Impact of Terrorism in Peace and Security in Post 9/11Era: a Case Study of Kenya

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Impact of Terrorism in Peace and Security in Post 9/11Era: a Case Study of Kenya “IMPACT OF TERRORISM IN PEACE AND SECURITY IN POST 9/11 ERA: A CASE STUDY OF KENYA” BY JOSEPH NDWIGA MBOGO R52/81174/2012 A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SEPTEMBER, 2014 i DECLARATION This research study is my original work and has not been presented for the award of a master’s degree in this University or any other Institution of higher learning for examination. Signature………………….…….. Date…………..………………. JOSEPH NDWIGA MBOGO R52/81174/2012 This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the University Supervisor. Signature ………………………………… Date…………… MARTIN NGURU ii DEDICATION I hereby dedicate this research project to my family, colleagues and friends who have continuously been a source of encouragement and offered their endless support during the entire time I was writing this research project and even when at times I felt defeated and all hope seemed lost. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to first and foremost acknowledge and appreciate my supervisor for all the advice and guidance given unto me as I was writing this project. I would also like to acknowledge my friends and colleagues who all participated and offered their much valued input into this project. This research project would not have been a success if it had not been for you. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 2 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 2 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Background of the Research Problem................................................................................... 3 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 4 1.3 General Objective ................................................................................................................. 6 1.3.1 Specific Objectives` .................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Justification of the Study .................................................................................................. 6 1.4.1 Academic Justification ....................................................................................................... 6 1.4.2 Policy Justification ............................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Literature Review.................................................................................................................. 7 1.5.2 Understanding Terrorism: The New, the Old, and Al Qaeda ........................................ 7 1.5.3 Peace and Security ......................................................................................................... 9 1.5.4 Terrorism in Kenya ...................................................................................................... 16 1.5.5 Counter - terrorism Efforts in Kenya ........................................................................... 17 v 1.6 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................................... 22 1.7 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................................... 24 1.8 Research Methodology ........................................................................................................... 24 1.9 Scope and Limitations of the Study ............................................................................... 25 1.10 Chapter Outline ................................................................................................................. 25 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 27 THE LEGITIMACY OF THE PROCESS THAT CREATED THE CONSTITUTION ............. 27 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 27 2.1 Defining Terrorism ............................................................................................................. 29 2.2 State, Security and Constitutionalism ................................................................................. 36 2.2.1 Perception of Security .................................................................................................. 37 2.3 Securing Justice through Legal-Criminological-political Strategies .................................. 39 2.3.1 Frameworks of Securing Justice .................................................................................. 39 2.3.2 Suppression of Terrorism Bill, Politics and Policing................................................... 40 2.4 Ties to the West .................................................................................................................. 44 2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 47 KENYA’S LEGAL SYSTEM ON PROSECUTION OF TERRORIST RELATED CASES IN THE POST 9/11 ERA ................................................................................................................... 47 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 47 vi 3.1 The Terrorism Bill Of 2003 .................................................................................................... 51 3.2 The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2012 ................................................................................... 52 3.2.2. Terrorism Offences and Sentencing.................................................................................... 55 3.2.3 Declared Terrorist Organizations (Specified Entity) ........................................................... 56 3.2.4. Law-enforcement Powers ................................................................................................... 58 3.2.5 Powers of Police Officers .................................................................................................... 59 3.3 Terrorism Financing................................................................................................................ 61 3.4 Communications Interception ................................................................................................. 62 3.5 Fundamental Rights in Relation to the Constitution of Kenya ............................................... 63 3.6 Challenges in Terrorism Laws in Kenya ................................................................................ 63 3.7 Impact of Terrorism in Kenya................................................................................................. 66 3.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 69 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 71 IMPACT OF TERRORISM ......................................................................................................... 71 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 71 4.2 Al-Shabaab’s and Al-Qaeda’s Recruitment and Propaganda Strategies ............................... 72 4.3 Kenya Government Counter-Propaganda Strategies ............................................................. 75 4.4 Impact of Terrorism in Kenya................................................................................................. 78 4.4.1 The Economic Ramifications of Terrorism ......................................................................... 81 4.4.2 Effect of Terrorism on Kenya’s Securities Market .............................................................. 84 vii 4.4.3 Effects of the ‘War’ on the International System ................................................................ 85 4.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 89 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 91 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................... 91 5.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................
