GIDEON SHIMONI

Zionism in South Africa An Historical Perspective

In the comparative perspective of Hegemony of Diaspora Jewish communities, especially in English-speaking countries, the dis• From the outset, Zionism functioned in tinctive, perhaps even unique, attributes South Africa within the unified of South African Zionism lie in its. organizational framework of the Zionist hegemony in Jewish communal life and Federation which not only coordinated its centrality for Jewish identity. Indeed, the activities of all Zionist societies and Herzl's famous exhortation that groups, but also acted as an initiating Zionism "conquer the communities" authority. The contrast with the position was fulfilled in the South African in North American Zionism may serve to case to a truly remarkable degree. illustrate the singularity of the South There can be no doubt that judged by African movement.1 In the U.S. and almost any criterion — membership, Canada, the existence of organizations fundraising capacity, press resources, with federative pretensions such as the political vitality, or youth affiliates — Zionist Organization of America or the the Zionist Organization has always Zionist Organization of Canada never been the pre-eminent institution in the managed to encompas^ all Zionist life of the community. societies and political groups. Moreover, whereas in South Africa fundraising developed within the Zionist Federa• tion's orbit, in the United States it Gideon Shimoni is lecturer in Contemporary Jewry at The Hebrew University, . evolved independently of the Zionist This article forms part of a book on the relation• Organization. Thus the United Jewish ship between South African Jewry and , Appeal in America is today linked to edited by Harold Blumberg, to be published funding of local needs whereas in South during 1980 by Turtledove Press, Ramat Gan. Africa the equivalent Israel United Ap• A major work by Dr. Shimoni entitled Jews and Zionism: The South African Experience 1910- peal (IUA) is scrupulously separated ¡967 is shortly to be published by Oxford from local needs and remains under the University Press. aegis of the Zionist Federation.

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To be sure, synagogue congregations flowed from this task created important and various traditional benevolent and precedents for the hegemony of Zionism Chevra-Kadisha societies preceded in the South African community. The Zionist societies in the communal evolu• Federation kept a strict lookout over in• tion of South African Jewry. But it is a cidents of antisemitism and threats to fact of considerable significance that the Jewish rights. It even defended Jews first Jewish institution to achieve a wrongly accused of illegal liquor trading, national organizational framework was and arranged prayer minyanim.4 the South African Zionist Federation, Indeed, it was only after a struggle, formed in 1898.2 Moreover, in the cir• and with grave reservations, that the cumstances which obtained after the Zionist leaders permitted the establish• Anglo-Boer War, that Federation ment in 1906 of an overall represen• became, de facto, the first representative tative organization in the form of the institution of the community vis-a-vis Jewish Board of Deputies, modeled on the governmental authorities. Its presi• the body of that name in London. When dent at that time was Samuel Goldreich, the idea was first mooted at a public who exerted a profound formative in• meeting in April 1903, Yiddish- fluence on South African Zionism. speaking Zionists deliberately attempted For Goldreich, Zionism was not just to disrupt the meeting by booing and one movement or stream among others shouting. An English-speaking observer in Jewish life. Zionism was synonymous reported that the proposal "gave rise to with Judaism; it was Judaism at its noisy interruptions on the part of the best. "We dare not forget," he averred, alien [i.e., new immigrant] Zionist ele• "that nothing which concerns the Jew is ment and from this point onward this foreign to us. The South African Zionist element became unmanageable....The Federation is charged with the proper expressed intention of the Zionist op• care of the local aspects of the Jewish position was to stifle everything that was question." In his view these aspects not under the direct and absolute control ranged from synagogue affairs to im• of Mr. S. Goldreich, as President of the migration and naturalization matters. Zionist Federation."5 The Zionists "We have deserved the name that has argued thus: been bestowed on us by the Zionist Zionist organisations have direct and Congress... 'the Jewish Consulate in specific instructions from Vienna to watch South Africa,'" he declared.3 In con• and safe-guard Jewish political interests. sonance with this conception of Zionism Zionists are instructed to take part in all Goldreich persuaded the High Commis• Jewish work and to care for all Jewish in• terests, in order to accustom governments sioner, Lord Milner, to recognize the to regard them as the representatives of South African Zionist Federation as the the Jewish people. The establishment of appropriate agency to facilitate permits other associations to deal specifically with for the return of Jews who had fled from the safe-guarding of Jewish political in• the Transvaal during the Anglo-Boer terests is thus not compatible with the policy of the Federation.6 War. The wide range of activity of a strictly local, communal nature which Owing to all these activities the Zionist ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 73

Federation commanded a considerable was, in general, financially sound, adherence among South African Jews, whereas the Board of Deputies was who numbered some 40,000 by 1905. chronically short of financial resources.10 At its first Conference held that year, no Only after 1933 did the Board's finan• less than 75 delegates attended, cial position begin to improve; the representing societies in every part of acknowledged need to counteract rising the country, from Cape Town in the antisemitism gave it a new lease on south to Bulawayo, Rhodesia, in the public support. Throughout the years of north. By 1910 it embraced well over 60 their coexistence the Zionist Federation Zionist societies within its framework.7 was able to exert its influence con• From that time onward the record of stitutionally, from within the Board, Zionist membership has remained ex• through its own representatives as well traordinary, especially when viewed in as through the deputies of other Jewish the comparative perspective of Jewries institutions who happened also to be in the Anglo-American world. In mid- Zionists. The Board of Deputies on the 1946, when the first postwar Zionist other hand, lacked internal leverage in election took place, South African Jewry the Federation. Thus Jack Alexander, as a whole numbered 104,156 Jews. No who as Secretary-General of the Zionist less than 39,945 were shekel holders Federation was a key figure in Zionism, and of these 28,876 cast their votes. sat on the Board's Executive irom 1921 Two years after the creation of the State onward, with only a few years' break. of Israel, out of a population of 110,000 Whenever Alexander sensed a digression Jews, 50,000 adults were shekel from the Zionist line he sounded the holders.8 As recently as 1971, after alarm at the Zionist Federation. As he Zionist membership all over the world later recollected, "when we became real• had undergone a drastic decline, 36,000 ly concerned about the way the Board out of a total population of 118,000 was going... we decided to get more Jews were enrolled as formal members of Zionists onto the Executive."11 the Zionist Organization in South An instructive incident bearing on the Africa. In the elections held that year, relationship of power between the Board 16,763 people voted, representing and the Federation occurred in 1942. It 27.93% of the estimated adult Jewish concerned the objects of a War Victims population.9 Fund which the Board of Deputies had Even after the Zionist leaders had initiated. The Board had intended that become reconciled to the theoretical this fund's purposes include helping primacy of the Board of Deputies as a South African Jewish families that had representative umbrella organization in• suffered as a result of the war as well as corporating the Zionist Federation, they rehabilitating Jewish survivors of the zealously watched over Zionism's actual war in Europe. The Zionist Federation hegemony in the community. In practice, insisted that the Fund must the Zionist Federation was always the acknowledge the absolute primacy of more powerful of the two bodies. It en• Palestine in the reconstruction of Jewish joyed unflagging public support and life. This principle was accepted, but 74 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES

