27 The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire Murray Cook from contributions by Fraser Hunter, Gordon Cook, Lindsay Dunbar, Rob Engl, Stefan Sagrott and Hana Kdolska

Introduction of construction. The latter, which now forms the inner circuit, comprises a rampart with an external ditch The RCAHMS survey of Strathdon, Aberdeenshire with traces of a counterscarp bank on the east (Illus 3). characterised the various hillforts within the area into Throughout the text the generic term ‘defences’ will six types, on the basis of size and defensive system be used to describe the system of banks and ditches, (RCAHMS 2007), though without any chronological although it is used as shorthand and is not meant to significance. As no intrusive work had been undertaken imply function. on the sites it was unclear how the classes related to The interior measures 122m by 95m and there were each other. It should be noted that the term Strathdon at least two entrances, one on the south-east and the does not appear in the final version of the RCAHMS other on the west, although this latter may be a product volume, which instead uses the more correct Donside; of robbing of the rampart. There is also a narrow gap however, it was used in an earlier draft (Strat Halliday in the rampart on the north, probably a more recent pers comm) which was the inspiration for this programme break. On the south-east there is a clearly defined of research. causeway across the line of the ditch and the entrance The Hillforts of Strathdon Project aimed to explore passage through the rampart is flanked with large the chronological relationships between the area’s boulders. The latter is also a feature of the putative various hillforts (Cook 2010) by undertaking keyhole entrance on the west, but here the rampart has been excavation, with local volunteers on one example almost entirely robbed away, it may be that the flanking from each of the six site types to recover dating boulders relate to the outer ramparts. A later undated evidence from taphonomically secure contexts. The fieldbank was subsequently constructed on the inner project examined six hillforts over five years (Cook rampart and the interior was probably later reused as 2010): Bruce’s Camp (NMRS NJ71NE 3; Cook et al an agricultural enclosure and this has confused the forthcoming), Maiden Castle (NMRS NJ62SE2; Cook visible sequence. 2011); Dunnideer (NMRS NJ62NW1; Cook 2010); The earlier defences lie to the exterior of the later Hill of Newleslie (NMRS NJ52NE 31), Hill of Barra fort and for the most part comprise two ramparts with (NMRS NJ82NW 4; Cook et al 2009) and Cairnmore external quarry ditches, but there are also traces of (NMRS NJ52SW 9; Cook et al 2010). This paper additional outer lines on the north-west. The ramparts presents an interim account of the third season of are most impressive on the north-east, falling away into the project which examined the multivallate hillfort the steep-sided ditches, but around the west they are at Hill of Barra (NGR NJ 8025 2570) and places the largely reduced to terraces. Additionally on the west, results in their immediate context. where the outer rampart swings out to accommodate a stretch of sheer rock outcrop, the inner rampart has been entirely removed. There are entrances on the Location and background west, south-east, north and south, only the south-east entrance is definitely not blocked by the later defences, Hill of Barra lies on the northern edge of a ridge of thus demonstrating the sequence of construction. small hills to the south of Oldmeldrum, at an altitude The entrance on the south-east is the best defined, of c 193 m OD (Illus 1) and is located to the east of the the ramparts returning around the terminals of the majority of all the other hillforts in Strathdon. The ditches. The returns on the north side of this entrance gentle domed summit of the hill and its immediate are revetted with boulders, and the remains of similar environs are dominated by pasture. The hill top has stone linings can also be seen in the south and western commanding 360o views of the surrounding area, entrances. including the fertile valleys and hill ranges to the west On the summit of the hill are two substantial encompassing the hillforts at Mither Tap, Bennachie glacial erratics, one of which is known as Wallace’s and Tap o’Noth (Illus 2). Putting Stone, which is said in local folklore to have ‘Barra’ is Gaelic for hill or height (Johnston 1906, been thrown by William Wallace from Bennachie 35). The upstanding remains at Hill of Barra (NMRS (NMRS NJ82NW 107). The two stones are in fact NJ82NW 4) show surface indications of two periods representative of a series of substantial glacial erratics

Tayside and Fife Archaeological Journal vol 18 2012, 27–40 28 Murray Cook

Illus 1 Location of Hill of Barra and additional sites mentioned in the text. (David Connolly) The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 29

Illus 2 view from Hill of Barra to the Bennachie in the west. around the hill (Murray Cook pers obs). A leaf shaped Echt (NMRS NJ70NW 1) which also features the same arrow head was recovered from a crack in this stone pattern of multiple entrances, although there are five (NMRS NJ82NW 22). There is also clear evidence ramparts here (RCAHMS 2008, 108). In addition, the that the stone was drilled, perhaps to insert explosives site is located in a similar location to that of Hill of ( Bill Howard pers comm), presumably to both exploit Barra, on an isolated range to the south-east of the main the stone and to increase the available land on the hill. body of hills. A more successful attempt at clearance appears to have Barclay (1997) has suggested that this latter site may occurred at the nearby recumbent stone circle of Kirkton be Neolithic in origin and represent a causewayed camp of Bourtie (NMRS NJ82SW 2), which now survives as of cognate form. The existence of such monuments in three stones surrounded by a pile of other large cleared Scotland is debated and there are not even any putative stones. Indeed, the famous stone avenue at Broomend examples north of the Tay (Barclay 