Recommended publications
  • Countering Terrorism in East Africa: the U.S
    Countering Terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response Lauren Ploch Analyst in African Affairs November 3, 2010 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R41473 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Countering Terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response Summary The United States government has implemented a range of programs to counter violent extremist threats in East Africa in response to Al Qaeda’s bombing of the U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998 and subsequent transnational terrorist activity in the region. These programs include regional and bilateral efforts, both military and civilian. The programs seek to build regional intelligence, military, law enforcement, and judicial capacities; strengthen aviation, port, and border security; stem the flow of terrorist financing; and counter the spread of extremist ideologies. Current U.S.-led regional counterterrorism efforts include the State Department’s East Africa Regional Strategic Initiative (EARSI) and the U.S. military’s Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA), part of U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM). The United States has also provided significant assistance in support of the African Union’s (AU) peace operations in Somalia, where the country’s nascent security forces and AU peacekeepers face a complex insurgency waged by, among others, Al Shabaab, a local group linked to Al Qaeda that often resorts to terrorist tactics. The State Department reports that both Al Qaeda and Al Shabaab pose serious terrorist threats to the United States and U.S. interests in the region. Evidence of linkages between Al Shabaab and Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, across the Gulf of Aden in Yemen, highlight another regional dimension of the threat posed by violent extremists in the area.
    [Show full text]
  • Terrorism As a Global Peril: a Kenyan Scenario Tactic
    International Journal of Social Science and Technology Vol. 3 No. 5 August 2018 Terrorism as a Global Peril: A Kenyan Scenario Tactic Mongare A. B. LLB, MBA, LLM University of Nairobi The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, The Faculty of Law/Advocates Training Programme KSL, Nairobi, Kenya [email protected] Abstract There is a global concern over terrorism threats due to its very nature of causing physical destruction of human and infrastructure. Resultantly, anguish is experienced through economic loss, insecurity and generally to social disorder to the polity whose effects cannot be accentuated. The paper interests itself with the Kenyan techniques on counter-terrorism. The status quo is worsened by a dearth of a universal definition of terrorism. Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are roiled in civil clashes and there has been a polemic on how to deal with the perpetrators of this conflicts; Kenya has remained relatively peaceful for decades and played host to countless evacuees fleeing neighbouring countries. Nevertheless, since 1998, terrorism-related activities have been on the upsurge in the country posing a major threat to national security and development. The scenery of terrorist activities in Kenya has been varying and growing in monstrousness, leaving numerous innocent citizens as victims, while in some incidences, the country has continuously been held at ransom by the terror groups. Though Kenya has put up a concerted fight to prize fight terror it has turned out to be an easy target for terror groups for close to twenty years. Kenya’s counter-terrorism exertions, nonetheless, cannot be undervalued but they have faced a lot of criticism.
