State of the Environment South

Environment Protection Authority

2013

State of the Environment 2013 Environment Protection Authority © Environment Protection Authority This document may be reproduced in whole or part for the purpose of study or training subject to the inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source and to it not being used for commercial purposes or sale. Reproduction for purposes other than those given above requires the prior written permission of the Environment Protection Authority.

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ISBN: 978-1-921495-46-5

This report is printed on recycled paper certified by the Forest Stewardship Council Australia

Edited and designed by Biotext iii

Foreword

The Environment Protection Authority acknowledges state of the environment report, the Environment the responsibility entrusted to it by the parliament and Protection Authority is also releasing a plan to improve people of South Australia to periodically assess and report future state of the environment reporting. The plan on the condition of the state’s environment. We hope includes a recommendation for a whole-of-government that, in presenting this sixth state of the environment environmental information plan to fill important gaps in report for South Australia, we will continue to improve environmental knowledge, and to coordinate, integrate, understanding of the key environmental issues we face, better use and share the many sources of environmental and through greater knowledge, reduce the risks to a information available within and outside government. sustainable South Australia. This report would not have been possible without the The context within which state of the environment contributions of many people in a number of government reports have been produced since first published about departments and the input of expert peer reviewers, and 25 years ago has seen major changes. This, the most we express our thanks and appreciation to all for their recent report on the environment of South Australia, valuable effort. looks back over a period in which the effects of a We trust that this report will prove to be a valuable changing climate became more pronounced, including resource for policymakers, natural resource managers, in the form of unseasonal and extreme weather events. students and all other custodians of our state’s It is a period in which concern about the resilience of natural assets. our natural environment to the many pressures it faced reached new heights. The South Australian environment is in a moderate and finely balanced state, and there is much work to do to be able to report even a steady condition in five years’ time. Dr Campbell Gemmell The impacts on the state of our natural assets are Chief Executive mainly the result of the collective decisions and behaviour of people — yet it is we humans who stand to lose most from a degraded and dysfunctional natural environment. Perhaps this disjunction reflects weaknesses in the availability, accessibility and Ms Mia Hanshin communication of environmental information. For Presiding Member this reason, at the same time as releasing the 2013 Contents

Summary

Reporting approach...... xi Driving forces and pressures...... xii Impacts ...... xii State and condition...... xii Response ...... xvi Outlook for the environment...... xvi Outlook for environmental reporting...... xvii Conclusion...... xviii

Introduction

The role of the environment...... 1 Overview of South Australia’s environment...... 3 Approach to State of the Environment reporting...... 9 References...... 14

People and places

1 Why is it important?...... 17 In summary...... 18 2 What do we know about it?...... 20 3 What are the pressures?...... 35 4 What are we doing about it?...... 49 5 What can we expect? ...... 64 6 References...... 65 Climate change

1 Why is it important?...... 69 In summary...... 70 2 What do we know about it?...... 74 3 What are the pressures?...... 86 4 What are we doing about it?...... 91 5 What can we expect? ...... 97 6 References...... 100

Water

1 Why is it important?...... 105 In summary...... 106 2 What do we know about it?...... 109 3 What are the pressures?...... 117 4 What are we doing about it?...... 123 5 What can we expect?...... 135 6 References...... 138

Biodiversity

1 Why is it important?...... 141 In summary...... 142 2 What do we know about it?...... 144 3 What are the pressures?...... 160 4 What are we doing about it?...... 172 5 What can we expect?...... 185 6 References...... 186

Coastal and marine environment

1 Why is it important?...... 191 In summary...... 192 2 What do we know about it?...... 194 3 What are the pressures?...... 211 4 What are we doing about it? ...... 219 5 What can we expect? ...... 224 6 References...... 226 vi Acronyms and abbreviations

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics ACWQIP Adelaide Coastal Water Quality Improvement Plan Biosecurity SA Biosecurity South Australia CBD central business district CO2 carbon dioxide CO2-e carbon dioxide equivalents CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation DEWNR Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources EPA Environment Protection Authority EPBC Act Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cwlth) ERP estimated resident population IACRC Invasive Cooperative Research Centre IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature Mt million tonnes NPW Act National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (SA) NRM natural resource management PIRSA Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Australia SARDI South Australian Research and Development Institute SLA statistical local area WAP water allocation plan WoNS Weeds of National Significance WSUD water-sensitive urban design 2013 State of the Environment acknowledgements vii

Editor-in-chief Prof Graeme Hugo Director Australian Population and Migration Dr Campbell Gemmell Chief Executive, Research Centre, University of Environment Protection Adelaide Authority Dr Jonathan Sobels Adjunct Academic, School of the Environment, Flinders University Environment Protection Authority Board Prof Keith Walker Adjunct Associate Professor, Ms Mia Hanshin Presiding Member School of Earth and Mr Stephen Hains Deputy Presiding Member Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide Mr Rob Fowler Dr Tony Minns Director, Goyder Institute for Ms Linda Bowes Water Research Mr Allan Holmes Prof Chris Daniels Director, Barbara Hardy Institute, Dr Campbell Gemmell University of Adelaide

Chapter coordinators Project manager Dr Ross Steele People and places chapter Tobias Hills Environment Protection Ms Lorraine Irwin Climate chapter Authority Mr Steve Morton Water chapter Editing and design Dr Brad Page Biodiversity chapter and Coastal and marine environment Biotext Pty Ltd chapter Co-contributors Inter-agency reference group Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure Mr Peter Dolan (Chair) Environment Protection (DPTI)—Sharon Wyatt, Bernard Laidlaw, Paul Davies, Authority Jason Phillips, Kirralee Flynn Dr Donna Ferretti Department of Planning, Zero Waste SA—Vaughan Levitzke and Veronica Caire Transport and Infrastructure Environment Protection Authority (EPA)—Steven Sergi, Ms Julia Grant Department of Environment, Rebecca Hughes, Andrew Pruszinski, Heidi Hessling, Water and Natural Resources Dr Clive Jenkins, Peter Goonan, Sam Gaylard, Dr Brad Page Department of Environment, Dr Luke Mosley, Benjamin Zammit, Tavis Kleinig, Water and Natural Resources Amanda Gaetjens, Kelvyn Steer, Rob Mitchell, Lisa Radetti, Ms Lorraine Irwin Department of Environment, Trixie Tan, Sharon Burnell, Graeme Palmer Water and Natural Resources Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (DEWNR)—Patricia von Baumgarten, Doug Fotheringham, Peer reviewers Dr Phil Pisanu, Tim Herrmann, Peter Copley, David Finlay, Prof Hugh Possingham Professor of Mathematics, Richard Day, Zeljka Danilovic, Clare Nicholson, Professor of Ecology, University Raina Nechvoglod, Graham Hearne, Martin Allan, of Giles Forward, Paul Wainwright Prof Corey J.A. Bradshaw Director, Ecological Modelling, Primary Industries and Regions South Australia (PIRSA)— University of Adelaide Dr John Virtue, Peter Houston, Andrew Manson Dr Graeme Pearman Director, Graeme Pearman Department for Mining, Innovation, Trade, Resources Consulting Pty Ltd and Energy (DMITRE)—Dr Andrew Rowett, Annie Ngo, Prof Jean Palutikof Director, National Climate Catherine Way Change Adaptation Research Department of the Premier and Cabinet (DPC)— Facility, Griffith University Patrick Robinson, Aik Kanhalykham viii Contents Full pageimage ix

Summary

Bushfires, storms, floods and extreme temperatures are such as further decline of already poor biodiversity, tangible and often traumatic events that remind us of the increased use of natural resources, increased average close interrelationship between people and the natural temperatures, increased development and industrial environment. There are also less visible but important activity in sensitive areas such as the coastal zone, changes in the environment that escape attention increased use of private motor vehicles, reduced water because they develop over a long time or because they flows for the natural environment from the River Murray, occur in remote areas, under the ground, in water, out in and changes in the acidity, salinity and temperature of the the or up in the atmosphere. Some environmental marine environment. changes may be overlooked because of inadequate data, and their significance may only become clear with the collection of long-term information. Reporting approach Because of the strong relationships between the natural The report’s assessments have been prepared based on environment, human wellbeing and economic progress, it the driving forces, pressures, state, impact, response, is important to have good information about the health of outlook (DPSIRO) reporting framework (see Figure 6 our natural resources and trends in environmental quality. in the Introduction). In this framework the state of the One important source of environmental information for environment (S) is the result of specific drivers (D) and government, business and the community is the state of pressures (P), which impact (I) on the environment. the environment report produced by the Environment The response (R) represents the policies, programs and Protection Authority at least every five years, under projects of government agencies to improve or maintain the Environment Protection Act 1993. These reports the state, while the outlook (O) considers what is assess the condition of South Australian environmental expected to happen to the environment into the future. resources, identify significant trends in environmental The report examines what is happening overall in South quality, and review the effects of programs and activities Australia, and in the key themes of people and places, by public authorities to protect, restore and improve climate change, water, biodiversity, and the coastal and the environment. marine environment. The 2013 report reveals mixed results in the condition of the state’s natural assets and trends in environmental quality over the last five years. There is good news—such as sustained growth in generation of renewable energy, more efficient use of water and electricity, and continued increases in recycling. There is also cause for concern—

Opposite page: Port Adelaide, 1846 State Library of South Australia B15276/7 Summary x use andpollution. and stream bankerosion, sedimentation,changesinland of riparianvegetation,intensiveagricultural practices, soil example, waterquality isaffectedbydrylandsalinity, loss as discussedinindividualchaptersthereport.For in SouthAustralia isalsoaffectedbymore localpressures, In additiontotheseglobaldrivers,environmental quality dramatic interventions orculture changes. (Australian AcademyofScience2012),ifthere are no expected topersistforatleastthenextfewdecades All ofthesemega-trends are wellestablishedandare • • • • • • pressures (also calledmega-trends), suchas: andenvironmental driversand global socio-economic Many significantenvironmental trends are the result of of theworld,withsomevariationinscaleandintensity. Australian statesandterritories, andformanyotherparts change inSouthAustralia are similartothoseforother Many ofthedriversandpressures ofenvironmental Driving forces andpressures profoundly changingourclimate. higher than1960)andtheglobalwarmingeffectis for atleast800 000years(397 partspermillion—25% dioxide intheatmosphere ishigherthanithasbeen global climatechange;theconcentration ofcarbon their impactonspecies,ecosystemsandnatural cycles system andrelated LaNiñaandElNiñoevents) and global climatesystems(theSouthernOscillation consumerism profound effectsonproduction systemsand rapid technologicalchangeandinnovationwith introduction ofpestplantsandanimals scale landclearing,contaminationofand historic andcurrent humanactivitiessuchaslarge- high waterandenergy use,andharmfulemissions industries withlarge environmental impacts,including natural resources andthatare oftenproduced by products thatare reliant onscarce ornon-renewable growth inproduction andconsumptionofmany a globaleconomicsystemthatrelies onexponential peoples intheworld average, Australians consumemore thanmostother wastes more resources thanprevious generations; on person consumesmore, releases more carbonand urbanised andmore affluentandinwhichtheaverage a growing andageingpopulationthatishighly economy, theonlyfeasibleapproach formitigatingsome pressures suchasagrowing populationandagrowing Given thescaleandpersistenceofkeydrivers • • • • • • • include: The expectedimpactsoftheseforces andpressures Impacts agriculture, forestry andfishing (more than 8% in product between2002–03 and2011–12)washighestin adequate water. Growth (inaverage annualgross state are agricultural products reliant onhealthysoilsand and minerals. Nearly40%ofSouthAustralia’s exports also continuedtogrow, fuelledbyexportsoffood increase sincetheearly1970s(ABS2012).Theeconomy 70 000 people) between2006and2011—the largest South Australia’s populationincreased (about by4.5% on theenvironment,particularlyinurbanareas. Population andeconomicgrowth havemajorimpacts People andplaces and thecoastalmarineenvironment. people andplaces,climatechange,water, biodiversity, environmental qualityinSouthAustralia bytheme— environmental resources andsignificanttrends in The followingisasummaryofthecondition State andcondition including coal,evenifatsignificantimpactsandcosts. example, through depletionofnon-renewable resources, In addition,somepressures willresolve naturally—for use ofrenewable energy sources. with increased energy needscanbereduced through the offset by recycling; andthecarbonproduction associated in agriculture andindustry;increased resource usecanbe can bereduced byincreasing waterefficiency, especially the impacts.For example, thepressures onwatersupplies of theidentifiedimpactsisto ‘decouple’ thedriversfrom declines instream flow. pressures onfreshwater supplies,includingpredicted management andminimisationgenerally mineral andenergy resources, andonwaste unsustainable useofnatural resources, including pressures onfoodsupply damage from floodsandbushfires increase inextreme weathereventsandescalationof increase involumeanddiversityofwasteproducts pollution anddegradation ofair, landandwater loss ofspecies,ecosystemsandbiodiversity xi Summary Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara Gum trees lining Norton Summit Road lining Norton Gum trees Summary xii exceptions inspecificlocations(EPA 2013). nitrogen dioxide andparticulatematter, withsome decreasing trend insignificantairpollutantsincluding the activities ofenvironmental significancelicensedunder Pollutant Inventoryandanincrease inthenumberof increase inemissionsreported undertheNational In general, air qualityhasimproved, inspiteofan waste isnowrecycled. degree byincreases inrecycling; 75%ofSouth Australian 2003–04) (EPHC2010).Thishasbeenoffsettosome (up 50%since2003–04)andintotal (up 62%since The volumeofwastegenerated hasincreased perperson management andotherservices. (ABS 2012).Thesetrends affectplanningforwaste with anageingpopulationandsmallerhouseholdsize the pastfiveyears,withtrend expectedtocontinue increased more rapidly thanpopulationgrowth over The numberofhouseholdsandresidential dwellings Australia 2013b). infrastructure, includingBike of activepromotion andimprovement ofcycling which isexpectedtocontinuewiththeassistance people cyclingtoandfrom thecityisapositivetrend increase inpublictransport. Theincreasing numberof This shouldseeareduction inprivatecaruseandan shopsandservices. walking distancetoschools,work, infrastructure andcompacturbandesignwillreduce the that thegovernment’s investmentinpublictransport contributes toairpollutionandnoise.Itisexpected use andhighgrowing privatecaruse,which Currently, SouthAustralia haslowpublictransport The newpolicyalsofocusesonefficient transport. South Australia 2010). based onhigherdensitydevelopment(Government of new policyforamore sustainable,compacturbandesign This trend isexpectedtoincrease withthegovernment’s agricultural landintheBarossa andMcLaren Vale regions. increase ininfilldevelopmentandlegislationtoprotect productive land)hasbeenarrested tosomedegree byan The historicaltrend ofurbansprawl (typicallyonto large amountsofwater. emissions, andmineral extraction andprocessing rely on Mineral exportscontributesignificantlytogreenhouse gas in mining(6%)(Government ofSouthAustralia 2013a). comparison withtheaverage andthird of2.5%), highest Environment Protection Act 1993 direct (Government ofSouth . There hadbeena Australia 2011). renewable sources by2020(Government ofSouth target togenerate 33%ofitselectricityneedsfrom schedule tomeettheSouthAustralian Government’s 30% ofelectricityproduction inSouthAustralia—on use hasincreased. Windenergy isnowcontributingnearly emissions (74%) butrenewable energy production and Energy production isstillthedominantsource ofstate Development countries(Garnaut 2008). and otherOrganisation forEconomicCooperation and remain highincomparisonwiththeworldaverage over thereporting period(2006–07to2011–12),but emissions perunitofgross stateproduct havedecreased average. InSouthAustralia, emissionsperpersonand world’s carbondioxide emissions—four timestheglobal of theworld’s populationbutproduces 1.35%ofthe continued toincrease. Australia accountsforabout0.33% Atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases Climate change from heartdisease. 2009 andthiswaslinkedtoasteepincrease inmortality heat stress. Adelaiderecorded itshottestnight inJanuary the abilityofpeopleandotherspeciestorecover from temperatures duringheatwaveshavebeenfoundtoaffect high maximumtemperatures, highminimum(overnight) as heatwaves(BoM2011).Inadditiontotheeffectsof frequency andseverityofextreme weatherevents such Increased climatevariabilityisalsoleadingtoincreased future variabilityinwatersupply. desalination plantwillsignificantly reduce therisksof for future watersuppliesandagriculture. TheAdelaide This variabilityanddeclinehaveobviousimplications spite ofthelong-term decliningrainfall trend (BoM2011). included thethird andfifthwettestyearson record, in demonstrated bythefactthatreporting period Wepersist. are alsoseeingincreased climatevariability, to risingtemperatures; thisdrying trend islikelyto southern Australia since1970, whichhasbeenlinked There hasbeenacleardeclineinaverage rainfall in increases inaverage andextreme temperatures expected. included thewarmestyearonrecord, withfurther the 100 yearsfrom 1910to2009.Thereporting period Global average temperatures rose byjustover0.7 °Cin seen, andmore challengingchangesare expected. Wide-ranging effectsofclimatechangeare already being Summary xiii the (ABS 2002), and many commercial, industrial the coast (ABS 2002), and many commercial, on coastal and marine activities rely and recreational resources. subject to The coast and adjacent marine waters are including pollution from of pressures a diverse range physical development wastewater and stormwater, and recreational commercial marinas, ports), (residential, environmental accounts in 56 regions across Australia, Australia, across accounts in 56 regions environmental in South Australia. Peninsula including one on the Eyre consistent long- for more The trials include standards of changes in the condition of term measurement assets (Wentworth environmental 2008). distribution in the number, has been an increase There and diseases, and abundance of most pest , animals weeds and pest with nine confirmed detections of new animals since 2008 (Biosecurity SA 2013). by The changing climate is impacting biodiversity ranges, biological patterns affecting gene pools, species acidity and and ecosystem dynamics, such as increased of the ocean and changes in major currents temperature likely to magnify (Hughes et al. 2010). Climate change is biodiversity—for on the effects of existing pressures the influence of climate change on newly example, arrived pests and diseases has the potential to create problems. widespread and more greater Coastal and marine environment The coast, a waters are and adjacent marine environment. Over unique part of the South Australian of live within 50 kilometres 90% of South Australians scale clearance of vegetation for settlement and of vegetation for scale clearance is in fair to native vegetation farming. Remaining was revegetation Less but declining. condition moderate previous period than the during this reporting undertaken land under of The area clearing increased. one and illegal 10%. Soil about increased protection some form of formal farming techniques improved through decreased erosion stable except sowing) remained and soil condition (no-till in soil acidification. Dryland salinity for some increase variable, with most trends is and depth to groundwater (DEWNR 2012). positive and some negative in status of 20 indicator species is variable The trend has there Committee 2012) and to positive (SASP Audit plans and the number of recovery in been an increase species and of threatened the status actions. However, poor and is declining, ecological communities remains species and ecological with the number of threatened (EPBC Act 2012). Good progress communities increasing Group has been made with trials by the Wentworth based of Concerned Scientists to develop regionally medicines. and altered biodiversity has been greatly The state’s affected by historic human activities, including large- Biodiversity is critical to human life, helping to regulate Biodiversity is critical to human life, helping to regulate and pests, pollinate erosion control air and water quality, fuel and for food, fibre, plants, and contribute resources Biodiversity has many important and endemic species. South Australia becoming increasingly saline, with decreasing levels in saline, with decreasing becoming increasingly some bores. pastoral areas responded well to above-average rainfall rainfall well to above-average responded areas pastoral 2012). Anecdotal information suggests in 2010–11 (EPA are a number of community supplies in arid regions are stable and those in Lake Albert are lower than were lower than were stable and those in Lake Albert are are report. environment state of the in the previous recorded and water courses and in agricultural Ephemeral poor to very poor, only 9% as good or very good, and the poor to very poor, 2012). 41% as fair (EPA remaining River Murray Salinity levels in the main channel of the coastal waters was put in place. This program found that coastal waters was put in place. This program with 50% the quality of aquatic ecosystems is variable, as 2011 rated of the sites assessed between 2008 and Water for Good plan and establishment of the Goyder for Good plan and Water for monitoring A program Research. Institute for Water of rivers, lakes and and assessing the ecological condition (ABS 2010). of water resources planning and knowledge Long-term Government’s with the South Australian have improved including wastewater recycling, stormwater reuse and stormwater reuse including wastewater recycling, has the highest percentage desalination. South Australia tanks in Australia of households with rainwater Agriculture remains the largest consumer of the state’s consumer of the state’s the largest remains Agriculture has increased, The diversity of water sources water. 25 areas were partially within sustainable limits and partially were 25 areas of within sustainable limits (Government not were 7 areas 2012). South Australia made more water available, and groundwater levels available, and groundwater water made more areas, 67 water management Of the state’s increased. within sustainable limits in 2012, managed were 35 areas 2008, total and per person water use decreased with person water use decreased 2008, total and per in efficient use. Increase and more water restrictions Murray the River flows in together with increased rainfall future, particularly given the changes in rainfall expected expected changes in rainfall given the particularly future, change progresses. as climate in report state of the environment Since the previous South Australia’s water resources and trends in water and trends resources water South Australia’s issues for the state’s critical quality are quantity and Water xiv Summary recently identifiedasimportant forenvironmental instruments, andadvicetogovernment andothers) information, land-useplanning system,economic of activity(statutory instruments,educationand environment. Theseincludeexamples ofallfiveforms and locallevelstoprotect,restore andenhancethe There are alsomeasures beingtakenatstate,regional Waste Policy andtheMurray–Darling BasinPlan. National Plan for Environmental Information,theNational Cooperation onEnvironmentthe andDevelopment, more recent initiatives suchastheNationalCentre for Intergovernmental Agreement ontheEnvironment, and national coordination andcooperation suchasthe1992 Within Australia there are anumberofmechanisms for international cooperation ontheenvironment. 250 agreements tosupportAustralia’s participationin and cooperation toaddress. There are more than require nationalandinternationalcoordination change operate ataglobalorcontinentalscaleand As notedabove,somesignificantdriversofenvironmental the themechapters. weare doingaboutit?’ineachof under thesection‘What agencies inparticular, whichare discussedinmore detail environmental policies,programs andprojects ofpublic our natural environment. Thisreport focusesonthe important contributionstoprotecting andmanaging Many individuals,groups andorganisations make Response of newpests. through permeablecoastalgeologiesandtheintroduction salinity andcurrents, risingsealevels,salineincursion in oceantemperature andacidity, changesinocean marine speciesandecosystems.Thisincludesanincrease change isstartingtohavemajorimpactsoncoastaland As withterrestrial speciesandecosystems,climate variable anddeclining. rocky reefs, seagrass, saltmarshandmangroves) ishighly and conditionofcoastalecosystems(includingforeshore, assessment ofthesixcoastalregions foundtheextent and theecologicalhealthofcoastalzone.An There isastrong correlation betweenhumandisturbance occupied byaquaculture isincreasing. nutrients, disturbanceandwaste,eventhoughthearea seen adecrease inimpactsarisingfrom from 2013). Betterregulation andmanagementpractices have as isthecapture andreuse ofstormwater(SAWater the qualityandreuse oftreated wastewaterisincreasing , shippingandaquaculture. Thegoodnewsisthat • • • • include thedevelopmentandestablishmentof: significant policyinitiativesduringthe reporting period management (Gemmell andScott2013).Someofthemost • • • • including: the SouthAustralian environment intothefuture, changes thatneedtobetakenintoaccountinmanaging There are bothnegativeandpositivechallenges activity from environmental impacts. adaptation andresilience, andtodecoupleeconomic loss ofbiodiversity. Thishighlightstheneed toimprove unavoidable, asisthelikelihoodoffurtherirreversible and thestrain onfreshwater supplies are essentially environment. Somechangessuchasclimatechange and individualstoprotect andimprove thenatural by governments,business,industry, thecommunity and theeffectivenessof range ofmeasures taken ongoing andfuture patternsofeconomicactivity, mixed, andisstrongly linkedtoglobalclimatechange, The outlookfortheSouthAustralian environment is Outlook fortheenvironment 2012 2011 2010 2009 towards serviceindustries long-term shiftfrom primaryandsecondaryindustries changes inlanduse mining continued economicgrowth, includingincrease in increase inpopulation ------Carbon Farming Initiative Adelaide CoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan Renewable Energy Plan forSouth Australia Policy Environment Protection toResources) (Waste National Waste Policy Goyder InstituteforWater Research The 30-Year Plan forGreater Adelaide Water forGoodPlan marine parks Water IndustryAct. State Natural Resources ManagementPlan Australia Climate ChangeAdaptationFramework forSouth xv Summary Solar installation, Adelaide Showground Department of Manufacturing, Innovation, Trade, Resources and Energy Resources Department of Manufacturing, Innovation, Trade, United Nations Environment Programme Working Working Programme Environment United Nations use and resource decoupling natural on Group economic growth impacts from environmental the analytical services analysis and ecosystem Union European such as the Seventh backdrop in resulting to 2020, Programme Action Environment policy and data deployment in global progress Panel on the Intergovernmental report of the fifth in 2014.Climate Change, expected open data and public engagement to become even more even more open data and public engagement to become and significant, and need for more prominent as will the better visualisation of information. • • • and evaluation of the state effective monitoring More are resources natural Australia’s and condition of South the collection of data that allow still needed, including quality in environmental of trends meaningful analysis of suitable and resourced over time and the targeting this data collection should be interventions. Ideally, and consistent, aligned nationally and internationally, individuals, from make better use of the multitude of data and published organisations research community groups, five years we can expect over the next Clearly, research. in trends citizen science and other crowd-sourcing, national sustainability indicators the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity study developed under the State Natural Resources Resources Natural developed under the State Management Plan accounts and a system of environmental–economic trials by the accounting model environmental regional of Concerned Scientists Group Wentworth Information for Environmental the National Plan the NRM state and condition reporting framework framework the NRM state and condition reporting unconventional gas extraction, non-domestic solar, non-domestic solar, extraction, unconventional gas geothermal and wind climate change impacts. long-term depletion of reserves of fossil fuels of fossil of reserves depletion long-term and minerals including and products, new technology and new chemicals nanotechnology including of energy, sources to new transition • • • • • state of the environment remains inadequate access to inadequate access to remains state of the environment up-to-date relevant, A number of recent information. this, including: to improve initiatives promise Outlook for environmental reporting Outlook for environmental reporting on the challenge for The most significant • • • • xvi Summary environment reporting. accessible—and more ofthe usefulandused—state data needstobedevelopedimplementweb-based, plan. Additionally, effectivesharingandpresentation of government environmental informationstrategy and reporting processes, preferably withinawhole-of- be afullintegration ofthemultipleenvironmental Over thenextreporting period,there willideally • • • • • • Protection Authority haveadopted aplanthatincludes: the environment reporting, theBoard oftheEnvironment improvement ofthevalueandeffectivenessstate As partofitsowncommitmenttocontinued information. more effectivecommunicationofenvironmental environment reporting priority research intokeyissuestoinformstateofthe indicators intervals tosupportreporting againsttheselected collection andprovision ofspecifieddataat have roles related tothereporting topics,forthe formal agreements withgovernmentagenciesthat participation mechanisms andprocesses forcommunity for reporting ontheindicatorsselected,including for collectingandmaintainingthedatarequired implementation ofasystemandongoingprogram consultation withkeystakeholders other environmental reporting, tobedevelopedin standards andconcepts,optimisealignmentwith best practice, adoptenvironmental accounting a setoflong-term reporting indicators thatreflect significant globaltrends of thematicandregional assessments,including a newreporting modelbasedonacombination environmental informationandknowledge.Good- time. Animportantaspectofthisworkistoimprove be abletoreport evenasteadyconditioninfiveyears’ finely balancedstate,andthere ismuchworktodo The SouthAustralian environment isinamoderate and economic growth from environmental impacts. intractable problems, suchasthoserelated todecoupling and newinnovativesolutionstosomeofthemore implementation ofexistingenvironmental measures, more responsible more economicdevelopment, effective protecting ourenvironment.Resolving thesewillrely on There are significantchallengesinmaintainingand findings reflected inother research and reports. and environmental qualityisvariable.Thissupportsthe However, thenatural resources ofthestateare declining report tobetterprotect thestate’s natural environment. shows thatsomeprogress hasbeenmadesincethe2008 The 2013SouthAustralia stateoftheenvironment report Conclusion environmental information. and improve accessandcommunicationofavailable and integrate the collectionofenvironmental data; environmental informationneeds;prioritise,coordinate and planforSouthAustralia. Thiswouldidentifykey development ofanenvironmental informationstrategy the Environment Protection Authority recommends the information asefficientlyandeffectivelypossible, our environmental resources. To delivertherequired needed tomanagethemanyanddiverseimpactson change andtoinformingthecoordinated response is keytounderstandingthedriversofenvironmental quality, andaccessibleinformation relevant,up-to-date Summary xvii , +. , South National

