DOCSLIB.ORG

Schopenhauer's Deconstruction of German Idealism Sebastian Gardner Introduction Arthur Schopenhauer Occupies a Central Position

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Schopenhauer's Deconstruction of German Idealism Sebastian Gardner Introduction Arthur Schopenhauer Occupies a Central Position CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by UCL Discovery 1 Schopenhauer's Deconstruction of German Idealism Sebastian Gardner Introduction Arthur Schopenhauer occupies a central position in the narrative of nineteenth-century philosophy: though first and foremost an idealist, Schopenhauer belongs also to its naturalistic current, and with regard to many other central tendencies of the age – including the turn towards the practical, at the expense of the early modern image of man as reality-reflecting reason, the elevation of art to a position of near parity with philosophy, and the exploration of proxies for traditional religion – Schopenhauer again occupies a pivotal role; in a way that deserves to be found puzzling, Schopenhauer provides the key connecting link of Kant with Nietzsche.1 My aim here is to consider 1 The main broad feature of nineteenth-century thought not exhibited by Schopenhauer – and which he in fact opposes vigorously – is its historical turn: see The World as Will and Representation [1st edn. 1819; 2nd edn., revised and enlarged, 2 volumes, 1844], 2 vols., trans. E. F. J. Payne (New York: Dover, 1969), Vol. I, pp. 273–274. Further references to this work are abbreviated WWR, followed by volume and page number. References to other writings of Schopenhauer's are given by the following abbreviations and are to the editions cited below: BM Prize Essay on the Basis of Morals [1840], in The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, trans. David E. Cartwright and Edward E. Erdmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). FR On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason [1st edn. 1813, 2nd edn. 1847], 2nd edn. trans. E. F. J. Payne (LaSalle, Illinois: Open Court, 1974). FW Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will [1839], in The Two Fundamental 2 Schopenhauer's philosophy from the perspective of German Idealism, an approach which, I will try to show, takes us to the heart of his project and allows us to understand how a philosopher only one step removed from the philosophy of the Enlightenment could provide crucial impetus to late modern anti-rationalism. Some preliminary remarks are needed concerning this contextualization. Schopenhauer's intention was not of course to provide simply a critique of German Idealism, but rather to present a Problems of Ethics, trans. David E. Cartwright and Edward E. Erdmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). MREM Manuscript Remains: Early Manuscripts (1804–1818), ed. Arthur Hübscher, trans. E. F. J. Payne, Manuscript Remains in Four Volumes, Vol. 1 (New York: Berg, 1988). MRCD Manuscript Remains: Critical Debates (1809–1818), ed. Arthur Hübscher, trans. E. F. J. Payne, Manuscript Remains in Four Volumes, Vol. 2 (New York: Berg, 1988). PP Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays [1851], 2 vols., trans. E. F. J. Payne (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974). VgP Vorlesung über die gesammte Philosophie d.i. Die Lehre vom Wesen der Welt und von dem menschlichen Geiste. In vier Theilen. Erster Theil: Theorie des gesammten Vorstellen, Denkens und Erkennens, in Theorie des gesammten Vorstellens, Denkens und Erkennens. Aus dem handschriftlichen Nachlaß [1820], hrsg. u. eingeleitet von Volker Spierling (München: Piper, 1986). WN On the Will in Nature: A Discussion of the Corroborations from the Empirical Sciences that the Author's Philosophy has Received Since its First Appearance [1836], ed. David E. Cartwright, trans. E. F. J. Payne (Oxford: Berg, 1991). 3 self-standing, independently intelligible system, the grounds of which are contained in basic facts of consciousness and accessible to anyone who is able and willing to reflect on these in the unobscured light of Kant's first Critique. Nor again is Schopenhauer's target – the world-view he intends his system to confute – identified narrowly with the positions of Fichte, Schelling, or Hegel: it comprises, much more broadly, the dominant tendency operative within all the major schools of Western philosophy, namely, their directedness towards an optimistic solution to the riddle of the existence of the world. It is possible, therefore, to detach Schopenhauer's philosophy from all consideration of German Idealism, or to consider it, as much commentary does, only in relation to Kant and Nietzsche, but there are sound reasons for instead understanding his system abreactively – as in the first instance an attempt to simultaneously undermine, appropriate, and recast the legacy of German Idealism. It is a matter of historical record that Schopenhauer in the earliest years of his philosophical formation had extensive exposure to the