only after a stormy debate in the 'Board mula was the result of a compromise during which some Yiddishists con• between two main pressure groups demned the Zionists for attempting to within the Board of Jewish Education, dominate the Fund.12 Thereupon, the both of which were Zionist — the Zionist Federation charged the Board of Mizrachi Party on the one hand, and Deputies' Executive with lukewarmness Zionists belonging to other political toward Zionism on the mere grounds groupings within the Zionist Federation that they had permitted the Zionist de• on the other. In educational practice the mand to be questioned. How dared they "traditional" facet of the formula aimed allow the pivotal concept of a Jewish to expose the pupil to a modicum of National Home to be classed simply as observance and knowledge of basic texts, one of a number of rival political concepts, rituals and values of orthodox theories for the Jewish future?13 Judaism, while the "national" facet In the controversy which ensued, and aimed at fostering identification with the which was resolved only when the Jewish national revival epitomized by Zionist Federation felt satisfied that the the Zionist Movement and Israel. After Board had been brought back into line, 1948, when the Board of Jewish Educa• the Zionists issued a manifesto of princi• tion began to develop a network of day ples which stated quite plainly: schools in South Africa, this "national- traditional" formula continued to be its We have to make it clear to those who do not yet appreciate it, that Zionism is not ideological basis. Today these day just one of a number of "parties" in schools encompass some 35rr of the Jewish life, but that Zionism is the school-going population. positive survival policy for Jewry in its en• The funding of these day schools has tirety.... And it is in terms of a Zionist been a persistent dilemma of South framework that the blueprint of Jewish life in South Africa must be developed.14 African Zionism. Unaided by the state, those responsible for the day schools There was, in fact, little of importance in have constantly appealed, not without a the life of the South African Jewish com• Zionist rationale, to the Federation's munity which could be carried out leadership to use part of Zionist-raised without the support of the Zionists. funds for the support of the schools. Jewish education was a case in point. Opinion has been deeply divided on this Although the Zionist Federation never point among Zionists — some claiming created a school system of its own, it was that aside from itself, day schools an indispensable factor in the creation of are the foremost Zionist imperative; a Board of Jewish Education when such others asserting that it would be a a body belatedly emerged in 1928. From travesty of Zionism if IUA funds were to the outset, the ideological premises of be diverted for local needs. In 1961 the Jewish education were essentially matter was investigated by two Commis• Zionist. During the 1940s these sions of Inquiry into Hebrew Education, premises came to be formulated as one for the Cape under Judge Herbstein, "Jewish education based on broadly and the other for the rest of the country national-traditional lines."15 This for• under Judge Kuper. Although both ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 75

Herbstein and Kuper were leading endangering the achievement of full Zionists their commissions arrived at emancipation for the Jews. Consequent• contradictory conclusions, the latter's ly, native modes of American Zionism recommending the use of IUA funds to were heavily preoccupied with proving help extricate the Board of Education that Zionism was not incompatible with from its financial difficulties, and the acculturation and membership in the former's negating the idea.16 Only in re• American nation. They tended to de- cent years has the inexorable demand emphasize or modify the basic Zionist for significant support of the constantly proposition that the Jews are a separate growing day schools at last obtained the nation and instead, to stress the Zionist Federation's agreement and the religious, humanitarian proposition that Jewish Agency's blessing. all Jews should help in the upbuilding of Palestine as a haven for oppressed Jews Zionism as a Mode of and as a spiritual center for all of Jewry. In order to advance the Zionist ap• Jewish Identity proach, Louis Brandeis, for example, set The second striking attribute of South about proving that the ideals of Zionism African Zionism is its role as a nor• were compatible with "progressivist" mative mode of identity for South American ideals; hence to be a good African Jews. In other English-speaking American one had to be a good Jew and countries such as Britain and the United to be a good Jew one had to be a good States, the Jew normatively perceived Zionist.18 himself as a member of a religious In South Africa this rationale was group, and only with reservations, if at redundant. Jews, by and large, regarded all, as a member of a distinctive national it as axiomatic that, first they were an group. In contrast, South African Jews entity not only of religious but also of have always perceived themselves at national character, and, second, the least as much in terms of national restoration of their national homeland in belonging as of religious belonging. It Palestine was indisputably the foremost was Zionism which mediated this self- Jewish task of their time. The only anti- perception. 17 Zionist position of any durability was of In the United States and in Britain, the Yiddishist variety which itself Zionism confronted influential and recognized the first part of this axiom widespread anti-Zionist ideological posi• even if it rejected the second part. No tions drawing upon two basic kinds of Jewish group of significance ever con• objection: first, that Zionism was tended that acknowledgment of the theologically wrong because, as the national attributes of Jewry was incom• ultra-Orthodox charged, it contradicted patible with being a South African. messianic eschatology or, as Reform Ironically, it was in South Africa that Judaism charged, it ran contrary to the these assumptions were sorely put to the sacred mission of dispersion. Second, test after the creation of the State of that it corroborated the antisemitic Israel. Israel's expanding relations with charge of dual loyalty thereby gravely independent African states and its at- 76 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES tendant escalating opposition to African Government might again permit apartheid in the international forum their transfer to the Jewish Agency in precipitated a crisis for South African Israel. In the wake of the Six Day War Zionism which lasted throughout the of 1967 and the deterioration of rela• 1960s. A reaction of widespread bit• tions between African states and Israel, terness toward Israel developed among the South African Government finally white South Africans. Israel's behavior suspended its ban on transfers and the was described as a "stab in the back"; climate of white South African opinion charges of Jewish dual loyalty were reverted to its former sympathy for made in the pro-Government press and Israel. the Government imposed a punitive Of crucial significance in promoting stoppage of transfer facilities for Zion• the Zionist mode of Jewish identity were ist-raised funds. Indeed, Prime Minister the youth movements. Whereas in other Verwoerd himself voiced intimidating in• Western countries, particularly in the nuendoes when he said that the attitude United States, some major youth taken up by Israel was "a tragedy" for organizations were fostered by non- Jewry in South Africa because it was Zionist community agencies such as syn• liable to stimulate local antisemitism.19 agogue federations, in South Africa the These were highly disquieting years Zionist movement virtually monopolized for South African Jews. Yet anyone ex• all youth activity. By 1920 there were amining the historical record cannot fail already thirty-three "Young Israel to be impressed by the firmness with Societies," as the first youth groups which the Zionist leadership refused to were called, affiliated to the Zionist be held accountable for the acts of the Federation.21 Their membership was of Israeli Government and insisted that to the 18 to 25 years age group. In 1.931 deny the Jew his special association with the first uniformed junior youth move• Israel was tantamount to denying him ment, Habonim, was founded to cater to expression of his Jewish identity. Zionist the 10- to 15-year age group. By 1948 spokesmen repeatedly declared that ir• the Zionist youth movements had mul• respective of the Israeli Government's tiplied on the basis of political align• foreign policies, "no Jew worthy of the ments and included the Revisionist name will deny his deep attachment to youth movement Betar, the chalutz Israel," and that "South African Jews (pioneering) oriented youth movement could not be expected to abandon their Hashomer Hatzair, and youth move• bonds with the Jewish people and its ments affiliated with Mizrachi (the rebirth in the land of their fathers."20 religious Zionist Party), the Zionist By thus tenaciously upholding its Socialist Party and the General Zionist Zionist convictions the leadership of Party. It may be estimated that during South African Zionism was able to re• the 1950s and 1960s an average of tain its hold on an acutely disturbed and some 30% of the 10- to 17-year age perplexed Jewish public. Jews continued group were members of youth to contribute generously to Zionist funds movements.22 The ubiquitous influence in anticipation of a time when the South of these youth movements has had the ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 77 significant effect of exposing successive Many had become adherents of the generations of South African born Movement, initially of Houevei Zion, Jewish youth to a mode of Jewish iden• later of the many streams of politicized tification determined exclusively by Zionism ranging from Zeirei Zion to Zionism. In consequence, to this very Revisionist Zionism. These immigrants day South Africa is one of the few to South Africa thus brought Zionism countries in the world in which Zionist with them as part of their spiritual bag• youth movements have• retained their gage. Moreover, they entered at the strength and remain a vibrant and in• foundation level of the communal struc• fluential factor in the life of the com• ture which was emerging. In contrast to munity as well as a steady source of the position in the United States, they aliyah. were not confronted by an established communal structure, founded and led by Central European Jewish immigrants The Historical Explanation and shaped in conformity with the as• What is the historical explanation for sumptions of denationalized Reform these special attributes of South African Judaism. In fact, Reform Judaism Zionism? Two major factors may be emerged in South Africa only as late as singled out: one is the remarkably 1933, and then its founder and guiding homogeneous character of the Jewish mentor was Rabbi Cyrus Moses Weiler, immigration to South Africa and the who had himself belonged to the noncon• other is the dualistic character of South formist minority of Zionists at Hebrew African White society of which the Jews Union College. Not only were his Zionist have always been a part. credentials unimpeachable, but he was The homogeneous character of the to provide an outstanding personal ex• community results from the ample of Zionist conviction by settling in preponderance of immigrants from one Israel. region of Eastern Europe in the period Yet the significance of South African after 1880; the region known Jewry as "a colony of Lithuania" ought traditionally as Lita (Lithuania). There not to be exaggerated. At least as signifi• is evidence to indica e that, at a conser• cant a factor was the societal environ• vative estimate, at least 70% of the ment into which the Jewish immigrants Jewish immigrants to South Africa came entered. South African society has from this area, and particularly from one always been stratified by caste-like divi• part of it, the province of Kovno. South sions between peoples of different color African Jewry has thus, with some — its peculiar polity has aptly been justification, been called a "colony of described as a "pigmentocracy."25 Of Lithuania."23 course, the Jewish immigrants to South These immigrants came to South Africa entered, from the outset, as part Africa between 1880 and 1930, when of the privileged White caste. But the the Quota Act virtually put a stop to White caste was itself culturally their entry.24 Most had already been ex• dualistic and of inchoate national iden• posed to Zionism before leaving Lita. tity. This was bound to have a distinctly 78 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES