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The Garnaut climate change review: final The Garnaut climate change review: , cat no. 3218.0), Australian Bureau of Bureau 3218.0), Australian , cat no. Land condition trends—dryland salinity Land condition trends—dryland , Biosecurity SA, Adelaide, National waste report 2010 National waste report Regional population growth, Australia and New and New Australia population growth, Regional prepared for the South Australian Department Australian for the South prepared South Australia in 2010: 3rd wettest year on wettest year on in 2010: 3rd South Australia Australia’s environment: issues and trends environment: Australia’s Australian demographic statistics, December demographic Australian , cat no. 3101.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, of Statistics, Bureau Australian 3101.0, , cat no. Air quality reports and summaries Air quality reports . www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/allprimarym . www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/sa/ Bureau of Meteorology, Australian National Climate National Australian of Meteorology, Bureau Cambridge University Press, Melbourne. Cambridge University Press, sustainability and risk. Journal Management and Policy report, regulation, Gemmell JC and Scott M (2013). Environmental Council on Environment and Water), and Water), Council on Environment resource/ephc-archive-waste-management. Garnaut R (2008). epbc/about/lists.html EPHC (2010). Standing COAG and Heritage Council (now Protection sa.gov.au/environmental_info/air_quality/reports_and_ summaries EPBC Act (2012). EPBC Act lists, EPA (2013). EPA Adelaide, South Australia, Authority Protection ecosystem condition reports, Environmental Protection Protection Environmental ecosystem condition reports, Adelaide, South Australia, Authority environmental_info/water_quality/aquatic_ecosystem_ monitoring_evaluation_and_reporting Solutions SA, Adelaide. aquatic Authority Protection (2012). Environment EPA DEWNR (2012). update 2012, by Rural Resources and Natural of Environment, Water record, Centre, archive/2010.summary.shtml biosecuritysa/nrm_biosecurity/weeds_and_pest_animals/ significant_detections_in_sa BoM (2011). australia-2050/index.html Biosecurity SA (2013). detections in SA Australian Academy of Science (2012). Academy Australian to 2050 living scenarios for Australia future: Canberra, Academy of Science, Canberra, Canberra, ainfeatures/81C5AE743DDCF8F0CA257A850013DF4C?opend ocument 4613.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Canberra. of Statistics, Bureau Australian 4613.0, ABS (2012). quarter 2011 Statistics, Canberra. Statistics, ABS (2010). References ABS (2002). Zealand, 2001–02 xviii Summary combine thename‘LakeEyre’ withtheAboriginal official namewaschangedinDecember2012to unregulated riversysteminAustralia. Thelake’s dryland riversystemsintheworld,andlargest The LakeEyre Basinis one ofthefewunregulated surface area of9500square kilometres. largest lakeand18thlargest intheworld,witha On therare occasionsthatitfillsis Australia’s deformation attheendofPleistocene epoch. was formedbyaeolianprocesses aftertectonic andNewSouthWales. Thelake includes partsofSouthAustralia, Queensland,the at about15metres belowsealevelwhenempty. It north ofAdelaide,isthelowestpointinAustralia The LakeEyre Basin,locatedsome700kilometres The storyofLakeEyre inachangingclimate nature’s grandest performance.’Lockyer (2012) life andwithcrowds whohavecometowitness landscape fillswithcolour, withbird andanimal an astonishingtransformation takesplace:the come andthegreat riversflowdowntoitsbasin, eerily empty, devoidofalllife.Butwhentherains sees water. Mostofthetimeisavastsaltpan, Lake Eyre, biggestlake,seldom thecountry’s ‘At theheartofAustralia, framed bydesert, 100 years. Thewatersoonevaporates bytheendof 10 years andfillsornearafewtimesinevery about 1.5 metres everythree years,4 metres every volume (Kotwicki 1986).Thelaketypicallyfloodsto lake, withtheCooperRiverproviding 17%ofthe provide onaverage 64%oftheflowvolumeto of theDiamantinaandWarburton riverswhich local rain andthelarge catchments north-eastern 65 kilometres by24 kilometres. Thelakeisfedby 65 kilometres wide,andLakeEyre Southwhichis Eyre Northwhichis144kilometres longand the GoyderChannel.Theseare knownasLake The lakeisdividedintotwosectionsjoinedby Arabuna people. Lake Eyre andsurrounding region isheldbythe name, ‘KatiThanda’. NativetitleoverKatiThanda– Thanda–Lake Eyre experienced afour-year runof flood levelof6 metres occurred in1974. Kati occurring duringstrong LaNiñayears.Thehighest climate patterns,withhighestwaterlevels The fillingofthelakeisgreatly influencedby Some waterremains inover200smallersub-lakes. the followingsummer, leavingamassivesaltpan. Summary xix Kim Wirth Natural Natural Lake Eyre in flood Lake Eyre , South Australian , South Australian , CSIRO Division of Wildlife , CSIRO State of the basin 2008: rivers State Floods of Lake Eyre Lake Eyre: a journey through the heart a journey through Lake Eyre: , HarperCollins Publishers, Australia. , HarperCollins Publishers, , Scientific Advisory Panel, Basin Scientific Advisory , Lake Eyre LEBSAP 2008 (2008). assessment Canberra. Commonwealth of Australia, Morton SR, Doherty MD and Barker RD (1995). Basin in South Australia: heritage values of the Lake Eyre assessment Heritage World for the Australian prepared Canberra, and Ecology, Sport and Government Department of the Environment, Territories. billed terns), fish, macroinvertebrates, vegetation vegetation fish, macroinvertebrates, billed terns), These flood events. biota during large and other at a national and unique considered sites are outstanding level and provide international ecosystem of the evolution of aquatic examples with in arid environments and biological processes in the world (Morton few counterparts elsewhere peak water levels in reaching et al. 1995). After 2012, weeks the lake was again essentially within ecological consequences one empty with all of the might expect,next big rains. waiting on the References V (1986). Kotwicki Supply Department, Adelaide. Engineering and Water P (2012). Lockyer of the continent (LEBSAP 2008). Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, Coongie (LEBSAP 2008). Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, unique ecosystems Lakes and Goyder Lagoon are of that support massive booms in populations pelicans, silver as Australian (such waterbirds avocets, banded stilts and gull- gulls, red-necked the . In 2012, a combination of River. the Warburton local heavy floods in Queensland and significant over 90% of by water saw the lake covered rainfall its area. assessment of the health of its rivers A recent condition found them to be in near-natural Creek catchments with Cooper Creek reaching reaching with Cooper Creek catchments Creek In 2011, time since 1990. the lake for the first Lake South, with Eyre filled Lake heavy local rain with water firstly North about 75% covered Eyre the Neales and Macumba, from and later from floods in the . The greater proportion proportion The greater River. floods in the Georgina en route or evaporated soaked into the desert less than 4 cubic kilometres to the lake leaving or kilometres 800 square in the lake, covering in 2010 sent flood rainfall 12% of the lake. High water into the Diamantina, and Cooper Georgina flooding events from 2009 to 2012. In 2009, the events from flooding kilometres with 9 cubic at 1.5 metres flood peaked Australia the Queensland–South of water crossing massive water came from Most of the border. Summary xx 1

Introduction

This is the sixth state of the environment report for The role of the environment South Australia since the first in 1988; it provides the latest assessment of the condition of the state’s natural Good information on the health of the natural resources and trends in environmental quality. environment is at least as important as information Good-quality, up-to-date information is needed to allow about public health and the economy because the health us to manage and protect our environment effectively. and wellbeing of people, the environment and the We need to know the condition of our natural assets, economy are inextricably linked and interdependent. about trends in condition over time, about the causes The economy is dependent on finite natural resources of changes in environmental quality and about the (renewable and nonrenewable) and essential ecosystem effectiveness of management responses to those changes. goods and services; our quality of life is influenced by a healthy economy and also relies directly and indirectly on Statutory state of the environment reports, produced healthy environmental conditions and ecosystem services every five years under theEnvironment Protection Act 1993 (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). (SA), are an important contribution to public information about the South Australian environment. The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) synthesises information from multiple sources to identify and describe trends in the condition of the natural environment. This information is reported to the government and to the people of South Australia, and informs policy, management and behaviour.

Opposite page: Currakalinga looking over St Vincent’s Gulf, 1846 State Library of South Australia B15276/33 Introduction 2 and freedom tomoveandprice,allcapitals, andtrading to operate optimally, it needssufficientavailability of, matter andinformationbetween them). For thesystem stocks are linked(with flowsandtransfers ofenergy, represented inFigure 1, allofthesecapitalsandtheir goods, publicinfrastructure) andfinancial (wealth). As human (knowledge,labour),manufactured (tradeable (ecosystem services), social(networks, consensus), of stocks,dividedintofiveessentialcapitals:natural environment andhumansocietycanbeviewedasaset The importantinterrelationship betweenthe • • • • 1997, CBD2010): Ecosystem goodsandservicesinclude(Costanza etal. from theecologicalfunctionsofhealthy Ecosystem goodsandservicesare thebenefitsarising ------supporting services regulating services cultural services goods (provisioning services) breathable air fresh water biochemicals (e.g. medicines) genetic resources food, fibre andfuel waste treatment. water cycling production ofatmosphericoxygen soil formationandretention nutrient cycling provision ofhabitat primary production water purification erosion regulation natural hazard protection disease regulation pest regulation climate regulation seed dispersal pollination herbivory invasion resistance recreation andaestheticvalues education andinspiration knowledge system spiritual andreligious values ecosystems . the othercapitalscanaccumulate. that there isafinitestockofnatural capitalwithinwhich mechanisms tofacilitateexchange. Thefigure also reflects Figure 1 Source: Forum fortheFuture (2013) and UNUnderSecretary-General, UNEP2011) inevitable. continuetoactasifthistrade-off is and neednot, must payforeconomic‘goods.’ However, wecannot, People believeenvironmental ‘bads’are thepricewe (AchimSteiner, UNEPExecutive Director Five essentialcapitalsforhuman wellbeing al cap Soci ital Financial capital N Manufactured Manufactured

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c 3 Introduction (DEH 2007), divides the state (DEH 2007), divides The marine biome, of which 5% is protected, covers the The marine biome, of which 5% is protected, land area. The equivalent of 6% of the South Australian by variable and diverse marine biome is characterised salty gulf waters; with low-nutrient, sheltered, currents nutrient-rich warmer waters in the bight; and cooler, waters in the south-east (DEH 2007). of all than 1000 species) About one-quarter (more animals in South vascular plants and vertebrate terrestrial of the to be threatened—63% considered are Australia vascular plants of the state’s mammals and 22% state’s insufficient are There formally listed as threatened. are plants and data to assess the status of some vascular virtually all nonvascular plants animals and vertebrate 2007). (DEH and invertebrates The paucity of information on a number of aspects on the is a key constraint environment of the natural For reporting. effectiveness of state of the environment condition in resource 50% of the 14 indicators of natural the state, confidence in the supporting data is described The confidence in the data for six other indicators as low. no data of high are is described as medium and there Australia 2012). (Government of South confidence mean temperature, showing a steady rise in annual rise in annual showing a steady mean temperature, warmest year on since the 1970s. The temperatures was the state across for maximum temperatures record 1956 was the coldest. and maximum The highest 2007, (and in South Australia ever recorded temperature on 2 January 1960 in Oodnadatta was 50.7 ºC Australia) 2012). (BoM and CSIRO Ecosystems and biodiversity for South conservation strategy nature No species loss—a 2007–2017 Australia with similar climates and (areas biomes into three and mediterranean) (arid two terrestrial ecosystems): arid biome makes up 87% of the and one marine. The and dry by a warm-to-hot state, and is characterised with mostly winter rainfall, erratic climate with low and in the north. The rains in the south and summer rains makes up the remaining biome, which mediterranean climate, tending to winter rains. 13%, has a cool-to-warm on 28% is some form of conservation protection There biome. of the arid biome and 14% of the mediterranean South Australian Arid Lands South Australian Basin Murray–Darling South Australian South East. Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Adelaide and Mount Lofty Wilurara Alinytjara Peninsula Eyre Island Kangaroo Northern and Yorke of 2012 was the warmest on record; 2009 was the of 2012 was the warmest on record; and the 17th consecutive year warmest year on record for the Temperatures temperatures. of above-average above the 1961–90 0.7% past decade have averaged December 2012 the driest December in 18 years. The records the wettest since months of 2011 were first three as a whole. The spring began in 1900 for South Australia drought, 2010 was South Australia’s third wettest year third 2010 was South Australia’s drought, This was record. and 2011 the fifth wettest year on with in 2012, the driest year since 2006, followed by, Climate highly are and temperatures rainfall South Australia’s an extended and location. After variable, both in range • • • • • • • South Australia’s land area is divided into eight natural natural is divided into eight land area South Australia’s (Figure 2): management regions resource • increased from 49 126 square kilometres in 2009 to 49 126 square kilometres from increased 2012a). in 2011 (ABS 52 786 square kilometres vicinity of Lake Eyre is also the area of South Australia’s of South Australia’s the area is also vicinity of Lake Eyre occupied by The area lowest rainfall. Australia’s) (and and this makes up 53.6% of South Australia agriculture of the state is less than 300 metres above sea level; of the state is less than 300 metres The is the highest peak at 1435 metres. Mount Woodroffe below sea level. The at 15 metres lowest place is Lake Eyre 12.7% of Australia’s total and the state is fourth largest of total and the state is fourth largest 12.7% of Australia’s coastal states and territories. South Australia’s Australian than 80% More kilometres. waters cover 60 032 square on islands) and a coastline of 5067 kilometres and a coastline of 5067 kilometres on islands) mainland coastline and of (3816 kilometres is of island coastline). The land area 1251 kilometres Land of 984 221 square has a land area South Australia which about 4600 square kilometres are kilometres (of changed over time and how they relate to one another. to one another. how they relate changed over time and environment Natural As context for the rest of the report, it is useful to report, it is useful of the for the rest As context physical South Australia’s main aspects of consider the and socio-economic environment, how these have Overview of South Australia’s of South Australia’s Overview environment Introduction 4 Figure 2 South Australia’s eightnatural resource managementregions 5 Introduction Sand monitor Angus Kennedy Introduction 6 somewhat higherthanthenational average at6.8 global with theaverage, footprintinVictoriaestimated tobe of 3.76 Earths.There issome variationbetweenstates, average Australian, wewouldneedthenatural resources 2012). Ifeveryoneintheworld consumedthesameas person—the seventhhighestofallnations(Figure 3; GFN Australia’s footprintisestimatedat6.7 global hectares per can regenerate. the planet’s future ecologicalstocksfasterthanthey hectares perperson,whichmeansthatweare depleting the average globalecologicalfootprintwas2.7 global 1.8 global hectares perpersonin2008.At thesame time wastes) tosustain theworldpopulationwasestimatedas capacity ofanarea toprovide resources andabsorb hectares perperson.Earth’s biologicalcapacity(the The ecologicalfootprintistypicallyexpressed inglobal wastes. Earth’s natural life-supporting capitalandabuildupof to absorbthegenerated waste,itleadstoadepletionof exceed anecosystem’s abilitytoregenerate resources and When humanresource extraction andwastegeneration using nature’s resources fasterthantheycanregenerate. provides ameasure oftheextenttowhichhumanityis patterns andabsorbhumanwastes.Thefootprint and oceanarea required tosustainhumanconsumption ‘ecological footprint’, whichestimatestheamountofland on theenvironment isoftendescribedintermsofan In spiteoflimitationsthemethodology, humanimpact generation ofwasteandpollution. geological assets), waterandenergy, andfrom the of natural resources suchasair, land(especially its environment comefrom thedirect andindirect use The maininteractions betweenpeopleandthe Impact ontheenvironment 2012b). was 1.64 million—an increase since2006(ABS of4.5% South Australia 2012).InJune 2011 thestate’s population passed 500 000andin1963it1 000 000(Atlas a populationof17 366. By1921thestate’s population population was546. Thefirstcensusheldin1844showed and attheendoffirstyearestimatedmigrant The firstmigrants arrivedinSouth Australia in1836, to promote thegrowth ofparticulartypesvegetation. that includedtheeffectiveuseoffire tohuntgameand and hadaskilledpatternofguardianship oftheland Adelaide Plains, usedthenatural resources efficiently European settlers.TheKaurnapeople,whooccupiedthe Australia foratleast40 000 years before thearrivalof lived in Australia andSouth People markets andeconomies,itisnotpractical totakeasingle- since 1960. Also, becauseofglobalisationtrade, with environmental changes—it hasmore thanhalved becomes moreandthecapacityisdecreasing affluent, footprint isincreasing asthepopulationincreases and ecological footprintanditsbiologicalcapacity. The However, there isasteadyconvergence ofAustralia’s is estimatedat14.6 hectares perperson(GFN 2012). concern consideringthatAustralia’s biologicalcapacity Australian footprintdoesnot seemtobeamajor Seen inisolationfrom therest oftheworld,large significantly, forexport rather thanourown use. (State oftheEnvironment 2011Committee2011),and, large amountsofnatural resources inaninefficientway large footprintiscausedbyourlifestyles,whichuse 4.3 hectares. Australia’s, includingSouthAustralia’s, 2.1 hectares;1 hectare; andinNewZealand, inChina, footprint oftheaverage personinIndiaislessthan at 9.2 globalhectares (OCSE 2011).Incomparison,the hectares, andtheAustralian CapitalTerritory estimated condition oftheenvironment (Figure 4b). Interpretation The sameistruefortheperception ofthetrend inthe who thinkitisinbadcondition hasmore thanhalved. more thandoubled(Figure 4a). Thepercentage ofpeople who thinktheenvironment isingoodconditionhas thatfour-year2012c).In period,thepercentage of people environment in2011–12thantheywere in2007–08 (ABS 20% lessconcernedandmore optimisticaboutthe key environmental indices.Yet Australians were about and evidencepointedtoanongoingdecliningtrend in environmental conditionsotherthanimproved rainfall, to 2011–12there wasnodiscerniblechangein consumption andnatural resources. From 2007–08 an awareness oftherelationships betweenproduction, and tomakeourlifestylesmore sustainablerequires To reduce depletionoftheworld’s natural resources Environmental understanding on ecosystemvitality(Yale University2012). environmental health’s effectson humanhealthbut106th health) andecosystemvitality. Australia is ranked 10thon components: environmental health(effects onhuman becomes ofgreater concernifdividedintoitstwomain performance overthepastdecade.Thisranking 48th incurrent performanceand79thintrend iteration ofthismeasurement project) ranks Australia performance indicators.The2012EPI(theseventh (EPI), whichranks 132countrieson22environmental evident from theEnvironmental Performance Index performance intermsoftheecologicalfootprintisalso Australia’s comparatively poorglobalenvironmental country perspectiveonthesustainableuseofresources. 7 Introduction World and is growing. South Australia’s average annual goods average South Australia’s and is growing. over the last five years and services export growth was 3.3%. Soon after settlement, the first pastoral leases were leases were Soon after settlement, the first pastoral Valley started in the Barossa and the first winery granted continue to and agriculture Both mining operating. exports earning mineral with South Australia’s grow, $2.85 billion in 2009–10) from $4.22 billion 2010–11 (up in contributing close to $5 billion (almost and agriculture However, half) overseas exports annually. of the state’s economy is based in today about 45% of the state’s economic sectors of mining services, while traditional collectively make up about 10%. The and agriculture is made up of construction, housing and remainder and retail utilities (19%), manufacturing (9%), and (9%). The food and wine industry, wholesale trade on a healthy exports and rely agricultural exports than 30% of South Australia’s environment. More (EDB 2013). products consist of agricultural Australian in the South shows the growth Figure 5 state product in changes in gross economy measured and in the import and export of goods and (Figure 5a), services between 2003–04 and 2011–12 (Figure 5b). of trade proportion Export of goods is clearly the largest Australia’s ecological footprint versus its biocapacity, and that of the rest of the world that of the rest and ecological footprint versus its biocapacity, Australia’s GFN (2012) and connection to, the natural world. the natural and connection to, the ‘economic invisibility of nature’ (the general lack (the general invisibility of nature’ the ‘economic resources) of monetary values of natural the effects of marketing and consumer attitudes a lack of science education and consumer information between an increasingly separation a growing of, urbanised and affluent society and its awareness Australia known as the Copper Triangle, mining contributed mining known as the Copper Triangle, of the state in its early days. significantly to the prosperity Australia’s economic development since the start of Australia’s the discovery of copper in Kapunda settlement. Following in 1842 and subsequent discoveries in what became Economy in South have played a key role Mining and agriculture • • • reasons for this disconnect include: reasons • behaviour (Macquarie University 2010). Environmental University 2010). Environmental behaviour (Macquarie small part in play a relatively seem to considerations we consume. The decisions about what and how much Australians were still concerned about environmental environmental still concerned about were Australians of concern and awareness issues. This apparent in our not reflected decline is, however, environmental influenced by a number of factors and can change quickly influenced by a number of factors and (ABS 2012c). than 60% of optimism, more In spite of this increased of these findings should consider that perceptions are are perceptions of these findings should consider that Source: 3 Figure Introduction 8 Figure 5 Source: a Figure 4 Source: a ABS (2012d) ABS (2012c) South Australia’s (a) gross stateproduct and(b) internationaltrade, 2003–04to Perceptions oftheconditionenvironment, (a) 2008and(b) 2011 2011–12 b b