lectures and writings of Fichte and Schelling, with whom he engages more closely in his early notebooks than with any other figures in the history of philosophy with the exception of Kant.2 Approaching Schopenhauer with this in mind allows better sense to be made of Schopenhauer's ideas than can be got simply by placing them directly alongside Kant's, Schopenhauer's departures from whom often seem oddly under- motivated:3 Schopenhauer's return to Kant is a return from German Idealism, conducted in light of 2 On Schopenhauer's early years, see Arthur Hübscher, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer in its Intellectual Context: Thinker against the Tide, trans. Joachim T. Baer and David E. Cartwright (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1989), Chs. 5–6, and David E. Cartwright, Schopenhauer: A Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), Ch. 4. 3 Christopher Janaway, in Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 141–142, similarly affirms the need to set Schopenhauer in historical context in order to understand his departures from Kant. For analyses of Schopenhauer's epistemology and metaphysics, see, in addition to Janaway, Julian Young, Willing and Unwilling: A 4 its misconstrual (as he perceives it) of Kant's thought. It is of course in relation to Kant alone that Schopenhauer asks for his system to be considered, but we can understand without difficulty the reasons why Schopenhauer would have wished to write German Idealism out of his philosophical ancestry.4 German Idealism represents for Schopenhauer the culmination of the optimistic tendency of Western philosophy and theology, which it equips with the most advanced modern articulation,5 its distinctive historical position consisting in its having recognized the profound and original advance made by Critical philosophy yet perversely refused to grasp its anti-optimistic vector.6 Finally, Schopenhauer's central metaphysical claims allow themselves to be understood as negations of key claims in German Idealism. Schopenhauer's philosophy represents, I therefore suggest, the result of an attempt to as it were re-run the post-Kantian development – the attempt beginning in the 1790s to fix Kant's problems – on the basis of a rejection of two crucial assumptions of Fichte and Schelling. The first of these is their reaffirmation of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR), to which they grant unrestricted scope and authority. The second concerns the value of our existence and that of the world, which is held, following Kant, to be secured by the moral Fact of Reason, meaning that value in general is grounded on freedom and enters the world primordially through the exercise of pure practical reason. On the basis of his controversion of these two fundamental assumptions, Schopenhauer inverts the significance of the concepts which he, completing his own extension of Kant's philosophy, borrows from Fichte and Schelling. Study in the Philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1987) and Schopenhauer (London: Routledge, 2005), and John E. Atwell, Schopenhauer on the Character of the World: The Metaphysics of Will (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). 4 As he does explicitly at WWR I, 416, and PP I, 132. 5 WWR II, 644–645: all German Idealism is Spinozistic, and therefore optimistic. 6 See MREM, 13: Kant exposed the contradictions in the lie which is life. 5 The net result is a system which has much of the formal structure and outward appearance of the German Idealist systems but a directly contrary import. Schopenhauer does not quite affirm the thoroughly disenchanted view of the world that the German Idealists attempted to show need not be accepted as the price of modernity, but the residue of enchantment which he allows to continue to attach to our existence is relocated outside the objectual world, in the form of its negation: the world itself inherits the 'nothingness', the 'lack of an ultimate purpose or object' and 'absence of all aim', of its metaphysical ground.7 Though Schopenhauer officially repudiates the Spinozistic nihilism that F. H. Jacobi warns of as the inevitable upshot of Kantianism8 – on the somewhat thin basis that his doctrine of the negation of the world endows it with (inverted) moral-metaphysical significance9 – his proximity to it can hardly be exaggerated: Schopenhauer reaffirms Spinoza's anti-theism, determinism, materialist tendency, naturalistic view of human motivation, and reductionist account of value. I. Schopenhauer's strategy 1. Contraction of the Principle of Sufficient Reason 7 WWR I, 149, 164. 8 The 'notion that the world has merely a physical, and no moral, significance is the most deplorable error that has sprung from the greatest perversity of mind' (PP II, 102). Schopenhauer distinguishes his position from the 'Neo-Spinozism' described by Jacobi at WWR II, 645–646. 9 See Schopenhauer's claim to have solved the age-old problem of demonstrating 'a moral world- order as the basis of the physical', WWR II, 590–591. 6 The first part of Schopenhauer's strategy is presented in The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, his first publication and a work to which he frequently refers back, declaring its conclusions to be presupposed by the argument of WWR.10 Fourfold Root presents itself in the first instance as a historical review conjoined with a systematic analysis of PSR, but it is clear from the outset that it is not intended as a neutral account of the different ways in which PSR has been invoked or may be understood.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Paolo Stellino
