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The Hydrogeologic Connectivity of a Low-Flow Saline-Spring Fen Peatland Within the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Canada

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The Hydrogeologic Connectivity of a Low-Flow Saline-Spring Fen Peatland Within the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Canada Hydrogeol J (2015) 23:1799–1816 DOI 10.1007/s10040-015-1301-y REPORT The hydrogeologic connectivity of a low-flow saline-spring fen peatland within the Athabasca oil sands region, Canada Corey M. Wells1 & Jonathan S. Price1 Received: 4 July 2014 /Accepted: 26 July 2015 /Published online: 2 September 2015 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Abstract Saline springs can provide clues as to the nature of Keywords Groundwater/surface-water relations . Oil sands . groundwater flow, including how it relates to subsurface Saline springs . Wetlands . Canada wastewater storage and the distribution of solutes in the land- scape. A saline-spring peatland neighboring a proposed in-situ oil facility was examined near Fort McMurray, Alberta Introduction (Canada). The study area is situated just north of a saline groundwater discharge zone, which coincides with the ero- Saline-spring features have been observed historically sional edge of the Cretaceous Grand Rapids Formation. Na+ throughout the Western Boreal Plains (WBP) of Canada, and − − − (mean 6,949 mg L 1)andCl (mean 13,776 mg L 1)werethe their study has provided useful insight into origin and connec- dominant salts within the peatland, which increased by an tivity of regional flow systems (Grasby and Chen 2005; order of magnitude in the opposite direction to that of the local Grasby 2006; Grasby and Londry 2007), as well as the mag- groundwater flow. Rivers and freshwater wetlands within the nitude and distribution of saline discharge in the landscape study area had anomalously high salinities, in some cases (Hitchon et al. 1969;Jasechkoetal.2012;Gibsonetal. − exceeding 10,000 mg L 1 total dissolved solids within deeper 2013). While discrete, high-salinity springs have been studied sediments. Saline-spring features were observed as far as 5 km in detail in Alberta’s Boreal Plains, less is known about the from the study area. A low-permeability mineral layer under- hydrologic function of saline spring wetlands, whose dis- lying the peatland restricted vertical groundwater exchange charge tends to be more diffuse (Scarlett and Price 2013; (estimated to be less than several mm over the 4-month study Wells and Price 2015). Understanding the function and con- period). Sand and gravel lenses underlying the fen’s high- nectivity of these discharge features can provide important salinity zone may function as areas of enhanced discharge. clues into the nature of groundwater flow in the Athabasca High Cl/Br ratios point to halite as a potential source of salin- oil sands region (AOSR), including the flow history of brines, ity, while δ18Oandδ2H signatures in groundwater were lower the influence of saline discharge on ecosystem function and than modern-day precipitation or Quaternary aquifers. The the link between springs and subsurface wastewater contain- complex connectivity of saline-spring wetlands within the ment (Carrigy and McLaws 1973; Hackbarth and Nastasa landscape has implications for industry and land-use man- 1979; Gordon et al. 2002;Guptaetal.2012; Ferguson agers, and justifies incorporating them into monitoring net- 2014). With over 80 % of the recoverable bitumen too deep works to better gauge the magnitude and flow history of nat- for traditional surface mining, in-situ operations are expected ural saline discharge in the oil sands region. to quickly become the dominant oil sands extraction method in the near future (Jordaan 2012). Consequently, successful subsurface extraction and storage requires a sound under- standing of all possible surface–subsurface hydrologic con- * Corey M. Wells nections (Gordon et al. 2002;Jasechkoetal.2012). [email protected] In the AOSR, saline springs typically consist of an observ- able discharge outlet connected directly to Paleozic era 1 University of Waterloo, Waterloo, OntarioN2L 3G1, Canada Devonian carbonates that either subcrop or are exposed 1800 Hydrogeol J (2015) 23:1799–1816 completely to the surface (Hitchon et al. 1969;Grasby2006). groundwater discharge; and (2) link site-scale geochemistry These springs are typically karstic in origin and are found to regional-scale fluid flow to identify the connection of spring along the banks of the Athabasca and Clearwater rivers, where discharge to underlying formation waters. erosion has deeply incised into the exposed carbonate rocks (Ozoray et al. 1980; Ford 1998;Jasechkoetal.2012; Gibson et al. 2013;Broughton2013). Sodium chloride springs com- Site description and hydrogeologic setting prise 4 % of the springs in Alberta and are found exclusively in the northeastern region of the province (Borneuf 1983), Regionally, the