2001; Noble 2006). of Crichie (Bradley 2011), the Brandsbutt stone and In England, however, there are numerous examples of associated circle at Inverurie also suffered the same causewayed camps being succeeded by later hillforts fate (NMRS NJ71NE 12; NJ72SE 12). The hillfort’s (Brown 2009). interior and surrounding area are covered with rig and A considerable number of unstratified artefacts have furrow (NMRS NJ82NW 119). been recovered from Hill of Barra including pottery Hill of Barra is also known as Comyn’s Camp and (NMRS NJ82NW 219), early prehistoric lithics (NMRS has traditionally been seen as the encampment of the NJ 82NW 4, 4.1, 10, 22 and 59) and a now lost perforated Comyns prior to the Battle of Inverurie (also known early prehistoric mace head from one of its ditches (NMRS as the Battle of Oldmeldrum) in 1308 between the NJ 82NW 5). Other commentators have identified this Comyns and King Robert I during the Scottish Wars accumulation of early prehistoric material as being rare of Independence (NMRS NJ82NW 4). While there is and significant (Dunwell and Strachan 2002, 92). Prior no evidence that the defences were built or even altered to these works no intrusive archaeological work had by the Comyns, this does not mean they did not camp been undertaken on the site. here. However, the name may simply represent a common process by which significant landscape features are connected in folklore with memorable and tangible Results events or characters in the past (Ralston 2006, 12). For example just outside Inverurie there is another Iron Age The project took place in July 2009 with local volunteers hillfort, called Bruce’s Camp (NMRS NJ71NE 3; Cook and students. Five trenches were excavated across the et al forthcoming), which is assumed to have been site: two trenches across the defences on the southern linked to King Robert I at the same battle. side and three in the interior (Illus 3). All the topsoil The RCAHMS (2007, 100) place Hill of Barra in was sieved by hand. The results of the excavation are Class 2 (multi-vallate enclosures) of their series. It is presented in two parts; the defensive sequence and the remarkably similar in form and size to Barmekin of internal activity. 30 Murray Cook

Inner rampart a rough stone capping and measured 1.35m thick and 0.65m high. Together the two banks measured The inner rampart survived as a surface feature up to at least 1.75 m thick and up to 0.65m thick. Early 0.1m high and was located immediately on the edge prehistoric worked lithics were recovered from the of the slope. Excavation revealed it was constructed fill of the secondary bank (Engl 2009). In addition, of stone, measured up to 2.4m thick and survived up undiagnostic hand thrown prehistoric pottery to 0.80m high with three courses (Illus 4). There was (MacSween 2009) was recovered from elsewhere no trace of the later field bank within the excavations. in the outer rampart. To the exterior of the rampart was a berm some 1.5m wide, immediately beyond this was a near vertical cut Interior some 0.6m high, presumably designed to create the impression of a more substantial rampart. Three 2m by 2m trenches within the interior of the At the base of the slope below the inner rampart fort (Illus 3) identified both a considerable variation was a flat terrace, some 7.5m wide which overlapped in the depth of topsoil and in the associated volume the middle rampart and masked a rock cut ditch, of artefacts present. measuring some 0.95m deep and extending at least The first (Trench 3) was located on the eastern 0.70m wide before it continued into the section (Illus side of the hill, in front of the eastern entrance (Illus 4). The basal fill of the ditch comprised a thin layer of 3). The topsoil here measured up to 0.07m deep from charcoal rich soil from which a date of 2405±35 BP which a small quantity of early prehistoric lithics (SUERC-28730) was obtained from a piece of alder was recovered from the topsoil (Engl 2009). (alnus sp) charcoal. When calibrated to two sigma The second (Trench 4) was located on the this gave a date of cal 560–360 BC. While the exposed northern flank of the hill in front of the northern section was small there was no indication of a recut. putative entrance. The topsoil measured 0.15m The terrace contained up to 1.8m depth of topsoil deep, below which was a lower soil, possibly a and at least one horizontally placed substantial boulder, buried topsoil some 0.15m deep. A variety of early suggesting that it may have been deliberately constructed prehistoric lithics (some of which were burnt) to increase the level area of the hill. Underneath this (Engl 2009), undiagnostic burnt bone and hand rock and in the fill of the terrace was a shale pendant thrown prehistoric pottery (MacSween 2009) or spindle whorl dating to between the fourth or third were recovered. centuries BC and the early medieval period. The third (Trench 5) was located on the western side of the hill near the summit. The topsoil was Middle rampart up to 0.15m deep, and contained a variety of early prehistoric lithics (Engl 2009) and hand thrown The middle rampart barely survived as a surface prehistoric pottery (MacSween 2009). Additionally feature and was located on the break of slope and a shank and tip of a copper-alloy pin possibly dating comprised a low soil bank some 0.23m high and up to the Iron Age and fragments of undiagnostic burnt to 1.54m thick. Flecks of charcoal were present within bone (Murray Cook pers obs) were also recovered. the fill of the rampart and it was constructed directly Cut into the underlying bedrock were two features: on the underlying natural surface (Illus 4). a possible posthole measuring at least 0.60m long, At the base of the slope below the middle rampart, 0.25m wide and up to 0.10m deep and a rock cut lay a ditch measuring 1.5m wide and 0.87m deep with ring-groove measuring 1.9m in length, 0.30m wide steep sides and a rounded base. The basal fill of the ditch and 0.30m deep. The ring-groove had a terminal contained both charcoal and possible ash flecks, a date within the trench. The fills of both features had of 1615±35 BP (SUERC-28728) was obtained from a been completely homogenised by bioturbation. piece of alder (alnus sp) charcoal from this context, It seems probable that the ring-groove feature when calibrated to two sigma this gives a date of cal represents a roundhouse with a putative entrance AD 380–580. The course of the ditch can be traced as to the south-east. a surface feature further to the east where it appears to respect the southern entrance through the middle and outer ramparts. Small finds