moderating effect on the degree of ac• amination of the historical record reveals culturation demanded of the Jew by the their presence at a number of stages in White consensus. the history of the community, mainly in To be sure, the Jews certainly have the form of various Yiddish-speaking, acculturated into White South African radical-leftist groups. Examples are the society, but it has been overwhelmingly Yiddisher Arbeiter Club, which existed its English segment which has served as from 1929 to 1948; the Yiddisher their reference group. Consequently, the Literarisher Farein established in 1922, pull of acculturation, with its attendant and the Afrikaner Geserd which func• erosion of distinctive Jewish cultural tioned in the 1930s.27 The significant identity, was considerably weaker than point is not that the ideological baggage in England itself, where English culture brought to South Africa by the Litvak was indigenous and unchallenged. Nor immigration was entirely devoid of anti- was it as strong as in the United States Zionism, but rather that in the South where a new, overarching American African environment, neither the socio• identity exerted a powerful acculturating economic development of the Jewish magnetism. There was in fact no agreed population itself, nor the Jewish South African identity equivalent to that national identification pattern which the provided by the concept of being white society encouraged in Jews, were "British" or being "American."26 favorable to leftist anti-Zionism. It The Afrikaner, for his part, did not therefore was rendered weak and expect the Jew to become an Afrikaner; ephemeral. indeed the organic nature of Afrikaner Furthermore, there is the significant nationalism has always excluded the fact that even the Anglo-Jews, i.e., those possibility. At the same time he did not who had reached South Africa having wish the Jew to constitute an accretion been born in England or first been ac• of strength to the English group. Hence culturated in English society, embraced considerable leeway remained for the Zionism at the very outset. It must be Jew to retain his distinctive identity not borne in mind that, although by the turn only in its religious sense but also in its of the 20th century more than half of the national sense. estimated 24,000 Jews in South Africa In balance, this peculiar dualism of were East Europeans, there were •also White South African society may well be some 7,000 Anglo-Jews at the least, and the profounder part of the explanation about 3,000 more who hailed originally for the Zionist proclivity of South from Germany but who, in many cases, African Jewry. For we ought not to had lived in England for a time before overlook the fact that Lithuania, coming to South Africa.28 In marked paticularly Vilna, was the cradle not contrast to the equivalent acculturated only of Zionism but also of the socialist Jews of the United States, Britain, and Yiddisher Arbeiter Bund. Moreover, it even Australia, who generally opposed is an oft-overlooked fact that South early Zionism, in South Africa these African Jewry was itself not totally "western" Jews rallied to Zionism and in devoid of anti-Zionist strains. An ex• fact provided its leadership echelon until ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 79 the late 1920s. The most notable figures oppose you in your legitimate were Maurice Abrahams, the first Presi• aspirations...29 dent of the Zionist Federation; S. Len• Of course, the attitude of the extreme nox Loewe, Hyman Morris, Samuel Afrikaner nationalists led by Dr. Malan Goldreich and Leopold Kessler. It was changed radically between about 1933 only in the 1930s that Jews born in and their ultimate election victory in Lithuania took over the reins of 1948. In these years antisemitism made leadership; men such as Lazar Braudo, deep inroads into the Africaner national Joseph Janower, Jacob Gitlin, Benzion movement. This trend expressed itself Hersch, and Nicolai Kirschner. The fact not alone in agitation against any fur• that the acculturated Anglo-Jews found ther Jewish immigration but also in Zionism so acceptable points to the blatant advocacy of a policy of unequal societal context; to its conduciveness to treatment in the form of occupational the expression of Jewish identity in quotas for Jews already in the country.30 national as well as in religious terms. In effect, however, the antisemitic agi• The translation of this sociological tation of the 1930s strengthened the observation into historical data can be Zionist orientation of South African illustrated by much documentation Jews. By demonstrating the ubiquitous reflecting legitimization of Zionism and presence of antisemitism not only in sympathy for it in the eyes of Europe but even at home in South Afrikaners. The following is a striking Africa, it provided, for the first time, example: in 1920 an election notice is• a significant negative reinforcement for sued by the Afrikaner nationalists in the the Zionist ideology of South African Transvaal appealed to the Jewish vote Jews. As a contemporary Zionist pam• in these terms: phlet, written by David Dunsky, stated:

