A Comprehensive Review of Integrated Hall Effects in Macro
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sensors Review A Comprehensive Review of Integrated Hall Effects in Macro-, Micro-, Nanoscales, and Quantum Devices Avi Karsenty 1,2 1 Advanced Laboratory of Electro-Optics (ALEO), Department of Applied Physics/Electro-Optics Engineering, Lev Academic Center, 9116001 Jerusalem, Israel; [email protected]; Tel.: +972-2-675-1140 2 Nanotechnology Center for Education and Research, Lev Academic Center, 9116001 Jerusalem, Israel Received: 19 May 2020; Accepted: 22 July 2020; Published: 27 July 2020 Abstract: A comprehensive review of the main existing devices, based on the classic and new related Hall Effects is hereby presented. The review is divided into sub-categories presenting existing macro-, micro-, nanoscales, and quantum-based components and circuitry applications. Since Hall Effect-based devices use current and magnetic field as an input and voltage as output. researchers and engineers looked for decades to take advantage and integrate these devices into tiny circuitry, aiming to enable new functions such as high-speed switches, in particular at the nanoscale technology. This review paper presents not only an historical overview of past endeavors, but also the remaining challenges to overcome. As part of these trials, one can mention complex design, fabrication, and characterization of smart nanoscale devices such as sensors and amplifiers, towards the next generations of circuitry and modules in nanotechnology. When compared to previous domain-limited text books, specialized technical manuals and focused scientific reviews, all published several decades ago, this up-to-date review paper presents important advantages and novelties: Large coverage of all domains and applications, clear orientation to the nanoscale dimensions, extended bibliography of almost one hundred fifty recent references, review of selected analytical models, summary tables and phenomena schematics. Moreover, the review includes a lateral examination of the integrated Hall Effect per sub-classification of subjects. Among others, the following sub-reviews are presented: Main existing macro/micro/nanoscale devices, materials and elements used for the fabrication, analytical models, numerical complementary models and tools used for simulations, and technological challenges to overcome in order to implement the effect in nanotechnology. Such an up-to-date review may serve the scientific community as a basis for novel research oriented to new nanoscale devices, modules, and Process Development Kit (PDK) markets. Keywords: Hall effect; nanoscale; microscale; macroscale; quantum-based devices; sensors; amplifiers; modeling; simulations; review 1. Introduction 1.1. Hall Effects—Brief History and Evolution The Hall Effect is a well-known and established phenomenon since it was discovered by Edwin Herbert Hall (1855–1938) in 1879 [1,2], while he was a graduate student under the supervision of Henry Rowland (1848–1901) at the Physics Department of Johns Hopkins University. One hundred years later, on 13 November 1979, a symposium was held at Johns Hopkins University to commemorate the l00th anniversary of the discovery, and to present an up-to-date status of latest developments [3]. Consequently, a review proceeding was published to summarize the existing applications and components of the time [4]. While this was the status for the macro scale in the eighties, good progress occurred in the next decades, when additional related Hall Effects were discovered, enabling new Sensors 2020, 20, 4163; doi:10.3390/s20154163 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 33 Sensorscommemorate2020, 20, 4163 the l00th anniversary of the discovery, and to present an up-to-date status of latest2 of 32 developments [3]. Consequently, a review proceeding was published to summarize the existing applications and components of the time [4]. While this was the status for the macro scale in the opportunities.eighties, good In fact,progress one canoccurred observe in thatthe next there decades, is not one when unique additional Hall Eff ect,related as per Hall basic Effects knowledge, were butdiscovered, a series of Hallenabling related new phenomena, opportunities. all In distinguished fact, one can by observe the dimensions that there andis not the one context unique in Hall which theyEffect, are analyzed.as per basic knowledge, but a series of Hall related phenomena, all distinguished by the dimensionsThe Hall Eandffect, the also context called in which Original they or are Ordinary analyzed. 