Outer rampart The lithics and pottery reports have been placed in the archive, and only the spindle whorl/pendant and The outer rampart survived as a surface feature some copper alloy pin are reported on in full. 0.2m high and excavation revealed it to consist of two phases of construction (Illus 4). The primary phase Copper alloy comprised a dump of coarse shattered stone that looked to have been quarried and which measured SF.13 Shank and tip of a copper-alloy pin, heavily at least 1.2m thick and up to 0.45m high. The corroded; undiagnostic as it survives, but plausibly secondary bank comprised a light brown soil with Iron Age. L 34 mm, D 3.5–4 mm. c 501. The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 31

Illus 3 Hill of Barra site plan and trench location. (After RCAHMS) 32 Murray Cook Plans and section trenches of 1 and 2. (David Connolly) Illus 4 The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 33

Worked stone seen that there is quite a cluster in the north-east of Scotland, although few can be closely dated; datable SF.19 Unfinished pendant or whorl made from an examples elsewhere range from the fourth or third inorganic grey shale or slate. Rectangular section century BC to the Roman period, and possibly into with flat faces following natural laminations and very the Early Historic period. slightly convex edges with extensive circumferential abrasion marks. There are more limited abrasion scratches on the surfaces and much more extensive Phasing and interpretation ones in the rounded biconical perforation (D min 9.5, max 16 mm). The abrasion scratches imply the There are six phases of activity on the site: geological, piece was unfinished. On one side is a faint, scratched early prehistoric, Neolithic to middle Iron Age, late curve concentric with the perforation but further out prehistoric, early medieval (Pictish) and medieval to and covering about a third of the circumference. This modern. In effect these simply represent the most visible is likely to be a marking-out line, suggesting it was evidence from the site’s sequence and it’s likely to have intended to expand the perforation to this point (which had a considerably more complex history. would give an internal D of c 24 mm) and indicating it was a perforation rather than a whorl. This is Phase 1: geological also suggested by the biconical rather than drilled perforation; the latter are more common in whorls. As described above, Hill of Barra has two substantial Ring-pendants are a well-known Iron Age type (see glacial erratics on its summit and it is likely that these discussion). The stone is likely to be local: inorganic are simply all that survive from later clearance. At shales and slates are recorded in the Dalriadic rocks present these stones have a very dramatic appearance of the area (Johnstone 1966, 28–39), although no against the wider landscape and will have had a similar detailed geological examination of the item was impact in the past (Illus 2), although this could have undertaken. D 36–37 mm, H 9 mm, m 21.27g. c 201. been lessened or masked depending on the contemporary woodland cover. Discussion Phase 2: early prehistoric: The finds assemblage is a very limited one. Both Neolithic / Early Bronze Age (c 4000–2000 BC) objects, the copper alloy pin tip and the shale pendant, are plausibly Iron Age although they come from topsoil A variety of unstratified worked lithics, mostly debitage contexts. The pin is too fragmentary for comment, (Engl 2009), some of which were burnt were recovered but the shale item is interesting on two counts; firstly, from topsoil deposits across the site. However, no since it is unfinished it indicates some on-site craft clearly diagnostic early prehistoric pottery was identified processes; secondly, it seems to have been intended as (MacSween 2009). The precise nature of these deposits is a pendant rather than a whorl. Its unfinished nature unclear but the presence of burnt lithics and bone may makes it impossible to be certain, but it was probably a indicate domestic activity of some sort, although the ring-pendant – a well-known Iron Age type, although burnt bone could derive from any of the later periods, not closely datable. These were often made in black and indeed the flint could also have been burnt in organic-rich stone such as oil shale or cannel coal, later fires. and have a widespread distribution with something As has been observed above there are a surprising of a concentration in north-east Scotland. They have number of early prehistoric artefacts from Hill of not seen detailed synthesis, although some parallels Barra. Indeed, the quantity of such material on site is are discussed by Hunter (2004, 107); to this can be greater than other hillforts in Strathdon (Murray Cook added examples from Glastonbury, Somerset (Bulleid pers obs) and across Scotland (Richard Strachan pers and Gray 1911, 261); Kirkburn, E Yorkshire (an asym- comm). This might simply represent its location, ie it is metrical example associated with a La Tène I ring, easy to get up and is near several small towns and thus suggesting a fifth–third century BC date; Stead 1991, there have been a greater number of visitors to the site 92–3, fig 69); West Grange of Conan, Angus (from and therefore more opportunities for material to be a burial; Jervise 1862, 497); Finavon, Angus (Childe recovered than in comparison to other sites. Thus there 1935, 76, fig 16); Castle Law, Abernethy, Perthshire might not be a greater concentration on Hill of Barra (Christison and Anderson 1899, 30); Balgarthno stone but rather simply a greater level of recovery. Indeed circle, Angus (NMS EP 188); and perhaps Walls, Orkney the