There is no question that on sentimental As in every country in the world, hatred of grounds alone our ideals of nationalism Jews has always existed in South Africa. should make the strongest appeal to all ...Lately...external forces have so combined true Jews, since it has been the Jews more that the antisemitic movement has un• perhaps than any other race, who have dergone a period of rapid growth and has demonstrated to the world that it is possi• become an alarming menace to South ble by sheer tenacity of purpose for a peo• Africa and to its Jewish citizens. What ple, under the most adverse conditions, to can we; the Jewish citizens of South preserve its traditions, its religion, even Africa, do about it?... Above everything its language. else... the success of the Zionist movement — the establishment of a Jewish What have all your great leaders been homeland in Palestine — will mark the from Moses to Esrah, and Nehemiah and beginning of the end of antisemitic Judas Maccabaeas and Chajim Weiz- movements all over the world including mann, but great heroes battling for the South Africa...31 preservation of your nation? Our struggle is the. same in principle as yours. All we Moreover, irritating as the an• desire is to establish on a firm basis, as in your case you desire to do in Palestine... tisemitic aspersions on Zionism were, our nationality in South Africa. As we they could not undermine its legitimacy desire it for ourselves, so we would never because they represented only the 80 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES avowedly antisemitic, opposition sector and the day will come when the words of of the population. It was the conciliatory the Prophets will become true and Israel 33 South Africanism of the ruling United will return to its own land. Party of J.B.M. Hertzog and J.C. Smuts Smuts' contribution to World that provided the Jew's frame of Zionism had a far-reaching impact on reference for what was, and what was South African Zionism. A reciprocal not, legitimate. Thus South African process was involved — he imparted Jews could confidently answer Dr. strength and legitimacy to the movement Malan's charges in the following vein: while the leaders of South African

Dr. Malan has broken fresh ground by be• Zionism stimulated him to advocate the ing the first South African politician with cause on the international scene. Hence any claim to responsibility ever to have his celebrated role in the passing of the stigmatised the Zionist movement as Balfour Declaration and, thereafter, his evidence of the disloyalty or, as he puts it, close friendship with Weizmann and unassimilability of the Jews....We are valuable contribution to Zionism as the proud of our citizenship of South Africa; longest living, and most consistent, we love our country; we are as ready as any of our fellow-citizens to make every ef• witness to the Zionist interpretation of fort and every sacrifice for it; but we the Balfour Declaration. affirm... that we need not and shall not, Few, if any, Zionist organizations in on that account, give up the traditions the world enjoyed legitimization, sup• and the ideals and the ties of kinship and common sentiment and aspiration which port, and encouragement such as the in• we have inherited from our forefathers fluential personality of Smuts bestowed and which we hold dear. If this be unas• on South African Jewry. Smuts candidly similability then we are unassimilable.32 stated that he disliked non-Zionist Jews who tried to crack the wall of pro-Zionist There is nothing more illustrative of solidarity. Indeed he often performed the the peculiar conduciveness of the South function of prime fundraiser for the African societal environment to the Zionist cause. He did not hesitate to cultivation of Zionism than the attitude state publicly that "if he were a Jew of Jan Christiaan Smuts, one of the this was the cause for which he would greatest gentile pro-Zionists of all time. put his hand in his pocket." He took Smuts had an ardent, Christian-rooted distinct pride in the fine Zionist record belief in the historic justice of the of South African Jews. When he visited Zionist cause and a genuine admiration America in 1930 he told a gathering of for the way in which the Jews had recon• the Zionist Organization of America: ciled their national survival with their international dispersion. As he expres• I come from a little country where the sed it in one of many pro-Zionist Zionist movement is very strong. There speeches: may be doubts and misgivings or even a difference of opinion in other parts of the You have not been absorbed, you have not world over this great cause. In South been merged and you have not lost your Africa there is none. In South Africa all identity, but through all tribulations and Jews are Zionists and the Christians are persecutions, through all the vicissitudes pro-Zionists....It is a very remarkable fact of human history, you have survived... which nobody knows, and therefore should ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 81

be publicly stated, that next to the United bastion of western democracy in a States, the country which makes the hostile Communist-backed environment. greatest contributions to the cause of Comparisons with South Africa's posi• Zionism is South Africa.34 tion in Africa became common in the Zionism as a mode of Jewish identity Afrikaans press, sometimes mistaking was thus consensually legitimate in similarities in the geo-political situation South Africa. At best it was regarded as for identity of social purposes in the two 36 fully compatible with Smuts' ideal of a societies. conciliatory South Africanism; at worst, Against this background, Israel's it was taken for granted by those anti-apartheid statements and votes at Afrikaner nationalists who assumed that the United Nations'in the 1960s were the Jews were indeed an alien nation perceived as highly ungracious and of• which could not be assimilated. It so fensive acts. The result was the very dis• happened that attainment of the Zionist quieting period for South African goal of Jewish statehood in 1948 was Zionism to which we referred earlier. almost exactly contemporaneous with But the restoration of increasingly the attainment of political power by friendly relations since 1967 has also Afrikaner nationalism in South Africa. revived sympathy for Israel and rein• This convergence removed what might stated the consensual recognition of have become an obstacle to the Zionism as a basic ingredient of Jewish traditional consensual recognition of identity. Zionism. For the internal political con• siderations that were already modifying The Political Dimension of the antisemitic attitudes of extreme Zionism Afrikaner nationalists were now rein• forced by the relief they felt at the solu• Being a small community, remote from tion which the Jewish State promised to the main arenas of Jewish life, it was provide for the "Jewish immigration through Zionism that South African danger." At the same time, the growth Jewry was able to remain in touch with of Afrikaner sympathy for the Jewish developments in world Jewry. Zionism struggle against Britain in Palestine served as the major link with the great facilitated a process of reconciliation.35 leaders of the Jewish people and with Once in power, Dr. Malan determined the political and cultural issues of to put an end to Afrikaner concern with Jewish life. Especially significant in this "the Jewish Question." He adopted a respect were the periodic visits of emis• friendly attitude to Israel, permitted saries such as David Wolffsohn, Chaim South African Zionists to continue their Weizmann, Nahum Sokolow, and aid for Israel, and even visited Israel in Vladimir Jabotinsky. Moreover, the in• 1953. The Afrikaners' sympathy for ternalization of issues affecting world Israel increased with the years. Genuine Zionism provided the South African admiration for Israel's achievements was community with a dimension of active compounded by a growing identification political life. with Israel's geo-political situation as a To be sure, for a long time the Zionist 82 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES

