobat 1 L.No

l Bahr el Zeraf

e b

e 2 Juba

l Nimule

r h

a Albert Nile B L. Albert Lake Kyoga

R. Semiliki

Lake Victoria a ger Ka R.

Figure 0-2 illustrates the schematic distribution of the Nile yield in units.

2-3 Climatic Regions and Precipitation There is evidence of some climatic changes in the Nile Basin. In long scale, Egypt and Sudan experienced with wet phase that terminated some 25000 years BP (before present), followed by a dry phase that lasted about 7000 years. The subsequent period from 18000 to, say, 5000 years BP was characterized by its heavy winter rain and by increased flow in the Nile coming

8 from the Ethiopian Plateau. The gradual aridity which swept over Egypt since then was interrupted by some wet, though short, intervals. The moist intervals have been terminated since 2500 years B.C. (Butzer, K. W., 1966 and 1971). The Nile Basin’s climate areas have been classified in the Nile Basin Volume I (Hurst, H. E. and Philips, P., 1931) as follows: - Mediterranean Climate covering the area from the sea coast to a little south of Cairo. The annual rainfall decreases from 150 to 200 mm/yr on the coast to about 25 to 30 mm/yr at Cairo. This type is characterized by a winter seasonal rains. - Desert or Saharan Climate covering the area from a little south of Cairo to Atbara. There is practically no rainfall in this area. This type classified by rarely but short duration intense winter rains causing local flash floods. - Tropical climate covering the area south of Atbara. Whereas this type sub- divided into: a) The Sudan Plains: There is a steady increase in rainfall south of the rainless region (type2). An annual depth of 1000 mm is reached in the south of Sudan. This type is characterized by a summer seasonal rains extend some time to autumn season. b) The highlands of Abyssinia: This could be a region of relatively heavy rainfall, since an annual depth of 1600 mm is reached in some places. This type characterized by highly seasonal variation and summer rains extends from June till end of September with a single flood Peak c) The highlands of the Equatorial Lakes Plateau: The average annual rainfall could be in the order of 1250 mm. This type classified by two rainy seasons, the first from March to May, and the second in October and November. Recently, severe climate changes have been recorded in the most of the worlds, where, these changes have been studied and analyzed to investigate the reasons of the climate change and variability. This matter is nowadays talks a lot of funding agencies attentions, and it is considered promising research activities topics. Nile Basin Volume VI records the measurements of Rainfall for some key stations in the Nile Basin since the nineteenth century till now. It was reported that a few records from East Africa were available for the years previous to 1900 (Brooks, C. E., 1924). The total number of rain gauging stations in East Africa (Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) was estimated in 1960 at about 850 (Johnson, D. H. 1962). The number of rain-gauging stations that existed up to 1969, prior to the HYDROMET was estimated at 945. One of the objectives of the HYDROMET project is to improve the rainfall measurements network in the Equatorial Lakes region. It was concluded that the already achieved network density of about 396 km2 per station for the land area can be considered as quite satisfactory, for the purpose of water balance studies. Figure 2-3 shows the Isohyetal map of the mean annual rainfall on the Nile Basin till 1967, Nile Basin Volume VI: Supplement 6, 1972. Whereas, the values of annual precipitation is slightly less than that presented in Figure 2-4 given by the Water Resources of the Earth (UNESCO, 1978).

Figure 2-3 Isohyetal map of the mean annual rainfall on the Nile Basin till 1967

Figure 0-4 Map of the mean annual rainfall on the Nile Basin and the distribution diagrams of Monthly rainfall (UNESCO, 1978).

11 2-4 Evaporation Evaporation is defined as the transfer of moisture into the atmosphere from an open or free surface, a bare soil or interception on a vegetal cover. In many cases evaporation is considered as a loss, whether it occurs from reservoirs, natural lakes, bare soil, or land- carrying crops. Since the rainfall on many parts of the Nile Basin is quite scanty. It is, therefore, necessary to have reliable information about evaporation losses. Bearing in mind the existence of some Nile Basin Countries is almost entirely dependent on the Nile water. Evaporation from open water surface can be measured by atmometers and containers of varies shapes and dimensions. It could also be estimated from the water balance of hydrological body, provided that sufficient accurate data covering all the terms of the balance equation other than evaporation are available. In the absence of actual measurements, or where an adequate data of the balance items are missing, one usually resorts to evaporation estimates, using one formula or another. Measurements of evaporation at number of stations in the Nile Basin are dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century. The early studies of evaporation measurements methods were described in Volume I of the Nile Basin (Hurst, H. E., et al, 1931). Table 2-1 presents normal evaporation over open water in the Nile Basin, in mm/day. Analysis of the mean annual evaporation in the Nile Basin shows that the annual evaporation is about 1100 mm along the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, 1500 mm at the apex of the Nile Delta and about 2600 mm/yr. at Aswan. The evaporation reaches a maximum of about 3000 mm/yr in the reach from Halfa to Atbara. The rainfall dies out almost linearly along this river stretch, from which, annual loss by evaporation can be estimated at about 1,080 mm at Malakal to 2,760 mm at Khartoum. Considering a net evaporation of 1,900 mm/yr for the reach Malakal to Khartoum and the average width of the water at 1.0 km, the annual volume lost by evaporation comes to 1.6 x 109 m3. The evaporation in the Highlands of Ethiopia is less than that in the other parts of the basin falling on the same latitude. The surface water evaporation from Lake Tana, and Roseires and Sennar reservoirs is 1100, 2200 and 2500 mm/yr, respectively. The annual evaporation from the swamps in the SUDD is nearly 150% times the evaporation from the open water at the same location. As such, the figures for the Sudd area in the Bahr el Ghazal and Bahr El- Jebel Basins and the Machar swamps in the Sobat Basin should be about 2700 and 2000 mm/yr, respectively. Shahin (1985) Figure 2-5 shows mean annual evaporation from open water in the Nile Basin. The data presented in the map is summarized from several reports and the Nile Basin volume I, as deduced from Piche readings. A general idea about the actual and potential evapotranspiraton from the Nile Basin can be drawn from at least two sources. Reichel and Baumgartner (1975) gave the actual evapotranspiraton for the different 5-degree latitude zones of the globe, which was based on the simple equation: ET = P-R, where ET is actual evapotranspiraton, P is precipitation, and R is Runoff. Figure 2-6 give actual evapotranspiraton (Krouzun, V., et al, 1978).

12 Table 2-1 Normal evaporation over open water in the Nile Basin, in mm/day.

Figure 0-5 Mean annual evaporation from open water in the Nile Basin.

Figure 02-6 Lines of equal actual evapotranspiration, mm/yr (Krouzun, V., et al, 1978).

15 2-5 Sedimentation Rivers, and water streams, in floods usually carries solid matters which has been washed by the rains of the catchment area, or eroded by the stream itself from its bed. In highlands of Ethiopian Plateau and Equatorial Lakes Plateau, where the slope is steep, the stream bed may consist of boulders which are rolled along in time of spate. With more gentle slops the velocity is not enough to move boulders and these are replaced by pebbles. These coarse materials are found in the Nile tributaries in the mountains. In the Blue Nile there are boulders in the upper reaches, and lower down pebble banks extend to north of Roseires, while on the Atbara pebbles are found for some distance north of the Setit junction. They are rounded by being rolled along the river bed and rubbed against their fellows, and this grinding procedures sand, still finer particles known as silt, and some is carried in suspension at all depths. The average motion of the water is parallel to the bed, but in addition to this there are eddies and irregular motions in all directions, and generally known as turbulence. It is these haphazard motions which keep the particles continually moving up and down, so that there is a cloud of them in the water decreasing in density from the bottom upwards. (Hurst, 1952) The rate of decrease of the concentration of the suspended matters in turbulent water is related to the velocity with which they fall through still water. Coarse particles fall faster than fine ones. By the time the Nile gets down to Egypt and its velocity has been slowed down, the coarse sand is only found near the bed, the fine sand decreases rapidly in concentration from the bed upwards, but the very fine silt and clay particles hardly decrease at all in concentration from bed to surface. The various grades of sediment are defined by the rates at which they fall in still water, and the finest grade, the clay, is that which takes more than eight hours to fall 0.1 meter. Sand falls 0.1 meter in less than four minutes forty-eight seconds, while silt is the class between these two. The term silt is applied to this grade of particles, but it is also applied loosely to the suspended matter in general. The maximum content of suspended matter which has been measured in the Nile where it enters Egypt is about 4,000 parts per million by weight, or 4 kilograms per cubic meter. The average amount carried during the period of flood, August to October; is about 1,600 parts per million. This is much less than is carried by many other rivers, for example the Colorado, the Rio Grande of Mexico, the Orange River and the Indus. Figure 2-7 shows the concentration and amount of suspended matter in the Nile, (Hurst, 1955) The presence of silt has an important bearing on irrigation, since, as has been mentioned, it limits the time during which storage reservoirs on the Blue or Main Niles can be filled. In the case of the Blue Nile, Atbara, Main Nile Reservoirs, to avoid any risk of silting up the reservoir, filling takes place after the crest of the flood has passed, and the quantity of silt in the water has decreased considerably. There remains much work to be done on the suspended matter in the Nile, and an interesting line of research has been started by the geologists. The composition of sediment sometimes gives a clue to its origin, and the presence of some particular mineral will prove, for example, that the silt came originally from a certain district of Ethiopia. Minerals are recognized by microscopic examination, sometimes with polarized light, or by identification of crystals. This identification of the origin of sediment may help in building up the past history of the Nile, which is being slowly put together.

Figure 02-7 Silt in the Nile at Wadi Halfa The composition of the water of the tributaries of the Nile varies slightly from stream to stream, and also throughout the year. Thus Blue Nile water is slightly different from White Nile water, and the waters of the Central African lakes vary considerably in their content of dissolved substances. The following are the approximate quantities of solids in some Nile waters, based on the analysis of a few samples. The information is taken from various sources. Table 2-2 shows total suspended Solids in the Nile Water (Hurst, 1955) Location ppm by weight. Lake Victoria 80 Victoria Nile below Lake Kioga . 100 Lake Edward 670 Lake Albert 590 Lake Tana 170 Albert Nile below Lake Albert 160 Blue Nile at Khartoum 140 White Nile at Khartoum 130 Atbara 200 Nile at Cairo 170 The Nile does not contain a great amount of matter in solution. Its content is greatest from April to July, but falls off in August as soon as the river begins to rise in flood, and reaches a minimum in October. The variation is accounted for by the difference in salt-content of the White and Blue Niles, and the varying proportions of their contributions to the main Nile. Thus, when the proportion of White Nile water is high, from April to July, the salt-content is at its maximum, while when the greater proportion comes from the Blue Nile it is at its minimum. The principal constituents are bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, and the hardness of the water is measured by the quantity of these substances present. It varies from moderately soft to slightly hard. Sodium salts are also important, and dissolved salts have influence on the land and agriculture.