    [Show full text]
  • Somalia Terror Threat
    THECHRISTOPHER TERROR February 12, THREAT FROM THE TERROR THREAT FROM SOMALIA THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF AL SHABAAB CHRISTOPHER HARNISCH APPENDICES AND MAPS BY KATHERINE ZIMMERMAN FEBRUARY 12, 2010 A REPORT BY THE CRITICAL THREATS PROJECT OF THE AMERICAN ENTERPRISE INSTITUTE THE TERROR THREAT FROM SOMALIA CHRISTOPHER HARNISCH February 12, 2010 Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 IMPORTANT GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS IN SOMALIA 3 NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS 4 INTRODUCTION 8 ORIGINS OF AL SHABAAB 10 GAINING CONTROL, GOVERNING, AND MAINTAINING CONTROL 14 AL SHABAAB’S RELATIONSHIP WITH AL QAEDA, THE GLOBAL JIHAD MOVEMENT, AND ITS GLOBAL IDEOLOGY 19 INTERNATIONAL RECRUITING AND ITS IMPACT 29 AL SHABAAB’S INTERNATIONAL THREATS 33 THREAT ASSESSMENT AND CONCLUSION 35 APPENDIX A: TIMELINE OF MAJOR SECURITY EVENTS IN SOMALIA 37 APPENDIX B: MAJOR SUICIDE ATTACKS AND ASSASSINATIONS CLAIMED BY OR ATTRIBUTED TO AL SHABAAB 47 NOTES 51 Maps MAP OF THE HORN OF AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST 5 POLITICAL MAP OF SOMALIA 6 MAP OF ISLAMIST-CONTROLLED AND INFLUENCED AREAS IN SOMALIA 7 www.criticalthreats.org THE TERROR THREAT FROM SOMALIA CHRISTOPHER HARNISCH February 12, 2010 Executive Summary hree hundred people nearly died in the skies of and assassinations. Al Shabaab’s primary objectives at TMichigan on Christmas Day, 2009 when a Niger- the time of the Ethiopian invasion appeared to be ian terrorist attempted to blow up a plane destined geographically limited to Somalia, and perhaps the for Detroit. The terrorist was an operative of an al Horn of Africa. The group’s rhetoric and behavior, Qaeda franchise based in Yemen called al Qaeda in however, have shifted over the past two years reflect- the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing the Vulnerability of Kenyan Youths to Radicalisation and Extremism
    Institute for Security Studies PAPER Assessing the vulnerability of Kenyan youths to radicalisation and extremism INTRODUCTION country is also central to the region and thus deserves That there is an emerging trend of religious radicalisation in closer scrutiny. Although Kenya’s intervention in Somalia East Africa is not in doubt. Somalia, which has experienced served to incite a terrorist response, the experience of various forms of conflict since 1991, has often been seen Uganda, Ethiopia and Burundi, all of which have had troops as the source of extremism in the region, especially in Somalia since 2006, showed different trends. Only the following the attacks on the United States (US) embassies attacks in Uganda and Kenya were attributed to those in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi on 7 August 1998. Yet closer countries’ interventions in Somalia. And, despite the fact investigation reveals that Somali nationals were not behind that those directly involved in these attacks were Ugandan most of the incidents outside Somalia’s borders. Somalia nationals, Kenyans and Tanzanians helped plan and provides a safe haven, training camps and opportunities for execute the attacks, not members of traditional extremists to fight the ‘enemies of Islam’, but al-Qaeda and Somali communities. later al-Shabaab have executed attacks in the region by This is not to say that individuals within the traditional relying on local assistance and support. At the same time, Muslim community have not used frustrations and al-Shabaab managed to recruit Kenyan, Ugandan and vulnerabilities among the youth – Muslim and non-Muslim Tanzanian nationals to its ranks in Somalia.
    [Show full text]
  • 11 July 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings
    11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings July 2006 Mumbai train bombings One of the bomb-damaged coaches Location Mumbai, India Target(s) Mumbai Suburban Railway Date 11 July 2006 18:24 – 18:35 (UTC+5.5) Attack Type Bombings Fatalities 209 Injuries 714 Perpetrator(s) Terrorist outfits—Student Islamic Movement of India (SIMI), Lashkar-e-Toiba (LeT; These are alleged perperators as legal proceedings have not yet taken place.) Map showing the 'Western line' and blast locations. The 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings were a series of seven bomb blasts that took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay), capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and India's financial capital. 209 people lost their lives and over 700 were injured in the attacks. Details The bombs were placed on trains plying on the western line of the suburban ("local") train network, which forms the backbone of the city's transport network. The first blast reportedly took place at 18:24 IST (12:54 UTC), and the explosions continued for approximately eleven minutes, until 18:35, during the after-work rush hour. All the bombs had been placed in the first-class "general" compartments (some compartments are reserved for women, called "ladies" compartments) of several trains running from Churchgate, the city-centre end of the western railway line, to the western suburbs of the city. They exploded at or in the near vicinity of the suburban railway stations of Matunga Road, Mahim, Bandra, Khar Road, Jogeshwari, Bhayandar and Borivali.