Federation's Executive, watchful over ducive to the Zeirei Zion ideology of disciplined Zionist unity under its own "self-labor." Nonetheless, in contrast to aegis, gave no encouragement to the Poalei Zion, Zeirei Zion was able to nurturing of party groups. Hence the somehow survive in the South African first attempt to create a political group environment, precisely because it had no — the Mizrachi — proved abortive.37 affinity for international socialism and Somewhat more successful was the for• fully accepted the discipline of the mation of a Poalei Zion group at the end Zionist Federation.39 With the of 1918. Founded on the local initiative emergence in 1929 of the Revisionist of some Yiddish-speaking immigrants to Zionists, the traditionally nonpartisan South Africa, it attempted to create a Zionist Federation at last began to be synthesis between Jewish nationalism politicized. At the combined insistence and socialist universalism. It was thus of the Revisionists and Zeirei Zion the only with reservations that it cooperated former individual, 'best-man' system of with the Zionist Federation.38 On the election to World Zionist congresses was other hand, its offers to cooperate with replaced with one based on party lists.40 the local International Socialist League The ideas of Jabotinsky were brought (forerunner of the Communist Party) to South Africa by the same 1920s wave were rejected on the grounds of Poalei of Litvak Jewish immigrants, partly via Zion's positive approach to nationalism. Palestine, which brought the ideas of the Thus, in the final analysis, Poalei Zion Zeirei Zion.41 Yet, from the beginning, failed to achieve the synthesis it sought South African Jews evinced a special between Zionism and universalistic receptivity to the militancy of socialism, and by the end of 1921 it had Jabotinsky's views. It may be suggested disintegrated. that one factor which contributed to this It was only out of the wave of the was the deeply ingrained tradition of post-World War I immigrants that a more political Zionism for which Samuel permanent political consciousness began Goldreich had been largely responsible; to emerge in South African Zionism. Revisionism projected itself as the true Among this wave there were some from heir of political Zionism. Another factor Palestine, although of Litvak origin, who was the operation of an inverse acted as agents for the establishment of relationship between the poor climate for a branch of labor Zionism in South labor Zionism in *South Africa and the Africa. In this way a group of Zeirei good climate for Revisionism. Socialist Zion emerged. But Zeirei Zion, too, was Zionism was the natural counterpoise to unable to become a major force owing to the ideology of Jabotinsky. Its the inapplicability of its labor ideology ideological weakness in South Africa to the circumstances of the immigrant was to the advantage of Revisionism. generation in South African Jewry. But the most important factor of all, Upward economic mobility into middle would appear to be the purely personal class employer status in a society based impact of Jabotinsky himself when he on the labor of a grossly underprivileged visted the country in 1931, 1937, and Black working class was hardly con• 1938. The Revisionist, New Zionist ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 83

Organization of South Africa was the field."43 Revisionist Zionism did become only political group to have its world a major force in South Africa, but not leader serve as a local leader while he the dominant force. In the 1946 Zionist was in the country. By virtue of his Congress elections the Revisionists stature and political experience gained 32% of the vote, making them Jabotinsky dominated the scene. He also the second largest party in the Federa• founded and initially edited a weekly tion when they returned to it not long newspaper. Originally called The thereafter.44 Within the Federation they Eleventh Hour and later The Jewish continued to be a highly contentious op• Herald, it. remains the major English- position group. They clashed with the language organ of Revisionist Zionism to majority over their support for the Irgun this day. Moreover, by declaring that he Zvai Leumi, their condemnation of the earnestly desired reunification of partition proposals, and their unwil• Zionism and that he aimed at making lingness to accept the Federation's dis• South African Jewry "the sounding cipline in fundraising. Since they were, board" for this, Jabotinsky cleverly in fact, a major source of funds for the forced the Zionist Federation into an Irgun, and later, for Menachem Begin's apologetic posture. In the public's eye it Herut party, they were conscious of car• seemed that the onus was on the Federa• rying a great burden of responsibility tion to demonstrate its desire for peace and refused to allow the Federation "to

and unity. The Federation's Chairman, 45 starve the Irgun into submission." Nicolai Kirschner, admitted confiden• The majority of the Zionist Federa• tially to the World Zionist Organiza• tion was firmly opposed to the conduct of tion's office: partisan fundraising campaigns and a We have experienced a good deal of diffi• clause to that effect was incorporated culty in satisfying even sincere supporters, into the Federation's constitution.46 But who have been impressed by the offer of the Revisionists were determined to Mr. Jabotinsky to take part without con• raise partisan funds. They argued that ditions, in a round table peace con• the allocations made to the Revisionist ference... and we are frankly placed in a position of some embarrassment.42 movement by special agreements with the World Zionist Organization were in• Nevertheless, reinforced with ap• adequate and unfair. In 1957 they went propriate explanations from London, the ahead with an extensive campaign for Zionist Federation was able to retain the funds headed by Menachem Begin allegiance of the great majority of South himself. The Federation declared this a African Zionists. Despite the extraor• fundamental breach of discipline and ex• dinarily rapid burgeoning of a pelled the Revisionists.47 It was not until Revisionist following, Jabotinsky was 1961 that the conflict over partisan somewhat over-optimistic after his fundraising was resolved and the third visit in March 1938, when he com• Revisionists were re-accepted into the mented: "I believe that in a year's time Federation. all controlling positions in this country During the 1940s the Zionist will be ours....South Africa is our main Socialist Party, which had succeeded 84 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES

Zeirei Zion, underwent a transforma• system grew even stronger. Bernard tion. The rise of Nazi-type Greyshirt Gering led an "Antiparty League," organizations and the resultant confron• which contended that it was ridiculous tation between the two poles of to debate the internal political issues of Socialism and Fascism in South Africa Israel from public platforms in South had stimulated a leftist inclination Africa and that party differences were among a number of South African born irrelevant in the Diaspora.50 However, Jewish students and professionals, and the opponents of the party system faced some of them were attracted to the ideas a grave dilemma. On the one hand, they of socialist Zionism. These new ele• opposed the holding of party elections to ments, headed by Louis Pincus, who was Zionist conferences, considering them later to become Chairman of the World both wasteful and wrong in principle. On Zionist Organization, took over the reins the other hand, how could the constitu• of leadership in the Zionist Socialist tion be restored to its former nonparty Party and revitalized it ideologically and basis without holding elections to secure organizationally. Together with the necessary two-thirds majority for the Mizrachi and the Jewish State Party,48 nonparty view? In the end they had no the Zionist Socialists completed the choice but to contest the elections as an politicization of the Federation's con• "Association of South African Zionists." stitution. They demanded that its Ex• Of the 29,008 shekel-holders who went ecutive be elected on the basis of party to the polls in the 1952 election, 5,190 lists, as were delegates to World Zionist voted for the Association. The largest congresses, rather than on an individual vote was gained by the United General "best-man" basis, as had been the Zionist Party (8,218); the Zionist practice in the past. To counter this the Socialist Party followed (6,486), and non-politically-aligned members of the the United Zionist Revisionist Party was Federation, who included prominent a close third (6,023).51 leaders, notably Nicolai Kirschner and It was not until 1971 that elections Bernard Gering, decided to form an were held again. In the interim the Ex• "Association of Nonparty Zionists," ecutive was repeatedly reconstituted on which would see to the preservation of the basis of mutual agreement between the "best-man" election system. An the parties. In practice, however, the intense controversy ensued, reaching â nonparty view ,became increasingly crescendo at the Nineteenth South prevalent, and the membership and ac• African Zionist Conference in July tivities of the parties underwent a steady 49 1943. By a narrow margin the parties decline. In 1958 the General Zionists won the vote and the Executive has abandoned their party alignment and been elected on a party basis from that combined with the Association of time onward. Zionists to form the United Zionist As• But the party system remained a sociation. The proponents of a nonparty bone of contention in South African approach thus became the largest single Zionism. After the creation of the State group in the Executive. The elections of Israel the opposition to the party held in 1971, in compliance with the ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 85