17 3- DATA AVAILABILITY IN THE NILE BASIN 3-1 Hydrological Units The Nile Basin could be divided into 6 main Hydrological Units, namely: 1- Equatorial Lakes Plateau - Lake Victoria - Lake Kyoga - Lake Albert i. Lake George & Edward ii. River Semliki - Albert Nile 2- Bahr El Jebel & Bahr El Zeraf 3- Bahr El Gazal 4- White Nile 5- Ethiopian Plateau - River Sobat - Blue Nile - River Atbara 6- Main Nile The six hydrological units are shown in figure 3-1

Figure 3-1 Main hydrological Units of Nile Basin 3-1-1 Data Type The main data types will be investigated are: 1. Hydrological Data - Discharges - Gauge readings - Rainfall. 2. Sediment

18 3-1-2 Data Sources Some sources of the data inside Nile Basin Countries are; • The reports of Hydro meteorological survey project for Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert (Mubotu) • The reports of the Hydrological Upper Nile Basin Model. • The reports of TECONILE project • The FAO project –the DST stored data • The Nile Basin series volume III, IV, and VI with their supplements. • The departments responsible for water in respective countries Some other sources of data outside Nile Basin Countries: • United Nation agencies as ; - UNDP, UNEP, WMO, FAO, and WHO. • World Bank • USGS The following Table presents some potential sources of research data # Project or Components Data types Address Organization 1 HYDROMET Data Collection Hydrological NBI-Sec Mathematical Meteorological Entebbe- Models Water Quality Uganda 2 TECCONILE Project Hydrological NBI-Sec Development Meteorological Entebbe- Hydrological Atlas Uganda 3 Water Resources DST Hydrological Water Project GIS/Dbase Meteorological Resources (FAO/Italy) Water Use Satellite Images Department Legal GIS Maps Entebbe- Legal Uganda 4 LVEMP Lakes Management Water Quality Entebbe- Water Quality Environment Uganda Fisheries Satellite Maps EIA/EM Water Quality Maps 5 NBCBN-RE Sedimentation Sediment HRI- NWRC WQ/Environment Water Quality Egypt and GIS/DSS GIS Maps nodes in other Hyrdopower Hydrological NBC River Morphology Mathematical Capacity building Research Base 6 NTEAP-NBI Water Quality Water Quality Khartoum- Environment Educational Media Sudan Education and tools awareness 7 Friend-Nile Capacity Building Hydrological WRI- NWRC (UNESCO) Training, Research Meteorological Egypt 8 Nile Water Hydrological Nile Basin MWRI-Egypt Sector-MWRI- Meteorological Volumes Egypt

19 9 Kagera Basin GIS-Data Base landscape Butare, Rwanda Organizations vegetation, land use GIS Project and population datasets

The following are some proposed internet sites for data o http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/main/index.stm o https://www.cia.gov/redirects/factbookredirect.html o http://faostat.fao.org/default.aspx o http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWRD/Resources/0509_Continuum_WI.pdf o http://www.waterandfood.org/ o http://www.iucn.org/themes/wani/eatlas/html/gm20.html o http://www.siwi.org/ o http://www.undp.org/regions/africa/ o http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/ o http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/african_desk/ o http://www.wwap-dss.sr.unh.edu/ o http://www.wwap-dss.sr.unh.edu/africa/index.html o http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/greatlakes/ (UNEP) o http://www.pbs.org/wnet/africa/explore/greatlakes/greatlakes_eco_lo.html o http://resweb.llu.edu/rford/courses/ESSC500/www/wwweastafrica.html o http://www.worldlakes.org/searchlakes.asp

3-2 The Equatorial Lakes Basin The Equatorial Lakes Plateau consists of catchments of Lake Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert within an area of about 424,000 Km2. Figure 3-2, Figure 3-3, and Figure 3-4 shows the equatorial lakes’ Rivers, Catchments, and Schematic.

Figure 0-2 Lake Victoria Rivers Figure 3-3 Equatorial Lakes Catchments

Figure 3-2 Schematic of the Equatorial Lakes 3-2-1 Lake Victoria Lake Victoria is the second largest fresh Lake in the World, its water area is 67,000 km2 (without the Lake Islands) and its catchments area is 195,000 km2. The lake is shared by the three countries Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, while it’s basin is shared by the above three countries in addition of Burundi and Rwanda. About 80 % of its catchment is gauged. Gauged Catchments: Rivers Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Nyando, Sondu, Gucha-Migori, Mara, Rwana-Grumetti, Mbalageti, Simiyu-duma, Magogo-Moame, Ngono (in River Kagera), Ruizi-Kibale, Katonga, and Awach-Kabun (Kavirondo Gulf) are the gauged catchments. Un-gauged catchments: Rivers Mori, Suguti, Isanga, Other River Kagera Catchments, and Musansala are the ungauged catchments. The catchments of Lake Victoria are shown in Figure 3. In fact, River Kagera is the largest sub-basin in Lake Victoria basin where its length is about 900 Km and its catchments area is about 59,000 km2. The total discharge of River Kagera represents about 40 % of the total discharge of Lake Victoria catchment. The catchment has three main sub-catchments, namely: Ruvuvu; Akyanaru; and Nyavarongo. River Ruvuvu is shared by Burundi and Tanzania, and River Akyanaru is shared by Rwanda and Burundi, and River Nyavarongo is in Rwanda. Whereas, river Kagera itself is shared by Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. The River drops from a level of about 1750.00 meters to 1133.00 meters. The basin as a great potential in hydropower and irrigation by swamps reclamation. Figure 3-5

21 llustrates River Kagera Basin, and Figure 3-6 represents a longitudinal section of the river.

Figure 3-5 Kagera Basin

Figure3-6: Kagera Longitudinal Profile At River Kagera (the main stream), there are some measuring sites as Rusumo falls, Kagitumba, Nykanyasi, and Kyaka ferry. Table 3-1 gives the normal discharges for

22 these main sites. These data could be found in the NBI, and for Kyaka Ferry will be found in the Nile Basin series volume IV. Table 3-1: Normal Discharges for river Kagera

Discharges :Most of the above gauged areas have discharge sites inside each one of them. The following table 3-2 shows the bar chart of the data available up to 1984 at the outlet. The data after 1984 could be found in the NBI or in the respective countries technical departments. Also table 3-3 represents the normal monthly discharge values at the outlet of the catchments. The Daily discharges could be found from the gauge-discharge (Rating) curve for each Station. Table 3-2: bar Chart for Lake Victoria Discharge Sub-Catchement

Table 3-3: Normal Discharge for Lake Victoria Sub-Catchment

Gauges: The surface water gauge readings used to be read twice a day. The following table 3-4 shows the bar chart of the availability gauge readings for gauging discharge Station at each outlet.

23 Table 3-4: Bar Chart for Lake Victoria Gauge Sub-Catchment

Table 3-5: shows the average water levels and its recorded Maximum & Minimum ones.

24 Table 5 (cont.) Max.-Mean-Min. Gauge Readings For Lake Victoria Sub-Catchments MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR MORI (08) AT UTEGI VILLAGE (T) IN METRES R.L OF ZERO:1186.004 (M) Station Code 0108022 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 10.60 10.79 11.41 12.43 11.90 10.99 10.54 10.97 10.38 10.34 10.89 11.41 Mean 10.29 10.23 10.34 10.80 10.93 10.57 10.23 10.24 10.17 10.16 10.23 10.41 Min 10.03 10.00 10.00 10.05 10.26 10.12 10.05 10.03 10.00 10.03 10.05 10.13

MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR SUGUTI (09) AT ROAD CROSSING (T) IN METRES R.L OF ZERO:1127.456 (M) Station Code 0109012 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 11.10 11.91 12.50 12.51 11.95 11.11 10.63 10.33 10.39 10.52 12.17 12.29 Mean 10.58 10.55 10.72 11.10 11.16 10.53 10.29 10.14 10.08 10.14 10.65 10.77 Min 10.14 10.09 10.00 9.66 10.17 10.09 9.68 10.00 10.00 9.68 10.00 10.01

MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR RWANA GRUMET (10) AT ROAD CROSSING (T) IN METRE R.L OF ZERO:1125.122 (M) Station Code 0110012 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 12.25 12.66 14.42 13.97 12.86 11.07 11.81 10.60 10.96 10.97 13.39 13.27 Mean 10.96 10.89 11.12 12.15 11.64 10.51 10.35 10.17 10.28 10.26 10.86 11.11 Min 10.17 10.00 10.00 10.11 10.09 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 'MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR MBALAGETI (11) AT ROAD CROSSING (T) IN METRES R.L OF ZERO:1124.645(M) Station Code 0111012 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 11.71 12.49 12.78 12.55 12.32 11.38 11.25 11.10 11.00 10.95 12.94 12.50 Mean 10.95 11.02 11.22 11.85 11.48 10.75 10.59 10.52 10.43 10.51 11.11 11.31 Min 10.62 10.35 10.38 10.72 10.53 10.31 10.11 10.01 10.01 10.05 10.38 10.52 MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR DUMA SIMIYU (12) AT MWANZA / MUSOMA ROAD (T) IN METRES R.L OF ZERO:1123.196 (M) Station Code 0112022 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 13.17 13.77 14.49 15.26 13.44 12.66 12.66 12.53 12.66 12.70 13.56 13.92 Mean 12.48 12.51 12.83 13.31 12.61 12.23 12.12 12.08 12.07 12.04 12.68 12.80 Min 11.99 11.93 11.86 11.96 11.84 11.75 11.61 11.57 11.41 11.45 11.96 11.77

MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FO MAGOGO MOAME (13) AT MABUKI PAMBANI BRIDGE (T) IN MET R.L OF ZERO:1127.612(M) Station Code 0113022 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 10.87 10.89 12.30 12.13 10.98 10.10 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.28 11.80 11.57 Mean 10.38 10.37 10.62 10.93 10.34 10.03 10.00 10.00 9.95 10.02 10.28 10.43 Min 10.03 10.00 10.01 10.18 10.07 10.00 10.00 10.00 9.39 10.00 10.00 9.52

MONTHLY GAUGE READINGS FOR ISANGA (14) AT KARUMWA (T) IN METR R.L OF ZERO:1125.551(M Station Code 0114012 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Max 11.08 11.07 11.90 12.36 12.09 11.32 10.72 10.50 10.58 10.64 10.68 10.72 Mean 10.33 10.31 10.43 10.53 10.69 10.39 10.17 10.12 10.13 10.10 10.11 10.24 Min 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00

Rainfall: There are a quite number of Rainfall stations in Lake Victoria Basin. The following table 3-6 shows the number of gauge in each catchment up to 1968.

Annex A: Shows an example of these subcatchements represented by a part of Nzoia Catchment. Also, the annex shows on example of 945 rainfall stations arranged in alphabetical order for Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Another example of the same 945 rainfall stations arranged by their CODE is given in each country secretary.