    Philosophical Perspectives on Suicide Paolo Stellino Philosophical Perspectives on Suicide Kant, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and Wittgenstein Paolo Stellino Nova Institute of Philosophy Universidade Nova de Lisboa LISBOA, Portugal ISBN 978-3-030-53936-8 ISBN 978-3-030-53937-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53937-5 © Te Editor(s) (if applicable) and Te Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Tis work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifcally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microflms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Te use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Te publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Te publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional afliations. Tis Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
    [Show full text]
  • The Affirmation of the Will
    Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-62695-9 - Schopenhauer: A Biography David E. Cartwright Excerpt More information 1 The Affirmation of the Will RTHUR SCHOPENHAUER VIEWED himself as homeless. This sense of A homelessness became the leitmotif of both his life and his philos- ophy. After the first five years of his life in Danzig, where he was born on 22 February 1788, his family fled the then free city to avoid Prus- sian control. From that point on, he said, “I have never acquired a new home.”1 He lived in Hamburg on and off for fourteen years, but he had his best times when he was away from that city. When he left Hamburg, he felt as if he were escaping a prison. He lived for four years in Dresden, but he would only view this city as the birthplace of his principal work, The World as Will and Representation. More than a decade in Berlin did nothing to give him a sense of belonging. He would angrily exclaim that he was no Berliner. After living as a noncitizen resident in Frankfurt am Main for the last twenty-eight years of his life, and after spending fifty years attempting to understand the nature and meaning of the world, he would ultimately conclude that the world itself was not his home. If one were to take this remark seriously, then even Danzig had not been his home. He was homeless from birth. But being homeless from birth did not mean that there was no point to his life. Schopenhauer would also conclude that from birth he had a mission in life.
    [Show full text]
  • Deconstruction for Critical Theory Handbook
    Deconstruction Johan van der Walt Introduction Deconstruction is a mode of philosophical thinking that is principally associated with the work of the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Considered from the perspective of the history of philosophical thinking, the crucial move that Derrida’s way of thinking makes is to shift the focus of inquiry away from a direct engagement with the cognitive content of ideas put forward in a text in order to focus, instead, on the way in which the text produces a privileged framework of meaning while excluding others. Instead of engaging in a debate with other philosophers – contemporary or past – about the ideas they articulated in their texts, Derrida commenced to launch inquiries into the way their texts relied on dominant modes of writing (and reading) to produce a certain semantic content and intent while excluding other modes of reading and, consequently, other possible meanings of the text. By focusing on the textuality of texts – instead of on their semantic content – Derrida’s thinking endeavoured to pay attention, not only to that which the text does not say, but also that which it cannot say. The explanation that follows will show that the “method” of deconstruction does not just consist in finding that other meanings of the text are possible or plausible, but, more importantly, in demonstrating that the possibility or plausibility of other meanings – supressed by the organisation of the text – alerts one to the infinite potentiality of meaning that necessarily exceeds the margins of the text and remains unsayable. In other words, by pointing out the instability of the dominant meaning organised by the text, deconstruction alerts one to the unsayable as such, that is, to that which no text can say but on which all texts remain dependent for being able to say what they manage to say.