World Zionist Organization's directives, England and Canada, for example, were but a faint echo of former partisan raised $828,220 and $687,814, respec• enthusiasm. Only 16,763 shekel-holders tively.52 In the second decade of the went to the polls. The Zionist Keren Hayesod's existence from 1929 to Revisionist Organization, which had 1939, South African Zionism's record retained somewhat greater cohesiveness became even more disproportionately than any other party, gained 35.99% of large; the United States contributed the vote, at last becoming the largest only $5,804,212 whereas South Africa party on the Executive. Almost as if in reached $2,495,555. Even in the Se• anticipation of the political upheaval cond World War period from 1939 to which was to bring the world leader of 1945, South Africa remained second to Revisionism, Menachem Begin, to power the United States. It was only after in Israel within a few years, a 1945 that the United States' contribu• Revisionist, Julius Weinstein, became tion rose dramatically to proportions Chairman of the South African Zionist more commensurate with its size and, Federation. simultaneously, England, Canada, and Latin America began to equal, or in some years, exceed, South Africa's con• Contribution to the tribution in absolute figures. However, Emergence of Israel the disparity in relative terms remains The extraordinary strength of Zionism until this very day. in South Africa is reflected in the dis• Perhaps the most extraordinary con• tinctive contribution that South African tribution made by South African Jews have made to the emergence of Zionism to the emergence of Israel was Israel. Thus the record of South African its role in Mahal (Army Volunteers from Jewry in Zionist fundraising is une- the Diaspora) during the War of qualed in the world. General Smuts was Independence. Owing to popular right when he proudly told American overestimations of the number of Zionists of that record. Something of the American Jews in Mahal, the dispropor• scale of fundraising in South Africa and tionate dimensions of South African of its significance for the World Zionist participation have often been 53 Organization can be gained from the overlooked. Although it is impossible to comparative figures of Keren Hayesod accurately determine the number of income from the major centers of Jewish volunteers, owing to the confusion which population. Between 1922 and 1949, prevailed in their classification and the contribution of the tiny South registration during the first few months African Jewish community, in absolute of the war, my investigation into docu• figures, was second only to that of the ments in the Israel Defence Force gigantic community in the United Archives have rendered the following States. The U.S. total was figures as the most authoritative on $10,309,640; South Africa's, record: $1,404,430. Countries with far larger U.S.A 800 Jewish communities raised much less. Britain 800 86 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES

South Africa 600 Palestine. The project was established in Canada 300 1924, and it existed under South Scandinavia 250 African control until it was finally taken Holland & Belgium 200 over by the Keren Hayesod in 1931.56 France 1,000 Another of South African Jewry's Latin America 300 projects was the building of one of the Miscellaneous 250 first modern planned townships in Israel Total 4,500 — Afridar in Ashkelon. This project, like Kfar Yeladim, was also expressive These figures related to volunteers ac• of the Zionist orientation of South tually registered in the various branches African Jewry. For it was sponsored, not of the Israel Defence Forces. A recent by the Zionist Federation, but by the study on American volunteers in Israel's community-wide South African Jewish War of Independence arrives at War Appeal. The major aim of this fund somewhat larger estimates by including was relief for the survivors of the other categories of volunteers such as Holocaust, but, consonant with the crews and aircraft mechanics Zionist outlook, it was directed toward who remained in Europe54: between constructive settlement in Israel. South 1200 and 1400 Americans (including African olim also made distinctive con• Canadians), between 1200 and 1500 tributions to the economic development British, and between 800 and 1,000 of the yishuv. In 1922, two former South Africans. The estimate for South chairmen of the Zionist Federation, Africa is certainly exaggerated. At most Lazar Braudo and Joseph Janower it was 700.55 Yet even if the other es• formed the South African Palestine timates are valid there can be no doubt Enterprise (Binyan) Corporation. The of the disproportionately large scale of Palestine Cold Storage Company was South African participation. established in 1929 by another Zionist South African Jewry has also made who settled in the yishuv, Chaim Joffe of some distinctive contributions in the Cape Town. The Africa-Palestine form of special projects established in Investment Company followed in 1934, Israel. The first of these was the and Palestine African Shippers, which Children's Village, Kfar Yeladim, which acquired Peltours, was formed in 1944. emerged out of the community-wide War However, the^ pre-1948 record of Victims' Fund which was established in aliyah from South Africa cannot be said South Africa after World War I, one of to have been commensurate with the whose aims was to bring Jewish orphans strength of the Zionist movement in that and destitute children from war-ravaged country. Indeed, although South African Eastern Europe. In a characteristic ex• Zionism may be contrasted with pression of Zionist hegemony in South American Zionism both in regard to its Africa, the Zionists succeeded, despite hegemony over communal life and in opposition from non-Zionist elements, in regard to its avowedly national content, passing a resolution that the Fund be it did not differ substantially from used for establishing a youth village in American Zionism in its attitude to ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 87 aliyah. As a "new-world" land of im• Israel, which that heritage involves."57 migration and of beckoning individual Under these circumstances, the first at• freedom and economic opportunities — tempt to establish a hachshara provided one had the good fortune to be (training) farm on the part of a few who white — there was little urge-toward re- did regard aliyah as a personal aim, was emigration from South Africa to unable to fire the imagination of the Palestine. For Jews in South Africa, no youth. In 1933, a farm was placed at the less than in America, confidence in the disposal of the Zionist Youth Council by continued viability of Jewish life in their a prominent Zionist, Wolf Senior, and a new-world homes imparted a vicarious two-year course of training in quality which enabled them to identify agriculture, Hebrew, and communal liv• with the idea of a return to Zion without ing was instituted under an instructor regarding it as directly applicable to from Palestine. Twelve chalutzim themselves. However, the Zion which (pioneers) left for Israel from this farm. they vicariously sensed was absolutely But after two years it had to be closed vital as a haven for distressed European for lack of manpower. Jewry, was, they also sensed, a vital It was not until 1936 that the first complement for their own Jewish future youth movement ideologically committed in the Diaspora. Zion was thus a com• to chalutziut (pioneering) was formed plement rather than a substitute for — Hashomer Hatzair. Its founders were their Diaspora, and the idea of aliyah as a group of young Lithuanian-born im• a personal obligation was scarcely incor• migrants to South Africa, who were porated within their universe of dis• joined in 1938 by some of the leaders of course. At best, aliyah was perceived as Habonim in search of a framework com• an act of altruistic service to the cause, mitted to the principle of "self- or as an idiosyncratic act of personal realization" through aliyah and kibbutz fulfillment. In this spirit, a number of life. Hashomer Hatzair provided the leaders of South African Zionism set a basis for the re-establishment of a personal example by settling in Israel, hachshara in June 1943, Kfar Balfouria notably Lazar Braudo and Joseph near Johannesburg. Influenced by this Janower, and by 1939 a few hundred example, chalutz groups began to South African Zionists had joined the emerge within Habonim, and in 1944 yishuu. nine of its members joined the Yet neither the expanding network of hachshara farm at Kfar Balfouria. The Young Israel societies nor even the concepts of aliyah and chalutziut had at Zionist Youth Council, formed in 1932, last begun to make inroads into the incorporated aliyah into their official whole spectrum of Zionist youth. By the aims. Even Habonim, in its original end of 1947, candidates for aliyah were statement of aim, spoke only vaguely of running into the hundreds and the lack stimulating Jewish boys and girls "to a of certificates of immigration to realization of their heritage as Jews and Palestine began to be a problem. their responsibilities, in particular those Thereafter, hachshara training, relating to the upbuilding of Eretz although always on a very modest scale, 88 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNITIES became an accepted project of the South yearly average of 4.9 settled in Israel African Zionist Youth Council. With the compared with 0.9 from the United declaration of the State of Israel in May States, 1.7 from Canada and 2.8 from 1948, Mahal absorbed, among its ap• the . proximately 700 volunteers, a large part Hence the aliyah record of South of the senior youth who were intending African Jewry certainly excels that of to settle in Israel, and at the beginning other English-speaking communities. of 1949, forty-two chalutzim followed. Indeed, were United States Jewry to Participation in hachshara reached its have the same record it would mean a peak immediately before and after the daughter community of nearly half a creation of the State of Israel when million former Americans in Israel. Yet Hashomer Hatzair, Habonim and the it is difficult to arrive at unequivocal United Zionist Party youth maintained conclusions on the role of Zionism in separate farms. Thereafter they began motivating this aliyah. On the one hand, to lose their viability, united out of the influence of uncertainty about the weakness, and finally the last farm was socio-economic future of South Africa closed in 1963. However, graduates of cannot be discounted as a determinant the youth movements continued to join of aliyah. There is some correlation settlements on the land. By 1977 about between aliyah increases and unsettled a thousand were estimated to be living conditions in South Africa in the early in kibbutzim and moshavim, the two 1960s and after 1976. Moreover, largest concentrations being in Kibbutz although Israel may be the single most Tzora and Kibbutz Yizreel. important recipient of Jewish emigration Most olim from South Africa settled from South Africa, there are indications in the towns where they engaged in that aliyah accounts for only about one- 59 professional and business occupations. third of recent total Jewish emigration. It has been reliably estimated that the The other two-thirds emigrated mainly overall size of the community of South to the United Kingdom, the United States, African origin in Israel was about 7,500 Canada, and Australia. This may well persons at the end of 1976.59 During signify the limitations of Zionism in 1977 there was a marked increase in• determining the emigration pattern of dicating the possibility of a rising wave Jews in the western world. It is obvious of aliyah: the yearly number multiplied that prosaic considerations of language, threefold from an average of 500 for the professional opportunity, and material period 1971 to 1976, to 1,500 in 1977. prospects remain predominant. On the Hence, by 1978 there were" some 9,000 other hand, the very fact that a third former South Africans living in Israel, chose Israel despite the possibility of representing a daughter community other, materially more favorable options about 7% the size of its mother com• is not without significance. Moreover, munity of 120,000 in South Africa. Ac• there is some evidence that among cording to Israel immigration statistics South African Jews currently consider• for the period 1969 to 1975, for every ing the eventuality of emigration, Israel 60 one thousand Jews in South Africa a is a high priority. The by-now far- ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 89 reaching network of family and personal eminent role of Zionism in the com• relations with those already settled in munal life and identity modes of Israel may well have become a major South African Jews remains an consideration. It may therefore important determinant of its reasonably be inferred that the pre• future.