    [Show full text]
  • Downloads/Ctrylst.Txt
    [Type the company name] 1 [Type the document title] T HE S O M A L I I NSURGENCY THE GROWING THREAT O F TERROR’S RESURGENC E Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy Capstone Project Submitted by Joshua Meservey May 2013 © 2013 Joshua Meservey http://fletcher.tufts.edu Josh Meservey 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 A BRIEF HISTORY 6 COLONIZATION 7 DEMOCRACY, DICTATORSHIP, DISINTEGRATION 10 THE ROOTS OF AL-SHABAAB 13 TERRORISM TRIUMPHANT 15 STIRRINGS OF HOPE 16 THE KIDS AREN’T ALRIGHT: AN ANALYSIS OF HARAKAT AL-SHABAAB AL- MUJAHIDEEN 18 IDEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE 18 TRANSNATIONAL TERRORIST LINKS 19 FUNDING 20 RECRUITMENT 27 REASONS FOR AL-SHABAAB’S LOSSES 42 SELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS 42 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS 54 AL-SHABAAB’S RETURN TO INSURGENCY: HOP LIKE A FLEA 61 “DO YOU REALLY THINK THEY CAN CONTINUE LIKE THAT FOREVER?” 62 SOLUTION: COUNTERINSURGENCY 67 WIN THE PEOPLE 67 GEOGRAPHY, CULTURE, AND HISTORY 71 A COUNTERINSURGENCY REPORT CARD 89 TOO MANY MISTAKES 89 PLANNING: TOO LITTLE, TOO LATE 89 TRAINING: “SHOOT AND DUCK” 92 GOVERNMENT LEGITIMACY: “LEGITIMACY-DEFICIT”? 94 SECURITY: “IT IS HARD NOT TO WORRY” 97 COALITION POLITICS: WITH FRIENDS LIKE THESE 100 TREATMENT OF CIVILIANS: DO NO HARM 104 WHO IS WINNING? 108 THE WAY FORWARD 111 FOR THE SOMALI FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 111 FOR AMISOM AND ETHIOPIA 124 FOR THE UNITED STATES 130 CONCLUSION: DANGEROUS TIMES 139 ADDENDUM: THE WESTGATE MALL ATTACK 141 WORKS CITED 145 Josh Meservey 3 Executive Summary Al-Shabaab’s current fortunes appear bleak. It has been pushed from all of its major strongholds by a robust international effort, and its violent Salafism has alienated many Somalis.