25 Table 3-6: Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. Victoria

Sio 1 Nzoia 101 Yala 26 Nyando 47 Sondu 23 Gucha-Migori 18 Mara 11 Mori 3 Suguti 2 Rwana-Grumetti 2 Simiyu -Duma 6 Magogo - Moame 3 Isanga 4 Kagera in Tanzania 35 Kagera in Uganda 12 Ruizi -Kibale 19 Katonga 30 Kavirondo Gulf 40

North Shore 29 Southern Shore 31 L. Vic & Isl. In Uganda 8 L. Vic & Isl. In Tanzania 7 It should be noted that the “Hydro meteorological Survey project for Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert” which started in 1967 and ended in 1992, added several rainfall stations and meteorological stations to substitute the gap of rainfall stations in the sub catchment order to be used in the catchments mathematical model calibration of the upper Lake model. With respect to the un-gauged catchments, it is hoped that there will be a data are being collected. However, in this case, studies of rainfall runoff could be carried out. The above explained data could be found in the NBI secretaries' office in hard copies, and also in soft copies for water levels and discharges in daily values and some of the rainfall stations in daily values. The updated data could be found in water development department of each country or -perhaps- in the East African Community for Kenya,Tanzania and Uganda recently established. In Fact, the period of records of the above sites is more than 30 years for the gauged sub-catchments and -perhaps- 20 years for the ungauged sub-catchments. However, the daily data could be used for the recalibration of the Sacramento catchments model using the updated data or the updated data could be used for verification. As a matter of fact, a series of 30 years of records could be used for stochastic modeling on monthly bases or even on yearly ones. For application of these data in Integrated Water Resources Management, it is highly recommended to be used in Hydro-power evaluation, stochastic Modeling, Supplementary Irrigation, Storage, and rain fed irrigation. Supplementary

26 Irrigation could be implemented by studying small water sheds to fill valley tanks to be used as supplementary irrigation in the dry periods. Regarding Erosion and Echo hydrology perhaps a very few data are available and the respective water development departments in East African Countries could be consulted. There are some water quality data for Lake Victoria before and during the Hydromet project. These data were collected for the calibration of the water quality mathematical model.

Annex B: Shows some examples of the water quality data which were collected before 1970, for the different sub-catchments of the Equatorial Lakes. 3-2-2 Lake Kyoga In fact, Lake Kyoga is not a real lake, instead, it could be considered as deep swampy area than a lake. The lake is considered as a source of water loss, specifically when the lake level will exceed the average level 1031.80 meters. The depth of the lake is about 4-6 m compared with Lake Victoria average depth amounted for 40 m. Also, it is interesting to note that the area of the lake with permanent surface is 1760 Km2, while the surrounding swamps that connected to the Lake is 4510 Km2 , i. e. about 2.5 the area of the lake itself. The total area of the basin of Lake Kyoga is estimated to 75,000 Km2 including the lake area, swamps and Victoria Nile from exit of Lake Victoria to Lake Kyoga, and the Northern & Eastern areas around the Lake. It is worth noting that the average inflow to Lake Kyoga is about 23.5 billion of m3 and the outflow is 22.5 billion of m3 for the average period before 1960, where it shows a loss of one billion of m3 representing about 4 % losses. Figure 3-7 shows a map for Lake Kyoga.

Figure 3-7 Lake Kyoga

27 Gauged Catchments: River Kafu is the only one that was calibrated. Ungauged Catchments:Enget & Olya, Omunyal, Kapiri, and Mpologoma (consisting of Malaba, Manafwa, and Namatala sub catchments), The above catchments are shown in Figure 3-1, also Victoria Nile and Sezibwa sub-catchments are shown in Figure 3-8. Discharge: Unfortunately, most of the sub-catchments are not gauged as it is clear from the above paragraph. Nevertheless, there are some flow data in the above ungauged areas; they perhaps are not sufficient or not adequate for the analysis. It is hoped that during the last 20 years, some data were collected. However, in this case studies could be conducted to rainfall runoff modeling of these sub-catchments. These data could be obtained from the water development of Uganda, where all of Lake Kyoga catchments are situated in Uganda.

Figure 3-8 Victoria Nile Table 3-7: represents the bar chart for the data available for Lake Kyoga catchments (gauged & ungauged ones).

Table 3-8: gives the normal discharges at the outlet of the catchments.

28 Gauges: The daily published water gauge readings availability is shown in the bar chart table 3-9. Table 3-9: Presents Bar chart for Lake Kyoga Gauge Sub-Catchments

Table 3-10: gives the mean, Maximum and Minimum of these gauges.

29 Rainfall: The following table 3-11 lists the number of Rainfall stations in Lake Kyoga sub-basins.

Table 3-11: Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. Kyoga

Lake Salisbury basin 32 Malaba - Mpologoma 38 Kafu 29 Victoria Nile (From Jinja) 14 Sezibwa 20 Omunyal 2 Other areas 21

All of these rainfall stations data and perhaps more as new ones after 1968 could be found in water development Department of Uganda. The above discharge and gauge readings for Lake Kyoga sub-catchments areas after year 1984 could be found also in the water development of Uganda. However, studies of these catchments could be carried out as a rainfall- runoff model calibration and the model can be used in the Water shed management. Concerning the other different applications, it is clear that it seems very difficult to manage due to shortage of data. Kyoga Nile (the main Stream) has different sites for measuring the discharge, they are published in the ten-day means, and these are:

Masindi Port 1913-1977 Palango Pier 1955-1961 Para 1963-1975 Fajao 1940-1957 Kamdini 1940-1955 Where all the above data are published in the Nile Basin series Volume IV and its supplements. Also, some gauges are published in ten-days means, they are:

Masindi Port 1913-1977 Kamdini 1941-1978 Atura 1942-1974

The above gauges are published in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements. It should be noted that the remaining period could be found in the water development department in Uganda. 3-2-3 Lake Albert: Lake Albert is fed by two sources, the first is Victoria Nile (or Kyoga Nile) and the other is River Semliki which in tern is fed from Lakes Edward and George, in addition to catchments area of the Lake which is shared by Uganda and Congo.

30 Lake Albert as Lake Kyoga is very poor in its data quality and as well as quantity. Generally Lake Albert feeds the main stream with 4.0 Billion of m3 yearly. Figure 3- 9 shows a map for Lake Albert.

Figure 0-9 Lake Albert Basin Gauged Catchments: River Waki (Waki1) and Nkussi are the only two sub- catchments that were calibrated. Ungauged Catchments: Kyoga Nile sub-catchments, namely, Wambabya (on the eastern shore), Muzizi, Semliki sub-catchments, and West Lake Albert shores in Congo. These sub catchments are shown in Figure3- 9. Discharges: This Lake is also received a very poor analysis due to lack of information from Congo side and due to lack of data or quality of data from Uganda side. The water development department in Uganda could be consulted about the availability of data of ungauged areas for the last 20 years. Also, on the other side of the lake, the ministry interested in water resources in Congo could be approached.

31 Table 3-12: shows the bar chart for the data available for Lake Albert catchments (gauged & un-gauged).

Table 3-13: represents the normal discharges at the outlet of the catchments.

3-2-4 River Similiki Catchment. There are 3 main sub-catchments in Semliki basin which are gauged; Ishasha sub basin in Lake Edward (1962-1975) Ntungwe sub basin in Lake Edward (1962-1972) Mpanga sub basin in Lake George For river Semliki main course, there are 3 discharge sites; • Lake Edward exit at Ishango (1939-1960) • Ngamba site (1940-1960) • Bweramule site (1939-1973) (discharge point to L. Albert) Figure 3-10 shows Lake Edward catchment with the catchment of the main tow rivers Ishasha and Ntungwe. Also Figure 3-11 represents Lake George catchment, and Figure 3-12 shows River Semliki catchment.

Figure 0-10 Lake Edward Basin Figure 0-11 Lake George Basin

Figure 0-12 shows River Semliki catchment Gauges: The daily published gauge readings available are shown in the bar chart table 3- 14.

Table 3-15: gives the Maximum, Mean, and Minimum of these gauges.

33 Rainfall: The following table 3-16 shows the number of the rainfall stations in Lake Albert sub-basins.

Table 3-16: Number of Rainfall Gauges in Sub Catchments of L. Albert Semliki 5 Muzizi 7 Nkussi 3 Other areas 15

The data of the above rainfall stations of Lake Albert sub-catchments and perhaps the new ones after 1968 could be found in the water development department of Uganda, and for the Western shore of the Lake, Congo could be consulted. Figure 3-13 illustrates the drops in the longitudinal section in the Equatorial Lakes up to Mongalla.

It is clear that a very high potential of hydropower generation is available, and a possibility of storage purposes is high

Figure 0-13 Drops in longitudinal Section in the Equatorial Lakes 3-2-5 Albert Nile: Historically, the outlet of Lake Albert was considered as the White Nile Origin. Recently the stretch from outlet of Lake Albert to the Nimule Town on the Boarder of Sudan is named Albert Nile, and the Stretch from Nimule to the inlet of Lake No is named as Bahr El Jebel. From the outlet of Lake No to Khartoum is known now as White Nile. This reach of Albert Nile has an area of 20,000 Km2 and the length of 225 Km, and with a slope of 2.2 cm /Km which considered as a flat slope, where it would create swamps in high flows. The Sub-Catchments of this reach is completely ungauged .The only information is some gauge/discharge sites on the Main stream. Figure 3-14 shows Albert Nile (or

34 previously also as Bahr El Jebel), and Figure 15 illustrates the Rivers in the Catchments.

Figure 0-14 Albert Nile

Figure 0-15 Albert Nile Basin Discharges: The Discharge sites are: Lake Albert at exist (1913-1981) in monthly bases. Pakwatch Discharge station (1955-1975) in ten-days.

35 Panyango Discharge station (1970-1979) in Daily values. Table 3-17: gives the Average Values of these sites.

Gauges: Several Gauges were erected on Albert Nile, these are: Unyama (1924-1984). Larope Port (1963-1976). Mutir (1946-1980). Wedelia (1901). Pakwatch (1955-1975).

Most of these data on Ten-day means are available in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements. Figure 3-16 shows a map of the Equatorial Lakes with the gauge and discharge sites published in the Nile Basin series Volume III and IV and its supplements.

Figure 0-16 Equatorial Lakes Gauges & Discharges Sites

Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later in this chapter.

These data for this reach could be used for planning purpose, possibility of storage studies on Lake Albert. Also a hydropower generation could be gained from this storage.