NOTES

Abbreviations: Z.F.A. — South African Zionist Federation Archives, Johannesburg; B.D.A. — South African Jewish Board of Deputies Archives, Johannesburg; C.Z.A. — Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem.

1 See e.g. S. Halperin, The Political World of June 1925), p.2; see also The South African American Zionism (Detroit, 1961). Jewish Board of Deputies — The Story of 2 See M. Gitlin, The Vision Amazing: The Fifty Years 1903-1953 (Reprinted from Story of South African Zionism (Johan• Jewish Affairs, June 1953), pp.28ff. nesburg, 1950) pp.30ff. n Z.F.A. Marcia Gitlin; transcript of interview 3 Z.F.A. Report of Exec, to First Conference with Jack Alexander (1942). (1905). The quotations are from Goldreich's 12 Z.F.A. Memorandum of Conference between presidential speech. Representatives of the S.A. Jewish Board of 4 In the archival records of the early years there Deputies and the South African Zionist is much evidence of this wide range of ac• Federation (1.3.1942); B.D.A. Minutes of tivities, e.g., Minute Book of Dorshei Zion Special Board of Deputies Conference (Cape Town, 4.11.1900), which discusses the (Johannesburg, 15.3.1942). Zionist Federation's concern for "the improve• 13 Zionist Record, 20.3.1942. ment of the moral position of our people and 14 Z.F.A. Zionist Newsletter (S.A. Zionist Fed. about prostitution which has increased greatly Information & Organisation Department, amongst our people."! 27.5.1942). 5 Jewish Chronicle, (London), 8.5.1903. 15 S.A. Board of Jewish Education Constitution 6 Z.F.A. loc cit. as Amended after the Seventh Conference 7 Z.F.A. Report of Exec, to Fourth Conference (March 1945), clause 2(a). (1911). 16 Z.F.A. Report of Hebrew Education Commis• 8 Z.F.A. Reports & Accounts of Exec, to sion: Chairman, the Hon. Mr. Justice S.M. Twenty-First Conference (November Kuper, (1961); Commission on Jewish 1945—April 1947), p.17; Report to the Education, Report: Chairman, the Hon. Mr. Twenty-Third Conference (July 1952), p.16. Justice J. Herbstein (May 29, 1961). 9 Z.F.A. The S.A. Zionist Federation Appeal to 17 For recent sociological confirmation of these the Congress Tribunal of the World Zionist observations, see Allie A. Dubb, Jewish Organization (May 1977), p.5. South Africans: A Sociological View of the 10 B.D.A. Report of Exec. (April 1914—March Johannesburg Community, (Rhodes Univ., 1919), p.9; Report of Exec. (August 1923- 1977), esp. pp.H4ff. Dubb states that 90 FORUM-37: IN THE COMMUNnTES

