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Defining and Defending the Natural, Native and Legal in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador

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Defining and Defending the Natural, Native and Legal in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador THE POLITICS OF INVASION: DEFINING AND DEFENDING THE NATURAL, NATIVE AND LEGAL IN THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS OF ECUADOR Laura Brewington A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Geography. Chapel Hill 2011 Approved by: Stephen J. Walsh Stephen S. Birdsall Elizabeth Havice Peter S. White Ted Mouw © 2011 Laura Brewington ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii Abstract Laura Brewington The Politics of Invasion: Defining and Defending the Natural, Native and Legal in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador (Under the direction of Stephen J. Walsh) This dissertation analyzes contemporary politics and practices designed to manage species invasions and human population impacts in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador. Due to the high connectivity and movement of people around the world, non-native species are often introduced into protected areas, where human activity is also viewed as an ‘invasion’ into nature. In the Galápagos, population growth and more recently, tourism, have been linked to an increase in invasive species that pose threats to the local biodiversity. As a result, in 2007 Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa declared an ecological crisis in the islands, which continues to intensify with record tourist numbers (over 180,000 in 2009), a population growth rate of 6%, and new species introductions via air and sea. Through the lens of political ecology, this research uses case studies to describe how invasion, writ large, is understood and experienced differently across stakeholder groups and the landscape. Remote sensing analysis of vegetation cover in an area of the Galápagos National Park that was invaded by feral goats shows landscape-level vegetation decline during the invasion, and regrowth following eradication, but not necessarily in areas where goats were heavily concentrated. The long-term environmental effects of large-scale eradication programs also call into question claims of ecosystem restoration, and naturalness itself. Interviews among highland landowners and participation in land management practices show that the recent agricultural decline found on Isabela and Santa Cruz Islands is the result of interrelated environmental, economic and political factors, including species invasions, market instability, park- iii only policies and labor shortages. Participatory remote sensing further illustrates that different highland user groups have divergent perceptions of landscape productivity and degradation due to invasive species. Since the late 1990s, legislation has been implemented to control unlawful environmental behavior and illegal migration, but economic disparities perpetuate old tensions between residents of the islands and the Ecuadorian mainland. Cluster analysis of survey data finds that Galápagos residents have diverse stakes in island conservation and economic growth related to the booming tourism industry, while interviews among temporary and illegal migrants characterize the everyday vulnerability associated with migrant legal status in their own country. iv Acknowledgments I owe an immeasurable debt to those who participated in and contributed to the research for this dissertation. I am grateful to members of the Isabela and Santa Cruz Island communities who generously shared their experiences with me. They invited me into their homes and their lives, feeding me, caring for me and teaching me their ways of knowing the islands. I would especially like to thank Felipe, Juana, Jose, Pedro, Javier, Carlos, Juan, Hernan, Homero, Efigenia, Mathias, Maria Teresa, Peter, Eliecer, Maria Elena, Raquel, Jack, Florencia, Marilyn, and Rubén. I thank Carlos Zapata and Martín Espinosa of FUNDAR-Galápagos for the opportunity to volunteer with the organization in 2010. Thank you to Paola Pozo, who was an always-helpful field contact, friend, and translator when my Spanish failed me. Peace Corps volunteers Nick Zetts and Kasia Jarmolowicz offered invaluable insights into island agriculture, while ‘Gringo Jeff’ Frazier and the Casa Rosada provided a tranquil oasis when stress caused me to forget my beautiful surroundings. Thank you also to Jeanette Warner, whose laughter and inspiring nature breathed new life into my fieldwork. I am grateful to Wilson Cabrera, Fidelino Gaona and Unler Grefa who guided my trip to the Alcedo volcano in 2007, where their riotous sense of humor somehow compensated for the cold and damp surroundings. Thank you to Johannah Barry and Dr. Karl Campbell for their detailed descriptions of conservation project development. I thank David Arana of the Galápagos Inspection Quarantine Agency for his interest in my research and for giving me the opportunity to accompany him on very early morning inspections and patrols. Many more members of the Galápagos National Park Service, the Charles Darwin Research Station, and the Universidad San Francisco de Quito helped me compile information about introduced species, control and eradication protocols, and general management in the islands. I also thank the Charles Darwin Foundation, the Galápagos v National Institute and the Isabela and Santa Cruz Island municipal government offices for sharing their data and reports with me. This research would not have been possible without the generous financial support provided by the Inter-American Foundation Grassroots Development Program, the Carolina Population Center, the Graduate School at the University of North Carolina, the Institute for the Study of the Americas and the Douglas Eyre Travel Fund. Thank you to Christiana Kasner for her confidence in my work. I would also like to acknowledge the colleagues, friends and family members who have supported my work and research throughout the years. I wish to thank my dissertation advisor and partner in the field, Dr. Stephen J. Walsh, for providing professional and personal guidance and opening up the Galápagos Islands to me. Dr. Wendy Wolford deserves special thanks for teaching me how to design a research project, tirelessly helping me develop my proposal and making me think critically about nature and geography. I thank Dr. Stephen Birdsall for exposing me to the multitude of relations between humans and the environment, however unconditioned and unexpected. I thank Dr. Peter White for his patience with my rudimentary knowledge of biology, and for showing me through Bob Dylan lyrics that nature is not always as natural as it seems. Dr. Ted Mouw deserves thanks for his insights into migration theory and the production of illegality as a parallel to invasion. I thank Dr. Elizabeth Havice for her optimism and for reminding me to believe in myself. Dr. Paul Robbins, Dr. Brendon Larson, Dr. Peter Wilshusen and Dr. John Browder also deserve thanks for engaging me in lively debates about invasion, parks and people. Special thanks to Amy McCleary, Julie Tuttle, Kim Engie, Leah Edwards, Evan Raczkowski, Heather Knorr, Liz Hennessy, Liza Guzman, Dr. Carlos Mena and Patricia Polo for their moral and logistical support. Thanks to Dr. Conghe Song, Dr. Benjamin Heumann and Phil McDaniel for their technical and analytical support. Thank you to Jan Hendrickson-Smith for so many home-cooked meals, and for always treating me like a scholar. vi I would like to thank Barbara Taylor and Nell Phillips for their kindness and patience with a myriad of my scheduling, travel and general office requests. It has been an enormous pleasure to share their friendship, wit and bottomless candy jar. Thank you to my parents, John and Resa Brewington, for their endless love and encouragement; and to my brother, Dr. John Brewington III, and his wife Lisa for endless joy and entertainment. Thank you to Herbert Kappel and Agatha Brewington for teaching me their strength and sharing their wisdom. I thank my aunt, Dr. Patricia Brewington, for giving me a home away from home and reminding me of the adventures in every day. Thank you to Dr. Gary Kappel and his wife Stephanie for showing me how to be a scholar and navigate academic life. For all the late night talks and companionship I owe Brooke Millman, Dr. Jamie Perin, Lynda Curry, Chris Ketchie, Chris Allen, Dr. James Hull and Dr. Joseph Palis my deepest gratitude. Before he was my husband, Michael Hauser listened to my proposals and learned about the Galápagos Islands so he would understand the place I chose to live and work over the next three years. I would like to thank him for his tireless patience, his partnership, his excellent cooking, and for his calm and certain nature. This dissertation is dedicated to Wilda Jean Kappel, who passed away before she could read these words. She was always loving, generous and believed in me with every step that I have taken in life. Her faith compelled me to keep working and writing, and I could not have done this without her. vii Table of Contents List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... xii List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 Background ....................................................................................................................................
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