9 Introduction Environment Environment . South Australia. All themes follow the same structure, All themes follow the same structure, South Australia. state, impact, pressures, on the driving forces, reporting to meet (Figure 6) model and outlook (DPSIRO) response of the South Australian the requirements 1993 Act Protection EPA used consistency and alignment, the efficiency, For under key environmental existing information reported available. and plans, wherever policies, strategies confirmed the importance of considering information and confirmed the importance of considering a to ensure of sources range a broad perspectives from balanced and complete picture. Edit and design editing Biotext, a company with expertise in drafting, and publishing science-based publications, professionally We hope report. final and designed the edited, proofread demonstrates that the editing and design of the report scientific information in an easy- the value of presenting to-understand and accessible language and format. This at the includes the addition of assessment summaries judgments based on which are start of each chapter, and condition of selected aspects trend of the overall in the assessment The topics in the report. covered composed of a number of related summaries are and others with a elements, some with a positive trend the complexity of the many reflecting negative trend, interactions. environmental Format under five has been organised The content of the report issues for the key environmental themes reflecting broad level government reference group. Final editorialising of editorialising Final group. reference level government under Chief Executive undertaken by the content was Board. the EPA from delegation coordination Inter-agency government committee A five-member senior-level and with advice and direction, supported the project themes. The and links across consistency promoted potential chapters, identified draft committee reviewed for contributed to the terms of reference peer reviewers, content for of draft and facilitated approval peer review by their heads of department.the theme chapters review Peer by two external peer Each chapter was reviewed This with expertise in the particular areas. reviewers valuable generated and in a number of revisions resulted into the additional information that was incorporated report.review process final version of the The peer 4.2 3.2 trade 9 459 13 343 Total ($m) Total Australian Australian % share of % share 3.8 3.6 1 927 2 198 trade Australian Australian % share of % share Services ($m) 4.3 3.0 7 261 trade 11 416 South Australia’s trade, 2011–12 trade, South Australia’s Australian Australian % share of % share Goods ($m) $408 million DFAT (2012) DFAT seeds and vegetables $206 million. iron ores and concentrates $945 million and concentrates ores iron beef)meat (excluding $499 million lead vegetables $272 million passenger motor vehicles $272 million wheat $1627 million wine $1146 million copper $1140 million $960 million and concentrates copper ores Imports Exports report. These authors drafted content with the support These authors drafted report. of their own and other agencies based on guidelines and under the guidance of a senior- by the EPA, prepared Authors were nominated by key government agencies were Authors for the the main custodians of data required that are number of key features. Content development reporting the 2013 state for preparing and processes The approach had a for South Australia report of the environment Approach to State of the Environment of the Environment to State Approach • • • • • • • • • • South Australia’s major exports in 2011–12 were major exports in 2011–12 were South Australia’s (DFAT 2012): Source: Table 1 Table in goods and 3.8% of Australia’s exports in services exports in Australia’s in goods and 3.8% of (Table 1). and chemicals, as well as carbon emissions. as well as carbon and chemicals, exports had 4.3% of Australia’s In 2011–12, South Australia goods can become increasingly detached from direct direct detached from become increasingly goods can carry with them embodied Goods exported consumption. metals minerals, as water, of materials such consumption As international trade increases, the production of of the production increases, trade As international 10 Introduction Figure 6 State oftheenvironment reporting framework—driving forces, pressures, state, impact, response,impact, outlook(DPSIRO) 11 Introduction standardisation and sharing environmental data environmental and sharing standardisation between jurisdictions and industry conditions changes in environmental tracking environmental community-based through benchmarks and standards accounting, or through sustainability for environmental the innovation and commitment to increase monitoring environmental value derived from benchmarks against agreed and reporting and standards. more intelligent and powerful (quicker, integrated, integrated, powerful (quicker, intelligent and more monitoring open) and of measurement standardisation increased systems reporting better data management and environmental modelling platforms ------Such systems would allow scientists and managers and managers would allow scientists Such systems in the data, and make connections to analyse so that the links among various to understand they can begin It is also important ecological processes. aspects of that socio-economic to environmental data relevant the connections between available, so that issues are can be understood. Finally, and society environment data will and related the usefulness of environmental transformed can be effectively be magnified if they knowledge and transferable into information products audience and to a broad likely to be meaningful and policy needs of today to the issues relevant and tomorrow. is a need for There times (Stiglitz et al. 2009, UNEP 2011, The Royal Society et al. 2009, UNEP 2011, The Royal times (Stiglitz 2012, WWF 2012). Measuring sustainability is a challenging concept because and integrating modelling an unknown future it requires aspects with complex information about widely divergent cause- are Other challenges in measurement interactions. relationships spanning multiple geographic and-effect in the and time scales. This complexity is reflected Measuring sustainability of the need for new recognition has been a growing There environmental of wellbeing that better reflect measures costs and benefits and their sustainable use. Economic assets valuation of ecosystem services and environmental in spite of its is notoriously difficult and controversial obvious and significant value. of sustainability or sustainable Measurement since development has been an issue of public interest and has at least the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, recent reports in in a number of significant been raised • collect a wide variety of environmental datasets on collect a wide variety of environmental soil, water and pests. Collecting information is not enough. Creating and using systems that allow efficient access to challenge. a great information remain environmental Of particular value would be partnerships with the on which collects rich datasets sector, resources publicly (where coastal and marine environments as part of its particularly scarce) available data are and compliance processes; approvals environmental industry consultants where sector, and the agricultural Improved data collection and use of alternative Improved vital for understanding and are data sources Australia’s effectively managing important aspects of systems. environmental • • • the environment report (State of the Environment 2011 of the Environment (State report the environment of environmental Committee 2011) about the future equally applicable to South Australia: are reporting scientific information in a coherent and easy-to- scientific information in a coherent understand manner. state of Australia The following points made in the 2011 and commitment to the maintenance of core datasets core and commitment to the maintenance of It against those indicators. progress to measure required in communicating complex improvement also requires integration of environmental data with relevant socio- data with relevant of environmental integration on clear agreement economic data. This requires wellbeing, indicators, including for sustainability and There is also a need for improvements in the synthesis is also a need for improvements There a broad and communication of available data to basis, and for better regular audience on a more a large group of people, and especially from an online from of people, and especially group a large citizen science and other forms of open data community), and sharing. generation resource management. There are increasing opportunities increasing are management. There resource (the developments in crowdsourcing to benefit from ideas or content from of obtaining services, practice make meaningful information available on long-term available on long-term make meaningful information and assess the effectiveness of in priority areas trends in conservation and natural the significant investment and by the private sector, universities, researchers and universities, researchers and by the private sector, Such changes would not nongovernment organisations. but would also reporting, environmental just improve a need for better coordination and integration of the and integration a need for better coordination data collected by of environmental substantial amount and local levels, state, regional governments at federal, areas for improvement. For environmental reporting reporting environmental improvement. For for areas management and help shape environmental to inform is there effectively, more and sustainable behaviour Consecutive reports on the environment in South in South environment on the reports Consecutive have highlighted whole of Australia and for the Australia Improving reporting effectiveness reporting Improving 12 Introduction level (DSEWPaC 2012). released atnational,stateand,where available,regional be factored inataregional level,andwithdataregularly Australian Governmentcommitted toindicatorsthancan measure Australia’s progress towards sustainability. The program todevelopasetofsustainabilityindicators Australian Governmentprovided $10.1 million fora of SouthAustralia the 2009).In its 2011–12Budget, (Governmentmore inclusiveassessmentofsustainability’ policy, enablingconsistentmeasurement andproviding a may beapplicabletotheassessmentofGovernment determine economy-wide measures ofsustainabilitythat the SouthAustralian Government announcedaproject ‘to In response tothe2008stateofenvironment report, and, OECDBetterLifeIndex(Stiglitz etal.2009). EnvironmentalDevelopment Index, SustainabilityIndex Genuine Progress Indicator, EcologicalFootprint, Human versions, ofsustainabilityindicators,includingthe multiple attemptstodevelopindices,aswelldifferent initiatives (IPBES2012). including agrowing numberofsubglobalassessment processes tothe2005MillenniumEcosystemAssessment, Scientific ExpertiseonBiodiversityandvariousfollow-up IPBES bringstogethertheInternationalMechanismof Change andismadeupof92 nations,includingAustralia. body similartotheIntergovernmental Panel onClimate IPBESisanindependent was establishedinApril 2012. Platform onBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES) decision-making, theIntergovernmental Science-Policy environmental scienceintoeconomicandpolitical Internationally, tocontributetheintegration of indicators andrelated efficienciesindatacollection. process islikelytomaximiseadvantagesofconsistent outcomes ofthenationalprocess; coordination withthat sustainability measures islikelytobenefitfrom the The developmentofSouthAustralia–specific Juvenile central netteddragon nearStuart Creek Station Angus Kennedy 13 Introduction (Gemmell and Scott 2012) and (Gemmell Our challenge is to understand, explain and is to understand, Our challenge risk that environmental to ensure indeed act tackled in a challenges are and environmental manner. sustainable This report of the 2013 state of the The following five chapters a detailed assessment of provide report environment The first two chapters environment. the South Australian namely change, of environmental key drivers reflect change, and the subsequent three population and climate critical aspects of the environment: chapters cover three and the coastal and marine biodiversity, water, environment.

(UNEP 2011) Better information on the state of the environment, ecosystems and biodiversity is essential for both private and public decision-making that capital determines the allocation of natural for economic development. prevent, reduce and repair environmental harm and risk environmental and repair prevent, reduce programs targeted good policy and regulation, through and behaviour. and changing culture and projects, Ultimately, the objective is not to report environmental environmental the objective is not to report Ultimately, information, but to use the information to help us expect that, collectively, these changes will deliver better expect that, collectively, environment. information on the regular and more coordinates comprehensive, trusted, timely and high- trusted, comprehensive, coordinates information to assist decision- quality environmental We making by government, industry and the community. (including improved accessibility and visualisation). It also accessibility and visualisation). (including improved the development of a whole-of-government promotes and plan, which information strategy environmental model, improved quality of data (including consistent, model, improved citizen science), robust, longitudinal datasets and use of effective communication and engagement and more improve the effectiveness of future state of the the effectiveness of future improve of content and its both in terms reporting, environment includes a new reporting communication. The program requirements and the changing context in which requirements takes place. reporting to has initiated a program In this spirit, the EPA environmental challenges. The EPA is committed to challenges. The EPA environmental of state of the environment continual improvement taking into account these essential reporting, set of indicators supported by good science, good set of indicators supported analysis, and systematic trend data collection, proper responses to of evaluation of the effectiveness environmental accounting. At the same time, the At accounting. environmental important still as are for good reporting requirements such as a robust 20 years ago, today as they were be communicated, and its potential value. There have its potential value. There be communicated, and reporting methods advances in also been significant and as sustainability reporting such and approaches, have been significant changes in the amount, quality, in the amount, significant changes have been quality, in information, of environmental sources and nature way the information is and can how it is used, in the Since the start of South Australian state of the state start of South Australian Since the there than 20 years ago, more reporting environment Progress 14 Introduction default/files/project/downloads/five-capitals-model.pdf for asustainableworld, framework forsustainability Forum fortheFuture (2013). Board, 16 April2013. correspondence, SouthAustralian EconomicDevelopment EDB (2013).OfficeoftheEconomicDevelopmentBoard indicators/index.html www.environment.gov.au/sustainability/measuring/ Environment, Water, Population and Communities,Canberra, Australian GovernmentDepartmentof Sustainability, DSEWPaC (2012). www.dfat.gov.au/geo/fs/sa.pdf Government DepartmentofForeign Affairs and Trade, DFAT (2012). species_loss sa.gov.au/Conservation/Ecosystem_conservation/No_ for Environment andHeritage, Adelaide, for SouthAustralia 2007–2017, DEH (2007). 387:253–260. world’s ecosystemservicesandnatural capital. RG, SuttonPandvandenBeltM(1997).Thevalueofthe NaeemS,O’NeillRV,Hannon B, Limburg K, Paruelo J, Raskin d’ArgeCostanza R, Farber deGroot R, S,Grasso R, M, factsheets/iyb-cbd-factsheet-ecoservices-en.pdf on BiologicalDiversity, CBD (2010). media_releases/ho/stateClimate2012.pdf Research Organisation, Meteorology andCommonwealth ScientificandIndustrial BoM andCSIRO (2012). south-australia/facts-and-figures. figures Atlas SouthAustralia (2012). Canberra. 2011–12, ABS (2012d). no. 4626.0.55.001, Australian Bureau ofStatistics, Canberra. ABS (2012c). Canberra. quarter 2011 ABS (2012b). no. 7121.0, Australian Bureau ofStatistics, Canberra. ABS (2012a). References , Atlas SouthAustralia, catno. 5220.0, Australian Bureau ofStatistics, , catno. 3101.0, Australian Bureau ofStatistics, . Ecosystem services No speciesloss—a nature conservationstrategy South Australia Environmental viewsandbehaviour Agricultural commodities Australian demographic statistics,December Australian nationalaccounts:stateaccounts, Measuring Sustainabilityprogram . www.cbd.int/iyb/doc/prints/ State oftheclimate2012 www.bom.gov.au/announcements/ www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/ , Forum fortheFuture: action , DFAT Australian factsheet, About SouthAustralia: factsand The Five CapitalsModel—a www.atlas.sa.gov.au/about- South Australian Department , CBD fact sheet, Convention , CBDfactsheet, . , Australia, 2010–11,cat . www.environment. Nature , 2011–12, cat , 2011–12, , Bureau of . ,

. Macquarie University(2010). and EcosystemServices,www.ipbes.net. IPBES (2012).Intergovernmental Platform onBiodiversity 2012–2017 state natural resources managementplanSouthAustralia Government ofSouthAustralia (2012). xstd_files/Corporate/Report/soe-2008-response.pdf 2008 to theState oftheEnvironment Report forSouthAustralia Government ofSouthAustralia (2009). australia.pdf www.footprintnetwork.org/images/trends/2012/pdf/2012_ biocapacity in2010and2011 GFN (2012). Management Gemmell JCandScottEM(2012).Guesteditorial. policy/projects/people-planet Society SciencePolicy Centre report, The Royal Society(2012). sen-fitoussi.fr/documents/rapport_anglais.pdf Economic Performance andSocialProgress, and SocialProgress, Commission ontheMeasurement ofEconomicPerformance Stiglitz JE,SenAandFitoussi J-P (2009). DSEWPaC, Canberra. Environment, Water, Population andCommunities, the Australian GovernmentMinisterforSustainability, state oftheenvironment 2011, State oftheEnvironment 2011Committee(2011). Canberra, Commissioner forSustainabilityandtheEnvironment, Australian CapitalTerritory GovernmentOfficeofthe OCSE (2011). aspx.pdf http://millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356. human well-being:synthesis, Millennium EcosystemAssessment(2005). Touchstone Research, MacquarieUniversity, Sydney. Faculty ofBusinessandEconomics withexternalconsultants towards environmental products, c , GovernmentofSouthAustralia, . , GovernmentofSouthAustralia, Adelaide. www.envcomm.act.gov.au/actsoe2011/index.html Australia: trends intheecologicalfootprintand . ACT stateoftheenvironment report 2011, 14:1–2. CommissionontheMeasurement of People andtheplanet, , GlobalFootprint Network, Island Press, Washington DC, . Emerging consumerattitudes independent report to ommissioned bythe http://royalsociety.org/ www.epa.sa.gov.au/ Our placeourfuture: Government response Report ofthe Ecosystems and www.stiglitz- . The Royal Risk Australia . . 15 Introduction . , Yale , Yale . a report of the a report . Environmental Performance Index Performance Environmental , World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, International, Wildlife Fund , World Decoupling natural resource use and use and resource natural Decoupling Living planet report 2012: biodiversity, biocapacity 2012: biodiversity, Living planet report http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/1_ http://epi.yale.edu/epi2012/countryprofiles Yale University (2012). Yale University, Switzerland, Switzerland, lpr_2012_online_full_size_single_pages_final_120516.pdf tabid/56048/Default.aspx WWF (2012). and better choices Giljum S, Hennicke P, Romero Lankao P, SiribanManalang A SiribanManalang A Lankao P, Romero Giljum S, Hennicke P, Programme, Nations Environment and Sewerin S. United www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/Decoupling/ Working Group on Decoupling to the International Resource Resource to the International on Decoupling Group Working EU, M, von Weizsäcker M, Swilling Fischer-Kowalski Panel. N, Eisenmenger F, Krausmann W, Crane Moriguchi Y, Y, Ren UNEP (2011). UNEP (2011). growth, economic impacts from environmental 16 Introduction 17

People and places

1 Why is it important?

The state of the natural environment is the result of economic growth, are important for human wellbeing. natural processes and, increasingly, the interaction of They are also a vital part of the economy because people with those processes. As population and industry they attract people to move to—and remain living and increase, the natural environment comes under pressure working in, and enjoying—a region. The protection and from increased consumption of resources, increased enhancement of the natural environment and the careful production of pollutants (such as greenhouse gases and development of industry and the built environment are nutrient enrichment of stormwater and streams), and the essential to maintain sustainable economic growth and encroachment of residential and industrial activities into human welfare. natural areas. Habitat loss, fragmentation and disruption This chapter examines South Australia’s population of natural systems cause a significant loss of biodiversity growth and the impacts of that population on urban and and can affect an area’s ability to respond to other regional areas. It also looks at the state’s heritage, which pressures such as climate change. is an important part of the human environment. The aesthetic and amenity elements of the natural environment, which may be degraded by population and