    [Show full text]
  • Macro Report Comparative Study of Electoral Systems Module 4: Macro Report September 10, 2012
    Comparative Study of Electoral Systems 1 Module 4: Macro Report Comparative Study of Electoral Systems Module 4: Macro Report September 10, 2012 Country: Kenya Date of Election: 4 March 2013 Prepared by: Matthias Krönke, Abel Oyuke and Robert Mattes Date of Preparation: 23 November 2016 NOTES TO COLLABORATORS: . The information provided in this report contributes to an important part of the CSES project. The information may be filled out by yourself, or by an expert or experts of your choice. Your efforts in providing these data are greatly appreciated! Any supplementary documents that you can provide (e.g., electoral legislation, party manifestos, electoral commission reports, media reports) are also appreciated, and may be made available on the CSES website. Answers should be as of the date of the election being studied. Where brackets [ ] appear, collaborators should answer by placing an “X” within the appropriate bracket or brackets. For example: [X] . If more space is needed to answer any question, please lengthen the document as necessary. Data Pertinent to the Election at which the Module was Administered 1a. Type of Election [] Parliamentary/Legislative [X] Parliamentary/Legislative and Presidential [ ] Presidential [ ] Other; please specify: __________ 1b. If the type of election in Question 1a included Parliamentary/Legislative, was the election for the Upper House, Lower House, or both? [ ] Upper House [ ] Lower House [X] Both [ ] Other; please specify: __________ Comparative Study of Electoral Systems 2 Module 4: Macro Report 2a. What was the party of the president prior to the most recent election, regardless of whether the election was presidential? Party of National Unity and Allies (National Rainbow Coalition) 2b.
    [Show full text]
  • Estimated Age
    The US National Counterterrorism Center is pleased to present the 2016 edition of the Counterterrorism (CT) Calendar. Since 2003, we have published the calendar in a daily planner format that provides our consumers with a variety of information related to international terrorism, including wanted terrorists; terrorist group fact sheets; technical issue related to terrorist tactics, techniques, and procedures; and potential dates of importance that terrorists might consider when planning attacks. The cover of this year’s CT Calendar highlights terrorists’ growing use of social media and other emerging online technologies to recruit, radicalize, and encourage adherents to carry out attacks. This year will be the last hardcopy publication of the calendar, as growing production costs necessitate our transition to more cost- effective dissemination methods. In the coming years, NCTC will use a variety of online and other media platforms to continue to share the valuable information found in the CT Calendar with a broad customer set, including our Federal, State, Local, and Tribal law enforcement partners; agencies across the Intelligence Community; private sector partners; and the US public. On behalf of NCTC, I want to thank all the consumers of the CT Calendar during the past 12 years. We hope you continue to find the CT Calendar beneficial to your daily efforts. Sincerely, Nicholas J. Rasmussen Director The US National Counterterrorism Center is pleased to present the 2016 edition of the Counterterrorism (CT) Calendar. This edition, like others since the Calendar was first published in daily planner format in 2003, contains many features across the full range of issues pertaining to international terrorism: terrorist groups, wanted terrorists, and technical pages on various threat-related topics.
    [Show full text]
  • NCTC Annex of the Country Reports on Terrorism 2008
    Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 April 2009 ________________________________ United States Department of State Publication Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism Released April 2009 Page | 1 Country Reports on Terrorism 2008 is submitted in compliance with Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f (the ―Act‖), which requires the Department of State to provide to Congress a full and complete annual report on terrorism for those countries and groups meeting the criteria of the Act. COUNTRY REPORTS ON TERRORISM 2008 Table of Contents Chapter 1. Strategic Assessment Chapter 2. Country Reports Africa Overview Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership The African Union Angola Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Cote D‘Ivoire Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Liberia Madagascar Mali Mauritania Mauritius Namibia Nigeria Rwanda Senegal Somalia South Africa Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Page | 2 East Asia and Pacific Overview Australia Burma Cambodia China o Hong Kong o Macau Indonesia Japan Republic of Korea (South Korea) Democratic People‘s Republic of Korea (North Korea) Laos Malaysia Micronesia, Federated States of Mongolia New Zealand Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, or Vanaatu Philippines Singapore Taiwan Thailand Europe Overview Albania Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Page | 3 Lithuania Macedonia Malta Moldova Montenegro