3-3 Bahr El Jebel & Zeraf Basin. The reach from Nimule to Lake No is known as Bahr El Jebel with a length of 978 km .Also Bahr El Zaraf is basically part of Bahr El Jebel, it has a length of about 300 Km, the area of swamps pf Bahr El Jebal and El Gazal is about 8,000 Km2. A drop of 172 ms between Nimule and Mangalla of a distance 212 Km, i.e. about 80 cm/Km slope is noted, where it could be used for Hydropower production. This reach has another feeding source which is some of torrents on the eastern side of the reach. The most significant one is River Aswa (Achwa) which situated mostly in Uganda and discharging in Sudan. Figure 3-17 shows River Aswa Catchments. Figure 3-18 represents Bahr El Jebal and El Zeraf Catchments, and Figure 3-19 shows Lake No map.

Figure 3-17 River Aswa Basin

Figure 3-18 Southern Sudan

Figure 3-19 Lake No Discharge: In this reach, several discharge site were erected. The most effective sites are explained in the following table 18 which describes the statistical parameters of yearly total flows in billion of m3 .these data on ten-day means are found in Nile Basin series Volume IV and its Supplements. Figure 3-20 illustrate the variation of the discharges in Bahr El Jebel.

Figure 3-20 Bahr El Jebel Discharges

38 Table 3-18: Bahr El-Jebel flow Statistical parameters

Gauge: Several gauges were put in this reach, the effective ones are: 24 gauge in Bahr El Jebal. 10 gauge in Bahr El Zaraf. The details of these gauges are listed in ten –days means in Nile Basin series Volume III and its Supplements.

Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later.

The data of this region could be used in the analysis of water conservation and also for hydropower generation from a drop of 172 ms. Storage studies could be carried out to retain the eastern torrents (i.e. River Aswa). 3-4 Bahr El Gazal Basin. This is the second independent source of the Nile. This basin is situated in the South-west of Sudan. The area of Bahr EL Gazal basin is estimated as about 526,000 Km2. It has an area of swamps as 40,000 Km2 with an average rainfall of 900 mm/year. Bahr El Gazal discharges into Lake No. Bahr El Gazal basin is divided into two parts. The Northern part discharges the Sub-Catchments of River Lol, Pongo, and River Jur. While, the Southern part discharges the Sub-Catchments of Rivers Yie, Naam, Gel, and Tonj. Figure 3-21 represents Bahr El Gazal Basin. Discharges: Bahr El Gazal basin is containing about 18 Sub-Catchments, representing main rivers, secondary rivers, and some Khors. Most of them, the measured discharges started around the year 1944, and all of them in ten-days. These data could be found in Nile Basin Volume IV and its supplements. Gauges: Bahr El Gazal Basin contains about 17 water lever gauges scattered in the basin. The oldest of them started in 1912 and newest started in 1958 and some lasted to 1981. These data could be found in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements in Ten-days.

Figure 3-21 Bahr El Gazal Basin Figure 3-22 shows the distribution of gauge and discharge sites in the sudd region.

Figure 3- 22 Gauge and Discharge sites in the Sudd Region

40 Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later in this section.

Generally speaking, the area has got a considerable data in ten-day , but perhaps the quality of data are not adequate due to the discontinuity of most of them.

There are some opportunities of storage of water in River Jur and River Yie. Also, two diversions could be constructed to save some of the wasted water in the swamps. Hydropower has some potential from managing of these dams.

3-5 White Nile: The White Nile starts its journey from Lake No with an area of about 23 to 25 Km2, and a depth of 4 to 6 ms, and at a distance of 2797 km from Aswan, the average level of the Lake is 386.25 ms, and the average rainfall is 815 mm/year. It receives the Bahr El-Zeraf flow at a distance of 2720 km from Aswan, with an amount of 4.3 Bm3/year. Then it continues to meet the flow of River Sobat at a distance of 2675 from Aswan. The White Nile passes Malakal discharge station at a distance 2652 km and continues to flow until it meets the Blue Nile at Mogren; the total length of the White Nile is estimated to 956 kilometers. Figure 3- 23 shows the White Nile reach. White Nile is characterized by its very flat slope, which is estimated as 2.5 cm/km, and also by its very pronounced bank storage effect. Another feature for the White Nile is that the Blue Nile during its flood, affects the flow of the White Nile and creating a backwater effect, which will increase the surface area of the banks.

Figure 3 -23 White Nile reach

Discharge: The reach having 7 discharge sites namely: D.S Lake No for years 1971-1983. Abu-Tonj for years 1923-1983.

41 Melut for years 1947-1987. Malakal for years 1912-2002. Renk for years 1928-1947. D.S. Gebel Aulia Dam for years 1944-2002. Mogren for years 1912-1988. Also, there are 5 gauged Khors and discharge into White Nile. These data could be found in the Nile Basin series Volume IV and its supplements. Gauges: There are 24 gauges through out the reach. Some of them start in 1912, and most of them started in 1943 and only 12 gauges are still continue up till now. These data could be found in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements.

Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later in this section. One of the main studies on White Nile reach is the investigation of the carrying capacity of the White Nile when the flow will be increased due to the conserved waters coming from the sudd region. This reach should be studied using a hydraulic approach due its bank storage effect and very flat slope which affects the storage in Gebel Aulia Dam at Khartoum.

3-6 Ethiopian Plateau: The Ethiopian Plateau is the third independent source of the Nile has three River Basins. River Sobat. Blue Nile. River Atbara. These Rivers Basins are shared between Ethiopia and Sudan.

3-6-1 River Sobat: River Sobat has two major branches, namely River Baro and River Pibor. The length of River Sobat from the junction of the two branches and the discharge point to White Nile is 350 Km. The total area of river Sobat is about 187,200 Km2 distributed as: Area of River Baro Basin 41,400. Area of River Pibor Basin 109,000. Area of River Sobat Basin 36,800.

River Sobat is considered the third Sudd area in the River Nile Basin. It has an area of 20,000 Km2, and as perminant swamps in Machar marches, the area was estimated to 6500 Km2. Machar marches are fed from spillage of right bank of river Baro, Rainfall, and from the 5 torrential rivers having a total basin area 10,300 Km2 originated from the high lands of Ethiopia, namely, khor Ahmer, Tombac, Yabus, Daga, and Lau. In this swamps about of 6 billions of m3 are lost. Figure 3-24 represents Machar marches. The average discharge of River Baro upstream of the Junction is 12.6 Billion of m3/year and for Pibor 2.8 Billion of m3/year, and for Sobat at its mouth 13.5 Billion of m3/year. Figure 3- 25 shows the map of the River Sobat Catchments. Figure 3-26 shows a longitudinal section of River Pibor.

Figure 3-24 Machar Marches

Figure 3-25 River Sobat

Figure 3-26 River Pibor Longitudinal Section

Discharge: Several discharge sites on Rivers Sobat, Baro, and Pibor are available. The most important ones are shown in the Bar chart for River Sobat and Baro in Table 3-19, and River Pibor in Table 3-20. The Above data in ten-day time step are found in the Nile Basin series Volume IV and its supplements.

Gauges: In Sobat with its two branches, have 18 gauges are installed, some started early as 1912 and stopped in 1981. These data are in ten-day time step which are available in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements.

Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later.

It should be noted that all the above data collected are in Sudan. No information about any Hydrological data in River Baro or Pibor (Akobo) in Ethiopia side.

The above data combined with that in Ethiopia could be used in the analysis of integrated water resources management, estimation of losses, water conservation, Hydro-power generation, and stochastic analysis.

Table 3-19 Table 3-20

45 3-6-2 Blue Nile: The Blue Nile is the second River flowing from the Ethiopian Plateau .it is originated from Lake Tana at level of 1800 ms. The total Catchments area of the Blue Nile is 324,000 Km2. The length of Blue Nile in Ethiopia is 940 Km, and drops 1,310 ms, and the length in Sudan is 800 Km and drops about 140 ms. The average flow from Lake Tana was estimated as 3.8 Billion of m3 /year and increases to 50 Billion of m3 /year at the boarder with Sudan and increases to 54 Billion of m3 /year at Khartoum due to effect of River Dinder and Rahed. The Blue Nile is a torrential one; it carries a very heavy load of silt. Figure 3-27 shows the Blue Nile in Ethiopia.

Figure 3-27 The Blue Nile

Discharge: The available Blue Nile discharges data are as follows: Exit of Lake Tana (1920-1933). Deim (1966-2002). Roseires (1912-2002). Sennar (1912-2002). Gezeria Canal (1925-2002). Managil Canal (1959-2002). River Dinder (1912-1961). River Rahed (1912-1961). Khartoum (1912-2002). The above data are available in ten-days in the Nile Basin series Volume IV and its supplements.

46 Gauges: the Basin area of the Blue Nile is covered by 24 (2 of them in Ethiopia on Lake Tana) gauges on the main stream and River Dinder and Rahed in Sudan , most of them started as early as 1912 ,out of the 24 gauges , about 14 gauges are continuing.

These data in ten-days could be found in the Nile Basin series Volume III and its supplements.

Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later.

It should be noted that the above data collected are in Sudan. No information about the Main course of the Blue (Abbay) Nile or the Sub-Catchments feeding it in Ethiopia Side. It is quite evident that there is a very high potential of hydropower particularly in Ethiopia, storage, irrigation, watershed management in the Sub-Catchments of the Abbay, including sediment transportation, if the hydrological data are available in Ethiopia. Stochastic analysis could be carried out as well.

Figure 3-28 shows a longitudinal section of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia.

Figure 3-28 Longitudinal Section of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia

3-6-3 River Atbara: River Atbara has a total catchments area of 134,800 km2 with a total length of 880 Km. Its source was found at a level of 2000 ms and its mouth drops 1640 ms to discharge to the main Nile , 12.0 Billion m3 /year in the average . River Atbara Basin is divided as: River Salam Catchment 31,400 Km2. River Settet Catchment 68,800 Km2. River Atbara D.S Confluence 34,600 Km2. The flow of this River is torrential with heavy loads of silt. Figure 3-29 shows River Atbara Catchment area.

Figure 3-29 River Atbara Basin

Discharge: River Atbara has few discharge sites, these are: D.S. Khash El Girba Dam (1973-2000). Atbara Kilo 3 & 6 at Mouth (1912-2002). These discharge sites could be found in the Nile Basin series Volume IV and its supplements in Ten-days.

Gauges: The same is practiced as in discharge, in addition to a gauge up stream of the confluence named El Shawak gauge (1965-1985). These gauges could be found in the Nile basin series Volume III and its supplements in Ten-days. Rainfall: Will be dealt with Later in this chapter. It should be noted that above data are collected in Sudan. No information about River Atbara (Tekezze) in Ethiopia side. The potential in River Atbara is great, Storage capability, Hydro-power, Irrigation, Water shed management, and sediment transportation is available. Also stochastic analysis could be carried out. 3-7 Main Nile Starting from Khartoum where the Blue Nile and the White Nile join, the river is known as the Main Nile up to its outflow into the Mediterranean Sea. The Main Nile has a length of 3065 km, the details as follows: The distance between Khartoum to Aswan is equal to 1885 km The distance between Aswan and Cairo is equal to 945 km The distance between Cairo to sea is equal to 235 km

48 The drop Between Khartoum and Aswan is estimated by about 200 ms, while the slopes Between Khartoum & Aswan and Aswan & Cairo are 11 and 7.7 cm/km respectively. The reach between Khartoum and Aswan contains six cataracts, namely, First cataract at Aswan, Second cataract at Wadi Halfa, Dal Cataract, Third cataract (Kagbar), Fourth cataract (Marawi), Fifth cataract (Shourak), Sixth cataract (Shabluka) .