Opposite page: Hindley Street from the corner of King William Street, Adelaide, 1846 State Library of South Australia B15276/41 18 People and places In summary Aspect andobservation urban design. with investmentinpublictransport andnew and isexpectedtoincrease more rapidly 43.8 million to48.5 millionpassenger-kilometres, Public transport useislowbutincreased from and 2011. city increased bymore than50%between2006 The numberofcycliststravelling toandfrom the Private caruseishighandgrowing. Transport and energy. greenhouse gasemissions anduseofwater An increase inminingexportsledtoincreased Vale andBarossa regions from urbansprawl. including legislationtobetterprotect theMcLaren Protection ofagricultural landhasincreased, environment. agricultural, andtheserely onahealthy Nearly 40%ofSouthAustralia’s exportsare supported anupward trend inexports. The growth inworlddemandforfoodandminerals Economy the longterm. development andthisisexpectedtoaccelerate over There hasbeenanincrease ofinfill residential household sizesdecrease. expected tocontinueasthepopulationagesand more rapidly thanpopulation growth. Thistrend is The numberofresidential dwellingsincreased regional areas. Statistical Division,withdeclineinsome northern andsouthernfringesoftheAdelaide Most populationgrowth hasoccurred onthe increase sincetheearly1970s. Australia increased byabout70 000—the largest Between 2006and2011thepopulationofSouth Population Very poor Assessment grade • • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence ˜ ˜ ˜ In trend 19 People and places In trend ˜ › Confidence In grade ˜ ˜ Very good Very Good • Poor • Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Evidence Limited evidence or limited consensus Adequate high-quality and high level of consensus evidence Assessment grade Assessment ™ › ˜ Very poor Very Very good Very . Level of Level confidence Good Stable Unclear Poor • • Improving Deteriorating Very poor Very • • Grades Recent Recent trend 3250 kg per person. About 75% of this is recycled 3250 kg per person. About 75% of this is increased. 2006 by about 20% from Noise complaints increased to 2011. Waste by 40% to has increased waste generated Total The quality of treated water released into coastal into coastal water released The quality of treated waters has improved. of site contamination Knowledge and remediation has increased. The number of licences to handle radioactive has apparatus radioactive substances and operate Pollution of national good in terms Air quality remains in specific with only some exceptions standards, locations. has in rivers and streams The quality of water rainfall. of increased as a result improved generally Aspect and observation Aspect and 20 People and places net overseasmigration contributedapproximately 71 200 Estimates ofgrowth components (ABS2012a)reveal that states andterritories. been more modestinSouth Australia thaninmostother to 7.3% in2011.Thismeans thatpopulationgrowth has population hasdecreased consistently, from 9.4%in1966 2006 and2011,SouthAustralia’s share oftheAustralian Despite therelatively rapid populationgrowth between morethe first, conservative, figure (0.88%). Comparisons ofgrowth rates withinthisreport are madeto ERPs for2011andearliercensusesare released inJune 2013. to estimateintercensal growth before thefinal census-based recommends thatthisfigure (ABS2012abc) shouldbeused growth estimates.TheAustralian Bureau ofStatistics (ABS) growth rate of1.1%)basedontheintercensal componentof estimated populationincrease of88 400(an average annual This growth estimateissignificantlylowerthanthe more than70%ofthegrowth. important driverofthisaccelerated rate, accountingfor the early1970s.Overseasimmigration wasthemost between 2001and2006—and is the highestsince the average annualincrease of11 230(0.73% peryear) above annual increase of14 070people—significantly rate ofincrease of0.88%. Thisrepresents anaverage of 70 300overtheperiod,equivalenttoanannual June 2011(ABS2012a)indicatesapopulationincrease the preliminary censusrebased ERPof1.64 millionin Australia inJune2006was1.57million.Comparisonwith The estimatedresident population(ERP)ofSouth 2.1 markedly, butsodidtherate ofrecycling. air qualityandwaterquality. Waste generation increased private transport behaviourwere stable,aswere trends in urban andregional Trends development. inpublicand increase intherate ofpopulationgrowth andrelated the environment report (EPA 2008).There wasamodest remained stablesincethe2008SouthAustralian stateof South Australians andtheirnatural environment have Most oftheindicatorsrelationship between 2 What doweknowaboutit? Population trends 2012). Amajorincrease innetoverseasmigration—from (G Hugo, UniversityofAdelaide,pers.comm.,1 November evidence ofreturn migration ofadultsintheirthirties young adultsinSouthAustralia, althoughthere issome through netmigration interstatereduced thenumberof of 0–4 year oldsinthepopulation2011,butlosses increase inthefertilityrate since2001boostedthenumber net lossof18 400residents tointerstatedestinations.An between 2006and2011SouthAustralia experienceda minus deaths) contributedanother35 700 people.However, people tothestate’s growth, andnatural increase (births remain longer intheworkforce. take advantageofimprovement intheirgeneral healthto by atrend fortheyounger elderly(aged 65–74 years) to increased demandongovernment maybepartlyoffset amenities inhousing,healthand publictransport. This will demandspecialisedsupport servicesandappropriate 98 000 in2036(Government ofSouthAustralia 2010), of thesize85+agegroup from 31 000in2006 to state’s population, andparticularlyaprojected tripling 110% increase). Theprojected continuedageingof the increase from 194 000in2006to407 0002036 (a number ofpeopleinGreater Adelaideagedover65will 39 600 peopleoverthedecade.Itisprojected thatthe in2011,equivalenttoanabsoluteincreaseto 15.9% of of peopleaged65oroverincreased from in2001 14.6% from 66.1% in2001to66.4% by2011,buttheproportion persons ofworkingage(15–64 years) increased slightly proportion haddecreased to17.7%. Theproportion of population waslessthan15 yearsoldandby2011this continued toage(Table 1).In2001,19.3%ofthestate’s Over thelastdecade,SouthAustralia’s populationhas comm., 1 November2012). overseas students(G Hugo, UniversityofAdelaide,pers. that 15–20% populationcomprises ofAdelaide City’s Ithasbeenestimated as theirnetflownumberssuggest. long-term contributiontothemigration stockisnotaslarge their homecountriesoncompletionofstudies, of overseasstudents,butbecausemanythesereturn to an upsurge inlong-term temporary migration, particularly population increase. Much ofthisincrease wasdrivenby 17 980 in2008–09—was thedominantfactorinstate’s an annualnetintakeof4300in2003–04toapeak 21 People and places Tram stop at Square, Adelaide stop at Victoria Square, Tram Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure and Infrastructure Transport Department of Planning, 22 People and places Given current uncertaintyaboutthecensus rebasing of growth rate of1.03%peryearbetween 2006and2011. ASGS boundaries), andequivalenttoanaverage annual than Greater Adelaide’s ERPin2006of1 199 605(2011 of Greater Adelaidewas1 262 940, larger some5.3% City Statistical orGreater Area, Adelaide.In2011theERP Adelaide, thisisknownastheAdelaideGreater Capital functional areas ofthestatecapitalcities.Incase of city statisticalarea has beendefinedtoidentifythe areas havebeenabolishedandanewgreater capital classification, statisticaldivisionsandlocal Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS).Underthis new geographical classificationtermedthe Australian With therelease ofthe2011 census,ABSadopted a similar tothestate’s average annualgrowth rate of0.9%. its average annual growth rate of1.0%over2006–11 is accounted for73%ofthestate’s populationin2011,and of thestatisticaldivision.AdelaideStatistical Division developments onthenorthernandsouthernfringes pluslargeredevelopment oftheexistinghousingstock, major urbaninfillprojects, ongoingdemolitionand 2012e). Thisgrowth hasbeenaccommodatedbyseveral which is80%ofthestate’s growth over2006–11(ABS experienced thelargest populationgrowth of59 000, in 2006–11.AdelaideStatistical Division(ABS2005)has major driverofurbandevelopmentinSouthAustralia accompanying increase inemploymenthasbeenthe The growth oftheGreater Adelaideregion andthe Adelaide 2.2.1 coastal areas. and retirement homesare anincreasing feature of a highrate ofpopulationgrowth, whileholiday Adelaide anditssurrounding areas continuetoshow 2.2 Source: Table 1 (years) Age group Total 65+ 15–64 0–14 Urban populationchangeand development ABS (2012d) South Australia’s changingagestructure: estimatedresident populationin2001,2006 and 2011 1 511 728 No. people 221 000 999 041 291 687 2001 100.0 14.6 66.1 19.3 % No. people 1 567 888 1 044 040 236 561 287 287 to 1 262 940—an increase of108 198people,or10 819 the populationofGreater Adelaidegrew from 1 154 742 In thedecadebetweencensusesof2001and2011, are perhapsamore reliable indicationofrecent growth. growth estimatesbetweenthe2001and2011censuses the ERPtotalsbetween2006and2011(ABS2012b,c), of peopleperprivate dwellingintheGreater Adelaide Since the1996census,rate ofdecrease inthenumber demand fordwellingsandreduced thesizeofhouseholds. and generally goodeconomictimesthat increased the population ageing,increased rates of familydissolution population since1976(Figure 1). Thishasbeencausedby private dwellings,hasincreased more rapidly thanthe The demandforhousing,asmeasured bythenumber of Housing 2.2.2 1.29 million in2006to1.85 millionpeopleby2036. the ABSdefinitionofGreater Adelaide)willincrease from Adelaide planningregion (comprising alarger area than 2010b) projected thatthepopulationofGreater T the environment. increased demands,andmayhaveincreased impacton pressure oninfrastructure andservicestomeetthe catchment areas, thisgrowth hasplacedconsiderable most productive agricultural landandcriticalwater 0.9%. Asthisdivisionincludesalarge share ofthestate’s than thestate’s annualrate ofpopulationgrowth of all thestatestatisticaldivisionsandsubstantiallyhigher and 2011—the mostrapid rate ofpopulationincrease of population growth inthisdivisionof1.5%between2006 the availabilityoflandledtoanaverage annualrate of state’s populationgrowth). Itsproximity toAdelaide and increased populationof10 000over2006–11(14%the The OuterAdelaideStatistical Divisionhasabsorbedan of 0.9% (Table2). people peryear, andanaverage annualgrowth rate 2006 he 30-Year Plan forGreater Adelaide 100.0 15.1 66.6 18.3 % 1 638 232 1 088 480 No. people 260 586 289 166 2011 (30-Year Plan; DPLG 100.0 15.9 66.4 17.7 % 23 People and places year of completion, Adelaide and year of completion, Adelaide Divisions, Statistical Outer Adelaide 1986–2011 Floor area of detached dwellings by Floor area The data exclude . Kangaroo The data exclude of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure, unpublished and Infrastructure, Transport of Planning, June 2012 property cadastre and valuation snapshot, cadastre Department June 2012 property Figure 2 Note: Source: Analysis of the floor area of detached dwellings (Figure 2) (Figure 2) detached dwellings of the floor area Analysis of incomes and aspirations rising shows that, until 2006, in the proportion in a consistent increase reflected were than (more floor areas dwellings with large of detached energy use more houses Large metres). 300 square to materials and energy more to heat and cool, and demolish, and thus have a construct and eventually footprint of a city. the environmental influence on large with slightly, has reversed trend since 2006 this However, areas of detached dwellings with floor the proportion in 7.8% declining from metres than 300 square greater of detached area in 2011. The median floor 2006 to 7.6% 1986 to 2001, but has from rapidly dwellings increased metres a peak of 181 square from since declined modestly in 2011. It is likely that metres in 2001 to 176 square demanding building code prices, more energy increased rating) efficiency (including a six star energy requirements the demand for and smaller lot sizes may be dampening floor areas. houses with large

2013), the first halt in 2013), the first halt idblog population and private dwellings, 1976–2011 Region, Adelaide Greater Comparison of growth in Comparison of growth 1976 to 2011, ABS (2012e) Australian Bureau of Statistics selected census ERP tabulations of Statistics Bureau Australian The recent decrease in people per dwelling may be underestimated in people per dwelling may be underestimated decrease The recent includes Plan) defined in the 30-Year (as Adelaide region The Greater Because of the lack of comparable information on the number of Because of the lack of comparable private dwellings. of overseas students included in in the proportion because of an increase in and because most overseas students do not reside the ERP since 2006, private dwellings. Division area, the Outer Adelaide Statistical the Adelaide metropolitan Bridge. City of Murray Island) and the Rural for Kangaroo (except people per private dwelling (occupied and unoccupied) before 1986, 1986, and unoccupied) before people per private dwelling (occupied the total number of the population estimate used is the ERP divided by Figure 1 Sources: 3 2 ERP = estimated resident population ERP = estimated resident Notes: 1 fastest growing household type in South Australia during type in South Australia household fastest growing the last 10 years. continued from 2.386 to 2.383continued from people per household due to the ageing of South Australia’s 2006 to 2011, from population. Single-person households have been the between 2006 and 2011 ( between 2006 and baby boom of the 1950s. In South the decline since the trend slow downward as a whole, the very Australia analysis, the average household size at the national level at the national level household size average analysis, the 2.532 to 2.537 from people shows a very small increase in private dwellings) as people per household (defined affordability of housing possibly being a factor in 2001–11 being a factor of housing possibly affordability 1 November of Adelaide, pers. comm., University Hugo, (G the from excluded are overseas visitors 2012). When planning region has slowed (Figure 1), with decreased with decreased (Figure 1), has slowed planning region 24 People and places boosted byretirement migration (mainly from Adelaide Harbor–Goolwa andNormanvillehavecontinued tobe Victor The populationsofcoastaltowns suchasMoonta, significant growth. major regional centre ofMountGambierhasexperienced slow withthedelayinOlympic Damexpansion.The and Port Growth Augusta. inthesecentres willlikely centres thatservicethosedevelopments,suchasWhyalla as Roxby Downs,andalowrate ofgrowth inmajorurban has alsobeensignificantgrowth ofminingcentres such Strathalbyn), andNuriootpaintheBarossa Valley. There (such asMurray Bridge,VictorHarbor–Goolwa and Capital CityRegion butwithineasycommutingdistance and AngleVale) orthosejustoutsidetheGreater Adelaide Region (such asMountBarker, Nairne,Hahndorf, Gawler either onthefringesofGreater AdelaideCapitalCity of populationgrowth between2006and2011are those For example, theurbancentres withthehighestrates environment report (EPA 2008)are stillevident(Figure 4). identified inthe2008South Australian stateofthe Many ofthepopulationtrends forurbancentres 2.2.4 within the2038boundariesidentifiedin Figure 3. constrain thenext25 yearsofresidential development constrained. Itistheintentionof30-Year Plan to development hasbeenslowerandmore spatially population growth. Inthetwodecadessince,residential as aresult ofincreased carownershipandrapid post-war War 2. Thisspread wasparticularlyrapid during1960–89, of itsdevelopmentandthesprawl ofthecityafterWorld the compactspatialextentofcityforfirstcentury development inAdelaide.Itshowsthecontrast between Figure 3 showsthehistoricalspread ofurban greenhouse gasemissions. an increase incaruse,whichleadstoanincrease in poorly servedbypublictransport. Therefore, itgenerates of itsresidents andonsitesthatare (at leastinitially) located somedistancefrom theworkplacesofmost Most importantly, broadhectare developmentisusually the costofproviding transport andotherinfrastructure. increases demandforenergy andwater, andincreases (where citiesare hotterthanthesurrounding rural areas), This typeofdevelopmentincreases theheatislandeffect natural environment,includingalossofbiodiversity. or intonatural areas, leadingtoanalteration ofthe that mayhavebeenbettersuitedtoprimaryproduction, the establishedmetropolitan encroaching area, ontoland Australia hasoccurred oncheaperlandthefringeof Historically, alarge proportion ofnewhousinginSouth 2.2.3 Other urbancentres Urban expansion between 2001–06and2006–11(idblog2012).Population border thecoastline)halvedfrom 1.0%to0.5% peryear as outsidethegreater capitalcitystatisticalareas that growth inERPofcoastallocalgovernmentareas (defined from 0.7% to0.9% peryear, theaverage annualrate of despitethetotalpopulationgrowththat, rate accelerating government areas in2001–06and2006–11indicates All-of-state analysisofpopulationchangeincoastallocal 42% ofitsprivatedwellingsunoccupied(ABS2011). District Council,withitsattractive riversidesites,had dwellings categorisedasunoccupied,andMidMurray and Ellistoneachhadmore than40%oftheirprivate of Robe, Yorke Yankalilla, Peninsula, BarungaWest At the2011census,coastallocalgovernmentareas increase inholidayhomesandfuture retirement homes. between 2006and2011.Thisisindirect evidenceofan unoccupied rather thanoccupiedprivatedwellings in thestateexperiencedamore rapid increase in construction ofholidayhomes.Manycoastalsettlements but alsofrom rural areas inthe hinterland)andthe farm andtown populations. there maybelong-term depopulationoftheRiverland’s marginally economicallysustainable,suggestingthat the Riverland,manyofsmallerblockslandare from miningwillallowfarmerstoremain residents of Although itishopedthattheshort-term economicfix income thatisdifficulttoobtain from farmworkalone. offers steadysalaries,predictable shiftworkandastable industry workeachyear. Miningindustry–related work out oftheregion totakepartinfly-in fly-outmining force asmany300 localresidents totemporarily move for electricity) andlingeringdebt havecombinedto indicate thatlowfruitprices,highinputcosts(especially 2010. Local reports from theRiverlandregion (ABC2012) of irrigationflowsduringthedrought yearsfrom 1998to as BerriandLoxton, related tothedecreased availability decrease ofpopulationinseveral Riverlandcentres such as Bordertown, Keith andPeterborough, andasimilar population oftownsservingdrylandfarmingareas such There hasalsobeenanoticeabledecrease inthe Eyre andYorke peninsulas. buthasslowedinmanysmallcentresCopper Coast, on growth isstillstrong ontheFleurieuPeninsula andonthe 25 People and places development areas to 2038 development areas Residential development of Adelaide and environs, pre-1910–2011, and planned pre-1910–2011, and environs, development of Adelaide Residential Valuation data supplied by the Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure Transport data supplied by the Department of Planning, Valuation Figure 3 Source: 26 People and places Figure 4 Source: ABS (2012f) Estimated resident populationofurban centres, 2011,andaverage annualchange in estimated resident population, 2006–11 27 People and places housing density has resulted in a more intensive use in a more housing density has resulted the loss of However, of existing urban infrastructure. cover has the potential to increase and tree backyards of stormwater both the heat island effect and the level with is not taken to offset these effects run-off if care water-sensitive plantings and open space, tree more can also lead to a loss urban design. The loss of backyards of suburban habitats for some species. Adelaide have on the fringes of metropolitan Other areas Adelaide— from absorbed some of the spillover growth Barker Council and Gawler have Mount for example, respectively. had population gains of 2800 and 1500, than 1000 have also Significant population gains of more of (increase of Alexandrina LGAs in the regional occurred Copper Bridge (1800) Victor Harbor (1620), 2560), Murray of growth Coast (1230) and Light (1120), with the rate annual growth average than double the state’s more also Peninsula Eyre and Lower rate. regional in 2006–11. These experienced significant growth coastal gained population because of their desirable LGAs their migration, locations and associated retirement or their proximity population centres status as regional to Adelaide. population in 2006, the percentage increases were high were increases the percentage in 2006, population the annual to ten times at 4.5% per year—five to 11.1% these Over 2006–11, of the state. rate growth population and most intense witnessed the greatest have areas population growth—impacts impacts from environmental sensitive environmentally by that need to be addressed conservation principles. urban design and biodiversity have Division Statistical Other SLAs in the Adelaide the over population growth experienced significant Port those in the councils of last five years, particularly of 9960), Marion (4050) and Adelaide Enfield (increase has been substantial there where Adelaide City (3320), in and apartment construction urban redevelopment the annual In these areas, areas. established residential significantly was between 1.5% and 3.5%, of increase rate in the increases Population higher than the state rate. over 2006–11 have been driven by of 1000–2000 range inner city in the established redevelopment residential Torrens of 4180), West (increase councils of Charles Sturt increasing (2800) and Campbelltown (1850), where Local area population change population change area Local development Regional population change and population change Regional Onkaparinga–South Coast,Onkaparinga–South 7530 in Salisbury Balance, Central. and 3250 in Playford–West 3850 in Playford–West on new generally were As these population increases very little residential sites with residential broadhectare The largest absolute increases over 2006–11 occurred over 2006–11 occurred absolute increases The largest in the SLAs on the southern and northern edges of of 7860 in increases area: the Adelaide metropolitan Substantial absolute increases in population have the Substantial absolute increases environment. potential to significantly affect the natural and 7 show the spatial patterns of population change at the SLA level, the total absolute change over 2006–11 and change. annual percentage the average pronounced, and environmental impacts are likely to be impacts are and environmental pronounced, most evident, scale of the statistical local at the larger Figures 6 (LGA). (SLA) and local government area area 2.3.1 most in population change are Spatial differences (0.2% compared with 0.9% per year for the state) as a with 0.9% compared (0.2% and an resources of the development of mineral result demand for labour. increased rate between 2006 and 2011 of 0.45%, and the oldest 2011 of 0.45%, between 2006 and rate and Northern statistical population in the state. Eyre of population increase divisions witnessed modest rates (particularly the Copper Coast) has been the recipient the recipient (particularly the Copper Coast) has been other parts of the state. from migration of retirement annual growth highest in the third This has resulted population declines, largely because of ABS adjustments. population declines, largely Statistical Like Victor Harbor in the Outer Adelaide Division North Statistical and Lower Division, the Yorke since 2006 has been relatively minor at 1000 people since 2006 has been relatively South East and or less over the five years. Indeed, both minor Lands statistical divisions have experienced Murray is summarised in Table 2 and Figure 5. Apart from the Apart from and Figure 5. is summarised in Table 2 divisions (see Adelaide and Outer Adelaide statistical Section 2.2.1), in the other divisions population growth The regional pattern of population change over 2006–11 pattern The regional 2.3 up from 5.7 million in 2008, but saw a drop in domestic 5.7 million saw a drop in 2008, but up from in 8.1 million in 2008 to 7.2 million visitor nights from 2012 (DIT 2012a). retained its place as the most liveable Australian city liveable Australian its place as the most retained Index. City Liveability In 2012, to the Australian according visitor nights, international Adelaide hosted 7.5 million Adelaide ranked ninth among 140 world cities on the world cities on the ninth among 140 Adelaide ranked liveability index and Intelligence Unit’s 2012 Economist 2.2.5 Liveability 28 People and places Sources: a Table 2 Population distribution(%) Estimated resident population division Statistical Average annualgrowth rate (%peryear) Growth Total Total Northern Eyre South East Murray Lands Lower North Yorke and Adelaide Outer Adelaide Total Northern Eyre South East Murray Lands Lower North Yorke and Adelaide Outer Adelaide Total Northern Eyre South East Murray Lands Lower North Yorke and Adelaide Outer Adelaide Northern Eyre South East Murray Lands Lower North Yorke and Adelaide Outer Adelaide Preliminary estimatedresidential populationfigures rebased tothe preliminary 2011census results. ABS (2012e,andearlier years) Estimated resident population,populationshares, populationchangeandaverage annual growth rates ofthesevenSouthAustralian statisticaldivisions,1976–2011 1 274 070 923 868 60 648 95 763 32 962 59 525 60 658 40 646 1976 100.0 72.5 7.5 2.6 4.7 4.8 3.2 4.8