"Zionism has been and is one of the most 30 See e.g. Eric Louw, Die Jodevraagstuk in important and durable expressions of iden• Suid Afrika (The Jewish Question in South tity for South African Jews." Africa) (Cape Town, 1939); also Dr. Hendrik 18 See S. Goldman, (ed.), Brandeis on Zionism Verwoerd's article, "The Jewish Problem (Washington, 1942). Regarded from the Nationalist Point of 19 These events are recorded in detail in the View," in Die Transvaler, 1.10.1937. S.A. Jewish Board of Deputies' weekly, Press 31 D. Dunsky, Anti-Semitism in South Africa, Digest for the period 1961-1966. What Shall We Do? (Johannesburg, n.d.). 20 The quotations are from a typical state• 32 Zionist Record, 21.1.1937. ment by S.A. Zionist Federation leader 33 The Balfour Declaration: Tenth Anniversary Joseph Daleski (30.9.1963). (Johannesburg, 1927), p.22. 21 L. Pinshaw, "The South African Young 34 J.C. Smuts, A Great Historic Vow: Address Israel Federation," M. de Saxe (ed.). The on British and Jewish Responsibilities in South African Jewish Year Book (Johannes• Palestine (London, 1930). burg, 1929), pp.257-262. 35 This development is evident in sections of the 22 I am indebted to Dr. Sergio Delia Pergola of Afrikaans press during 1947 and 1948. E.g., the Hebrew University's Institute of Contem• a series of articles in Die Transvaler, 2,4, & 9 porary Jewry for his assistance in making September 1948, and Horison, May 1947. these estimates. They are derived from a com• 36 On this point see G. Shimoni, "Afrikaner and parison of periodic censuses of youth move• Jewish Nationalism: Are They Comparable?" ment membership with estimated Jewish pop• Jewish Affairs (August 1971), pp.8-23. ulation figures for the relevant age-groups. 3' This took place in 1905. It was not until 23 The evidence for the "Litvak" (Lithuanian 1919 that Mizrachi was established. Zionist Jewish) preponderance in South African Record, 19.9.1919; also see S.A. Jewish Jewry includes: B.D.A. H. Sonnabend, Observer, 60th Anniversary Issue (December Statistical Survey of Johannesburg Jewish 1962). Population (ms., 1935) and a "Register of 38 The development of the Poalei Zion group is Jewish Residents Seeking Naturalisation in reflected in its journal Unser Weg (May the Cape Colony 1904-1906," to be found in 1919-November 1921). the Alexander Papers, University of Cape 39 See S.A. Jewish Frontier (December 1962). Town. 40 Zionist Record, 21.1.1929. In 1929 South 24 The Quota Act of 1930 severely restricted im• African shekel-holders were presented, for the migration from countries outside the British first time, with separate party lists for elec• Empire, the United States and Western and tion to the World Zionist Congress. However, Northern Europe. Its main, but unstated, elections to the local Zionist Federation's Ex• purpose was to restrict Jewish immigration ecutive remained on a "best-man" basis. from Eastern Europe. 41 Foremost among the founders of Revisionist 25 See L.M. Thompson, Politics in the Republic Zionism in South Africa was Jedidya of South Africa (Boston, 1966). Blumenthal, who„ came to South Africa in 26 See W.K. Hancock, Are There South 1924. He was born in Lithuania but spent Africans? (The A. & W. Hoernle Memorial some time in Palestine before coming to Lecture; Johannesburg, 1966). South Africa. In a series of articles which he 27 See L. Feldman, Yidden in Dorem Afrika wrote for the S.A. Jewish Chronicle (May, (Vilna, 1937). June, July 1929), he was the first to propa• 28 See G. Saron & L. Hotz (eds.), The Jews in gate Jabotinsky's views. South Africa: A History (Cape Town, 1955), 42 C.Z.A. S 52310, "Nicolai Kirschner to Sec. p.89; these estimates are largely based upon Zionist Org. London," 22.4.1937. figures given by a contemporary — Rabbi 43 Cited in J.B. Schechtman, The Jabotinsky J.H. Hertz, in Jewish Chronicle (London) Story: Vol. II, Fighter and Prophet (New 20.4.1900. York, 1961), p. 320.

29 South African Jewish Chronicle, 5.3.1920. 44 Z.F.A. Reports & Accounts of Exec, to ZIONISM IN SOUTH AFRICA: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 91

Twenty-First Conference (November 1945- Income from Donations -- April 1921 to April 1947), p. 17. These were elections to September 1948 by Countries (compiled the World Zionist Congress, conducted before 5.11.1970). the New Zionist Organization had formally 63 Israel Defence Force Archives. 1308/50, file disbanded in South Africa. However, after it 435, Report to. Chief of Staff by Akiva disbanded and its former members were re- Skidell. Cf. overestimations of the American accepted into the S.A. Zionist Federation Mahal participation in P.E. Lapide, A Cen• they took up their representation on the basis tury of U.S. Aliyah (Jerusalem, 1961), p.90. of the percentage polled in these elections. 84 A.J. Heckelman, American Volunteers aryi Interviews with Harry Hurwitz, May 1971; Israel's War of Independence, (New York, Raphael Kottlowitz, May 1968. Cf. E.I. 1974), pp.238,242. Heckelman's conclusions Tavin, Ha-Hazit Ha-Sh'niyah: Ha-Irgun Ha- approximate those of the present writer. He Z'vai Ha-Le'umi B'arzot Europa, 1946-1948 speaks of the "shocking" fact that participa• (Tel Aviv, 1973), p. 145. According to Tavin tion from the United States was, in propor• the funds received from South Africa in the tionate terms, only "one-fiftieth that of South period from January 1946 to July 1948 total• Africa." led 110,000 pounds sterling. 55 Z.F.A. Confidential Report on the Manpower Z.F.A. Constitution of the S.A. Zionist Department of the S.A. Zionist Federation Federation as Amended at the Twenty-Fifth (August 1949). This report provides an ac• S.A. Zionist Conference, Article IV (i). curate check from the South African end on Z.F.A. Report to Ticenty-Si.xth S.A. Zionist the Israel Defence Force document cited Conference, (1959), pp.20ff. above. It gives the figure of 646 volunteers The Jewish State Party consisted of those sent directly from South Africa. A few tens of Revisionists who had refused to follow volunteers who were already in Israel at the Jabotinsky's exit from the World Zionist time war broke out may be added to these Organization. Its leading figure was Joseph figures, making an estimated total of about Daleski. 700. The debate is reported in detail in Zionist 'M' Z.F.A. South African Committee for Kfar Record, 6.8.1943. However, the new election Hayeladim. Minute Books (1927-1931). system only became operational after the 57 Z.F.A. Habonim Files (1935). revised constitution had been formally ac• ,,8 South African Jewish Population Study (S.A. cepted at the next Conference in November Jewish Board of Deputies & Institute of 1945. Contemporary Jewry. Hebrew University, Z.F.A. Report to the Twenty-Third 19771, S. Delia Pergola, Advance Report No. Conference (July 1952), p.26. The Mizrachi 2: Emigration, p.2. Federation gained 2,902 votes and the M Ibid., p.9. This rough estimate is based on a Independent Zionist Revisionists 192 votes. survey question on "Place of residence of Z.F.A. S.A. Zionist Federation. Thirty- children of heads of Jewish households living Second Conference (August 31-4 September outside parental house" (1974). 1972), p.2. An extraordinary facet of these Ibid.. "Israel was largely preferred as a possi• elections was the entry of the Habonim ble country for emigration, being mentioned youth movement which gained 15.68rr of by some 80'V of households considering such the votes. an eventuality and specifying a country to Office of Keren Hayesod. Keren Hnyesod settle."