related site Barmekin of Echt, which is in a more (NMS HR 447; its fragmentary nature prevents certainty). isolated position compared to modern settlement, as More locally to the current find, there is a stray find well being a higher hill has far fewer stray finds (NMRS from Huntly Castle (NMS FN 10) and one from NJ70NW 1). However, despite these concerns it seems the Iron Age site of Birnie, Moray (unpublished). reasonable to assume that there was indeed a significant These are all in black organic-rich stone, but there Neolithic phase to the site. is a slate example from the Roman fort of Bar Hill, In the wider context, evidence for early prehistoric Dunbartonshire (Keppie, 1985, microfiche). It can be settlement in Aberdeenshire ranges from lithic scatters 34 Murray Cook to substantial timber long-houses (Fairweather and assumption that the inner ditch is contemporary with Ralston 1993; Cook and Dunbar 2008; Fraser et al it. In addition, the ditch could also be later than the 2009) and also includes insubstantial circular timber rampart and represent further augmentation. However, roundhouses with very slight grooved foundations, for the sake of argument the former sequence is proposed perhaps temporary structures. The evidence from Hill as it is considered the most straigthforward. of Barra is too slight to contribute to this picture. The radiocarbon date from the basal fill of the inner ditch indicates that the wood from which the charcoal Phase 3: Neolithic to middle Iron Age (c 4000–500 BC) derived was felled around cal 560–360 BC. This is taken to mean that the ditch began to silt up around The presence of lithics in the outer and middle ramparts this time too and thus that the ditch was cut around indicates that they were built during or after the Neolithic or before this point. / Early Bronze Age period. The radiocarbon date from It should be noted that while the inner rampart and the basal fill of the inner ditch indicates that it began ditch block direct access to the interior from the other to silt up around or before cal 560–360 BC, meaning entrances, they are not themselves blocked and could that it was excavated before this point. In turn the inner still be used to gain access to the site, albeit through ditch and rampart are assumed to be contemporary. the south-east entrance. This taken with the fact that This means that as the outer and middle ramparts’ the new south eastern entrance aligns on the existing entrances are blocked by the inner rampart, they could one, indicates that while the defences are impressive, in theory date to any period between the Neolithic when the additional rampart and ditch were not intended to the worked lithics in the rampart were created and the be defensive, but rather to direct access to the summit. middle Iron Age when the inner ditch was dug, which is It is not certain if the ring-groove roundhouse was discussed in detail below. However, it is clear that while contemporary with the construction of the inner rampart. the outer and middle ramparts respect each other they At the beginning of this period the contemporary were not built together, the middle rampart is built in settlement record was like that of the preceding one, a different manner to the outer one, which in turn ie isolated roundhouses, however at the start of the has two phases, thus the outer and middle ramparts middle Iron Age there was a clear move towards represent at least three phases of activity. clusters of roundhouses (Cook and Dunbar 2008). The outer and middle ramparts also change their character around the site and were clearly more Phase 5: Early medieval (Pictish) (AD 400–800 ) impressive around the entrances, becoming smaller, slighter features along sections with steeper slopes, for The only evidence for activity from this period is example between the southern and western entrances. the outer ditch which was excavated at the base of the This and the fact that there are multiple entrances middle rampart. The radiocarbon date from the basal through the ramparts which align clearly mean that fill of the outer ditch indicates that the wood from they were never intended to be defensive. which the charcoal derived was felled around cal AD It is clearly tempting to follow Barclay’s suggestion 380–580. This is taken to mean that the ditch began (1997) that Barmekin of Echt and thus by extension Hill to silt up around this time and thus that the ditch was of Barra may be cognate forms of causewayed camps. cut around or before this point. If the ditch ran round However, as discussed above the presence of causewayed the circuit of the hill it would have enclosed an area camps in Scotland is debated (Barclay 2001) and it seem measuring 135m wide by 140m long. This is certainly more likely that the sites are probably similar to the Iron a significant enclosure and larger than any of the other Age sites at the Brown and White Caterthuns in Angus contemporary sites in Strathdon (Cook 2010; Cook in (Dunwell and Strachan 2007). At these sites a series of press). However, the nature and function of this phase successive enclosures were built with multiple entrances of enclosure is unclear, and intriguingly appears to in the early to middle Iron Ages (ibid). respect earlier entrances. Contemporary settlement evidence from the Middle It is worth speculating that the material used to Bronze Age (c 1800 BC) to the early Iron Age (c 700BC) construct the second phase of the outer rampart may in reveals individual isolated roundhouses, occasionally fact have derived from the excavated ditch. In addition, resulting in clusters as newer structures are built next to despite the wealth of finds from the area none of them existing foundations (Cook and Dunbar 2008; Johnson are early medieval and indeed there is only one Pictish 2004; White and Richardson 2010). symbol stone and one Pit- name in the immediate locale (RCAHMS 2007, 118 and 132), although this might Phase 4: Late prehistoric: early to middle Iron Age be connected with the undiagnostic nature of early (700–500 BC) medieval finds, for example the spindle whorl or pendant from Hill of Barra (see above). An inner rampart blocking off the entrances to the The presence of an early medieval phase at Hill of north, south and south west and focussing attention on Barra adds to the increasingly complex and diverse the existing south-east entrance was constructed in this picture from north-east Scotland in the second half period. It should be stressed that the inner rampart is of the first millennium AD. A picture that is radically undated and its placement in this period is based on the different from just over 20 years ago, when Elizabeth The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 35

