Boomtown Attitudes and Perceptions Non-renewable Energy Extraction Regions: North Dakota, U.S.A., Oil Shale and Alberta, Canada, Oil Sands A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School Of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.) in the Department of Geography of the College of Arts and Sciences 2017 By Mary D. Raycraft B.S., University of Cincinnati, 2009 B.A., University of Cincinnati, 2009 M.S., University of Cincinnati, 2010 M.A., University of Cincinnati, 2011 Committee: Roger Selya, Ph.D., Chair Robert South, Ph.D. Kevin Raleigh, Ph.D. Sandra Browning, Ph.D. ii Abstract Advances in extractive technology have facilitated the ability to obtain the non-renewable energy, oil sands, and oil shale resources. In this dissertation, the social impacts experienced in the Athabasca region of Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo (RMWB), Alberta, Canada and the Bakken Play in western North Dakota, U.S.A will be explored. This is a multi-site, multi- cultural, and multinational study that compares the responses from these rural geographically diverse regions. A questionnaire was completed by the 95 respondents that participated in this study; 40 from RMWB and 39 from different locations throughout the Bakken Play. In addition, 16 Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation (MAH) enrolled members from Fort Berthold Indian Reservations (Three Affiliated Tribes) were included as well. An interview followed the completion of the questionnaires. The resultant mixed methods approach captured their demographic data, socioeconomic, attitudes, perceptions, subjective well-being, and community attachment in the boomtown environment. Although RMWB and the Bakken Play have experienced energy booms in the past, drilling had not occurred on the sovereign lands on Fort Berthold Indian Reservation. In addition, this dissertation will also review the use of social impact assessments (SIA) in Canada (CEPA 1999) and the United States (NEPA 1977) in relation to lessening the impacts in energy resource communities. It is the hope that this research will add to the existing body of work will contribute to understanding the social impacts within a boomtown community. Keywords: oil shale, oil sands, word cloud, mixed methods, boomtown iii iv Acknowledgements Like most individuals that have reached the pinnacle of education, I have many professors, family, and numerous friends who were more than patient, supportive and, most of all pushy to further my education. To everyone, thank you. To my academic family, whose fields of interest and research are as diverse as they are. To my geography family: Roger Selya, Ph.D. who has traveled the very bumpy road of my personal and academic life. He has been my friend, teacher, confidant, and cheerleader in all things. I am grateful to Kevin Raleigh, Ph.D., who made my brain sweat, was helpful, and thoughtful, and showed me how philosophy could be fun-- yes, fun. To Robert South, Ph.D., always up for a quick chat thoughtful discussion, and of course, a dear friend. To my criminal justice family: Roger Wright, J.D.-- someone whom I could bounce ideas and have thoughtful discussions. Finally, Sandra Browning, Ph.D., who was not only an inspiring professor but who has also become a dear friend. These five individuals are not the only members of my academic family but are those who have ridden alongside, behind, and in front of me at various times. Without them, the culmination of this work could not have happened. To the amazing undergraduate and graduate students – Amber, Teri, Beth, Julia, Kevin, Kat, Katie, Alex, Deb, JP, Ben, Thushara, and Carlos, the list goes on and on, they have helped me in so many ways – thank you so very much. The long road traveled, as has been said so many times, could not have been possible without the love and support of my parents Tom and Mary and my children Christopher and Marisa. To my sisters Laura, Elizabeth, and Marsha, love, and thanks to you – all of who have traveled down this road with me. To my North Dakota family Kevin McKibbage and Harold and v Linda Narnum, whose kindness and friendship was unwavering. Finally, to John, who has been a sounding board, cheerleader and made me tea when I could not. There have been so many individuals whose path I have crossed and to whom I owe so very much. To these individuals and those above, thank you from the bottom of my heart. “… geography...know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect” William Hughes, 1863 in Baker, J.N.L. (1963) vi Table of Contents