    [Show full text]
  • Depopulation: on the Logic of Heidegger's Volk
    Research research in phenomenology 47 (2017) 297–330 in Phenomenology brill.com/rp Depopulation: On the Logic of Heidegger’s Volk Nicolai Krejberg Knudsen Aarhus University [email protected] Abstract This article provides a detailed analysis of the function of the notion of Volk in Martin Heidegger’s philosophy. At first glance, this term is an appeal to the revolutionary mass- es of the National Socialist revolution in a way that demarcates a distinction between the rootedness of the German People (capital “P”) and the rootlessness of the modern rabble (or people). But this distinction is not a sufficient explanation of Heidegger’s position, because Heidegger simultaneously seems to hold that even the Germans are characterized by a lack of identity. What is required is a further appropriation of the proper. My suggestion is that this logic of the Volk is not only useful for understanding Heidegger’s thought during the war, but also an indication of what happened after he lost faith in the National Socialist movement and thus had to make the lack of the People the basis of his thought. Keywords Heidegger – Nazism – Schwarze Hefte – Black Notebooks – Volk – people Introduction In § 74 of Sein und Zeit, Heidegger introduces the notorious term “the People” [das Volk]. For Heidegger, this term functions as the intersection between phi- losophy and politics and, consequently, it preoccupies him throughout the turbulent years from the National Socialist revolution in 1933 to the end of WWII in 1945. The shift from individual Dasein to the Dasein of the German People has often been noted as the very point at which Heidegger’s fundamen- tal ontology intersects with his disastrous political views.
    [Show full text]
  • Schelling: Understanding German Idealism
    SCHELLING Understanding German Idealism ◊ by Michael Tsarion Copyright ©2016 Unslaved Media. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the publisher's permission. First Kindle Edition, July 2016 DEDICATIONS This book is dedicated to the memory of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Eduard von Hartmann, Jacob Bohme, Meister Eckhart, Nicholas Cusanus, George Berkeley, William Blake, Rudolf Steiner, Wilhelm Reich, Gustave Le Bon, Ayn Rand, Alvin Boyd Kuhn and Otto Rank. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To Chris for technical support. To Bryan Magee. To Alan for being a good teacher way back then. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1. The Problem of Idealism 2. Back to the Mirror 3. The Freedom of Man 4. The Existential Trinity 5. The Fall of Albion 6. Nothing Higher Than Beauty 7. The Absolute Idealism of Hegel About Author INTRODUCTION Great things are done when men and mountains meet – William Blake I first began studying academic philosophy at a community college in Belfast in 1987. Although I did not take the classes to matriculate, my interest in Western philosophy, which had always been sincere, was enhanced considerably. We were fortunate to have a captivating tutor, a very rare thing in Northern Ireland in those days. Unlike ordinary school we were permitted to wear our own clothes rather than uniforms and even allowed to go about the college smoking. It was a barely bearable experience, but mission accomplished I activated my little grey cells and learned many interesting things.