1 318 769 953 696 1976–81 44 699 –1 599 29 828 69 839 94 164 34 454 61 628 63 267 41 721 1981 1 492 2 103 2 609 1 075 9 191 –0.34 100.0 0.69 0.89 0.70 0.85 0.52 2.86 0.64 72.3 7.1 2.6 4.7 4.8 3.2 5.3 1 382 550 1 003 802 1981–86 63 781 –4 250 12 055 50 106 81 894 1986 89 914 34 935 62 893 65 520 43 592 1 265 2 253 1 871 –0.92 100.0 0.95 0.28 0.41 0.70 0.88 3.24 1.03 72.6 481 6.5 2.5 4.5 4.7 3.2 5.9 1 446 299 1 056 561 1986–91 93 231 63 749 –1 435 –1 770 11 337 52 759 88 479 33 165 62 855 68 012 43 996 1991 2 492 –0.32 –1.03 –0.01 100.0 73.1 0.91 0.75 0.18 2.62 1.03 –38 404 6.1 2.3 4.3 4.7 3.0 6.4 1 474 253 1 078 437 1991–96 104 331 27 954 –5 047 11 100 21 876 83 432 33 011 62 707 68 185 44 150 1996 100.0 –154 –148 73.2 0.40 –1.2 –0.1 0.00 0.10 0.10 2.30 0.40 173 154 5.7 2.2 4.3 4.6 3.0 7.1 1 511 728 1 107 986 1996–01 113 992 2001 37 475 –3 245 29 549 80 187 34 020 62 588 68 557 44 398 1 009 9 661 –0.79 –0.04 100.0 –119 73.3 0.50 0.60 0.11 0.11 1.79 0.54 372 248 5.3 2.3 4.1 4.5 2.9 7.5 1 567 888 1 145 812 2001–06 128 770 56 160 –1 178 14 778 37 826 79 009 34 828 64 492 69 483 45 494 2006 1 904 1 096 –0.30 100.0 73.1 0.73 0.47 0.60 0.27 0.49 2.47 0.67 808 926 5.0 2.2 4.1 4.4 2.9 8.2 1 638 232 1 204 940 2006–11 138 682 70 344 59 128 79 871 35 123 64 105 68 989 46 522 2011 1 028 9 912 –0.12 –0.14 100.0 –387 –494 0.88 0.22 0.17 0.45 1.49 1.01 73.2 862 295 4.9 2.2 4.1 4.3 2.9 8.5 a 29 People and places Population trends for the statistical divisions of South Australia, 2006–11 for the statistical divisions of South Australia, trends Population ABS (2012e) Figure 5 Figure Source: 30 People and places Statistical Divisions. Yorke andLower North, Murray LandsandSouthEast in thedrylandagricultural areas ofEyre Peninsula, had populationdecreases ofatleast100people,mostly 2006 and2011censuses.Ofthe127 SLAsmapped,28 shows theabsolutechangeinpopulationbetween ThisisevidentinFigure 6,the state(ABS2012bc). which downgrading ofgrowth rates intheregional areas of Adjustments madebytheABShaveresulted inamajor populations in2011than2006. is anartefactofamore completeenumeration ofthese Indigenous peopleandsomeofthepopulationchange Some oftheseSLAsalsohavelarge proportions of increases represent lessthan500peopleover2006–11. all theseSLAshadsmallpopulationsin2006andthe Lincoln andUnincorporated FlindersRanges.However, Downs, Unincorporated West Unincorporated Coast, Unincorporated Far North,AnangaPitjantjatjara, Roxby average annualgrowth rates exceed 1.0%,including Figure 7 highlightstheregional SLAswhere the 2006 and2011(i.e. population gainsorlossesof99 of theseSLAshadessentiallystablepopulationsbetween young people.Afurther33 SLAsonthenorthernmargins workforce continuestoageandisnotfullyreplaced by in thesemore marginal areas, particularlyastherural ultimately onthequalityofenvironmental management on thesustainabilityofagricultural workforce and of thesepopulations.Thismayhaveanadverseeffect and theCoorong DCare amore significantpercentage Peterborough(DC), Renmark DC, Paringa Tatiara DC, DC Waikerie (EastandWest), NorthernAreas DistrictCouncil losses intherange of200–500inareas suchasLoxton than 1.0%ofthepopulation.Figure 7 alsoindicatesthat the large basepopulations,theselossescomprisedless metropolitan area (Figure 7) becauseof indicatethat, home. Examination oftheproportional lossesinthe 200 to1055peopleasyoungadultsmovedawayfrom and Onkaparinga–Woodcroft decreased byapproximately North, Tea Tree Gully–Central, Onkaparinga–Morphett metropolitan ThepopulationsofTea area. Tree Gully– The largest absolutepopulationdecreases were inthe people orless). Adelaide central businessdistrictfrom theeasternsuburbs Department ofPlanning, Transport andInfrastructure 31 People and places Absolute change in estimated resident population by statistical local area, 2006–11 Absolute change in estimated resident ABS (2012e) Figure 6 Source: 32 People and places Figure 7 Source: ABS (2012e) Average annualpercentage changeinestimatedresident populationby statistical local area, 2006–11 area, 33 People and places Belinda Scott Commonwealth Development Act Development Act National .

World Heritage List Heritage World , and state heritage places are entered into the South entered , and state heritage places are more than 6400 local heritage places and areas than 6400 local heritage places and areas more than 2200 state heritage places and areas more in the seven heritage places and areas Heritage List in the five heritage places and areas Heritage List Mammal Site) in Fossil one heritage place (Naracoorte the wilderness, coastlines, native vegetation and coastlines, native wilderness, species threatened and monuments historic buildings lighthouses and whaling stations shipwrecks, and industrial art,and agricultural artefacts, fossils, heritage beliefs. customs, language and prescribed criteria for listing. prescribed listings include: various heritage South Australia’s • • • • • in 2012 heritage sites The distribution of South Australian is shown in Figure 8. for the benefit of future generations. This heritage can This heritage generations. of future for the benefit include: • • • • • location of the heritage help to The significance and example, needed—for of protection determine the type and conserve heritage Heritage listings protect World also national, state are and there of global importance, listed in Local heritage places are and local listings. Local the through Council Development Plans 1993 Committee by a Register Heritage Register Australian Heritage appointed by the independent South Australian compliance with require Council. Both processes Houseboats at Mannum on the River Murray offer regional development through tourism regional development through offer Houseboats at Mannum on the River Murray Regional development development Regional South Australia’s heritage is made up of aspects of the heritage is made South Australia’s worth protecting considered that are past and the present 2.4 Heritage of small family farms as a result of market volatility and of small family farms as a result the dairy industry in which damaged drought, prolonged Murray. the Lower The primary production sector has continued to perform The primary production is a there over the last five years. However, strongly and the loss farm amalgamation towards continuing trend Adelaide, a shift may occur with some employees seeking Adelaide, a shift may occur with some employees because of higher affordable a lifestyle change (now centres. to regional by relocating incomes) In addition to this, many people who are employed in In addition to this, many people who are fly out to work.the mining sector choose to fly in and in Greater Although most of these employees live leaving the land for employment in the mining sector. employment in the mining sector. leaving the land for is likely to continue. This trend The growth in the mining sector, and its associated and its associated in the mining sector, The growth employment, with to a shift in rural high wages, has led of farm owners and employees significant numbers employed about 7500 workers. In 2011, it contributed employed about 7500 (5.1%) and employed state product $3.9 billion to gross about 8800 workers. in the state, and the number of mines has more than of mines has more and the number in the state, sector In 2008, the mining the past five years. doubled in (4.3%) and state product contributed $2.8 billion to gross The South Australian Government has invested more than than invested more Government has Australian The South mining and exploration to support minerals $30 million 2.3.2 34 People and places Figure 8 Source: Data from theAustralian HeritageDatabase,Australian Government DepartmentofSustainability, Environment, Water, Population andCommunities Heritage sitesinSouthAustralia, 2012 35 People and places manufacturing and mining sectors, the freight industry manufacturing and mining sectors, the freight will need to consider further emissions abatement and offsetting, including alternative fuel use, vehicle design through and modification, and maximising efficiencies logistics planning. increasing, consistent with the increase in freight haulage in freight consistent with the increase increasing, noted below. 3.1.2 Freight tonnes vehicles carried 184 million freight road The state’s of 8.7 million tonnes or 4.9% in 2008–09, an increase 12 months. This suggests a significant over the previous in fuel usage and emissions. Despite a decline increase in 2008–09, of 0.6% laden distance in the average that the annual ensured in tonnes carried an increase by 2.7% task increased freight road South Australian tonne-kilometres to 18.7 billion tonne- or 0.5 billion 2011). in 2008–09 (Pekol kilometres has depended on sector transport the road date, To road in the Australian fuels. Growth petroleum-based in fuel increase task has led to a corresponding transport in consumption, which, in turn, has led to an increase The principal the sector. gas emissions from greenhouse but vehicles also gas is carbon dioxide greenhouse and methane, which contribute to oxide nitrous produce climate change (DIT 2012). fuel. As goods use more transporting Heavier loads from to growing expands in response task freight the state’s this potentially presents issues relating to increased to increased issues relating this potentially presents and urban air quality impacts, new- emissions greenhouse fuel efficient becoming increasingly model vehicles are alternative fuels and electrified drive turning to and are The number of motor vehicles per 1000 people trains. 732 in 2006 to 793 in 2012. Light by 8%, from increased registrations vans and utilities) vehicle (panel commercial by 41% between 2007 and 2012 and now increased tonne-kilometres and light commercial total 167 360, tonne of freight to one tonne-kilometre corresponds (a have been steadily travelled carried over one kilometre) What are the pressures? What are by public transport (DIT 2012a). by public transport on have increased Cars used for private transport by 3.6% in the last five years. Although our roads annual increase of 2%, compared with the Australian with the Australian of 2%, compared annual increase (ABS 2012f). of 13.3% and 2.6%, respectively average In to work by car and 9.7% Adelaide, 81.4% of people travel South Australia had the smallest growth in number of in number had the smallest growth South Australia states and of Australian motor vehicle registrations and an average of 10.2% territories, with a total increase trucks, buses and motorcycles each account for less than trucks, buses and motorcycles by these vehicles have 5%. The total distances travelled 9). In 2007–12, seen little change over the years (Figure 76% of kilometres travelled (Figure 9). Light commercial Light commercial (Figure 9). travelled 76% of kilometres vehicles account for another 15% of the kilometres Other vehicles such as articulated trucks, rigid travelled. Passenger vehicles (essentially private cars) dominate private cars) (essentially vehicles Passenger consistently accounting for use in South Australia, road environmental impact. environmental 3.1.1 Trend 14 615 million vkm per year), but overall the estimates the estimates 14 615 million vkm per year), but overall earlier estimates in 2002 have changed little from and 2005, only minor changes in total suggesting vehicles on a given road or traffic network multiplied by or traffic vehicles on a given road in kilometres) trips measured length of their the average 14 212 to 2007 to 2010 (from in the state from travelled and energy use. and energy flow has been a modest rise in the total traffic There of by the vehicle-kilometres (the number as measured functioning of communities; however, vehicle use and functioning of communities; however, on the can have negative impacts infrastructure transport pollution through environment, communities and people Transport 3.1 Transport is essential to the economic and social Transport and other pressures also affect the heritage features of also affect the heritage features and other pressures the state. The pressures resulting from population and economic population and from resulting The pressures and waste, which pollution include transport, growth and human wellbeing. These impact on the environment 3 36 People and places transfer torail where thisiseconomicallysustainable. that rail willremain competitivewith road, enablinga increased capacityandincreased axleloadswillensure the Australian RailTrack Corporation inmore facilities, transport. Further investmentbytheprivatesectorand and increase rail’s competitivenesswithotherformsof more efficient trains tooperate onthe train network, projects, whichwillenablelonger, more reliable and construction oftheGoodwoodandTorrens Junctions and theAustralian Governmenthavecommittedtothe more freight torail. TheSouthAustralian Government mitigate oroffsetsuchincreases andgradually transfer It isimportantthatindustryadoptsmeasures tohelp can leadtoassociatedincreases invehicleemissions. (Pekol 2011).Increases involumesoffreight onourroads tonne-kilometresin2018–19 by 19.5%to22.8 billion annual road tonne-kilometretaskisprojected toincrease travelled, average loads androad freight productivity, the by 2018–19.Givenexpectationsforaverage distance state’s road freight tonnesor18.6% tonnesby15.7 million Growth ineconomicactivityisprojected toincrease the Figure 9 Source: CTEE (2011) Annual road kilometres travelled byvehicletypeinSouthAustralia, 2005–06 to 2008–09 by passengers. that reduced thenumberofbustransfers required but thisisduetoadditionalthrough-running busservices 2009–10. Boardings appeartohavedecreased in2010–11, increased from 50.1 million in2005–06 to53.7 millionin closure oflinesfortrack upgrading. Busboardings year, butdecreased in2010–11becauseofthetemporary 2005–06 and 2009–10at11.7 millionboardings per Train patronage remained relatively stable between trams) astheservicehasbeenextendedandimproved. with someevidenceofincreased patronage (especially of metropolitan transport area since2005–06 (Figure 2.10), bus) hasremained reasonably stableintheAdelaide Total patronage ofpublictransport (tram, train and 3.1.3 Public transport

37 People and places

chapter). Water Environment Protection Act 1993 Act Protection Environment potential pollution, the EPA also monitors the pollution potential pollution, the EPA and evaluates the cumulative diffuse sources from on the community and all sources impacts from environment. The South Australian duty for everyone to take environmental a general creates to avoid harm to measures and practicable reasonable maintains a pollution reporting the environment. The EPA of the city. Although counts are collected at 33 locations, Although counts are of the city. possible are there they do not account for all cyclists since not covered. that are routes 3.2 Pollution maintain our population and economic sustainably To manage the impacts it is essential to effectively activity, by human activities. This of pollution and waste created protection of air and water quality, includes protection and improved harmful noise and radiation, from noise, in air quality, management of waste. (Trends water in this chapter; covered and waste are radiation quality is discussed in the of to the monitoring and control A key approach is the licensing of activities of pollution in South Australia Protection significance by the Environment environmental licensed 2100 Over 2006–11, the EPA (EPA). Authority and chemical such activities that included petroleum processing, facilities, manufacturing and mineral food and disposal, husbandry, waste treatment In and materials handling and transportation. processing, of these significant point sources addition to controlling from congestion appear to discourage private vehicle private vehicle appear to discourage congestion from and timely available is a readily there use, provided decisions planning alternative. Recent public transport construction, and the additional car park to discourage CBD, park spaces in the levy on certain car proposed (including Motorcycle at fostering this trend. aimed are at a faster rate to grow continued registrations scooters) type, with an annual increase than any other vehicle of 7.7%. 3.1.5 Bicycles the city to and from travelling The number of cyclists in 2006 to 9443 in 2011. Cordon 6153 from increased counts of cyclists entering or counts of cyclists (12-hour between weekday on an average leaving Adelaide CBD month for an ‘average’ 7am and 7pm collected in October, by 51% over the past five years—an cycling) have grown by the 2011 of 9.5%. As measured annual increase average counts, cycling accounted for 9500 trips to and cordon or about 4.3% in and out of all vehicle trips the city, from Adelaide metropolitan area by area metropolitan Adelaide to 2010–11 mode, 2005–06 Boardings of public transport in of public transport Boardings Private vehicles Private DPTI (2011) except where there may be obvious time or financial may there where except appears to be the This using public transport. gain from employed in the central case with suburban residents carpark fees and delays where business district (CBD), travelled on metropolitan roads, and for most of the roads, on metropolitan travelled still prefer gas emissions. Adelaide residents greenhouse the flexibility and comfort of private vehicle transport, in the patronage of public transport in the Adelaide of public transport in the patronage still car travel since 2005–06, area metropolitan than 70% of the passenger-kilometres accounts for more 3.1.4 increase has been an encouraging Although there Entertainment Centre in March 2010 also boosted in March Entertainment Centre passenger usage. occurred between 2006–07 and 2007–08 when the new when between 2006–07 and 2007–08 occurred to City West Victoria Square from inner city tramline was opened. Extension of this system to the Adelaide passenger–kilometres in 2010–11, equating to increases in 2010–11, equating to increases passenger–kilometres to 3.4% per year (DPTI 2012, unpublished data). of 0.9% passenger-kilometres of 1.5 million The biggest increase by public transport was estimated at 43.8 million, was by public transport and 1.5 million by between 0.9 with usage increasing 48.5 million a year to reach passenger-kilometres public transport are perhaps one of the best indicators of are public transport Adelaide. In in metropolitan the use of public transport travelled the total annual passenger-kilometres 2006–07, Estimates of annual passenger-kilometres travelled by travelled Estimates of annual passenger-kilometres Source: Figure 10 38 People and places Figure 11 Source: Note: leading togrowth stuntingordeathinsomeplantspecies. openings ofplantsandinterfere withphotosynthesis, concentrations ofparticulatemattercanclogstomatal changes inthestructure ofplantcommunities.High acid deposition), reduction ofyieldfoodcrops and significant andcanincludelossofsoilfunction (e.g. from The impactsofairpollutiononecosystemsare also sensitive groups suchaschildren andtheelderly. toxic materialsintotheblood.Therisksare highestfor fungal infection,allergic reactions andabsorptionof aggravation cancer, ofasthma, fibrosis, bacterial and The humanhealtheffectsofairpollutioninclude 3.2.1 noise are discussedinSection 3.2.2. main sources ofcomplaintsandmeasures todealwith are added,thefigure becomesevenmore substantial.The complaints aboutnoisetolocalcouncilsandthepolice out asanissueofconcerntomostpeople(Figure 11). If concerns. Intermsofthenumberreports, noisestands and enquirieslinetoreceive callsaboutenvironmental EPA (2008–12) Reports associatedwithsitecontaminationwere notrecorded separately before 2010–11. Air pollution Number ofreports received bytheSouthAustralian Environment Protection Authority, 2008–09 to2011–12 • • • • • Elements ofairpollutionandtheirimpactinclude: particularly ofchildren. affect thecentral nervousand respiratory systems, lead (heavymetals) andsulfurdioxide; these greenhouse effect system andcontributestoanenhanced photochemical smog;thisaffectsthe respiratory contributing toanenhancedgreenhouse effect combustion; theseimpactonpublichealthandare automobiles, industry, solidfuelfires andcoal air toxics andvolatileorganic compoundsfrom of thebuiltenvironment,rainfall andclimatechange public health,flora andfauna (agriculture), corrosion solid fuelfires andcoalcombustion;theseimpacton carbon monoxide andnitrogen oxides from industry, gaseous pollutantssuchassulfurdioxide, fluoride, on publichealth,climatechange,rainfall andamenity agriculture, bushfires andsolidfuelfires; theseimpact fine particlesfrom motorvehicles,industry, 39 People and places