List of Figures and Graphs Page xiii List of Maps Page xviii List of Photographs Page xix List of Tables Page xxi List of Acronyms Page xxiii Chapter 1: Page 1 1.1 Introduction Page 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem Page 3 1.3 Purpose and Aims Page 6 1.4 Study Background Page 9 1.5 NEPA, National Environmental Policy Act, U.S. A. Page 12 1.6 Gillette Syndrome Page 15 1.7 Fear of Crime Page 18 1.8 Significance of Studying Boom-Bust Cycles Page 19 1.9 Organization of the Study Page 20 Chapter 2: Page 22 2.1 Introduction – Literature Review Page 22 2.2 Theoretical Framework: Critical Realism Page 25 2.3 Mixed Methods Approach Page 30 2.4 Boomtown Model: Energy Extraction Page 32 vii 2.5 Regional Shocks Page 36 2.6 Social Disruption Page 40 2.7 U.S.A. - National Energy Policy Page 50 2.8 Practicing Social Impact Assessment (SIA) Page 55 2.9 USA, SIA Page 61 2.10 Canada, SIA Page 71 2.11 Summary: Social Impact Assessment and Critical Realism Page 76 Chapter 3: Page 78 3.1. Introduction - Study Sites Page 78 3.2. Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo (RMWB), Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada Page 85 3.2.1 RMWB Reclamation Page 88 3.2.2 RMWB Environmental Concerns Page 93 3.2.3 RMWB Urban Environment Page 95 3.2.4. First Nations Page 96 3.2.5. RMWB Social Impacts Page 99 3.2.6. RMWB Crime Page 101 3.2.7. RMWB Demographics Page 102 3.2.8 RMWB Economics Page 107 3.3 The Bakken Play, North Dakota, U.S.A. Page 109 3.3.1 The Bakken Play – Williston Basin and Bakken Formation Page 109 3.3.2 North Dakota Revenue Page 115 viii 3.3.3 North Dakota Crime Page 116 3.3.4 North Dakota Social Impact Page 118 3.3.5 North Dakota Temporary Workers Page 123 3.4 Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, North Dakota Three Affiliated Tribes (Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation – MAH Nation) Page 125 3.4.1 History and Sovereignty Page 125 3.4.2 Three Affiliated Tribes Demographics Page 127 3.4.3 Three Affiliated Tribes Development of Oil Shale Page 128 3.4.4 Three Affiliated Tribes Land Ownership Page 130 3.4.5 Three Affiliated Tribes Tribal Administration Page 136 3.4.6 Three Affiliated Tribes: Social Impact and Environmental Impact Page 138 3.4.7 Three Affiliated Tribes: Crime Page 141 3.4.8 Three Affiliated Tribes: Communities on Fort Berthold Reservation Page 145 3.4.8.1 New Town, North Dakota Page 145 3.4.8.2 Parshall, North Dakota Page 146 3.4.8.3 Mandaree, North Dakota Page 148 Chapter 4 Page151 4.1 Introduction - Results Page 151 4.1.1 Validity Page 152 4.1.2 Trustworthiness Page 153 4.2 Methodology Page 154 ix 4.3 Research Strategies Page 155 4.4 Data Collection Page 157 4.5 Data Analysis Page 158 Chapter 5 Page 160 5.1 Introduction - Data Page 160 5.2 Respondents Demographic Data Page 160 5.2.1 Age and Gender of Respondents Page 160 5.2.2 Marital Status of Respondents Page 161 5.2.3 Average Length of Residency Page 163 5.2.4 Mineral Rights Owners Page 165 5.2.5 Club and Organization Participation Page 166 5.2.6 Median Incomes of Respondents Page 167 5.2.7 Occupations of Respondents Page 167 5.2.8 Respondents Educational Attainments Page 168 5.3 Survey Questions Page 169 5.3.1 Do you think that there should be more or less extraction in this area? Page 169 5.3.2 Do you think that the extraction process has been handled Responsibly? Page 176 5.3.3 Was there an Energy Boom Prior to 2010? Page 183 5.3.4 What kind of boom did you experience? Page 186 5.3.5 How long did it take for the community to recover from the last bust? Page 187 x 5.3.6 What did the government do to assist the community after the economic downturn? Page 188 5.3.7 Do you know if the local government is prepared for the next bust? Page 192 5.3.8 Did the local governments look to other communities to try to learn from their mistakes? Page 195 5.3.9 Were consultants called in to help the community survive the bust? Page 196 5.3.10 What is the most important economic issue facing your community now? Page 198 5.3.11 Do you know if the extraction company was helping the local government to lessen the economic impact due to their closing? Page 203 5.3.12 Were new businesses developed or enticed to move to the area to help support the economy? Page 208 5.3.13 How long do you think the current boom will last? Page 210 5.3.14 In the last 10-15 years have you noticed more businesses moving into the community? Page 212 5.3.15 In the last 10-15 years have you noticed more businesses out of the community? Page 214 5.3.16 Does your local governments consider the community and the