AOSR is located on the northeastern margin of where the composition of subsurface brines represent a mix- the Alberta Basin, a sub-basin of the Western Canadian ture of geochemical end members related to seawater, evapo- Sedimentary Basin that forms a simple sedimentary wedge rite dissolution and freshwater mixing (Rittenhouse 1967; resting unconformably on buried Precambrian rocks of the Connolly et al. 1990a; Michael et al. 2003;Guptaetal. Canadian Shield. To the west, the sedimentary package ex- 2012). Within the Fort McMurray and Wood Buffalo regions ceeds 5,700 m but thins to a northeastern zero-edge where the of the AOSR, isotopic evidence and major ion composition of Precambrian Shield becomes exposed as a result of deposi- both high- and low-flow springs indicate that discharge water tional thinning and erosion (Grasby and Chen 2005;Connolly is not related to evaporated brine but is of meteoric origin, et al. 1990a).Thesimplifiedmodern-dayhydrodynamicre- with elevated salinity a result of contact with buried evaporite gime of the Alberta Basin is predominantly south to north beds, namely halite (Last and Ginn 2005;Grasby2006; through Cambrian sandstones and Devonian through Grasby and Londry 2007;Berardetal.2013). Mississippian carbonates. Thick sequences of shale and silt Owing to the expansion of in-situ projects within the units form regional aquitards through most of the overlying AOSR, considerable industry attention has been given to the Mesozoic strata; however, interbedded sandstones form local subject of in-situ extraction and subsurface wastewater dispos- and in some cases regional-scale aquifers (Bachu 1995). al (Carrigy and McLaws 1973; Hackbarth and Nastasa 1979; Throughout most of the Alberta basin, local and regional- Gordon et al. 2002; Ferguson 2014). Due to the shallow depth scale flow processes are modified by highly permeable of the regional stratigraphic package and the limited number Upper Devonian and Carboniferous carbonate rocks that of confining layers isolating disposal zones from the surface, channel flow from the entire basin northward where it dis- the potential for leakage and horizontal and upward migration charges in the AOSR (Hitchon 1969). Considerable postgla- of disposal fluids is large (Hackbarth and Nastasa 1979; cial erosion within the AOSR has exposed Paleozoic strata to Bachu et al. 1989;Gordonetal.2002). Structural complexi- atmospheric conditions and, in general, formation waters that ties related to Paleozoic salt bed erosion (e.g. massive-scale follow the basin-wide trend begin to show a modification in karst) and Pleistocene glacial events (e.g. Quaternary incised their flow paths due to atmospheric exposure and the influence channels), the outcropping of potential disposal zones at or of topographic and physiographic features (Bachu et al. 1993). near the surface and saline springs connected to the subsurface Regional-scale fluid flow follows a northeast direction while intensify the risk for cross-formational flow (Gordon et al. near-surface Cretaceous aquifers show strong local flow char- 2002; Andriashek and Atkinson 2007; Broughton 2013; acteristics and correspondingly low salinities caused by the Cowie et al. 2015). The storage of process water within the influx of meteoric waters. subsurface may create extra pressures that could augment The saline fen study site (56°34′28.84″ N, 111°16′38.39″ groundwater flow and establish new connections with deeper W) is located approximately 10 km south-southeast of the flow systems causing higher flow rates from springs as well as AOSR hub of Fort McMurray, Alberta (Fig. 1), within the increasing the proportion of salt in discharge waters (Carrigy Central Mixedwood Subregion of the Boreal Plains Ecozone and McLaws 1973; Hackbarth and Nastasa 1979). The gravity (Natural Regions Committee 2006). Several km east of the of this issue is particularly relevant to the saline spring wetland study site is a SAGD pilot project, a 3-year operation aiming complex that forms the basis of this study, where a steam- to test the reliability of the in-situ process and regional caprock assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) pilot plant aims to inject integrity. At peak production it will produce 1,000 barrels of wastewater within the underlying McMurray Formation. In crude oil per day from the McMurray Formation, which will order to better understand the heterogeneous nature of the also serve as the disposal reservoir for process-affected waste- regional hydrogeological flow system and assess saline spring water (Value Creations Inc. 2012). wetlands as conduits for subsurface discharge, knowledge of The fen lies at approximately 400 m above sea level (a.s.l.) spring hydrology and their linkage to deep groundwater is within the McMurray lowlands subdivision of the Dover required. With this in mind, the specific objectives of this Plains, a relatively flat region characterized by thick,
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