Alcock (1988) produced a map of known early medieval soil lay upon exposed bedrock, while at Trench 4 there defended sites in North Britain and which contained was 0.15 of soil including 0.15m of buried topsoil. In no non-coastal sites in Aberdeenshire and Moray. Indeed, addition, the inner rampart had 0.7m worth soil abutting there was still no new evidence in 2003 when Leslie it and presevring a pre-rampart ground surface. Thus Alcock produced his magisterial summary of the period this latter modification has smoothed the profile of (2003) and this absence was hypothesised to reflect a the hill and both helped to preserve the ramparts and peripheral zone between Moray and Southern Pictland some internal actvity while truncating other parts of (RCAHMS 2007, 116), as well as an absence of kings it. The final phase of activity during this period is the (Fraser 2009, 66). This accumulating archaeological aforementioned drilling of Wallace’s Putting Stone, and evidence derives from a variety of sources and includes, perhaps the removal of no longer extant, smaller more a series of corn drying kilns and unenclosed structures portable erratics. from Kintore, (Cook and Dunbar 2008, 155–6); a hearth in the hillfort at Mither Tap, Bennachie (Atkinson 2007), and enclosures at Maiden Castle, Discussion Cairnmore and Barflat, the latter two of which are clustered around Ryhnie (Cook 2011; Cook 2010; The remit of the research was focussed on establishing Cook et al 2010; Noble and Gondek 2011; Cook in the site’s broad chronology and as a consequence the press). What all of these sites have in common is that discussion focuses on the nature of continuity and reuse the features would not have been identified as early between the various phases of activity and the potential medieval but for radiocarbon dating. A situation different functions of the site. commented upon elsewhere in the United Kingdom (for England see Newman and Brennand 2007, 74). Continuity and reuse While the new date from Mither Tap does not date the defences it does allow them to be viewed in a new The five major phases of human activity on site light. The fort itself occupies several physical levels and (early prehistoric, Neolithic to middle Iron Age, late has multiple phases of defence and is similar in both prehistoric, early medieval and medieval to modern) shape and plan to Dunadd, the early medieval nuclear clearly represent only the visible evidence for use of fort in Argyll (Lane and Campbell 2000). Indeed, the site. There is likely to have been considerably more Feacham (1955, 76), considered it early medieval, reuse that left either no evidence or was outside the although intriguingly the site was never included in excavation areas, for example internal occupation any of Alcock’s reviews of the evidence (1976, 1981; that did not refurbish the defences, etc. The sequence 1988; 2003). In turn, one possible interpretation of activity on the site either represents a continuum of the name Bennachie, may mean the ‘Hill of the of conscious reuse from one generation to the next Ce’ (Johnston 1903, 38; Dobbs 1949), one of the so- over the millennia of the site’s sequence or a more called Pictish tribes mentioned in De situ Albanie and fragmented piecemeal exploitation, although it is frequently associated with Mar and Buchan (Smyth impossible to prove either contention. 1981; McNeil and MacQueen 1996). Indeed, the name There is ample evidence from across Scotland for ‘Bennachie’ was known to contemporary Irish writers the importance and reuse of ancient objects and sites (Bruford 2000). However, the accuracy of this text throughout the past: cup marked stones and Roman has been recently placed in doubt (Broun 2000). In masonry are reused in soutterrains (Hingley 1992), addition, it is intriguing to note that that the entrance Neolithic pottery and chambered cairns appear to have of Mither Tap is orientated, on amongst other things, influenced the design of Iron Age pottery and structures Hill of Barra (Murray Cook pers obs). (Hingley 1996). In a local context, at Kintore a Neolithic mound was enhanced in the Iron Age with the addition Phase 6: Medieval to modern (1200–1900) of a line of pits and four posters, in effect creating a bounded area kept free from settlement (Cook and It is during this period that the rig and furrow Dunbar 2008, 308–10). The same mound had two was created and it seems likely that this process Pictish pits, full of stones and metal working debris also involved the creation of terraces between the inserted into it which were interpreted by the author ramparts, for example the horizontal stone placed as structured deposition (ibid). inside the middle rampart, and the robbing of the Further examples abound from the early medieval rampart material at the western entrance as well as period where writers have argued explicitly that the Picts the construction of the fieldbank on the inner rampart. forged their identity from older material. For example, No evidence was found for any actvity associated with it is argued that existing prehistoric monuments were either the Battle of Inverurie or for the fort having been used as a backdrop to legitimise local Pictish elites occupied or modefied at the time. (Driscoll 1998) and that later literate populations The subsequent process of cultivating the hill moved identified themselves with the ‘Picts’ of earlier Roman significant quantities of soil from the top of the hill to literature (Fraser 2009, 378). Of course precisely how further down slope, with the