The annual average for the period (1899/1900 to 1954/1955), natural flow of the Nile estimated at Aswan is 84 BCM. It is worth mentioning that the maximum and minimum yearly total flows are 150 BCM in year (1878/1879) and 42 BCM in year (1913/1914) respectively.

Discharge: On the main Nile, there are discharge sites at the main characteristic sites these are: ¾ In Sudan: Tamaniat & Shambat (1912-2002). Hassanab & Hudeiba (1912-2002). Dongola (1962-2002).

¾ In Egypt: Kajnarty & Wadi Halfa (1912-1964). Natural flow at Aswan (1869-2002). D.S. Aswan Dam (1902-2002). Gaafra (1968-2002). D.S Esna Barrage (1968-2002). D.S Nag Hammadi Barrage (1968-2002). D.S Assuit Barrage (1968-2002). El Akhsas(Cairo) (1968-2002).

The above data could be found in Nile Basin series Volume IV in ten-days (except for the Natural flow, some are monthly data). Figure 3-30 shows the reach of the Main Nile up to Aswan with the discharge sites and the various cataracts.

Gauges: There are many gauges in the reach: In Sudan there are 32 gauges. In Egypt there are 15 gauges. The above gauges are in ten-days and could be found in the Nile basin series Volume III and its supplements.

Figure 3-30 The Main Nile

Rainfall: Now, the rainfall data previously mentioned in the catchments Albert Nile, Bahr El Jebel and Zeraf, Bahr El Gazal, White Nile, and Ethiopian Plateau, will explained here together with the main Nile.

A total of 491 Rainfall gauges were published in the Nile Basin Volume VI and its supplements for the Nile Basin Countries in monthly totals and the monthly number of raining days.

The distribution of these stations per Country is as follows: • Congo (Burundi & Rwanda) 26 • Egypt 107 • Eretria 6 • Ethiopia 10 • Kenya 52 • Sudan 126 • Tanzania 27 • Uganda 137

50 Annex C, lists the rainfall stations published in the Nile Basin series volume VI and its supplements.

To make use of these Rainfall data, the coordinates of these stations to be plotted by GIS layer on a digitized Nile Basin Map at a reasonable scale approved by the countries. The boundaries of the Sub-Basins listed above are delineated. Assigning each station to its corresponding Sub-Basin, and then by sorting by basin, the rainfall stations for each basin will be known.

It is important to notice that the rainfall data previously mentioned in the Equatorial Lakes sub catchments may be included in the published data in the Nile Basin series with /without the same period of records or with /without the same time step.

Suspended Silt Data: Some data about the suspended silt load are few. it is measured at Wadi Halfa and at Aswan on ten-days for the years 1920 to 1955 in one of the papers of the Nile Basin series. The average of yearly load at Wadi Halfa (350 m U.S of Aswan) was found to be 134 million tons per year. Most likely, some data about suspended and bed load silts might be available for River Atbara, the Blue Nile, and River Baro in Sudan and Ethiopia. The main Nile has a great potential for storage and hydropower generation at different cataracts. The data available could be used also, in stochastic analysis.

Figure 3-31 shows a longitudinal profile of the main Nile illustrating these drops.

Other available data: There are some other available data in the Nile Basin other than the ones mentioned above. • Water Quality Data, where it could be found in HYDROMET, project currently NBI in Entebbe, Uganda used for the calibration of the water quality model which it contains ten modules. • Cross sections most of the Nile course, and its tributaries (Bahr El Jebel and El Zeraf, Bahr El Gazal, River Sobat, White Nile, Blue Nile in Sudan, and main Nile. • Meteorological Data on daily basis for all parameters where it could be found in HYDOMET project, and in meteorological departments of east Africa countries, also in Sudan and Egypt.

Figure 3- 31 Longitudinal Section of Main Nile

52 4- IMPLEMENTED PROJECTS WITHIN THE NILE BASIN 4-1 HYRDOMET The Hydro-meteorological Survey of the Catchments of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Albert is a highly successful example of technical cooperation among eight different countries assisted by two United Nations agencies. Since the potential control and regulation of the Nile has a direct bearing on the economic development of all the riparian countries, it was evident to these countries that a high priority must be placed on the collection of hydro-meteorological data and the investigation of the meteorology, hydrology and hydraulics of the Upper Nile Basin. Following an initial study by the World Meteorological Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization in 1963, five of the riparian countries, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda requested the co-operation of the United Nations Development Program in a hydro-meteorological survey to study the water balance of lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert. The plan of operation was signed by the five participating governments, the UNDP and WMO in May, 1967 and the project officially commenced work in August, 1967. As work in the Upper Nile Basin progressed the participating countries and government of Rwanda, Burundi and Congo requested further UN Cooperation to extend the project area to include the portion of the Lake Victoria Catchment within Rwanda and Burundi, and lake Albert in Congo. By the end of 1971 the government of Ethiopia had joined the project as an observer status.

Long Term Objectives: To assist the participating governments in the planning of conservation and development of water resources of the Upper Nile and to provide the groundwork for inter - governmental co-operation for storage, regulation and use of the Nile, the project lasted for 25 years till 1992, where a considerable amount of hydro- meteorological data were collected, with photography, ground survey and hydrographic surveys have taken place. Training of staff of participating governments also, was a major activity of the project. The major findings of the Hydromet Survey Project was the development of three mathematical models: a Catchment’s model including all the hydrological and meteorological data being collected; a Reservoir model including all the lakes in the Equatorial Plateau (Victoria, Kyoga, Albert lakes); and a Routing Model to represent the changes in levels due to changes in flows along the channel. Also, a water Quality Model was developed containing 10 modules

4-2 TECCONILE Ministers responsible for water affairs in the Nile Basin countries met in Kampala, Uganda, in December 1992, and agreed that future co-operation on water resource matters should be pursued. They agreed that these matters should be pursued for a transitional period, under the name "Technical Co-operation for the Promotion of the Development and Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin" (TECCONILE). An Agreement to this effect was signed by Ministers from the six countries of Egypt, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire (now D. R. Congo), whereas, the other four countries Burundi, Kenya, Eritrea and Ethiopia have participated as observers. A Council of Ministers of water affairs COM was formed with technical committee acting as a steering committee for this framework.

53 In 1995 within this framework, the Nile River Basin Action Plan (NRBAP) was prepared. It had included 22 technical assistance and capacity building projects, with estimated cost of US$ 100 million. This action plan included various activities of interest to most riparian countries. One important project named D3 deals with the Establishment of a framework for co-operation. A panel of experts constituted from technical and legal professionals (three from each country) started for almost a year to propose the best acceptable framework for the Nile Basin. UNDP is financing this activity. The Nile River Basin Action Plan (NRBAP) has five main Categories as follow:- • Integrated Water Resources Planning and Management; • Capacity Building; • Training; • Regional Cooperation; and • Environmental protection and Enhancement. Whereas, the long term objectives for TECCONILE were as follows:- a) To assist participating countries in the development, conservation, and use of the Nile Basin water resources in an integrated and sustainable manner, through basin- wide co-operation for the benefit of all. b) To assist participating countries in the determination of equitable entitlement of each riparian country to the use of Nile waters. Recently, (March 1999) the TECCONILE is being superseded by TAC, Technical Advisory Committee, a transitional set-up to advise and supervise the co-operation between riparians before the expected framework being approved by the Nile Basin countries. The World Bank has been leading in the preparation of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) to foster co-operation among River basin countries. Other financiers and donors considering the World Bank Initiative are CIDA, GEF, UNDP and others. The Nile Basin Initiative includes Shared Vision Programs (SVP) for the Nile riparian countries as well as Subsidiary Action Program. These are win-win projects for sub-basin countries.

4-3 Nile Basin Initiative It was proposed to the Council of Ministers COM to form a new transitional institutional mechanism with all riparian states as equal members to succeed TECCONILE until the final institutional and legal framework of co-operation is formed, which is one of the NRBAP activities. It was agreed that a shared vision could be legitimized by action on the ground, action that benefits the peoples of the Nile Basin.

NBI Objectives: The major objectives of the (NBI) are: - To develop the water resources of the Nile Basin in a sustainable and equitable way to ensure prosperity, security and peace for all its peoples. - To ensure efficient water management and the optimal use of the resources. - To ensure cooperation and joint action between the riparian countries, seeking win-win gains. - To target poverty eradication and promote economic integration. - To ensure that the program results in a move from planning to action.

54 NBI Strategic Action Program: The main activities proposed in the Basin as a strategic action program are as follows:

4-3-1 Shared Vision Program (SVP): This program would articulate a shared vision and comprise a limited range of effective activities to create a coordination mechanism. It is composed of different main activities as follows:- - Stakeholder involvement and awareness. - Economic and sectorial analysis. - Win-Win planning and scenario development. - Applied Training. - Institutional and legal cooperative framework. - Capacity building and human resources development. The above activities were translated to the following projects: 1. Nile Transboundry Environmental Action Program located in Khartoum, Sudan 2. Regional Power Trade, located in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 3. Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production, located in Nairobi, Kenya 4. Water Resources Planning and Management, located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 5. Confidence-Building and Stakeholder Involvement (Communications), located at the Nile Secretariat in Entebbe, Uganda 6. Applied Training, located in Cairo, Egypt 7. Socio-Economic Development and Benefit Sharing, located in Entebbe, Uganda 8. Shared Vision Program Coordination, located in Entebbe, Uganda

4-3-2 Subsidiary Action Programs (SAPs) : International experience confirms that it is often visible development that provides the incentives for transboundary cooperation and sustains political commitment. In the Nile Basin, there are strong indications that substantial Win-Win solution exist across the basin. This action program would plan and implement action on the ground at the lowest appropriate level taking into account benefits and externalities of planned activities on other countries. The following are the main SAPs activities: - River regulation. - Water harvesting and conservation. - Hydropower generation. - Irrigated food production. - Water shed management and soil erosion control. - Reduction of evaporation losses from swamps. - Fisheries development - Transport and navigation development. - Eco-tourism development. - Weed control. - Waste water treatment, pollution control & water quality management. - Water use efficiency improvement.