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Indeed, and applied one hundred at the macroscale years later, level, in 1971, other the Hall Spin related Hall E effectsffect, was appeared reported at the and microscale the integer Quantumlevel over Hall theE years.ffect (QHE)Indeed, [ 9one,10 ],hundred in 1980. years More later, recently in 1971, observed the Spin and Hall understood, Effect, was reported the Quantum and Spinthe Hall integer Effect Quantum (QSHE) Hall [11 ,Effect12], in (QHE) 2007, [9,10], and the in Quantum1980. More Anomalous recently observed Hall E andffect understood, (QAHE) [13 the–16 ], inQuantum 2013. Previous Spin Hall references, Effect (QSHE) focused [11,12], only in 2007, on the and observed the Quantum physics Anomalous phenomena, Hall Effect but not(QAHE) on the possible[13–16], applications, in 2013. Previous and inreferences, particular focused on the only potential on the observed devices that physics can phenomena, be designed but using not suchon the possible applications, and in particular on the potential devices that can be designed using such phenomena. Figure1 presents a schematic timeline of the top ten discovered Hall related e ffects. phenomena. Figure 1 presents a schematic timeline of the top ten discovered Hall related effects. If If almost one century separates between the discovery of the original Hall Effects (OHE and AHE) almost one century separates between the discovery of the original Hall Effects (OHE and AHE) and and the quantum-based ones (mainly SHE and QHE) a shorter time frame of thirty years separates the quantum-based ones (mainly SHE and QHE) a shorter time frame of thirty years separates between the discovery of more complex phenomena (QSHE and QAHE). between the discovery of more complex phenomena (QSHE and QAHE). FigureFigure 1. 1.Schematic Schematic time time line line of of the the main main Hall Hall related related observed observed Effects. Eff OHE—Originalects. OHE—Original Hall Effect; Hall Effect;AHE—Anomalous AHE—Anomalous Hall Effect; Hall ESHE—Spinffect; SHE—Spin Hall Effe Hallct; IQHE—Integer Effect; IQHE—Integer Quantum QuantumHall Effect; HallFQHE— Effect; FQHE—FractionalFractional Quantum Quantum Hall Effect; Hall ISHE—Inverse Effect; ISHE—Inverse Spin Hall Spin Effect; Hall QSHE—Quantum Effect; QSHE—Quantum Spin Hall Spin Effect; Hall Effect;QAHE—Quantum QAHE—Quantum Anomalous Anomalous Hall HallEffect; Eff ect;PHE—Pl PHE—Planaranar Hall Hall Effect; Effect; VHE—Valley VHE—Valley Hall Hall Effect; Effect; PIHE—Photo-InducedPIHE—Photo-Induced Hall Hall E ffEffect.ect. 1.2.1.2. Hall Hall Eff Effectect Integration Integration in in Design Design Levels: Levels: Devices,Devices, Circuitry, and Process Process Development Development Kits Kits MovingMoving away away from from Theoretical Theoretical Physics Physics to Applied to Applied Physics, Physics, or from or phenomenafrom phenomena study tostudy concrete to deviceconcrete applications, device applications, it appears it thatappears with that time, with the time, idea the of idea using of using and moving and moving the Hallthe Hall Effect Effect from macrofrom to macro micro to andmicro nanoscales and nanoscales caught caught the the attention attention of of various various research research initiatives.initiatives. Several Several types types ofof devices devices sharing sharing the the Hall Hall EEffectffect were studied thor thoroughlyoughly in in the the past past six sixdecades. decades. This Thisis why, is why,in in addition to to classic classic text text books books [17] [17 mostly] mostly published published several several decades decades ago, and ago, mainly and mainly focusing focusing on OHE on Physics, a series of new books appeared at the beginning of the twenty-first century, focusing this OHE Physics, a series of new books appeared at the beginning of the twenty-first century, focusing time on QHE Physics [18–26] and QSHE [27]. With the challenging attempts to integrate the Hall this time on QHE Physics [18–26] and QSHE [27]. With the challenging attempts to integrate the Hall Effect phenomenon into devices, circuitry, and Process Development Kits (PDK) in mind, several Effect phenomenon into devices, circuitry, and Process Development Kits (PDK)