). A wide range ). A wide range www.npi.gov.au , lead and sulfur dioxide are dominated by are , lead and sulfur dioxide 10 monoxide emissions are dominated by aggregate sources sources dominated by aggregate emissions are monoxide while PM can equal shares Approximately industrial sources. for sources be attributed to industry and aggregate nitrogen oxides. In addition to the network of monitoring stations, an monitoring stations, to the network of In addition about air pollution of information source important is the web-basedemissions National database for the Inventory ( Pollutant are thresholds, reporting if they exceed of industries, emissions each estimates of their to provide required data, aggregate In addition to industry-reported year. calculated, which include emissions emissions data are vehicles, lawn including of sources range a broader from stations. wood heaters and petrol mowers, small engines, in updated was data were The last time aggregate it is a resource-intensive 2002–03, partly because including many sources inputs from that requires process socio-economicmodelling, surveys, statistics, emission data. traffic factors, fuel usage and industry data from the most recent 12 compares Figure 2002–03, indicating from data 2011–12 with aggregate air significance of industry and aggregate the relative Australia, emissions for key air pollutants. In South benzene and carbon compounds, total volatile organic ]) in the 2.5 daily standard was exceeded was exceeded daily standard 10 2002–03 and 2011–12 Comparison of aggregate and industrial sources of air emissions in South Australia of air emissions in South Australia and industrial sources Comparison of aggregate National Pollutant Inventory National Pollutant ] and smaller than 2.5 micrometres [PM ] and smaller than 2.5 micrometres 10 lead in Port Pirie lead in Port ozone levels in Elizabeth. particulate matter in Adelaide, Port Pirie and Pirie Port matter in Adelaide, particulate and Mount Barker in Mount Gambier wood smoke Pirie in Port Oliver Street at sulfur dioxide = particulate matter less than 10 micrometres in diameter; TVOCs = total volatile organic compounds = total volatile organic in diameter; TVOCs = particulate matter less than 10 micrometres 10 Figure 12 Figure PM Source: metropolitan Adelaide, but sulfur dioxide levels increased levels increased Adelaide, but sulfur dioxide metropolitan in lead decrease has been an overall There Pirie. at Port at all monitoring sites. particles measured regularly within the Adelaide metropolitan area and in area within the Adelaide metropolitan regularly for Trends Pirie. of Whyalla and Port centres the regional and sulfur dioxide monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen 2008–11 across stable from relatively ozone remained particles normally generated in urban areas were likely were in urban areas particles normally generated not washed away in suspension as they were to remain PM As a result, the by rain. 2010, which was a period of serious drought in South period of serious drought which was a 2010, and During the drought, major dust storms Australia. in addition, occasions; on several occurred bushfires [PM However, slightly since 2008. has decreased atmosphere the years leading up to stable over remained the trend In metropolitan Adelaide, the amount of fine particulate the amount of fine particulate Adelaide, In metropolitan matter smaller than 10 micrometres matter (particulate • • • • • In South Australia there is particular concern about: is particular there In South Australia 40 People and places Figure 13 Source: high, dustblownfrom regional areas maycombinewith Generally, duringdryconditionsandwhenwindsare captured bythenetworkofmonitoring stations. caused byanincrease inregional miningactivitiesnot discussed below, presumably becausetheincrease was is notmirrored inthedatafrom monitoringstations in PM carbon monoxide, andlead(Figure Theincrease 13a–d). stable over2007–12 formostemissionsexcept PM Trends inkeysubstancesfrom industrialsources were 10 reported undertheNationalPollutant Inventory National Pollutant Inventory Trends inemissions inSouthAustralia reported under theNationalPollutant Inventory, 2007–08 to2011–12 10 , concentrations across Adelaide. network provides acomprehensive picture ofparticle levels in2011(Figure 14). Themetropolitan monitoring and humidityhavebeenmajorfactorsinreducing these 1998 (AirNEPM) standards. However, increased rainfall Environment Protection (AmbientAirQuality) Measure metropolitan tocausedustlevelsaboveNational area, industry, motorvehicles,bushfires andsources inthe other formsofparticlepollution,suchasthosefrom 41 People and places 2007–08: 939 2007–08: 2008–09: 1029 2009–10: 1186 industrial noise (including mining, freight terminal industrial noise (including mining, freight etc.) operations, and vehicles, trains roads, noise (from transport airports) construction and garbage collection noise domestic tool and machine noise dogs barking. standard at Adelaide monitoring sites, at Adelaide standard 10 (Adelaide City Council 2013). by the EPA The number of noise complaints recorded were: during 2007–12 • • • has been shown to affect the reproductive capacity of reproductive has been shown to affect the some animals. of noise are: Main sources • • • • • noise issues arise from the most significant present, At increase With the proposed (particularly rail). transport corridors by dwellings adjacent to transport of residential in the number will be an increase there Plan, the 30-Year as of people potentially exposed to noise. However, detailed in Section 4.3.5, new building code specifications have been put in place to mitigate the noise exposure assistance Some local councils also provide of residents. in existing dwellings, such as noise exposure to reduce the acoustic advisory service and noise management by the Adelaide City Council incentive scheme offered = particulate matter smaller than 10 micrometres = particulate matter smaller than 10 micrometres 10 and 2.5 particles 10 2002–12 Annual exceedences of the Air NEPM PM of the Air NEPM Annual exceedences Noise pollution No exceedences of the Air NEPM standard or goal occurred in 2011. or goal occurred standard of the Air NEPM No exceedences data Authority Protection Environment particles from the industrial sector. particles from 10 health impacts such as stress, high blood pressure, loss of high blood pressure, health impacts such as stress, It and loss of productivity. inability to concentrate sleep, has similar effects on the wellbeing of animals, and noise 3.2.2 Noise above safe levels leads to a number of known with no exceedences of Air NEPM standards during this standards of Air NEPM with no exceedences in both PM an increase was, however, period. There PM Spring monitoring in 2011 showed a decrease in fine Spring monitoring in 2011 showed a decrease air quality, improved and areas residential particles from coarser particles from sources on the fringes of Mount sources coarser particles from possibly contributed by and were recorded Gambier were industries in the region. winter patterns of fine particle pollution continued to winter patterns of fine particle pollution be consistent with the dominance of wood smoke on cold winter nights. Episodes of pollution comprising standards during winter, resulting in poor winter air resulting during winter, standards in PM The data also showed a decrease quality. Overall, between 2010 and 2011 winter monitoring. Air monitoring in Mount Gambier in Mount Air quality monitoring of particle concentrations of the Air NEPM exceedences Gambier showed numerous across Whyalla. Exceedences of the Air NEPM standard standard Whyalla. of the Air NEPM across Exceedences of improved years as a result in recent have reduced and wetter weather (Figure 15). industry emission controls Air monitoring in Whyalla particle The Whyalla monitoring network measures sites and near-industry at residential concentrations Figure 14 Figure NEPM = National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure; PM Measure; (Ambient Air Quality) Protection = National Environment NEPM Note: Source: 42 People and places Figure 15 NEPM =NationalEnvironment Protection (AmbientAirQuality) Measure; PM measures (a fineforthedog’s owner)are ineffective The trend remains stable,indicatingthatcurrent about noisefrom allsources madetotheEPA (Table 3). barking dogsexceeds thetotalnumberofcomplaints The numberofcomplaintstolocalcouncilsinrelation to • • • following qualificationsapply: Although thenumbersshowageneral increase, the • • Source: Note: and exclude complaintstocouncilsandthepolice. The dataaboveisonlyforcomplaintsmadetotheEPA captured separately. complaint inothercomplaintsandthusnotbe Noise complaintsmaybeincludedasasecondary counting. is recorded separately, thiscouldleadtodouble noise source more thanonceand,aseachcomplaint The samepersonmaycomplainaboutthe 2011–12: 1170(and 354enquiries). complaints] from 2010–11) recording noise-relatedenquires [as distinctfrom 2010–11: 1241(and 329enquiries;theEPA started Environment Protection Authority data Reserve commencedon27 April2007. Compliance withtheAirNEPM isassessedatSchultzReserve only. Monitoring atWalls Street commencedon2 July2004;monitoringatSchultz Annual exceedences oftheAir NEPM PM 2004–12 . 10 =particulatemattersmallerthan10 micrometres installations havebeenassociatedwithanincrease in North andSouth-Eastregions. Inrecent years,windfarm the majorityofwhichhaveconcentrated intheMid significant developmentofwindfarmsacross thestate, energy sectoroverthepast10years.Theresult hasbeen has beenthefocusofdevelopmentinrenewable South Australia hasasignificant wind resource, which Table 3 targeted monitoringbytheEPA. Health andMedicalResearch Council(NHMRC 2010)and is currently thetopicoffurtherresearch bytheNational soundoutputofthewindfarm,which on ‘lowfrequency’ noise complaints.Thefocusofthesecomplaintscentres 2011–12 2010–11 2009–10 2008–09 10 standard atWhyallamonitoringsites, Year Complaints toSouthAustralian 2008–12 councils aboutbarkingdogs, Metropolitan 2979 2262 2638 2767 area regional areas Rural and 1006 1974 1838 1479

Total 3985 4236 4476 4246 43 People and places chapter for further information Water 217 notifications of the commencement of a site of a site of the commencement 217 notifications 103Z(1) audit under section contamination and accepted received reports 52 site contamination under section 103Z(3) site contamination of 303 notifications of water under section 83A underground or limitation of liability for site 11 exclusions section 103E contamination under site contamination assessment voluntary 2 approved 103I. under section proposals Information about current and recent site contamination and recent Information about current website (www. investigations can be viewed on the EPA’s epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/site_contamination). is that One of the complexities of site contamination to surrounding chemical substances can migrate causing the soil or groundwater, through properties for risks where, offsite contamination. This poses obvious that the site contamination affects groundwater example, or other a bore through residents is used by surrounding means. (See the about groundwater.) register under section 109 of the Environment Protection Protection the Environment under section 109 of register 15 June 2012 (Figure 16): Act up to • • • • • and population density are in population Increases industrial of previous likely to lead to redevelopment sensitive purposes (e.g. residential), sites for more contaminated and development closer to landfills and investigation and sites. This will necessitate careful including spatial monitoring of contaminated sites, ago. those abandoned after industrial uses decades

ic Environment Protection Act 1993 Act Protection Environment Site contamination information recorded on the South Australian public register, public register, on the South Australian Site contamination information recorded 2009–10 to 2011–12 Site contamination Site contamination Environment Protection Authority data Authority Protection Environment Figure 16 Figure SC = site contamination Source: information specific to site contamination on the publ information specific to site contamination On 1 July 2009, amendments to the Environment On 1 July 2009, amendments to the Environment to specifically deal with introduced Act were Protection the following has recorded site contamination. The EPA South Australian Government discourages the use of Government discourages South Australian unless it has recently a well or bore from groundwater purpose. been tested and shown to be safe for that residents, the EPA maintains a searchable web-based maintains a searchable the EPA residents, To index of notifications of impacts to groundwater. health, the of human the protection further ensure they or an appropriate person advise the people who are person advise the people who are they or an appropriate and evidence affected of the level of, potentially directly risk. any potentially affected In addition to advising for, Act to advise the EPA of any site contamination that of any site contamination Act to advise the EPA When the EPA water. underground affects or threatens contamination via groundwater, of off-site becomes aware issues and requirements to affected parties. Property Property to affected parties. issues and requirements others have a legal obligation owners, occupiers and Protection 83A of the Environment pursuant to section site contamination. of guidance material and has developed a set The EPA communicate site contamination other publications to and the Environment Protection Regulations 2009. These 2009. These Regulations Protection and the Environment responsibility assign define site contamination, provisions deal with authority to retrospectively and give the EPA Site contamination in South Australia is regulated through through regulated is in South Australia Site contamination in the specific provisions 3.2.3 44 People and places development, andaredevelopment, expected tocontinuedoso a significant role inSouth Australia’s economic Uranium miningandmineral sandsindustriesplay Radiation from uranium andmineral sands has decreased, fallingfrom 35in2010–11to272011–12. number ofbusinessesoperating cosmetictanningunits the useofcosmetictanningunitshaschangedand The publicperception ofUVradiation riskassociatedwith of industrial,medical,domesticandcosmeticdevices. exposure canalsobeassociatedwiththeuseofarange South Australians toUVradiation isthe sun, although levels ofexposure. Thegreatest source ofexposure of scientific evidenceofharmfuleffects from chronic low which increases theriskofskincancer),butthere islittle (such ashighexposure radiation, toultraviolet [UV] to highlevelsofnon-ionisingradiation are wellknown cosmetic tanningunits.Theharmfuleffectsofexposure telephones andbasestations,powerlines,lasers Sources ofnon-ionisingradiation includemobile Non-ionising radiation Figure 17 Source: mSv =millisievert from radiation treatment forcancer(Figure 17). the diagnosticuseofradiation (X-rays) inhealth care and population, witharound 35%ofthedosecomingfrom the annualperpersonradiation dosetotheAustralian Natural radiation sources contributearound 65%of Ionising radiation Radiation 3.2.4 Hardege (2005) Australian annualperperson radiation dosefrom natural and medical sources generate chemicalandotherhazardous wastes. building wastes,andagricultural andindustrialprocesses products, urbanrenewal generates demolitionand In additiontothewastegenerated bythedisposalof significant environmental, socialandeconomicissue. a growing diversityofconsumergoods,wasteisa With anincreasing andmore affluentpopulationand 3.3 Waste South Australia (DMITRE2012). Figure 18 showsthelocationsofuranium depositsin offsite, are notabovenormalbackground levels. who are notexposedtoradiation, andotherworkers monitoring continuestoindicatethatdosesworkers state, nationalandinternationallegislation.Radiation are wellbelowtheoccupationallimitsprescribed in doses received byworkerswhoare exposedtoradiation exposure from uranium miningistoworkersatsites,all into theforeseeable future. Althoughthemainradiation and wastegoingtolandfill. changes overtimeintheproportion ofrecycled waste generated inSouthAustralia since2003–04andthe Table 4 andFigure 19 provide asummaryoftotalwaste 3.3.1 Waste trends 45 People and places Location of uranium deposits in South Australia deposits in South Australia of uranium Location DMITRE (2012) Source: 18 Figure 46 People and places Source: c b a Table 4 (kg) total waste Per person landfill (kg) Per person recycling (kg) diversion to Per person population Australian South (%) Recovery rate (tonnes) generation Total waste (tonnes) landfill Waste to reported Total recycling Includes wastefillgenerated from projects suchasthe AdelaideDesalination andthe Royal AdelaideHospital Data forrecycled soil,sand,rock andflyashmaterials Includes mostofthetraditionally reported materialcategories projects infrastructure from major extra soil Excluding (tonnes) recycling data reported Separately data (tonnes) Recycling Rawtec (2012) c b Annual SouthAustralian resource recovery, landfillquantitiesandwasteperperson, 2003–11 a 3 320 000 2 042 000 1 534 000 1 278 000 1 880 000 2003–04 162 000 1 330 2 160 61.5 830 3 554 000 1 550 042 1 158 000 2 396 000 2 088 000 2005–06 308 000 2 300 1 550 67.4 750 3 578 000 1 584 500 1 144 000 2 434 000 2006–07 2 110 000 324 000 1 540 2 260 68.0 720 3 741 000 1 130 000 2 611 000 1 601 800 2 248 000 2007–08 363 000 2 340 1 630 69.8 710 3 624 000 1 072 000 2 552 000 1 622 700 2 309 000 2008–09 243 000 2 230 1 570 70.4 660 3 795 000 1 035 000 2 760 000 1 644 600 2 340 000 2009–10 420 000 2 310 1 680 72.7 630 5 394 000 1 084 000 4 310 000 1 657 000 1 460 000 2 850 000 2010–11 3 250 2 600 74.8 79.9 650 to 2010–11 2009–10 248 4.7 3.2 0.8 2.9 22 56 41 55 10 42 Change (%) to 2010–11 2003–04 –22 –15 801 111 50 95 22 30 62 52 8 47 People and places Waste management Waste Costs associated with recycling and disposal of waste Costs associated with recycling government Costs include transport, influence behaviour. costs. In operating and infrastructure levies and charges, South Australia of and outback areas regional particular, because programs recycling find it difficult to support costs, limited access to end markets for of transport materials, and lack of sufficient volumes recyclable and computer products were disposed of in Australia, of in Australia, disposed were and computer products with 84% going to landfill. The phase-out of analogue Waste volumes televisions is contributing to this figure. the number of dramatically: expected to increase are their end of life is anticipated to these items reaching (Hyder Consulting and to 44 million by 2027–28 increase 2009). PricewaterhouseCoopers it is estimated that the total waste for In South Australia, 427 700 units. televisions and computers in 2011–12 was units, an to 668 200 this is expected to grow By 2015–16, of 56% (Equilibrium 2012). increase 3.3.2 and mineral on global energy Mounting pressure resource in rising prices and reflected (as resources and recycling a key driver for the reuse, is scarcity) to use materials as measures of resources recovery This is consistent with the efficiently. more and energy an internationally accepted guide for waste hierarchy, prioritising waste management (Figure 20). Annual South Australian recovery and landfill disposal, 2003–04 to 2010–11 recovery Annual South Australian Rawtec (2012) substantially. In 2007–08, 31.7 million new televisions, In 2007–08, substantially. sold in Australia. were computers and computer products televisions, computers 16.8 million In the same year, Along with conventional types of household waste such as paper and plastics, the amount of waste generated has increased products electrical and electronic from 50% since 2003–04. The per person recycling rate has rate 50% since 2003–04. The per person recycling to the second highest level of the last seven increased years at 2600 kilograms. a recovery rate of approximately 74.8%, an increase of an increase 74.8%, of approximately rate a recovery 2009–10. 2.9% from per person has risen by The total waste generated Adelaide Hospital. After subtracting the effects of these subtracting Adelaide Hospital. After 2010–11 South Australia’s from projects infrastructure still achieved data, recovery South Australia resource approximately 1.26 million tonnes of waste fill diverted 1.26 million approximately projects major infrastructure from to recycling and the Royal including the Adelaide Desalination Plant tonnes recycled in 2003–04 (Rawtec 2012). tonnes recycled in 2010–11 was attributed to increase The large tonnes) of materials from landfill to recycling—a recycling—a landfill to of materials from tonnes) the 2.76 million tonnes recycled from 56% increase the 2.04 million from in 2009–10 and a 111% increase South Australia, an increase of 42% since 2009–10 and of of 42% an increase South Australia, 2012). Rawtec 62% since 2003–04 (Figure 19; diverted 79.9% (4.3 million In 2010–11, South Australians Figure 19 Figure in In 2010–11, 5.4 million tonnes of waste was generated Source: 48 People and places as rare tantalumandneodymium) andtheuseof or theintroduction ofcompletely newmaterials(such commonly usedproducts (such asfrom woodtoplastics), of recycled materials.Changes inthematerialsof efficient tosortmaterialsand reducecontamination and refurbishment.Newtechnologiesmakeitmore metropolitan area isageingandinneedofmodernisation Materials recovery infrastructure intheAdelaide intensive toseparate thesecomponents. PricewaterhouseCoopers 2009);however, itislabour computers canberecovered (HyderConsultingand Close to100%ofthematerialsintelevisionsand cadmium, andbrominated andantimonycompounds. copper, andhazardous materialssuchaslead,mercury, resources aluminiumand suchastin,nickel,zinc, computers andotherelectronic itemscontainvaluable are anincreasing componentofwaste.Televisions, As detailedabove,electricalandelectronic products Figure 20 Source: respond tomarketconditions. recovery ofmaterials,andmakeitdifficultfor recyclersto commodity pricesplacepressure onrecycling and financially viable.Thelevelandvolatilityofinternational to makeresource recovery andwastemanagement Zero Waste SA(2011) Waste hierarchy away withotherhouseholdwaste.Alarge partofwasted type becauseitisbiodegradable andistypicallythrown Food wasteisoftenoverlookedas animportantwaste treatment anddisposalofthesesubstances. on farmsalsoplacespressure ontheproper collection, unrecorded stockpileofbannedsubstancesinshedsand herbicides,insecticides) andthe pharmaceuticals, paint, The trend ofincreasing useoftoxic substances(e.g. in Consulting andPricewaterhouseCoopers 2009). substances from landfillintosoilandgroundwater (Hyder associated withleachingandevaporation ofhazardous landfills, itis recognised thatthere are potentialrisks computers andotherelectricalproducts inAustralian the healthandenvironmental risksfrom televisions, Although there isnocurrent scientificevidence regarding component elements. andoftenmorecomplex, difficulttoseparate intotheir means thatwastefrom theseproducts becomesmore composite materials(metallised plasticsorcopolymers) maintenance andrenewal. risk ofdeterioration asaresult ofdecliningresources for of future gapsinskills.Manyheritageplacesare also at skilled craftspeople andprofessionals, andthere isarisk Heritage expertiseisheldbyasmallgroup ofhighly through special-purposelegislation. is theSouthAustralian Government’s banon miningin may require specialresponses tomanage.One example heritage placesfrom developmentsuchasmining,which places. There are alsopressures onremote natural inadequate protection forSouthAustralia’s heritage importance ofsomeplacesallcontributetotherisk of conservationskillsanddivergent viewsaboutthe Development pressure, insufficient resources, ashortage 3.4 Heritage now providing afoodwasterecycling service. successful trialin2010, anumberoflocalcouncilsare important source oforganic fertiliser. Following a Australia’s generally poorsoils,foodwasteisapotentially a powerfulgreenhouse gas.InthecontextofSouth and energy; afterthisenterslandfillitproduces methane, food ismadeupofscarce water, soil-derived minerals 49 People and places allow a combination of major land-use types (such types (such allow a combination of major land-use and civic) in office, commercial retail, as residential, and regeneration compact and higher density growth areas urban support an innovative mix of higher density corridors. development on land that abuts key transit extent that by 2006 they accounted for the majority of the detached dwelling completions in the Adelaide and This trend Divisions (Figure 21). Outer Adelaide Statistical has continued since 2006 and, by 2011, the median lot size in these two statistical divisions was just 416 square estimates significantly smaller than comparable metres, (HIA Economics interstate areas other metropolitan from 2011). Group residential development, has introduced residential the government and Barossa Vale the McLaren to protect measures subdivision. residential from regions the government has In the first stage of the process, land-use planning zones. of new developed a range These zones: • • metropolitan Higher density living within the Adelaide effective waste opportunities for more presents area and redevelopment of reuse, management and promotion of existing infrastructure. completed the lot size of recently Initiatives to reduce Adelaide and planning detached dwellings within Greater in established urban redevelopment policy that promotes have had a significant impact in slowing Adelaide’s areas Since 2001, the number of small lot sizes urban sprawl. to such an had increased metres) (less than 600 square create less waste and pollutants by decreasing car travel, car travel, pollutants by decreasing less waste and create the journey to and shortening transport public promoting to access 2010). It also offers improved et al. work (Gray services and employment. of infill-to-fringe ratio set a target has Plan The 30-Year This will be of 70:30 by 2036. development residential housing in achieved by locating the majority of new transport particularly around existing zoned urban areas, planning policy, corridors. With new building codes and noise and air to exposure this should not increase lands from rural pollution. In addition, to further protect Policies and programs Policies What are we doing about it? we doing about What are requiring new developments to be connected to requiring alternative water sources. promoting alternative energy use alternative energy promoting technologies green promoting and open space establishing networks of greenways urban design techniques water-sensitive incorporating into new developments development walkable environments promoting on car travel reliance overall reducing and public transport travel short-distance promoting efficiency of buildings energy increasing increasing density increasing and mixed-use co-locating with transport services The 30-Year Plan, as a whole-of-government policy, as a whole-of-government policy, Plan, The 30-Year and resources reduce the use of offers an opportunity to • • • • • • • • • • • sustainable, compact urban design while still enabling sustainable, compact urban design while a variety of means, This is to be achieved through growth. including: very energy intensive and wasteful of land and other very energy 1989, Newman 1999, (Newman and Kenworthy resources a more promotes Plan et al. 2007). The 30-Year Trubka is now one of the smallest in Australia), and residential and residential is now one of the smallest in Australia), of employment. places sited some distance from areas design is This dispersed, low-density type of urban Adelaide is characterised by low population densities, Adelaide is characterised with mostly detached dwellings on medium-sized blocks the median lot size in South Australia of land (although 4.1.1 Adelaide South Australia has a number of policies and programs has a number of policies and programs South Australia of population and the pressures in place to address areas. in urban and regional economic growth 4.1 The South Australian Government has established Government The South Australian and as well as controls policies and programs, overarching specific pressures. activities to address 4 50 People and places • • (SASP Audit Committee 2012)includes: Progress againstSouthAustralia’s Strategic Plan (SASP) 4.1.2 more details. planning inSouthAustralia; refer tothe blueprint willprovide overall strategic direction forwater including stormwaterandrecycled wastewater. The Greater Adelaidethatintegrates useofallwatersources, initiatives, includingablueprintforurbanwater a range ofwater-sensitive urbandesignpoliciesand compact urbandesign,thegovernmentisdeveloping In additionto, andcomplementing,thechangetoa Figure 21 Source: Note: more by2020. Greater Adelaideby20 000 toatotalof320 000or SASP Target 46:Increase regional populations outside target willbeinfluenced bynetoverseasmigration. issued bytheABS(ABS2008). Achievementofthe also abovethe1.1%‘highgrowth’ scenarioprojection recorded between2003and2011(0.9%). The target is which ishigherthantheaverage annualgrowth rate requires anaverage annualgrowth rate of1.26%, This target isunlikelytobeachievedbecauseit to 2 millionby2027. SASP Target Increase 45: SouthAustralia’s population June 2012property cadastreDepartmentofPlanning, Transport andvaluationsnapshot, andInfrastructure The dataare forcalendaryearsandexclude Kangaroo Island. South Australia’s Strategic Plan Lot sizeofdetacheddwellingsbyyearcompletion,Adelaide andOuterAdelaide statistical divisions,1986–2011 Water chapterfor • • public transport useisrequired toincrease atan positive anditsachievement as withinreach, although Progress towards thetarget hasbeenassessedas kilometres travelled by2018. to 10%ofmetropolitan weekday passengervehicle- SASP Target 63:Increase theuseofpublictransport population growth. in theearlyplanningstagesforareas ofidentified transport and infrastructure needsare considered and Infrastructure in2011willhelpensure that of anewDepartmentPlanning, Transport that thewording bereviewed. Theformation and theSASPAudit Committeerecommended The target doesnotlend itselftoready assessment growth. and socialinfrastructure accommodatespopulation SASP Target 56:Ensure theprovision ofkeyeconomic met after 2020. regional populationgrowth, thistarget islikelytobe population of320 000. At thecurrent rate ofnet 25 400 peopleisrequired by2020toreach thetarget a changeinboundariesmeanthatanincrease of population betweenthe2010baselineand2011 reach’. but‘within movement’ Adecrease in Progress onthistarget israted as‘steady orno 51 People and places for more information on NRM information on NRM for more Introduction developing a greenway from Adelaide to Marino Rocks Adelaide to Marino Rocks from developing a greenway line. along the Noarlunga rail resource urban design and natural Water-sensitive as part of PSSA management will be addressed 2013–15. likely to be undertaken from reforms, 22% of South comprised energy In 2010–11, renewable This is considerably electricity production. Australia’s and the in 2004–05 higher than the 4.1% recorded above the Strategic and is already 9.7% in 2007–08, by production energy of 20% renewable target Plan 2014 (DPC 2012). than 50 square New dwellings, or additions of more to be required that include a wet area, are metres tanks and have hot water connected to rainwater either solar heated, gas heater systems that are compliant or wood combustion heated. Ecosystem restoration initiatives, including tree including tree initiatives, restoration Ecosystem undertaken being are revegetation, planting and boards (NRM) management resource by the natural the (see by undertaken Work and local councils. regions) NRM boards Ranges Lofty the Adelaide and Mount the extent of functional during 2009–10 to increase of 243 hectares reconstruction ecosystems included of native vegetation on of land, and management of land. 7339 hectares indicates that new urban Climate change modelling in the decline to an overall design will contribute gas emissions. greenhouse state’s as part of the Air quality is being addressed the first stage planning policy reforms, government’s of which was completed in 2011. over The government has committed $12 million the development of greenways four years towards along major (including cycling and walking corridors) in 2010–11 on commenced corridors. Work transit by promoting active travel (e.g. cycling and walking) and (e.g. cycling active travel by promoting public transport. expanding and modernising the state’s for People’ The government has developed a ‘Streets Active Living Coalition 2012ab) (South Australian of guidance for a rethink compendium to provide physical design to support increased conventional street key principles to shape The compendium presents activity. the introduces streets, pedestrian and cycling-friendly • • • 4.2 Transport Complementing the new urban design, which supports on individual car compact development and less reliance Government is attempting the South Australian travel, on the environment the impact of transport to decrease • • • •