55 It should be noted that, the shared vision program and the subsidiary action program are two complementary programs supporting each other. a) Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP) An excellent progress was made in the Nile Basin wide cooperation under the umbrella of the Nile Basin Initiative with its two main components: the Shared Vision Program, and the Subsidiary Action Program. In May 1999, a Ministerial meeting was held in Addis Ababa to consider opportunities for cooperative development within the Eastern Nile through an Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program for the purpose of establishing a joint technical team (ENSAPT) to define and prioritize the common areas of interest of the eastern Nile countries focusing on water resources and water-related projects. The ENSAP cooperation goal is to develop the water resources of the Eastern Nile Basin in a sustainable and equitable way to ensure prosperity, security and peace for its entire people. On the way of achieving the goal of insuring cooperation and joint action between the Eastern Nile Countries seeking win-win gains, ENSAPT proposed the identification and the preparation of a regional, integrated, multi-purpose development projects for the management and development of Eastern Nile Waters. The Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program is supposed to comprise actual development projects at sub-basin level involving two or more countries. This will allow the move from planning to action, addressing what needs to be done at regional level and the development opportunities with transboundary implications. The Summary Project Identification Document (PID) of the Eastern Nile, the first project of the ENSAP, the Integrated Development of the Eastern Nile (IDEN) Project. The project has been prepared in conformity with the objectives and guiding principles of ENSAP. The initial set of proposed sub-projects within the IDEN framework is listed below. In accordance with the next phase of the project cycle, these sub-projects will be more fully defined during the project preparation process. The list of the sub- projects is as follows: 1. Integrated Water Resources Planning & Management - Eastern Nile Planning Model - Baro-Akobo Multi-Purpose Water Resources 2. Flood and Drought Management - Flood Preparedness and Early Warning 3. Hydropower Development & Regional Power Trade - Ethiopia – Sudan Transmission Interconnection - Eastern Nile Power Trade Investment Program 4. Irrigation and Drainage Development - Irrigation and Drainage Development 5. Watershed Management - Watershed Management 6. Eastern Nile Technical Regional Office (ENTRO) - Core Activities (First Three Years) - Management & Coordination of IDEN Preparation

56 b) Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program (NELSAP): At a meeting of Ministers and other representatives of the six Upper Nile riparian countries of the Nile Equatorial Lakes region in Arusha, Tanzania, on December 3, 1999, the Ministers, in a joint resolution, agreed to establish a Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program. The Ministers decided to form a transitional institutional arrangement to oversee the identification and preparation of NELSAP. This arrangement consists of a Nile Equatorial Lakes Council of Ministers (NEL- COM) and a Technical Advisory Committee (NEL-TAC). The six countries initially participating were Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. Egypt and Sudan joined as participants in November 2000 and are actively taking part in the continued development of the program. Within the framework of the Nile Basin Initiative, NELSAP seeks to achieve joint action on the ground to promote poverty alleviation, economic growth, and the reversal of the environmental degradation in the Nile Equatorial Lakes Sub-Basin. Twelve NELSAP projects have been identified by the NEL-riparians in a highly consultative manner, targeting investments in Agriculture Development, Fisheries Development, Water Resources Management, Water Hyacinth Control and Hydropower Development and Power Transmission Interconnection. A small coordination unit is proposed to facilitate the preparation and execution of the program. The above targets are translated to different set of projects regrouped into two major areas of interest, (i) the Power Trade and Development and (ii) the Natural Resources Management and Development. The projects were identified for preparation during a highly participatory process including eight countries in the NEL Region (Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Tanzania, Sudan, and Egypt). The list of the sub-projects is as follows: 1. Enhanced agriculture productivity through rainwater harvesting , small irrigation and livestock management 2. Fisheries of lake Albert and Edward 3. Management of water resources of Mara river basin 4. Kagera river basin integrated water resources management 5. Management of water resources of Malakisi -Malaba- Sio river basins 6. Water hyacinth abatement in Kagera river basin. 7. Hydropower Development and Power Trade: i) Rusumo Falls Hydropower development ii) Ranking and feasibility of (HEP) in NEL-SAP region iii) Interconnection between Kenya and Uganda iv) Interconnection between DRC and Rwanda v) Interconnection between Burundi and Rwanda vi) Interconnection between Rwanda and Uganda

Funding has been being sought by the eight riparians for detailed preparation and implementation of the projects through the International Consortium for the Cooperation on the Nile (ICCON 1).

57 4-3-3 Moving Towards Implementation Since 1997, the NBI has progressed from a phase of dialogue and political engagement to a phase of preparation of the Strategic Action Program. Each phase has had unique and complex challenges. Now, since ICCON 1, a new phase of partnership with a broader circle of the international community has begun. There are many details regarding the implementation of the Strategic Action Program related to financing mechanisms, program management and coordination, and implementation arrangements, which have been under discussion. The Nile riparians have welcomed the active and constructive engagement with the donor community in addressing these issues in ways that have promoted strong partnership yet ensured riparian ownership and direction of the process of Nile cooperation. Project management at the regional level: Regional project management units (PMUs) will be established for each of the seven thematic SVP projects. The project management units will provide technical and managerial support to the NBI Secretariat in overseeing the implementation of each project. In keeping with the decentralized approach for the SVP, the project management units are located in six countries as indicated in Table 4-1. Each regional project management unit will operate at the basin level and will be responsible for managing and implementing an SVP project in all countries participating in that project. Through UNOPS as the NBI’s agent, the project management unit also will facilitate local contracting, fund management, local procurement, disbursement, program administration, and project-level monitoring. A project steering committee will be established for each SVP project to provide oversight and guidance to project implementation. Table 4-1 SVP Regional Project Management Units Project PMU Location Nile Transboundary Environment Action Sudan Nile Basin Regional Power Trade Tanzania Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production Kenya Water Resources Planning and Management Ethiopia Applied Training Egypt Confidence Building and Stakeholder Involvement Uganda/NBI Secretariat Socioeconomic Development and Benefit Sharing Uganda

4-4 LVEMP The Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP) is a regional development programme that is addressing many environmental and socio-economic concerns of the lake basin through holistic approach with the following objectives: - To maximize the sustainable benefits to Lake Victoria riparian communities from using resources within the basin to generate food, employment and income, supply safe water, and sustain a disease free environment; - To conserve biodiversity and genetic resources for the benefit of both the riparian and the global communities; - To harmonize national/regional management programmes in order to achieve, to the maximum extent possible, the reversal of increasing environmental degradation; and - To promote regional cooperation among the partner states.

58 Project Major Achievements: - Built human capacity at all levels; - Built institutional capacity; - Created baseline data and information on environmental and socioeconomic threats; - Tested and recommended suitable environmental management measures; - Reduced water hyacinth infestation to manageable levels; - Renewed export of fish to European markets; - Initiated and established Beach Management Units for co-management of the fisheries; - Identified and documented procedures for conserving biodiversity; - Discovered and documented reliable information on water balance of Lake Victoria for the first time; - Identified and documented the causes of water quality deterioration and recommended measures to overcome them; - Identified and documented water, soil and nutrient losses from the catchments of Lake Victoria and recommended practices for their conservation; - Identified and documented the level of pollutants from industrial and municipal sources and recommended measures to overcome them; - Inventoried all the wetlands and made recommendations for their alternative uses based on their cost-benefit analysis; - Initiated community, commercial and central forestry programme.

Project Benefits: The achievements of the LVEMP are clearly being reflected in the following benefits accruing to the riparian communities in particular and to the three countries as well as to the international community in general: - Maintained the annual fish production at an acceptable level to avoid depletion of the fish species in the lake. - Improvement in fish quality for both the export and domestic markets; - Increase in biodiversity within the lake basin; - Improvement in water quality generally; - Reduction in the cost of water treatment; - Increase in agricultural production resulting from improved land use practices and reduction in water, soil and nutrient losses; - Improvement in the sustainable use of wetlands and their buffering capacity; - Improvement in the quality of industrial and municipal effluents due to improved waste treatment practices; - Increase in tree cover within the catchments; - Enhanced human and institutional capacities at all levels; - Reduction in the level of poverty; and - - Improvement in inland water transport due to removal of water hyacinth coverage.

Figure 4-1 Lake Victoria Sampling Stations (LVEMP)

Figure 4-2 Lake Victoria Rainfall Stations (LVEMP)

Figure 4-3 Lake Victoria Evaporation Stations (LVEMP)

4-5 FAO/Water Resources Project Assistance projects implemented with the support of FAO: The complex of questions concerning use of the common Nile water resources for economic development was addressed in earlier projects supported by FAO. From 1990 to 2004, FAO supported the Nile Basin countries through six projects funded through trust funds provided by Italy and Japan, and from its own Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) resources, for a rounded total of US$ 15 million. These projects included: i) TCP/RAF/8969 “Monitoring, Forecasting and Simulation of the River Nile Basin for Agricultural Production” implemented in 1990 – 1991. It supported co-ordination and development of co-operation in the Nile region and identified a number of possible cooperative projects. It also identified the existence of fundamental issues that could only be addressed in a wider framework. ii) TCP/RAF/2365 “Water Resources Management Policy and Institutions in the Lake Victoria Region” implemented in 1993 – 1995. It aimed at developing and strengthening regionally harmonized national water resources policy, including legal and institutional aspects, in the Lake Victoria catchment. The project raised the level of awareness but fell short of establishing permanent coordination arrangements for lake management. iii) TCP/RAF/2371 “Water Hyacinth Control in East Africa” implemented in 1993–1995. It aimed at establishing technically sound systems for waterweed control and effectively contributed to developing knowledge and capacity in this field by establishing biological methods of water hyacinth control. iv) GCP/RAF/304/JPN “Lake Victoria Water Resources Management” implemented in 1996–1999. It followed on the findings of TCP/RAF/2365 and supported data and

61 information management on water resources and water demand. It was coordinated with the GEF-funded “Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project”. Lake Victoria data were used as inputs to a decision support system and management capacity in this aspect was strengthened. No progress was achieved in establishing permanent coordination arrangements for coordinated lake management. However, the Lake Victoria countries established the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) as a permanent arrangement for fisheries management, thus addressing the most severe gap in lake management. v) GCP/RAF/286/ITA “Operational Water Resources Management and Information System in the Nile Basin Countries” implemented in 1996 – 1999. This project aimed at establishing the information base that would provide objective support to negotiations concerning sharing and development of common water resources. The project obtained support and participation from countries that had previously stayed on the sidelines, and built a framework for cooperation that proved successful. The Internet-based communication system established under this project became a pillar for further Nile cooperation. A breakthrough in cooperation was achieved in 1999 when the Nile countries agreed on a shared vision to achieve sustainable 9 socio- economic developments through the utilization of the common Nile Basin water resources. vi) GCP/RAF/752/ITA “Capacity Building for Nile Water Resources Management” implemented in 2000 – 2004. The project strived at creating a common knowledge base and equal level of technical capacity as a prerequisite for equitable and sustainable utilization of the shared Nile waters. Project implementation was focused on four main areas: a. The establishment of a limited transboundary hydro-meteorological monitoring network. Modern technology was introduced to reduce operating expenses and enhance network sustainability. This activity was accompanied with a comprehensive training program. b. The establishment of national geo-referenced databases in standard format. Data include hydro-meteorological parameters, water use information, and spatial layers containing hydrographic features, land use and land cover, and soil type. Operational Data-GIS units were established in all participating countries. c. The development of a prototype Nile Decision Support Tool (Nile DST) that models the entire Nile system and could serve to assess the trade-offs and consequences of various cross-sectoral development scenarios. A number of multi-week training events were organized to transfer DST technology to the Nile countries. d. A legal, institutional and conflict resolution component geared towards improving capacity in these matters and promote stakeholder involvement. The project made significant progress in the above areas and contributed to the establishment of a common knowledge base. However, it fell short of implementing case studies for further understanding of the complex water resources issues. The new project will build directly upon the achievements of this project. The FAO office for this project is situated in Entebbe-Uganda with a focal points in Each country.