impact that in Trench 3 contemporary people understood prehistoric monuments just inside the south-eastern entrance, 0.07m of top- is unclear and they might not have recognised them as 36 Murray Cook anything to do with their ancestors but perhaps of something new on a significant location? Certainly, as numinous bits of the landscape with possible the same natural factors (location, view and erratics) otherworld connections. present in the Neolithic were also there in the Iron Age A similar reference to the past is also apparent (accepting a potentially variable and unknown level of in the medieval/modern period where the site and tree cover) and it might simply be that they were the indeed another hillfort at nearby Inverurie are linked inspiration for the site’s enclosure. However, it seems to the Wars of Independence. As described above, more likely that the builders of the enclosure knew some Hill of Barra is also known as Comyn’s Camp. It was resonance or significance from the earlier activity on supposedly occupied by the Comyns ahead of the Battle site and that this contributed to their decision. This of Inverurie in 1308 with Robert the Bruce who was was also argued with the Brown and White Caterthuns ‘based’ at the Iron Age hillfort Bruce’s Camp, Inverurie. (Dunwell and Strachan 2007). However, it is impossible In turn, one may suggest that the presence of Wallace’s to answer the question on the basis of the excavated Putting Stone may also indicate that in local legend evidence. Wallace supported King Robert by conducting an As indicated above the ramparts and ditches were not aerial bombardment of the Comyn’s deployments defensive, they are slight at the sides, there are multiple with massive stones, despite having been executed entrances, all of which line up on each other. Similar three years before (Cowan 2007). arguments were advanced regarding the Brown and On balance it seem inevitable that Hill of Barra was White Caterthuns in Angus (ibid) which have been always considered a significant site and that impressions interpreted as communal places with free access, and interpretations of the site and its past helped shape with the many entrances perhaps reflecting different its reuse by each successive generation. The role ascribed seasons or ethnic groups. The construction of additional to the site in the Wars of Independence reflects only the ramparts or indeed their maintenance could be seen as extant and most recent blending of myth and history in large-scale community acts, reflecting or celebrating what must have potentially been millennia’s worth of some regular event or even the inauguration of kings or such oral tradition, although equally this latter element priests. Perhaps even the act of repair or construction may also be part of the broader Enlightenment tradition itself was the most important factor. Similar ideas have of attempting to record and explain the landscape, as been expressed over pit alignments and enclosures in exemplified by the Statistical Account (Donaldson and the Neolithic (Thomas 1999). Morpeth 1977, 205). However, it does seem possible The excavations at Kintore indicate that at this that the site continued to be viewed as an important time the settlement pattern comprised individual place even if its original and subsequent purposes and roundhouses, presumably containing extended family meanings were forgotten (Bradley 1993). units (Cook and Dunbar 2008, 339–40). If the evidence from Kintore is applicable across the whole of Strathdon, Function then the location of Hill of Barra may be central to its function, it is centrally placed and could have ‘served’ The earliest phase of activity is of course the Neolithic/ or certainly be accessed by a wide variety of family units, Early Bronze Age lithic scatters from the site and con- and performed an essential function as a location for temporary material from the immediate environs. The markets, fairs, festivals or any kind of regular gathering. location and nature of the other hills in the range means Certainly, a similar function has been suggested for both that the site could be easily avoided when travelling the Brown and White Caterthuns in Angus (Dunwell north–south or east–west, other than in the most and Strachan 1997) as well as Traprain Law in East local of contexts ie Bourtie to Oldmeldrum and back. Lothian (Armit et al 2002). However, as has been described above, the site, as Intriguingly, in contrast to the Brown and White does Barmekin of Echt, sits between the coast and the Caterthuns (Dunwell and Strachan 2007), there are massive range of hills to the east with Bennachie at its considerably fewer entrances at Hill of Barra and centre. On a clear day the panoramic view is astounding the Barmekin of Echt (RCAHMS 2007, 98–99). (Illus 2). It seems likely that it is the combination of a The phenomenology of enclosure entrances has been liminal location, the view and the presence of glacial tentatively linked to that of roundhouse entrances erratics on the hill led to the site becoming a focus for (Parker-Pearson 1996) which have been much discussed activity at this time. While the precise nature of this (Fitzpatrick 1997) and in general it is now concluded activity is unclear it may have comprised some domestic that roundhouse entrances are generally positioned occupation as indicated by the presence of burnt lithics. for prosaic reasons such as maximising light and Certainly the utilisation of natural features as foci for avoiding the prevailing wind (Pope 2007). However, activity in the Neolithic is widely paralleled (Bradley the excavations at Kintore (Cook and Dunbar 2008, 1993; Noble 2006). 