Planning Strategy for South Australia Strategy Planning areas of metropolitan Adelaide as a proportion of the Adelaide as a proportion of metropolitan areas of Greater the remainder total housing built across and towns and rural Adelaide, including fringe areas between 56% and 58% in locations, has tracked 2008–10. The share of overall new housing in the established of overall The share an affordable place to live an affordable every chance for every child advanced manufacturing growing the benefits of the mining boom for all realising our clean environment. food and wine from premium creating a vibrant city a vibrant creating safe communities, healthy neighbourhoods Plan. Opportunities for more infill around transit transit infill around Opportunities for more Plan. as local development plans are corridors will increase new zoning policies. amended to introduce at 57% in 2010. This reflects current levels of land current This reflects at 57% in 2010. of supply in the various locations at the beginning In addition, in Plan. the intended life of the 30-Year 43.5% of the newly built houses in metropolitan 2010, of the current built within 800 metres Adelaide were indicated in the 30-Year corridors or extended transit recycling, and avoiding and reducing waste. and reducing and avoiding recycling, 70% of all new housing 68: By 2036, SASP Target will be being built in Adelaide in metropolitan established areas. in the 2011 SASP and was tracking This is a new target by 2020. goal, but achievement of the This is an ambitious The government released is within reach. target 2011) in SA (Zero Waste an updated waste strategy two key objectives: maximising December 2011 with and reuse through the useful life of materials Significant activity is focused on improving public public on improving activity is focused Significant the implementation of supported by transport, Plan. 30-Year 67: to landfill by 35% waste Reduce SASP Target • Progress against the Planning Strategy for South Australia for South Australia Strategy against the Planning Progress 2011a) (to (PSSA; Australia Government of South December 2011) includes: • 4.1.3 • • • • • these priorities. The seven priorities are: these priorities. The seven priorities are: • announced seven strategic priorities that identified the announced seven strategic of the SASP that the government has chosen to areas focus on (DPC 2012). The work, budgets, policymaking will reflect and legislative agenda of the government In SASP 2012, the South Australian Government In SASP 2012,the South Australian • • accelerated rate to achieve the target by 2017–18. by 2017–18. the target to achieve rate accelerated 52 People and places • • • • transport system.Changesincludethefollowing: for train, tram andbuscustomers,asaferpublic intensive, lesspollutingandmore efficientservices toprovidefunding) faster, more frequent, lessenergy includingAustralianinvestment ($2.6 billion Government the SouthAustralian Government beganadecade-long successfully implementingnewurbandesign.In2008 and effectivepublictransport systemisakeytoolto way toimprove thepublictransport Areliable network. Significant publictransport worksare currently under Leigh andBankstreets revitalisations. emerging designsintheBowdenDevelopmentand The Streets forPeople principleshavealready influenced approval process andaddresses riskandliabilityissues. Link andPlace street designapproach, andclarifiesthe a 5.5-kilometre extensionoftheNoarlungarail line a long-term investmentinpublictransport, including The SouthAustralian Governmenthascommittedto total fleetnumberto21. four trams were introduced bringingthe in2011–12, from GlenelgtothecityandHindmarsh.Anadditional The tram linehasbeenextended,providing aservice customers, alongwithapark-and-ride facility. Centre provides afree publictransport optionto An extendedtram linetotheAdelaideEntertainment way, isnowservicedbymore buses. most usedpublictransport corridor, bus theO-Bahn Adelaide Metro busservicestoGawler. Adelaide’s demand areas andincorporating anextensionof more than750 additionalservicesfocusingonhigh- An extra providing 100 busesare nowonthenetwork, fleet and result in reduced emissions. vehicles willincrease thefuelefficiencyofvehicle registered onourroads. Newer, more fuel-efficient prevalent inthestate’s with70 895ofthesevehicles fleet, Vehiclesand 2012. manufactured in2010are themost decreased from 11.1 yearsto10.1 years between2006 The average ageofSouthAustralia’s vehiclefleet • • to Seaford. Future plansincludecompletingthe fuel-efficient vehiclestosubstantiallyaffect theprivate fuel-efficient will takeseveral more yearsforthiscategoryofmore Given theaverage ageofthestate’s it vehiclefleet, and governmentfleetsassistinguptakeinSouth Australia. experienced bynewtechnologies,withearlyadopters vehicles. Uptakehasbeenattheslowerrates normally compared withtraditional internalcombustionengine in fewermodelsandwithrelatively higherprices total, hybridtechnologyvehicleshavebeenavailable Althoughthisrepresents asmallfraction ofthe 2012f). 1858(0.25%)2012, were hybridelectricvehicles(ABS Of the730 885carsregistered inSouthAustralia inMay corridors. dedicated rail corridorsandhigh-frequency bus deliver busfeederservices,linkinglocalareas to Almost 300 extra busesoverthenextdecadewill emissions forthestate. will result insignificant reductions ofcarbondioxide which electrification ofthemetropolitan network, The train lineupgrades are thefirststepstowards Gawler andOuterHarbourlinesremains atarget. 66 new electricrailcars. Completeelectrificationofthe electrification oftheSeaford lineandaddingupto Department ofPlanning, Transport andInfrastucture Optional modesoftravel insouthernAdelaide 53 People and places 0 12 21 20 41 2011– 14 25 17 20 8 11 15 53 76 finalised 2010– Investigations 25 23 10 128 176 2009– , and the number of 7 22 09 144 173 30 44 36 35 2008– undertaken Investigations 15 53 08 139 207 2007– Environment Protection Authority, Authority, Protection Environment 2008–12 recorded, 2007–12 recorded, Pollution investigations by the Pollution Environment protection orders orders protection Environment Investigations and prosecutions Year a condition of an environmental authorisation of an environmental a condition approval container of a beverage a condition by or under the imposed requirement any other 1993 Act Protection Environment policy. protection an environment 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 EPA Police Councils Total Organisation EPA = Environment Protection Authority Protection = Environment EPA 4.3.3 in civil serious incidents of pollution may result More has a dedicated The EPA or criminal prosecutions. of the breaches that examines investigations branch 1993 Act Protection Environment steady over the relatively investigations has remained past four years (Table 6). 6 Table • • • • remained has issued by the EPA The number of EPOs number issued by police and local and the steady, for this (Table 5). The reason councils has declined for police and local councils trend significant downward in of an increase be the result is not known; it could in a decrease of written orders, in place verbal orders or a in contraventions, issued, a drop of orders reporting matters by allocated to pollution in resources reduction these authorities. 5 Table ) has direct ), sulfur and nonmethane ), sulfur and nonmethane 10 Environment protection orders protection Environment Pollution-related enforcement and enforcement Pollution-related compliance the general environmental duty environmental the general 2009–10: 961 2010–11: 257 2011–12: 283. compliance with: • 4.3.2 EPOs can be issued for the purpose of securing protection orders (EPOs). For a small number of more a small number of more For (EPOs). orders protection commenced civil serious cases of noncompliance, the EPA or criminal prosecutions. The inspections resulted in a range of actions, including in a range The inspections resulted verbal and formal written warnings and environment • • • a risk-based approach to ensuring compliance with to ensuring compliance approach a risk-based The number of inspections of high-priority requirements. as follows: sites during 2009–12 were The EPA administers approximately 2100 licences for administers approximately The EPA significance and undertakes activities of environmental 4.3.1 Pollution control and monitoring is an important role of important role and monitoring is an control Pollution EPA. the South Australian and 2011. 4.3 Pollution expanded rapidly over the past five years. The total over the expanded rapidly with bike lanes paths and roadways length of shared-use by 76% between 2006 or sealed shoulders increased nitrogen oxide emissions, as well as reducing traffic noise. traffic as well as reducing emissions, oxide nitrogen bicycle network (Bike The metropolitan volatile hydrocarbons (air toxics) (Beer et al. 2001). toxics) (air volatile hydrocarbons diesel counterparts, the Adelaide with their Compared up to 50% less carbon dioxide, gas buses produce Metro’s and up to 90% less up to 80% less carbon monoxide diesel. Research has also shown that heavy vehicles using has also shown that heavy diesel. Research significantly produce gas generally natural compressed (PM less particulate matter As of 2011, more than 22% of Adelaide’s metropolitan bus metropolitan 22% of Adelaide’s than As of 2011, more gas, which produces natural fleet runs on compressed with traditional emissions compared lower carbon dioxide based freight and passenger vehicles by increasing the vehicles by increasing and passenger based freight vehicles on our roads. of low-emission proportion government has committed to developing a low-emission developing a low-emission has committed to government to which will aim for South Australia, vehicle strategy road- air emissions from toxic gas and greenhouse reduce vehicle emissions of our communities. To this end, the To of our communities. vehicle emissions 54 People and places marine engines. small enginesusedingarden generators equipment, and manufacturefor theimport, and saleofwoodheaters, air qualityare theestablishment ofproduct standards in thedevelopmentofnational standards toimprove Other areas where SouthAustralia isactivelyparticipating Automotive Collaborative Research Centre. impacts onairquality, includingthrough supportofthe development ofvehicletechnologiesthathavesmaller that promotes theuseofalternativefuelsand also released alow-emission vehiclestrategy in2012 the atmosphere. TheSouthAustralian Government and additivesthatcontributetotoxic emissionsto of airquality, suchasthrough limiting components development offuelstandards thatincludeconsideration (Cwlth). SouthAustralia isanactiveparticipantinthe which are regulated underthe An importantsource ofairpollutantsisvehiclefuels, territory governments (COAG 2012). from theAustralian Government andallstate and Water, whichconsistsofenvironment ministers the auspicesofStanding CouncilonEnvironment a NationalPlan forCleanAirisnowunderway, under other pollutantsand,inresponse, aproject todevelop confirmed thehigherriskofparticles relative tothe undergone acomprehensive 10-year review. Thereview The AirNEPM cameintoeffectin 1998andhas recently • • • • • • contained intheAirNEPM: Australia hasnationalstandards forsixpollutants National standards South Australia are describedinthissection. The keymeasures andactionsformanagingairqualityin protecting publichealthfrom smokeandtoxic fumes. and emergency servicesauthoritiesare involvedin must considerairqualityinassessingnewdevelopments, industries are regulated bytheEPA, planningauthorities responsibility oflocalcouncils,emissionsfrom large control ofdustfrom aresidential developmentisthe vehicles andsmallenginesare anationalresponsibility, Forgovernment. example, standards foremissionsfrom Air qualityisaffectedbyactionscontrolled atalllevelsof Air 4.3.4 particles (PM lead sulfur dioxide ozone nitrogen dioxide carbon monoxide 10 andPM 2.5 ). Fuel QualityAct 2001 with otherlifestyle,socialandeconomicneedsofour air qualityisasgoodcanbeachievedinbalance a millionormore. Thatmeansthatitisimportant may adduptosubstantialamountsinapopulationof appear relatively small,thecostsofairpollutionimpacts communities. Althoughtheeffectsonindividualsmay the current standards, there isstillsomerisktoour evenwhenconcentrationsThis meansthat, are below particles belowwhichthere are noeffectsonhumans. There are noidentifiedthreshold concentrations for Australian cities. not considered tobeasignificantriskpeoplelivingin ambient airthatare wellbelowthestandard andare carbon monoxide generally occurs atverylowlevelsin standard isnotbeingreviewed atthisstage,because dioxide, ozoneandsulfurdioxide. Thecarbonmonoxide fine particles,butitwillalsoexamine therisksofnitrogen reducing theexposure oftheAustralian populationto The NationalPlan forCleanAirhasitsmainfocuson National Plan forCleanAir system; andallowsforinputto conditionsonnew minimising riskfrom emissions toairthrough alicensing business andindustriestoimprove theirperformancein Policy; provides the basis forimposingconditionson policies suchastheEnvironment Protection (AirQuality) the developmentofspecificenvironment protection practical steps toprevent environmental harm.Itenables The Actcreates ageneral dutytotakeallreasonable and foundation forregulating airqualityinSouthAustralia. The Environment protection the EPA andtheDepartmentforHealthAgeing. development oftheNationalPlan forCleanAir, through South Australian Governmentisactivelyinvolvedinthe particle standards overthenext10yearsandbeyond.The performance measures towards achievingtheAirNEPM jurisdictions implementabatementprograms, including for thefirsttime,provide anationalframework tohelp The planisprojected forcompletioninlate2014andwill, clearer astheplantakesshapein2013–14. Its finalformandhowitwillbemeasured willbecome improving theriskstoitscommunitiesfrom airpollution. performance ofeachstateandterritorygovernmentin current standards andprovide abasisformeasuringthe term exposure reduction goal,whichwillcomplement National Plan forCleanAirproject isconsideringalong- Recognising thisvalueofimproving airquality, the always achieved. in airquality, evenifthenationalstandards are not communities. There are benefitstoanyimprovement Environment Protection Act 1993 isthelegislative 55 People and places provides provides South Australian Public Health Act 2011 Health Act Public South Australian Local government Local local councils One of the functions of South Australian enhance and protect, restore, is to manage, develop, amenity. conserve the local environment, and improve of air forefront often at the therefore Councils are quality issues. Public health Public The health and the of South Australians’ for the protection illnesses such of the incidence of preventable reduction that requires as those caused by air pollution. The Act that assesses a state public health plan is developed identifies the state of public health in South Australia, and develops existing and potential public health risks, or reducing) those (eliminating for addressing strategies and outline risks. It also needs to identify opportunities public health in the state. for promoting strategies released public health plan was of the first state A draft and for public consultation at the time of writing for and clearly includes clean air as a requirement to determinant of good health, noting that exposure urban air pollution accounts for 2.3% of all deaths. The diseases and in respiratory plan anticipates an increase air pollution (from in the likely increase from allergies under a changing climate. It identifies dust and bushfires) infrastructure—an the health benefits of a focus on green network of physical assets that deliver interconnected values or functions—for landscape and environmental air quality. improving sensitive developments to minimise adverse impacts to adverse impacts to minimise sensitive developments corridors. major transport from communities more planning policy promotes Australian The South policies across and better development consistent for of overlays including the creation local councils, policy corridors in development plans. The transport air quality development authorities to consider requires when assessing traffic and rail road major issues from development proposals. air quality (the has a major impact on The flow of traffic and a number the higher the pollution) slower the traffic, in been undertaken or are of initiatives have recently Greater Adelaide. flow in traffic to improve progress the North– such as upgrades road This includes major in the eastern to roads improvements South Corridor, lanes in Adelaide City, of bus-only suburbs, introduction overpasses Seaford), and (Gawler extension projects rail of alternative and promotion and Oaklands) (Keswick cycling project, Greenways (bicycle lanes, transport information program). (Government (Government (DPTI 2012), Reducing noise Reducing requires the development of a requires Healthy connected communities: Development Act 1993 Development Act establishing tight controls on the management of dust establishing tight controls or materials handling activities transportation from system developing an air quality health warning to emission response developing an emergency services. incidents to support emergency requiring the use of best available technology and requiring in managing emissions practice a monitoring and modelling air quality through network of monitoring stations on risk establishing licence conditions that focus management establishing guidelines on methods and standards on methods and standards establishing guidelines including for stack testing, for monitoring emissions, and reporting quality requirements programs improvement developing environment with as part of licensing conditions for industries significant emissions air quality through the EPA website and targeted targeted website and the EPA air quality through of wood operation effective more campaigns (e.g. heaters) limits and ground-level establishing emission 2006) (EPA concentrations improving information for communities about information for communities improving for builders, designers and the community guidance on the principles and possible which provides or other mixed-use for designing residential, approaches In 2012, the government also released In 2012, the government also released land use: a guide and mixed rail road, and air impacts from of South Australia 2011b) that provides guidance on that provides 2011b) of South Australia healthy design into developments, incorporating including designing for good air quality. government released government released healthy urban villages for the future—transit- creating a health lens oriented developments through a range of targets and policies for improving air quality policies for improving and of targets a range for people living or working in the city. In support of this objective, in September 2011 the South Australian Government published the 30-Year Plan Plan Government published the 30-Year South Australian the overarching 2010a), which provides in 2010 (DPLG planning Adelaide, and incorporates for direction strategic The state, which sets planning and for the planning strategy the planning strategy, As part of the development policy. Development • • • • • • • • • include: • such as through guidelines on separation distances. distances. separation guidelines on such as through Act air quality under the to improve Specific actions developments to minimise their impacts on air quality, impacts on air quality, to minimise their developments 56 People and places emissions inthe inventorydatabaseandproducing project aimedatimproving calculationsofmotorvehicle the UniversityofSouthAustralia tosupportaPhD the EPADuring 2012, extendeditscollaboration with travelled bymotoristsunderthe30-Year Plan. electrification andthe reduction invehicle-kilometres future programs andtargets, suchastherailway quantifying theimpactonairqualityofgovernment’s exposure toemissions.TheEPA isalsoinvolvedin development ofamodelforreducing thepopulation’s and itsimpactontheAdelaideairshed,including to betterunderstandairpollutionfrom transport The EPA isworkingonanumberofresearch projects Air pollutionfrom transport Figure 22. locations ofexistingmonitoringstationsare shownin Adelaide CBDandanotherontheLe Fevre The Peninsula. stations insupportofthe30-Year Plan. Onewillbeinthe approach, theEPA isbuildingtwonewmonitoring In accordance withthenewpopulationexposure • • • • • • pressures onairquality. Theframework aims to: for prioritisingandcoordinating actionsinresponse to quality, theEPA hasdevelopedanAirQualityFramework Reflecting thismultipronged approach tomanagingair potential fordirect benefitsforairquality. regarding localtransport, manyofwhichhavethe climate changetoimproving lifestylechoicesforresidents strategies, addressing issuesranging from adaptationto been highlyactiveindevelopingtheirownenvironmental councils mayfaceindividualissues.Manyhave quality issuesare commontoallurbanareas, many Hills withauniquemixofactivities.Whilesomeair between competinglanduses;andareas intheAdelaide industrialised areas withparticularproblems atinterfaces actively growing around newcommercial hubs;more older, establishedareas andyoungsuburbsthatare Greater Adelaideisalarge anddiversecity, comprising investigations. improve knowledgethrough targeted research and modelling andreporting provide betterguidanceforindustryonmonitoring, review theEnvironment Protection (AirQuality) Policy and modelpolicies) and design(includingthrough guidelines,standards integrate airqualityconsiderations earlyinplanning management actions improve mechanismsforcoordinating airquality on airquality with readily information accessibleandgood-quality promote increased engagementwithcommunities the bloodleadlevelsofsomechildren were stillabove 10 micrograms perdecilitre from 60%to25%;however, the numberofchildren withbloodleadlevelsabove This program madesignificantprogress in reducing site hasrecorded declininglevelsoflead(Figure 23). concluded attheendof2010. ThePort Pirie monitoring Nyrstar, thestategovernmentandlocalcouncil, The local community. in thetownshipandhighlevelsofbloodlead the source leadcontamination ofthewell-documented facilities inPort Pirie. Historically, thesmelterhasbeen Nyrstar operates oneoftheworld’s largest lead-smelting Air pollutionfrom significantindustries alternative transport onairqualityandpublichealth. and Ageinginaproject investigatingthebenefitsof University ofAdelaideandtheDepartmentforHealth to traffic emissions.The EPA alsopartnered withthe the framework forreducing thepopulation’s exposure • • • • include: Other significantindustrieswithimpactsonairquality NEPM standard of0.02 parts permillion(Figure 24). monitoring stationinPort Pirie doesnotexceed theAir The annualaverage sulfurdioxide concentration atthe exceeded more thanonceperyear. 1-hour and24-hour standards isthattheyshouldnotbe the 1-hourand24-hour NEPM standards. Thegoalforthe Table 7 showsthetrends insulfurdioxide exceedences of Port Pirie according totherequirements oftheAirNEPM. The EPA alsoconductsmonitoringforsulfurdioxide at support upgrades totheageingsmelter. Government andtheAustralian Governmentwould followed byanannouncementthattheSouthAustralian and thebloodleadlevelsincommunity. Thiswas of substantiallyreducing emissionsfrom thesmelter challenging requirements forthecompany, withtheaim strengthened Nystar’s EPA licencebyincludingadditional technology. theEPA During2011–12, reviewed and emissions asfarpracticable withtheexistingplant ensure thatallavailablemeasures are inplacetoreduce with current leademissionreduction programs, to The EPA hascontinuedtooverseeNyrstar’s compliance recommended levels. the NationalHealthandMedicalResearch Council Adelaide BrightonCementat Port Adelaide. Penrice QuarryatAngaston and blendingatBirkenhead Shell Bitumenfuelstorage andbitumenprocessing OneSteel iron ore plantatWhyalla tenby10 program, partnershipbetween afive-year Figure 22 South Australian airmonitoring stations 57 People and places South Australian air monitoring stations South Australian Figure 22 Figure program, a five-year partnership between program, tenby10 OneSteel iron ore plant at Whyalla plant ore iron OneSteel and bitumen processing Shell Bitumen fuel storage and blending at Birkenhead Quarry at Angaston Penrice Adelaide. Adelaide Brighton Cement at Port Other significant industries with impacts on air quality include: • • • • the National Health and Medical Research Council the National Health and Medical Research levels. recommended compliance has continued to oversee Nyrstar’s The EPA to programs, lead emission reduction with current in place to reduce are that all available measures ensure with the existing plant emissions as far as practicable and reviewed During 2011–12, the EPA technology. licence by including additional EPA Nystar’s strengthened with the aim for the company, challenging requirements the smelter emissions from of substantially reducing This was and the blood lead levels in the community. South Australian followed by an announcement that the Government would Government and the Australian ageing smelter. to the support upgrades at also conducts monitoring for sulfur dioxide The EPA of the Air NEPM. to the requirements according Pirie Port of exceedences in sulfur dioxide shows the trends Table 7 The goal for the standards. NEPM the 1-hour and 24-hour is that they should not be standards 1-hour and 24-hour than once per year. more exceeded at the concentration sulfur dioxide The annual average the Air does not exceed Pirie monitoring station in Port per million (Figure 24). of 0.02 parts standard NEPM the framework for reducing the population’s exposure exposure population’s the for reducing the framework with the EPA also partnered emissions. The to traffic Department for Health of Adelaide and the University of the benefits investigating in a project and Ageing and public health. on air quality transport alternative significant industries Air pollution from lead-smelting largest one of the world’s Nyrstar operates has been the smelter Historically, Pirie. facilities in Port of the well-documented lead contamination the source high levels of blood lead in the in the township and local community. The and the local council, the state government Nyrstar, monitoring Pirie The Port of 2010. concluded at the end declining levels of lead (Figure 23). site has recorded reducing in made significant progress This program with blood lead levels above the number of children 60% to 25%; however, from per decilitre 10 micrograms still above were the blood lead levels of some children 58 People and places Figure 24 Source: Figure 23 Source: Note: μ g/m 3 =micrograms percubicmetre; NEPM =NationalEnvironment Protection (Ambient AirQuality) Measure Environment Protection Authority data Environment Protection Authority data Daily samplingcommencedattheEllenStreet andPort Pirie West Primary Schoolsiteson28 October2010. Sulfur dioxide concentration againsttheNationalEnvironment Protection (AmbientAir Annual leadconcentrations atPort Pirie monitoringsites,2003–12 Port Pirie, 2003–12 Quality) Measure standard attheEnvironment Protection Authority OliverStreet sitein 59 People and places . The licensees 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 standard for sulfur dioxide (0.08 ppm) for sulfur dioxide standard Number of exceedences of the 24-hour of the 24-hour exceedences Number of Environment Protection Act 1993 Act Protection Environment Site contamination The EPA is continually improving available information available information continually improving is The EPA advice to of historical site contamination, and provides that site contamination is identified, assessed and ensure managed for all new developments in South Australia. for Centre Research The Adelaide-based Cooperative of the Contamination Assessment and Remediation CARE) is developing new ways of (CRC Environment contamination of soil, dealing with and preventing under the noise impact and subject to strict environmental are in must meet requirements rules, and the operations In 2000. (Noise) Policy Protection the Environment has developed guidelines, the EPA addition to the policy, documents to information sheets and other relevant and other agencies assist developers, planning authorities noise. and assess environmental to predict lack of firm evidence that wind farms Despite the current or that wind farm infrasound, of excessive sources are in residents, noise is deleterious to the health of nearby noise guidelines for wind farms developed 2009 the EPA noise exposure. excessive the community from to protect working together states and territories are Australian for a range to develop noise-labelling requirements is conducting research of household devices. The EPA for measuring methods and procedures into improving and assessing noise to inform compliance and noise mitigation measures. 4.3.6 29 35 40 33 21 31 29 33 35 28 for sulfur dioxide (0.2 ppm) dioxide for sulfur Number of exceedences of the 1-hour standard of the 1-hour standard exceedences Number of (Ambient Air Quality) Measure standards, 2003–12 standards, Measure Air Quality) (Ambient Sulfur dioxide exceedences of the 1-hour and 24-hour National Environment Protection Protection National Environment 1-hour and 24-hour of the exceedences Sulfur dioxide Year 2011 2012 2007 2008 2009 2010 2003 2004 2005 2006 conditions relating to noise when licensing activities conditions relating areas adjacent to major transport corridors such as the adjacent to major transport areas Bowden Urban Village. into account the need for specific takes The EPA The EPA has commenced a strategic noise monitoring commenced a strategic has The EPA particularly in Adelaide region, in the Greater program people in public places and entertainment venues where people in public places and entertainment venues where music is played. The specifications set internal sound and other habitable for bedrooms criteria (in decibels) that must not be exceeded. rooms ground floor and ventilation of a building must meet to ground loss of amenity to the occupants against external prevent movements, and from and rail road sound intrusion from road and rail sound, and from mixed land-use sound mixed from sound, and and rail road that The specifications set minimum standards sources. ceilings, the external walls, windows, external doors, roof, developments near major road and rail transport transport and rail developments near major road the is to protect corridors. The intent of this specification existing or future buildings from occupants of residential A draft Minister’s Specification was developed in 2011 Minister’s A draft of external control for the for construction requirements for residential sound, which mandates building standards in accordance with noise and vibration management with noise and vibration in accordance plans. impacts when developing planning policy and assessing impacts when developing planning policy all significant industrial, development applications from Construction occurs projects. and infrastructure transport 4.3.5 Noise noise Government agencies consider South Australian ppm = parts per million Table 7 Table 60 People and places internationally acceptedstaffinglevelcriteria). of diagnosticimagingmedical physicists(basedon Australia hasapproximately halftherequired number medical, miningandscientific sectors. For example, South across awiderange ofindustries,including inthe There isashortageofradiation protection professionals radioactive substances, oroperate radiation apparatus. to holdanappropriate radiation licencetouseorhandle South Australia withapproximately in2012, 75%required There were approximately 7500radiation workersin Figure 25 Source: further applicationsfornewapparatus incomingyears. a lifespanof10 yearsforapparatus) islikelytoincrease system flaggedbythe Australian Government (e.g. setting medical imagingapparatus. ChangestotheMedicare with anincrease inthecomplexityanduseofdental in applicationstoregister theseapparatus (Figure 25), technologies, there hasbeenasignificantupward trend economy, machinereplacement cyclesanduptakeofnew for individualyearsvaryaccording tofactorssuchasthe number ofX-ray apparatus has.Althoughapplications significantly increased overthelastdecade;however, the number ofradioactive sources toberegistered hasnot machines andradioactive sources toberegistered. The ( South Australian radiation protection legislation Radiation 4.3.7 participates initsresearch programs. water andair. TheEPA isashareholder ofCRC CAREand Radiation Protection andControl Act 1982 Environment Protection Authority data Applications forregistration of apparatus, 2000–01to2011–12 dental, medicalandveterinaryX-ray ) requires X-ray recurrence. More detailsaboutthenature ofthese and anyremedial actionthatcouldbetakentoprevent radiation accidentsandincidentstodeterminethecause exposed toionisingradiation. TheEPA investigates orapersonhasmayhavebeenaccidentally been lost, situations where thecontrol ofaradiation source has accidents totheEPA. Radiationaccidentsinclude or handledare required bylawtoreport anyradiation premises where unsealedradioactive substancesare used apparatus orsealedradioactive sources, andoccupiersof Employers ofradiation workers,ownersofX 31 December 2014. ban thecommercial useofcosmetictanningunitsfrom users oftanningsalons,legislationisalsoplannedto reported research ontheadversehealthimpacts the securityofradioactive sources. Inresponse to well asnationallyagreed provisions aimedatensuring modern administrative andenforcement provisions, as Act 1982 Amendments tothe companies are reprocessing paper, metal,glass,plastics, landfill. Currently inSouth Australia, more than50 local and adecrease going to intheamount ofe-waste that recycle theseproducts andtheircomponents, Scheme. Thishasledtotheemergence ofnewindustries under theNationalTelevision andComputerRecycling end-of-life televisions,computersandcomputerproducts industry-run arrangements forcollectingandrecycling effect on3 November2011andprovide fornational, Regulations (Televisions andComputers) 2011cameinto for televisionsandcomputers.TheProduct Stewardship A firstpriorityunderthepolicywasanationalscheme (e-waste), hazardous materialsandproduct stewardship. aimed attacklingproblems suchaselectronic waste sets a10-year framework ofprioritiesandprinciples less waste,more resources South Australia signedthe2009 Waste4.4 be ready forcommissioningin2013. medicine isotopes.Itisanticipatedthatthecyclotron will Institute intendtoinstallacyclotron toproduce nuclear The SouthAustralian HealthandMedicalResearch operations/uranium_mine_incident_reporting). pir.sa.gov.au/minerals/licensing_and_regulation/mining_ Innovation, Trade, Resources andEnergy website(www. are availableontheDepartmentforManufacturing, details ofenvironmental spilleventsaturanium mines incidents are availablefrom EPA annualreports, and were proposed in2013thatwillincorporate Radiation Protection andControl (DEWHA2009).Thepolicy National Waste Policy: ‑ray 61 People and places