    [Show full text]
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Arthur Schopenhauer
    03/05/2017 Arthur Schopenhauer (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Arthur Schopenhauer First published Mon May 12, 2003; substantive revision Sat Nov 19, 2011 Among 19th century philosophers, Arthur Schopenhauer was among the first to contend that at its core, the universe is not a rational place. Inspired by Plato and Kant, both of whom regarded the world as being more amenable to reason, Schopenhauer developed their philosophies into an instinct­recognizing and ultimately ascetic outlook, emphasizing that in the face of a world filled with endless strife, we ought to minimize our natural desires for the sake of achieving a more tranquil frame of mind and a disposition towards universal beneficence. Often considered to be a thoroughgoing pessimist, Schopenhauer in fact advocated ways — via artistic, moral and ascetic forms of awareness — to overcome a frustration­filled and fundamentally painful human condition. Since his death in 1860, his philosophy has had a special attraction for those who wonder about life's meaning, along with those engaged in music, literature, and the visual arts. 1. Life: 1788–1860 2. The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason 3. Schopenhauer's Critique of Kant 4. The World as Will 5. Transcending the Human Conditions of Conflict 5.1 Aesthetic Perception as a Mode of Transcendence 5.2 Moral Awareness as a Mode of Transcendence 5.3 Asceticism and the Denial of the Will­to­Live 6. Schopenhauer's Later Works 7. Critical Reflections 8. Schopenhauer's Influence Bibliography Academic Tools Other Internet Resources Related Entries 1. Life: 1788–1860 Exactly a month younger than the English Romantic poet, Lord Byron (1788–1824), who was born on January 22, 1788, Arthur Schopenhauer came into the world on February 22, 1788 in Danzig [Gdansk, Poland] — a city that had a long history in international trade as a member of the Hanseatic League.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Beings and the Moral Law: Moral Precariousness in Kant's Ethical Philosophy
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2014 Human Beings and the Moral Law: Moral Precariousness in Kant's Ethical Philosophy Bradley Taylor University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Taylor, Bradley, "Human Beings and the Moral Law: Moral Precariousness in Kant's Ethical Philosophy" (2014). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 1468. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1468 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1468 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Human Beings and the Moral Law: Moral Precariousness in Kant's Ethical Philosophy Abstract ABSTRACT HUMAN BEINGS AND THE MORAL LAW: MORAL PRECARIOUSNESS IN KANT'S ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY Bradley M. Taylor Dr. Paul Guyer This dissertation is an examination of human moral precariousness in Kant's ethics. Human beings are in a state of moral precariousness insofar as they are ever-capable of transgressing the moral law and are often uncertain of the moral worth of their actions. Put another way, in this dissertation I argue that the basic relationship between human beings and the moral law, in Kant's moral philosophy, is, most fundamentally, one of tenuousness and vacillation. This relation is the fundamental characteristic of the human moral condition because such a relation is built into Kant's account of human moral agency. We have a tenuous relation to the moral law because we always have at least the possibility of conflict between our desire for happiness (i.e. the satisfaction of our inclinations) and the requirements of the moral law.
    [Show full text]
  • Mature Kantians Mika Lavaque-Manty [email protected]
    Mature Kantians Mika LaVaque-Manty [email protected] Department of Political Science University of Michigan Philip Otto Runge, Hülsenbeck Children, 1805–6. © ARTstor. Prepared for delivery at the 2004 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, September 2 – September 5, 2004. © American Political Science Association. Mature Kantians i INTRODUCTION: THE AUTONOMY PROBLEM One of the many problems facing Enlightenment thinkers was the question of how to reconcile their claim that all humans have equal dignity by virtue of their autonomous agency with the fact that many people neither enjoyed the respect their dignity warranted nor acted in ways that would have suggested they were meaningfully autonomous.1 If the 18th century was the age of the Enlightenment, many people didn’t act their age. Part of the problem was political in the institutional sense: absolutism, feudal vestiges and religious authoritarianism made it difficult, even impossible, for people to be autonomous. But these didn’t account for all the problems, and as Kant suggested, another part had to with ordinary people themselves: the people’s “immaturity” was also “self-incurred.” This was a real pickle, both theoretically and practically: If another person’s autonomous agency is your goal, you had better be careful about what and how much you do for her. There is a real tension, if not an outright conflict, between paternalism and respect for autonomy. There is also a risk of elitism in concerning yourself with others’ autonomy. In the absence of a shared summum bonum — and I take it that part of what modernity means is the absence of a shared summum bonum — the apparent end of a person’s action doesn’t always tell you whether she chose the action or the end.