324) indicated that round house entrances moved anti- The function of the site in the early to middle clockwise over time with a focus on the south-east Iron Age is difficult to determine, as it is not clear if facing orientations in the middle Iron Age. its function changed after it was enclosed. Does the Assuming some level of continuity from the con- enclosure represent a celebration or redefinition of struction of the outer ramparts to the inner rampart, something already taking place or rather the creation its construction is of considerable significance as it The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 37 completely changes the nature of access to the site. As described above there is an increasing volume While the inner rampart does not block the outer of early medieval evidence in Strathdon which adds entrances and continues to permit access to the area to the area’s tightly defined groups of Class I symbol between the inner and outer ramparts, if one wishes stones (RCAHMS 2007, 118). It is very striking to note to access the interior, one has to use the south-east that the symbol stone distribution is very similar in entrance. Of course using this entrance ensures extent to that of the medieval earldom of the Garioch, that the eventual backdrop of the hills to the west centred on Inverurie (op cit, 140). Stringer has argued is considerably more impressive once you cross the that this was carved out of an existing larger territory summit. However, it is tempting to suggest some originally focussed on Kintore (1985, 65). This appears form of link with the patterns of entrance orientation to suggest that essentially the same area existed over at Kintore. the centuries with a series of different caputs, these As with earlier periods there is some limited evidence potentially could have included Hill of Barra, Kintore for domestic occupation during the Iron Age, including and then Inverurie. However, if this was the case what a possible roundhouse but beyond recording its presence was the relationship of Hill of Barra to other significant nothing further can be said. roughly contemporary locations, such as Mither Tap Perhaps the most intriguing element of the sequence or the cluster of sites at Rhynie? It may be that there is the addition of a ditch in the early medieval period to was a complex hierarchical relationship between the respect the southern entrance and the material excavat- sites and certainly evidence exists that in early medieval ed from it may have been used to augment the outer Ireland both house and enclosure size were linked to rampart, which also respected the southern entrance. status (Murray 1979; Edwards 1990, 33). However, However, because during this phase of reuse there it may also be that the sites were not contemporary must have been clear unambiguous signs of the site’s or indeed that influence fluctuated around the region, earlier phases, ie the earlier ramparts, it is possible certainly, the extant historical texts indicate that battles to more thoroughly debate the impetus behind the and warfare were commonplace (Alcock 1988) and this reuse and thus its function. As discussed above it is has been confirmed through excavation (Alcock 1976; impossible to prove an active continuous use of the Alcock et al 1989). site over the generations and indeed the evidence from Alternatively this pattern may be in part connected nearby Kintore (Cook and Dunbar 2008; Cook in with the emergence of Christianity. It is clear that the press) indicates a break or shift in activity between distribution of Early Christian symbol stones is different AD 250 and 600, which demonstrates the potential to Class I stones, there are for example no Early Christian for piecemeal use of locations over time. In addition, stones at Ryhnie (RCAHMS 2007). This might imply given the above discussion on reuse and continuity it that the variety of enclosure forms and locations in is likely that the site’s visible past held some attraction Strathdon represent a shift in settlement patterns or value to the people who dug the ditch and was used and power structures following the wider adoption to legitimise, support or reinforce a societal position. of Christianity; certainly in the late eighth century Certainly, the excavation of the ditch would be a the church increasingly became the focus of secular significant undertaking both in terms of logistics conspicuous consumption (James et al 2008, 208). In and labour as well as being a very visible statement on this context an alternative origin of Bennachie to the behalf of whoever controlled the necessary resources. ‘Hill of the Ce’ mentioned above is of interest: Johnston The critical point however, is what was the context (1903, 38) and Watson (1926, 264) also consider that of this action? The most obvious interpretation is that it may mean the ‘hill of blessing’ and may be linked to the site was reused as some kind of central location early Christian activity. for the local political and administrative authority. In However, if we examine the possibility Hill the early medieval period Hill of Barra was the largest of Barra was a caput, it is strange that there are enclosed site in Strathdon and one of the biggest in the no early medieval finds from it: the closest being north-east of Scotland. The refortified site is on a par the early cross at Bourtie (NMRS NJ82SW 4). This with the northern enclosure at Burghead (Alcock 2003, is in direct contrast to the wealth of material recovered 185) and similar in extent to the entirety of Dundurn from Cairnmore, Maiden Castle and Barflat, which and Urquart, and even bigger than Dunadd (op cit, includes several Pictish symbol stones, crucibles, 185). It seems entirely possible that the site could have moulds, a glass pendant, glass and imported pottery represented some kind of regional caput of an early (Cook 2011; Cook et al 2010; RCAHMS 2007; Noble medieval territory. Certainly in Ireland early medieval and Gondek 2010; Noble and Gondek 2011). In addition, royal sites are frequently based on older prehistoric if one compares the wealth of material from other sites (Warner 1984), for example Knowth is a fortified contemporary central points from across Scotland Neolithic passage grave, while Clogher is a refortified eg Burghead and Dunadd (Alcock 2003) the absence hillfort (ibid). In addition, there is also evidence from of similar material from Hill of Barra becomes more early medieval Ireland that the number of defences pointed. Of course the volume of excavation has been around an enclosed site was connected to status limited, although at Hill of Barra, given the wealth of (Edwards 1990, 33), which is particularly apposite prehistoric material recovered from the site this absence to the refortification of Hill of Barra. seems real. 38 Murray Cook