Currently Operational project: The Information Products for Decisions on Water Policy and Water Resources Management project is the continuation of the previous project and it is

62 intended to strengthen the ability of the governments of the Nile Basin states to take informed decisions with regard to water resources policy and management in the Nile Basin. This objective will be achieved through the development of information products that integrate technical water resources and water use data with other relevant data, including in particular demographic, socio-economic and environmental data. To this effect, measured or otherwise assessed data, and their derived parameters and indicators, will be assembled in a meaningful way and presented as graphical and cartographic products, widely using geographical information system (GIS) technology already established in the region. The information products will be inserted in the Nile Basin Initiative process in order to facilitate analysis of development scenarios and assessment of the consequences of various possible policies. Ultimately, the project contributes to “achieve sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources”, as agreed in 1999 by the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States. The project will be carried out under the umbrella of the NBI and its institutions, and in close coordination and cooperation with other NBI projects under the Shared Vision and the Subsidiary Action programmes. The project has a secondary direct support component in order to sustain at least a minimum flow of basic hydrological and hydrometeorological data. In its approach, it maximizes the use of capacity developed in earlier cooperation projects and aims at bringing this capacity to serve in taking informed decisions. In this aspect, the project will carry out a substantial part of its activities using the services of experts from within the region, thus building on earlier efforts aiming at building capacity, and further develop the existing capacity to a level where it can effectively support policy and management decisions. A particular effort will address the project’s visibility and the distribution of information and knowledge to wide circles of civil society and stakeholders. The role of women in agricultural production, nutrition and food security and in actual water management is recognized, and the project is intended to promote and take any opportunity for the involvement of women in the elaboration and interpretation of information and in influencing water policy and water management decisions.

Other Related projects implemented with the support of FAO Other relevant projects implemented through FAO aimed at related objectives and assembling relevant information, but not explicitly addressing Nile issues, were: i) GCP/RAF/256/ITA “IGAD Early Warning and Food Information System” implemented in 1990 – 1993. It aimed at strengthening food security in the horn of Africa region that includes a number of Nile countries. The project established the bases for a more effective regional flow of information on food security questions. ii) GCP/RAF/231/JPN and GCP/RAF/232/JPN “Remote Sensing for an Early Warning System in Eastern and Southern Africa” implemented from 1993 to 1999. These projects strengthened the early warning system for food security through satellite remote sensing capabilities for the monitoring of precipitation and vegetation in Eastern and Southern Africa. iii) GCP/RAF/287/ITA “Land Cover Mapping of East Africa Based on Satellite Remote Sensing” implemented since 1996. The project provides land cover analysis and

63 mapping tools and has concentrated on institutional capacity building and training of nationals from institutes in the region.

4-6 NBCBN-RE In the beginning of the nineties more attention was given to the importance of professional manpower development in the water sector as an essential tool for sustainable water resources development. Capacity building in the field of water resources is considered as a first priority for water development in Africa, to stimulate cooperation between countries in the African region, whereas linkages between hydraulic research centers in Africa could be established. In 1995, as a direct response to theses challenges, HRI and IHE-Delft took the initiative to start regional training courses at HRI to transfer the scientific and technical expertise in Hydraulic Engineering and related subjects to countries of the East African region. At the end of the year 2000, an initiative on "Establishing a Nile Basin Capacity Building Network for River Engineering, NBCBN-RE" was launched by the Hydraulics Research institute and IHE Delft, the Netherlands, with the support of the Duch government. This initiative has regional ambitions in building and strengthening human resources and institutional capacity for a sound development of Water Resources in the Nile River Basin. The project makes use of existing regional capacities in the field of River and Hydraulic Engineering and promotes regional cooperation between professionals of the various water resources institutes, especially in the field of river engineering. The project levels the playing field among professionals, researchers and educators and creates synergy among these communities. The research activities include water aspects like river processes, river morphology, GIS, hydropower, surveys, monitoring, forecasting and modeling and river engineering works like regulating, irrigation and navigation works. The vision was that if this pilot appeared to be successful and feasible, other water domain areas could adopt this model to start similar initiatives. In January 2002, The NBCBN-RE was officially launched and defined by high-level professional representatives from all the Nile Basin Countries, who expressed their mission “to Level the playing field” among the member countries and to ensure the free flow, sharing and transferring of information and knowledge. Together with the opportunities that Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) nowadays offer, these communities could grow towards high value virtual communities. Based on this experience the idea came up to create a professional knowledge network with its own common meeting place: a powerful web-based collaborative platform that can be reached from any place in the world and at any time. Where, water experts can share experiences, exchange information and work collaboratively. In June 2004, During the NBCBN Seminar, marking the end of the project first phase of the network development process, the professional water community in the Nile region emphasized the power of networking and committed itself to further develop the network. In a short period of time the NBCBN River Engineering network community grew to about 150-200 water professionals and created 13 smaller communities of practice. This regional Knowledge Network is fully owned by the Nile basin countries and aims at building the capacity of Water Sector professionals and institutions in the Nile Basin through collaborative research, training and education. Moreover the network has stimulated regional collaboration in jointly addressing and solving water related problems. As such the network contributed largely to enhancing greater stability in the region.

64 In 2005, the Dutch Government decided to continue its financial support to the further development of the NBCBN through a 4 years project called “ Knowledge networks for the Nile Basin “. NBCBN's main strategy is to build and strengthen the capacity in the Nile riparian countries for an environmentally sound development and management of the Nile river basin. NBCBN is the network where Knowledge Network and Community of Practice principles are developed, tested, applied and monitored. It is its ambition to pro-actively disseminate its concepts, approach, research results and lessons learned to new network initiatives in the region, like the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) induced SVP and SAP programs The specific Objectives of NBCBN-RE are: - To ensure that the Nile Basin water resources are developed and managed in an equitable, optimal, integrated, and sustainable manner. - To contribute to the establishment of an overall knowledge network for the Nile region (NileNet) as a means to support stability and solidarity, and to support the activities of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) in building strategic partnerships between water professionals, research and government authorities. - To strengthen regional water Research capacity on the basis of problem-solving, multidisciplinary and stakeholder-involved research-pilots and on providing training on- demand. - To develop a regional water Knowledge base and to build human and institutional capacity through a collaborative and participative process of knowledge sharing, creation, dissemination and application among water professionals of all ten Nile basin countries. - To develop a sound monitoring and facilitation mechanism to guide and support the Network Development process at local, national, regional and international level. The network development process is characterized by the establishment of network nodes in each Nile Basin country and the formation of research clusters that bring together representatives from the different nodes to implement regional joint research activities. Figure 4-3 Shows the research Clusters

Figure 4-4 NBCBN-RE Research Clusters

Research activities and groups: A research cluster is a group of professionals coming from 5-7 different Nile basin countries that carry out research activities to enhance their research skills and capacity in a particular sub-topic in river engineering. One country is taking the leading role as a host of the research cluster, while the others are playing an active role as research cluster member. Six regional research clusters have been created, while six countries have taken the responsibility to host a particular research cluster. The GIS and Modeling research cluster is hosted by Egypt, River Structures cluster by Ethiopia, Flood Management cluster by Kenya, River Morphology cluster by Sudan, Hydropower Development cluster by Tanzania and Environmental Aspects by Uganda. Each regional research cluster has formed 2 to 3 smaller research groups that functions as a CoP (Community of Practices) and deals with different specialized topics. For example the GIS and modeling cluster has formed two research groups in” Floods and their influence on the Nile river system” and “GIS based watershed modeling in the Nile basin”.

Regional and International Links: Although the NBCBN network could be considered as a pilot activity at its start in 2000 and unique in the region in supporting professional water- related staff to conduct applied research, other activities in the region are also initiated by other organizations with similar or complementary objectives. Therefore it is important to put some effort in linking the network with its activities and output with other relevant projects at international and regional level. As the NBCBN has agreed to be part of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) set-up, it is essential to link with all relevant NBI Shared vision program (SVP) and Subsidiary Action Programs (SAP) projects. The network set to be as supportive and complementary to these projects and interested to do the research part. In addition linkage with other regional and international projects that focus on capacity building, research and networks/partnerships establishment will strengthen the network and motivate professionals to join the network and contribute to its activities.

66 5- RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES 5-1 General

5-1-1 Nile Basin Challenges The Basin is shared among 10 riparian states; only one river basin -the Danube- is shared by more countries (13). This transboundary character of the Nile presents a great challenge: the imperative of achieving truly sustainable management of a river system whose development potential has created different aspirations and expectations among so many different peoples living both within and beyond the Basin. The sustainable development of the River Nile can help alleviate poverty by providing enhanced food, power, and water security and associated employment opportunities. This challenge grows with ever increasing populations, urbanization, and industrialization. Most of the countries located in arid and semi-arid regions are facing a water crisis, though the intensity and extent of that crisis may vary from one country to another, and also with time. For the Nile basin countries, the climate crisis, coupled with economic and dept crisis, brought to the basin serious and severe problems and consequences. It is clear that water as a natural resource will be a limiting factor for economic development since it is limited, valuable, and vulnerable. Competing demands for water may exist among basin countries, and among different sectors within each basin country. Complicated hydrology of the Nile Basin with the overlapping of natural watershed borders and political borders makes the integrated river basin development an extremely difficult task for water resources planners. Water resources planners and managers have recognized that integrated river basin development projects will ensure sustainability and effective water management in the basin. Nevertheless, there are many concerns for equitable and reasonable sharing for the river waters, also the concern of not causing appreciable harm for other riparian countries.

5-1-2 Nile Basin Opportunities The challenge can also become an opportunity, an opportunity to promote regional economies development in one of the poorest regions of the world. There is an opportunity to transform the Nile, through collaborative and visible actions on the ground, into a unifying force that builds regional and international interdependencies and promotes economic activities which could enable co-basin states to participate as partners in emerging regional and global trade. Effective water management, including water harvesting and conservation, can bring benefits to all involved riparian, which means that there is real “win-win“potential. Unilateral development of the river outside an agreed framework is likely to be unsustainable development, having the opposite effects in the long run, perpetuating poverty promoting dispute, even conflict and leading to “lose-lose”.