    [Show full text]
  • APA NEWSLETTER on Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies
    NEWSLETTER | The American Philosophical Association Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies SPRING 2020 VOLUME 19 | NUMBER 2 FROM THE GUEST EDITOR Ben Hammer The Timeliness of Translating Chinese Philosophy: An Introduction to the APA Newsletter Special Issue on Translating Chinese Philosophy ARTICLES Roger T. Ames Preparing a New Sourcebook in Classical Confucian Philosophy Tian Chenshan The Impossibility of Literal Translation of Chinese Philosophical Texts into English Dimitra Amarantidou, Daniel Sarafinas, and Paul J. D’Ambrosio Translating Today’s Chinese Masters Edward L. Shaughnessy Three Thoughts on Translating Classical Chinese Philosophical Texts Carl Gene Fordham Introducing Premodern Text Translation: A New Field at the Crossroads of Sinology and Translation Studies SUBMISSION GUIDELINES AND INFORMATION VOLUME 19 | NUMBER 2 SPRING 2020 © 2020 BY THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION ISSN 2155-9708 APA NEWSLETTER ON Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies BEN HAMMER, GUEST EDITOR VOLUME 19 | NUMBER 2 | SPRING 2020 Since most of us reading this newsletter have at least a FROM THE GUEST EDITOR vague idea of what Western philosophy is, we must understand that to then learn Chinese philosophy is truly The Timeliness of Translating Chinese to reinvent the wheel. It is necessary to start from the most basic notions of what philosophy is to be able to understand Philosophy: An Introduction to the APA what Chinese philosophy is. Newsletter Special Issue on Translating In the West, religion is religion and philosophy is Chinese Philosophy philosophy. In China, this line does not exist. For China and its close East Asian neighbors, Confucianism has guided Ben Hammer the social and spiritual lives of people for thousands of EDITOR, JOURNAL OF CHINESE HUMANITIES years in the same way the Judeo-Christian tradition has [email protected] guided people in the West.
    [Show full text]
  • Hegel and Chinese Marxism
    DOI: 10.4312/as.2019.7.1.55-73 55 Hegel and Chinese Marxism Tom ROCKMORE*1 Abstract China is presently embarking on the huge task of realizing what President Xi Jinping recently called the Chinese Dream. China is officially Marxist, and Marx thus inspires this dream in his assigned status as the “official guide” to the ongoing Chinese Revolution. This paper will focus on the crucial relation between Hegel and Chinese Marxism. Marx is a key Hegelian, critical of, but strongly dependent on, Hegel. Since the Chinese Dream is not Hegelian, but rather anti-Hegelian, it is unlikely, as I will be arguing, to be realized in a recognizably Marxian form. Keywords: Hegel, China, Marxism, Marx, Engels Hegel in kitajski marksizem Izvleček Kitajska se podaja na pot uresničitve projekta, ki ga je predsednik Xi Jinping pred kratkim imenoval »kitajske sanje«. Kitajska je uradno marksistična in Marx zaradi statusa »urad- nega vodiča« sedanje kitajske revolucije, ki so mu ga pripisali, navdihuje te sanje. Članek se bo osredotočil na ključno razmerje med Heglom in kitajskim marksizmom. Marx je ključni hegelianec, ki do Hegla ni le kritičen, ampak je tudi odvisen od njega. »Kitajske sanje« pa niso hegelianske, temveč prej antihegelianske, zato je, kot bo razloženo, malo verjetno, da se bodo uresničile v prepoznavno marksistični obliki. Ključne besede: Hegel, Kitajska, Marxism, Marx, Engels * Tom ROCKMORE, Department of Philosophy, Peking University, China. Email address: rockmore[at]duq.edu AS_2019_1_FINAL.indd 55 31.1.2019 10:48:34 56 Tom ROCKMORE: Hegel and Chinese Marxism On the Relation of Marx and Hegel Marx’s followers as well as his critics tend to approach him through Marxism.