On balance the present evidence does not support Conclusion Hill of Barra acting as a central point for administrative purposes. This interpretation may be supported by The excavations at Hill of Barra, while extremely limited the fact that the ditch and putative augmented bank in extent have revealed a significant sequence of events respected an earlier entrance, implying that the motive stretching over millennia and have greatly added to behind the construction of the ditch was connected to the understanding of enclosed sites in Strathdon in the existing banks and ditches rather than the use of the Iron Age and early medieval period. The work the interior. validates the key-hole approach taken by the project, Of course political legitimacy/support could also be underlines the need to extend the corpus of dated sites derived from simple public works, perhaps the site was and demonstrates that the whole is greater than the used for fairs and markets and the additional ditch was sum of the parts. seen as a way of linking a current political entity or It is argued that from the early prehistoric period person with an ages-old tradition. It may be that the site to the early medieval period Hill of Barra appears to was perceived as the traditional and ceremonial caput have been a focal point for various forms of activity. of the region, although of course there is no evidence This extensive sequence in part probably derived from for this. the spectacular views from its summit, its location and There is also one other more esoteric possibility, if the presence of glacial erratics on it. It is unlikely that we assume for the sake of argument that the site was conscious active continued use of the site occurred associated with earlier ritual practices or values by over its long lifetime but as time passed evidence from contemporary society then its augmentation might the previous phases of activity helped to maintain and be a reaction to the Christian mission. Clarke (2007) confirm the site as a significant place, although its precise has suggested that the appearance of Pictish symbols function remains obscure. While it is probable that the on existing orthostats might represent an attempt to site’s role fluctuated, it is likely that it was used, amongst re-emphasise an existing Pictish identity in the face of other things as a central meeting point perhaps for fairs proselytising Christians. In this context the excavation or markets or other kinds of ceremonies such as the of the ditch represents a very large and visible statement inauguration of kings and that the maintenance and/or about existing traditions and their need to be enhanced enhancement of the enclosures was an important aspect and maintained. Clearly, however, this must remain of the function of the site. During the Iron Age the tentative speculation. nature and direction of approach to the interior appears Moving beyond the immediate locale, it is worth to be an important factor in its use and one which stressing that we do not understand the political may be linked to round-house entrance orientation. geography of the region. Woolf (2006) has argued Some aspect of Hill of Barra’s significance was still that the Pictish kingdom Fortriu and their late Iron recognised in the early medieval period and may Age predecessors the Verturiones (involved in the have been used to legitimise or support some local Barbarian Conspiracy of 367 AD) were located north political authority or perhaps to make a bold of the Mounth rather than south and tentatively placed statement about religion. its core in Moray and the Black Isle. However, while The potential complexity of now lost oral tradition there is a significant concentration of high status that may have been associated with the site and other eighth century Pictish sculpture in this area eg Hilton locations may be hinted at by the role assumed to have of Cadboll (James et al 2008), there has always been been ascribed in local folklore to Hill of Barra in the a higher concentration of early medieval hoards in Wars of Independence, which features both erroneous Aberdeenshire (Heald 2001) and the evidence from time lines and superhuman acts. the hillforts of Strathdon now indicates a higher con- These works have added flesh to the bare bones of centration of Pictish hillforts in Aberdeenshire than the RCAHMS’ excellent volume and highlighted the Moray and the Black Isle (Alcock 1988; Cook in press). potential depth of activity on enclosed sites and that While this evidence reflects an absence of modern this cannot be captured by survey alone. excavation in the area (Alcock 1988), is it possible that in the fifth and sixth centuries Strathdon was at the core of Fortriu before switching to Moray in the seventh Acknowledgements or eighth centuries; or perhaps even that Strathdon represented an unrecorded polity subsequently The project was generously funded and supported by swallowed up by Fortriu? the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, the MacKichan After the early medieval period there is no further Trust, Glasgow Archaeological Society, the Russell evidence for the active use of the site, although of Trust, the Council for British Archaeology, Aberdeen- course the Comyns may have used it in the Wars shire Council, AOC Archaeology Group and Oxford of Independence, and it simply becomes farmland. Archaeology North. Thanks are also due to the Ironically this apparent relegation to mere farm land many volunteers who worked on the site and the also involved significant excavation and movement many colleagues who gave advice and support and of soil as the rig and furrows and terraces were created to in particular the late Ian Shepherd, Moira Greig, maximise the available land. Dr Ann MacSween, Dr Fraser Hunter, Dr Anne Crone, The altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire 39

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