    [Show full text]
  • Akiwumi.Rift Valley.Pdf
    CHAPTER ONE TRIBAL CLASHES IN THE RIFT VALLEY PROVINCE Tribal clashes in the Rift Valley Province started on 29th October, 1991, at a farm known as Miteitei, situated in the heart of Tinderet Division, in Nandi District, pitting the Nandi, a Kalenjin tribe, against the Kikuyu, the Kamba, the Luhya, the Kisii, and the Luo. The clashes quickly spread to other farms in the area, among them, Owiro, farm which was wholly occupied by the Luo; and into Kipkelion Division of Kericho District, which had a multi-ethnic composition of people, among them the Kalenjin, the Kisii and the Kikuyu. Later in early 1992, the clashes spread to Molo, Olenguruone, Londiani, and other parts of Kericho, Trans Nzoia, Uasin Gishu and many other parts of the Rift Valley Province. In 1993, the clashes spread to Enoosupukia, Naivasha and parts of Narok, and the Trans Mara Districts which together then formed the greater Narok before the Trans Mara District was hived out of it, and to Gucha District in Nyanza Province. In these areas, the Kipsigis and the Maasai, were pitted against the Kikuyu, the Kisii, the Kamba and the Luhya, among other tribes. The clashes revived in Laikipia and Njoro in 1998, pitting the Samburu and the Pokot against the Kikuyu in Laikipia, and the Kalenjin mainly against the Kikuyu in Njoro. In each clash area, non-Kalenjin or non-Maasai, as the case may be, were suddenly attacked, their houses set on fire, their properties looted and in certain instances, some of them were either killed or severely injured with traditional weapons like bows and arrows, spears, pangas, swords and clubs.
    [Show full text]
  • Somalis the Cruel Consequences of Kenya's Passbook System
    Screening of Ethnic Somalis The Cruel Consequences of Kenya's Passbook System Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 The Procedure is Set in Place .............................................................................................. 3 Arbitrary Criteria Used to Determine Qualifications ......................................................... 4 Doubts about the Legal Basis of Screening Panels ........................................................... 5 Facilitating the Exploitation of Local Rivalries ................................................................. 6 Women at a Disadvantage ............................................................................................... 7 The Abandoned Children ................................................................................................ 8 The Deportations .............................................................................................................. 10 At the Border ................................................................................................................. 12 Over the Border ............................................................................................................. 15 Stranded and Stateless in Mogadishu, Somalia............................................................. 17 Internal "Deportations" .................................................................................................. 21 Screening
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict Assessment / 2014 Northern Kenya and Somaliland WRITTEN for DANISH DEMINING GROUP by DR
    Conflict Assessment / 2014 Northern Kenya and Somaliland WRITTEN FOR DANISH DEMINING GROUP BY DR. KEN MENKHAUS, FINAL, CORRECTED VERSION, MARCH 2015 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............ 1 7. APPENDIX / NORTHERN KENYA COUNTY CASE STUDIES ..................... 86 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............ 2 APPENDIX A / ISIOLO COUNTY .......... 86 1. INTRODUCTION ....................... 5 APPENDIX B / MANDERA COUNTY ..... 93 2. CONTEXTS ............................. 9 APPENDIX C / WAJIR COUNTY ......... 104 3. CONFLICT ASSESSMENT / APPENDIX D / GARISSA COUNTY ..... 111 NORTHERN KENYA ................ 16 4. CONFLICT ASSESSMENT / APPENDIX E / MARSABIT COUNTY .... 117 SOMALILAND ........................ 54 5. CONCLUSIONS ...................... 76 APPENDIX F / ELECTED OFFICIALS ....123 6. POLICY CONSIDERATIONS ..... 81 REFERENCES ................................... 126 DANISH DEMINING GROUP Founded in 1997, the Danish Demining Group (DDG) is a specialised unit within the Danish Refugee Council. DDG works in more than 17 countries with the mission “to recreate a safe environment where people can live without the threat of landmines, explosive remnants of war, and small arms and light weapons”. Since 2008, DDG is applying a comprehensive approach to armed violence reduction under which the increasing problem of armed violence is addressed in five areas of intervention at mainly community, local and national levels. Each intervention area has a clear outcome and impact focus: • Security Governance: Enhancing Civic engagement in and influence over security
    [Show full text]