67 5-2 Proposed Research Opportunities The Research opportunities may include the following topics: 1- Hydropower station designs and Multi-reservoir operations. 2- Watershed managements, Erosions, sand encroachments. 3- Agriculture Planning. 4- GIS and Modeling Applications. 5- Water Quality Modeling. 6- River morphology and sedimentations. 7- Evaporations and water conservations. 8- Water Hyacinth and weeds. 9- Environmental Managements and Environment Impact Assessments.

Some examples of research points as follows: • Rainfall-Runoff Studies for Equatorial Lakes catchments can be carried out a rainfall- runoff model calibration and the model can be used in the Water shed management. Concerning the other different applications, it is clear that it seems very difficult to manage due to shortage of data. • It is clear that a very high potential of hydropower generation is available both in Equatorial Lakes Plateau and Ethiopian Plateau, possibility of storage purposes is high, several studies could be conducted in this regards(i.e. Stochastic modeling, Reservoir Operation Models, Water managements, Multi- reservoir Operation and Dynamic Programming, ….), • There are some opportunities of storage of water in several catchments (River Jur and River Yie). Also, water diversions could be constructed to save some of the wasted water in the swamps. Hydropower has some potential from managing of these dams. • One of the main studies on White Nile reach is the investigation of the carrying capacity of the White Nile when the flow will be increased due to the conserved waters coming from the SUDD region. This reach should be studied using a hydraulic approach due its bank storage effect and very flat slope which affects the storage in Gebel Aulia Dam at Khartoum. • The hydro-meteorological data of Ethiopia could be used in the analysis of integrated water resources management, estimation of losses, water conservation, Hydro-power generation, and stochastic analysis. • It is quite evident that there is a very high potential of hydropower particularly in Ethiopia, storage, irrigation, watershed management in the Sub-Catchments of the Abbay, including sediment transportation, if the hydrological data are available in Ethiopia. Stochastic analysis could be carried out as well. • The potential in River Atbara is great, Storage capability, Hydro-power, Irrigation, Water shed management, and sediment transportation is available. Also stochastic analysis could be carried out. • The main Nile has a great potential for storage and hydropower generation at different cataracts. The data available could be used also, in stochastic analysis.

68 6- CONCLUSIONS • From the above report, it becomes evident that the Nile Basin has a tremendous amount of data with a very long history. Figure 3-22 and 6-1 shows the gauging station published in the Nile Basin series of volume III and IV. • The Basin is still virgin and has many opportunities and intact resources waiting for exploitation in the Hydro-power, Storage, Irrigation, Swamps Reclamation, and Water shed management, through the integrated water resources managements. Also there is a great opportunity in applying the stochastic approach and Analysis. • The lack of data in the Ethiopian side may hinder the integrated water Resources management because they are representing the origin of the Ethiopian Plateau. • For water shed management, it could be applied in the upper reaches by using hydrological catchments model in Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Also, for the upper reaches in Ethiopia in Baro , Blue Nile , and Atbara. • For swamps reclamation through the integrated water resources will develop the area through several themes, namely, land reclamation, transportation, navigation, fisheries. These swamps are found in most of the up steam sub- Catchments in the Equatorial Lakes and mainly in River Kagera basin, in Lake Kyoga, and in the Sudd region in southern Sudan. Also in upper River Baro in Ethiopia. • One of the Major elements required for development is the power and interconnections and power trade. It seems that this resource is intact and not yet properly exploited. Several sites could be used for this purpose, namely, Rusumo Falls in River Kagera Basin, Bujagali Falls, Caruma Falls, Marchoson Falls, outlet of Lake Albert in Uganda and in River Semliki. Also between Nimule and Mongalla, in Sudan. In the Ethiopian Plateau, more and more Hydro-power could be produced and combined with that from the equatorial Lakes to form a power trade potential.

Figure 6-1: Gauge and Discharge Sites

Figure 6-2 shows a longitudinal section in the River Nile and its tributaries showing the great potential of the Hydro-power which would be generated.

Figure 6-2 Longitudinal section in the River Nile It is worth mentioning that the Equatorial Plateau and the Ethiopian Plateau are independent as stated before; the power trade will be efficient because the electricity goes in two directions and not like water goes in one direction, i.e., from high to low only.

Figure 6-3 illustrates the relation between the flow of the Ethiopian Plateau represented by the yearly flow at Roseires in Billion m3 at Sudan boarder, and the yearly Net Basin Supply of Lake Victoria (NBS) in Billion m3, where : NBS = Lake Outflow ± Change of Storage (ΔS)

Figure 6-3: Independency between Ethiopian & Equatorial Plateau

71 REFERENCES 1) Afifi A. and M. Ezzat, 1996 "Nile Control and Conservation Projects". Management and Development of Major Rivers. Caloulata Oxford University Press, Delhi. 2) Brooks, C. E. P.,” The distribution of the rainfall over Uganda, with note on Kenya colony,” Quart. Journal, Meteo., 50:325-338. 3) Butzer, K. W., 1966, Climatic Changes in the arid zones of Africa during early to mid Holocene times, Roy, Meteo, World Climate from 8000 to 0 BC. 4) Archives of the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources of Egypt. 5) PJTC for Nile Water Documents 6) Hurst H. E., 1952. "The Nile". London, Constable and Company. 7) Johnson, D. H., 1962, “Rain in East Africa,” Quart. Journal, Meteo., 88:375:1-19. 8) Oryans, E. A., 1987. "General Drought in Nile Basin "Preceding of the International Workshop on Drought Mitigation. Hydromet Survey of Lake Victoria, Kioga and Albert, Uganda. 9) Sir Murdoch Maodonlad and Parteners, 1943. "Report on Nile Flood Control". Cairo, Government Press, Cairo. 10) High Dam Plant, Publication, 1981. 11) Evans B. and Attia, River Regime of the Nile in Egypt, Editor in Chief, Dr. M., Rafiq Abdelbary, Nile Research Institute, 1992 ISBN: 0-66846-1-4, printed with the financial assistance of the CIDA, Project No., 344/11871. 12) Hurst, H.E. 1964. A short Account of the Nile Basin. (Second printing). Physical Dept. paper No. 45. 13) Hurst, H.E., Balck, R.P., and Simaika, H.M. 1959. The Nile Basin Vol. IX. The hydrology of the Blue Nile and Atbara and of the main Nile to Aswan, with some reference to projects. Nile Control Dept. Paper No. 12. 14) Korzun, Y., et al, 1978, “World water balance and water resources of the earth, UNESCO publications. 15) Moattassem, M. and Makary, A.Z., 1988. Sedimentation balance in the Aswan High Dam reservoir (1954-1985). The Nile Institute report No. 109 16) Abu Atta, A., 1978. Egypt and the Nile after the AHD, Cairo, Ministry Irrigation. 17) El-Bakry, M. M., 1993. Hydrometeorological measurements over the Lake of Aswan High Dam and evaporation estimate. Nile 2002 conference 1-6 Feb. 1993, Aswan, Egypt. 18) Japan International Cooperation Agency, the High Dam Lake Area integrated Regional Development Plan, 1980. 19) Regional Planning of Aswan Reports. 20) Reichel, E., and Baumgartner, A., 1975,” The World Water Balance”, R. Oldenburg Verlag, Munich. 21) FAO/UNDP and Lake Nasser Development Center, Aswan 1974, Technical Report 4. 22) Butcher, A. D., "Lake Tana Reservoir", Ministry of Public Works, Egypt, 1930.

72 23) Moorhead, A ., "The blue Nile", London , Penguin Books, 1984. 24) Cheesman, R. E., Lake Tana and the Blue Nile, Macmillan, London, 400 pp, 1936. 25) Frisinger, H .H., "Early theories on the Nile Flood", Weather, Vol . 20, 1959. 26) Griffith , J . F, "World Survey of Climatology, Volume 10, Climates of Africa , Silvier Publishing Company, Amsterdam , 1970. 27) Shahin, M., "Hydrology of the Nile," Development in Water Science, ELSEVIER, 1985). 28) William Willcoks. The Nile 1904.

73 ANNEX A

Examples of Listing of Rainfall stations in the Equatorial Lakes

Shows an example of the Equatorial Lakes sub-catchments represented by a part of Nzoia Catchment, Also, the annex shows on example of 945 rainfall stations arranged in alphabetical order for Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Another example of the same 945 rainfall stations arranged by their CODE is given in each country secretary. A-1 Example of the Equatorial Lakes sub-catchments represented by a part of Nzoia Catchment. A-2 Example of 945 rainfall stations arranged in alphabetical order for Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. A-3 Example of the same 945 rainfall stations arranged by their CODE is given in each country secretary. A-4 Example of Monthly Report for daily rainfall for all stations in Tanzania (Month of March 1967). A-5 Example of Yearly Report summary of rainfall in Tanzania for year 1967. (same reports are available for Uganda and Kenya)

A-1ِ ANNEX B

Examples of Water Quality Data, HYDROMET

Shows an example of Water Quality data which, were collected for the Equatorial Lakes before 1970, with a map showing different sites. B-1 Map showing different water quality measurements sites in the Equatorial Lakes B-2 Example for list of sites from where water quality and sediment samples have been collected. B-3 Example of Minimum, Maximum, and average volume of physical ad chemical characteristics of water samples. B-4 Additional Chemical characteristics of water Samples (mg/l) B-5 Table showing discharges, conductivity, and sediment load for samples collected from various sites in the Equatorial Lakes. B-6 Table shows grain size analysis of some of the suspended sediments from rivers and stream in the Equatorial Lakes Region. B-7 Figure shows average values for various physical and chemical constituents for waters from index catchment sites. B-8 Average values for various physical and chemical constituents for waters from other sites. B-9 Average Values for various physical and chemical constituents for waters from Lake Sites.

B-1ِ ANNEX C

Examples of Rainfall Stations Published in Nile Basin Volume IV and it's supplements

List of the rainfall stations published in the Nile Basin series volume VI and supplements. C-1 Rainfall Stations in the Nile Basin sorted by Country and Station Name.

C-1ِ ANNEX D

Nile Basin Publications

Examples of Some Nile Basin Publications. D-1 collecting the daily data sheet for each station every year as in Annex D-1. D-2 the ten-day means and monthly means are then calculated and then published in Volume III. A sample is shown in Annex D-2. D-3 the measured discharge for each site is collected for each year, Annex D-3 gives an example of measuring discharge published in Nile series volume II and its supplements, and the rating curve (rising & falling) is constructed for that year, Annex D-4 shows an example of rating curve. D-5 using the 5-days gauge reading means the corresponding 10–days means are calculated. The monthly and yearly mean and totals are calculated and then published in volume IV. A sample is shown in Annex D-5. D-6 the list of the Nile Basin publication are shown in Annex D-6

D-1ِ