    [Show full text]
  • Classic Model of Perception Pattern Recognition Challenge Robust
    Classic Model of Perception Perception & Pattern Recognition Pattern Recognition Why is pattern recognition difficult? • Process of connecting perceptual • Accomplished with incomplete or information w/info in LTM ambiguous information – Visual Pattern Recognition – Auditory Pattern Recognition (Speech) – Importance of Context Challenge Robust • Many different exemplars are recognized • Used by on-line vendors to test for as being the same presence of a human (Turing Test) 1 Models of Pattern Recognition Template Matching • Template Models • Retinal image matched to pre- • Feature Models existing patterns • Neural Network Models • Recognition – when retinal image matches • Prototype Models pattern • Examples – Check Reading – Zip Code Sorting Problems • Image falls on wrong part of retina • Image different size than template • Orientation • Templates, templates, templates • New objects? Models of Pattern Recognition Feature Theory • Template Models • Stimuli broken down into features • Feature Models • Features combine and recombine • Prototype Models • Objects defined by • Neural Network Models – Constituent features – Relationships between features 2 Letter Recognition Pandemonium W A depiction of Selfridge’s (1959) Pandemonium model Supporting Evidence Hubel & Wiesel • Edge detection cells in cats (Hubel & • Different cells like different features Wiesel, 1962) Gibson, Shapiro, & Yonas (1968) Groupings by RT • Analyze letters in terms of features • Ask people to determine if 2 letters are the same vs. different • Compare the clustering of letters in the reaction time task to the similarities of the features 3 Find the ‘Z’ vs ‘Q’ Object Perception EIMVWX CDG9RU XMZWVI RDQOCG VIEXWM GRDCOU WVXQIE DCURZG Faster to find ‘Z’ on the right, Faster to find ‘Q’ on the left (due to letters w/similar features in the surround) Geons Degraded Objects • Can help explain recognition of degraded • Disrupt Geon • Deletion Control – (midsegment) objects – (concavity) Limitations of geons Features vs.
    [Show full text]
  • The Two Souls of Schopenhauerism: Analysis of New Historiographical Categories
    UFSM Voluntas: Revista Internacional de Filosofia DOI: 10.5902/2179378661962 Santa Maria, v.11, n. 3, p. 207-223 ISSN 2179-3786 Fluxo contínuo Submissão: 25/10/2020 Aprovação: 06/01/2021 Publicação: 15/01/2021 The two souls of Schopenhauerism: analysis of new historiographical categories Le due anime dello schopenhauerismo: analisi delle nuove categorie storiografiche Giulia Miglietta* Abstract: The Wirkungsgeschichte of Schopenhauerism is a complex mixture of events, encounters, influences and transformations. In order to orient oneself concerning such an articulated phenomenon, it is necessary to have valid hermeneutical tools at hand. In this contribution, I propose a reading of the Wirkungsgeschichte of Schopenhauerism through new and effective historiographical categories that resulted from the research conducted by the Interdepartmental Research Centre on Arthur Schopenhauer and his School at the University of Salento. On the one hand, I will refer to Domenico Fazio’s studies on the Schopenhauer-Schule and, on the other, to Fabio Ciracì’s research on the reception of Schopenhauer’s philosophy in Italy. This approach will reveal how the formulation of the so- called “two souls” of Schopenhauerism, the romantic and the illuministic, allows us to unravel the multifaceted panorama of the Wirkungsgeschichte of Schopenhauerian philosophy, in line with the subdivision within the Schopenhauer-Schule of metaphysical and heretical thinkers. Keyword: Schopenhauer; Wirkungsgeschichte; Illuministic soul; Romantic soul; Historiographical categories.
    [Show full text]