Litter in creek Zero Waste SA Waste Zero business sector. For example, Zero Waste SA’s Industry SA’s Waste Zero example, For business sector. of businesses and helps a diverse range Program efficiency resource government agencies to improve in 2007, of the program Since the inception practices. 436 sites have been directly across 191 organisations funded under the engaged to participate in projects under Zero Waste SA’s Regional Implementation Implementation Regional SA’s Waste under Zero in have been awarded since 2005.Projects Program Eyre areas—Central, local government all regional Mallee, and Southern Peninsula, East, South Murray that projects infrastructure support and Hills—to As at of sorting processes. the effectiveness improve November 2012, for $4.5 million awarded has been leveraging projects, infrastructure 20 metropolitan industry investment under Zero about $10 million in Program Infrastructure Metropolitan SA’s Waste since 2005. new ventures This has contributed to of of e-waste, recycling composting, in the areas waste, and improved construction and demolition and infrastructure. waste planning regional and first television The Southern Hemisphere’s plant was funded processing computer glass screen at Gepps Cross under this program to groups to schools and community grants promote recycling in the and expand recycling incentives to improve • • recovery and recycling of materials in all South of materials and recycling recovery As at November 2012, areas. regional Australian to 102 projects has been awarded $6.4 million support for local councils to improve kerbside support for local councils to improve 685 000 approximately by providing recycling systems households with access to two or three-bin for upgrading regional areas financial incentives to that improves or building new infrastructure • • Implementation of South Australia’s Waste Strategy Strategy Waste Implementation of South Australia’s such as: of programs included a range (2005–10) wastes from going to landfill and required waste (subject waste required to landfill and going wastes from to be subject to approved to specified exemptions) resource recovery. South Australia’s Environment Protection (Waste to Protection Environment South Australia’s into operation 2010) came 2010 (EPA Policy Resources) banned certain It progressively on 1 September 2010. to support the beneficial reuse of a range of wastes reuse of a to support the beneficial including for use as fill, recovered specifically that are contaminated soils. the EPA has developed a standard (released in January (released developed a standard has the EPA and use of waste-derivedthe production 2010) for fill. required and processes This details the information organics. of contaminated soils, reuse to assist in the example, For tyres, concrete, asphalt, timber, e-waste and garden e-waste and garden asphalt, timber, concrete, tyres, 62 People and places • • • • include: Other initiativesoftheSouthAustralian Government • • programs andprojects. increase recycling, and toinvestinwastemanagement for reducing disposalofsome materialstolandfill, using thewastelevyasamarket-based incentive illegal wastetransfer stations waste, illegalwasteoperations, illegalrecyclers and enforce illegaldumpingofdemolitionandindustrial establishing anillegaldumpingunittoinvestigateand of recycled materials 3570 new recycling services.Thisyielded19 612 tonnes 32742008 toApril2012, newcustomerstookup recycling and/or organics collection. From October to introduce source-separated commingleddry program byworkingwithwastecollectioncompanies businesses underZero Waste SA’s Recycling atWork supporting recycling collectionforsmalltomedium recycling industries industrial residues andslags,theirassociated or second-handproducts, andproducts thatuse arsenate–treated timberproducts, glass,reused plastics, alternativestochromated copper composts, mulchesandrecycled organic products, waste streams suchasaggregate andsoilproducts, for recycled materials.Thesegrants havetargeted industry sectors,andtoincrease andsupportmarkets assist projects thatfocusonsustainablemarketsfor allocating more than$930 000to17 organisations to South Australia had13 servicesunderthisscheme. life televisionsandcomputers.AsatDecember2012, Scheme forthecollectionandrecycling ofend-of- the NationalTelevision and ComputerRecycling television andcomputerindustryare rolling out Nationally, theAustralian Governmentandthe included 16 583 televisionsand6196 computers. which councils collected1039 tonnesofe-waste, during May2012inpartnershipwith13 innerregional government free program drop-off e-waste held owner inSeptember2010andDecember2011.A collection eventsthatwere fundedbyamajorbrand to February e-waste 2011,andcoordinating two-day analogue todigitalsignallingfrom December2010 in regional areas affectedbytheswitchoverfrom points These haveincludedestablishing29drop-off range ofprograms tohelprecover unwantede-waste. Waste SAhasprovided fundingtocouncilsfora collections.Forhousehold e-waste example, Zero a plasticbagban one ormore ofthe28training programs offered program. Afurther249 organisations haveattended

• to five: bringingthetotalnumber to theNationalHeritageList, Since 2008,twoSouthAustralian placeshavebeenadded heritage policyframework released in2003. of SouthAustralia 2012)asan updatetothegovernment’s 2012: afuture forheritageinSouthAustralia South Australian Government released heritage significance.Insupportofthelegislation, conservation anddevelopmentofplacesareas of Specific legislationprovides forthe registration, Heritage 4.5 could furtherimprove theefficiencyof recycling. datacollectionandmeasurement. This waste assessment, states andterritoriesthrough commonframeworks for regulatory requirements forwasteandrecycling between A remaining area forimprovement istoharmonisethe 2008 stateofthe environment report,the approximately for maintainingitsownheritage buildings;sincethe The governmentalsohasanasset managementprogram heritage placestoassessand manage heritageassets. advisers toassistlocalcouncils andownersoflocal plans. Thegovernmentprovides fundingandheritage policies anddesignguidelinesincouncildevelopment government withdesired character provisions, heritage The SouthAustralian Governmentassistslocal cultural heritage sites. environment hasthepotentialtoaffectunderwater Increasedwreck. developmentpressure onthemarine protecting thenatural environment associatedwiththe maintaining theheritagevalueofsite,butalsofor and protection ofthese sitesisimportantnotonlyfor and thusare importantmarinehabitats.Conservation (from 392to405).Shipwrecks serveasartificial reefs by 13sincethelaststateofenvironment report The totalnumberofshipwrecks protected hasincreased since 2008. in councildevelopmentplanshasincreased by480 Australia. Thenumberoflocalheritageplacesdesignated provisions ofthe There are 17stateheritageareas (created underthe the World HeritageList. The • • • • Adelaide Park LandsandCityLayout (new) Old andNewParliament Houses. Ediacara Fossil Site, Australian Fossil MammalSites(Naracoorte) Wiltjira–Dalhousie Springs(new) Australian Fossil MammalSite(Naracoorte) Development Act 1993 ) inSouth Heritage directions (Government isalsoon 63 People and places Tobias Hills Tobias and the Woodards House, Adelaide Woodards Development Act 1993 Act Development Developments in and near shipwrecks require the require in and near shipwrecks Developments to the Department referred application to be development (DEWNR) Resources and Natural Water of Environment, of the provisions under the addition, the DEWNR 2008. In Regulations Development potential to reduce program undertakes an awareness anchors, recreational sites from damage to shipwreck divers and owners. places of world, national, state of heritage The future will Australia located in South and local significance ongoing assessments to inform a on systematic rely adequate of heritage assets, and register comprehensive those for managing and skills) (both funding resources periodic evaluation of the extent to assets. This requires succeed in identifying places of systems which current which heritage heritage value and the effectiveness with managed. assets are efficiently, and improve consistency in assessment. The and improve efficiently, works plans will enable owners development of heritage of the maintenance and repair to prioritise and plan heritage places. heritage places and within state heritage areas have been have been within state heritage areas heritage places and owners in lodging well-considered developed to assist and quickly more be processed applications that can neighbourhood character, and reduces the need for new and reduces neighbourhood character, materials and associated use of raw construction with the state on sympathetic development of Guidelines energy. South Australian Government, there will be increased be increased will Government, there South Australian This heritage buildings. to adaptively reuse opportunity of the building and the surrounding the heritage protects program funding. funding. program by the being promoted the new urban design As part of 400 heritage sites have been reviewed to prioritise to prioritise reviewed sites have been 400 heritage 64 People and places extreme weathereventssuchasprolonged droughts and increased coastalerosion, ahigherfrequency ofmore of climaterefugees from islandnationsinthePacific, rises (which maybemore rapid thanpredicted), arrival accelerated globalwarmingandassociatedsealevel to beablecopewithpossiblefuture eventssuchas Planning inSouthAustralia mustalsopositionthestate state’s progress towards sustainabledevelopment. initiatives, willplayanimportantrole inguidingthe South Australia, alongsidearange ofothergovernment changes. ImplementationofthePlanning Strategy for housing, infrastructure andservicestosupportthe ageing isessentialtoensure thatthere issufficient However, planning forpopulationgrowth andpopulation more restrained thansuggestedinearlierprojections. ERP figures suggestthatpopulationgrowth maybe projections (DPLG 2010b) andrelease ofthe2011rebased The mostrecent revision ofthestate’s population while providing appropriate protection ofheritageplaces. natural resources, andtoadaptachangingclimate, to reflect theneedformore efficientuseofenergy and use ofpublictransport), andurbandesignwillchange traffic congestionwillincrease (despiteanincrease inthe and economywillcontinuetogrow, wastegeneration and If current trends continue,SouthAustralia’s population 5 What canweexpect? The ecosystems andbiodiversity. environments, andprotect andenhanceournatural design maximumresilience andflexibilityintoourbuilt events suchasthese,itisessentialthatSouthAustralians generating electricity. Inthefaceofchallengingfuture countries thataimtoreduce emissionsassociatedwith uranium resources tomeetdemand from developing South Australia mayalsoconsider increasing miningof decrease infuture economicgrowth rates. Australia and extreme hightemperature days,andapossibleserious interventions detailedinthischapter. to thecommunity—a priorityreflected inthepolicy to deliverthegreatest netbenefitsoffuture growth and regions onthephysicalenvironment willwebeable of theimpactsfuture developmentofAustralian cities Policy (DIT2011)emphasisesthatonlybybeingmindful Environment 2011Committee2011).TheNationalUrban growth occurs,andhowweliveourlives’(State ofthe on theenvironment dependsonwhere andhowthe well result inmore resource actualimpact use,‘the Although more peopleandmore economicactivitymay by theimpactsofpopulationandeconomicgrowth. face inthenearfuture, followedbytherisksposed major environmental challengethatwewillhaveto considers theprospect ofachangingclimateasthe Australia stateoftheenvironment 2011 Department ofPlanning, Transport andInfrastructure Magill Estate,Adelaide report 65 People and places The Centre The Centre , Adelaide Comparison of , cat. no. 3101.0, , cat. 3101.0, no. www.ausstats.abs. Australian Australian erp 2006-2011 ucl erp 2006-2011 Council of . . www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ . . Noise initiatives www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ www.scew.gov.au/strategic-priorities/ www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Pro . National Waste Policy: less waste, more less waste, more Policy: National Waste cat. no. 3218.0, Australian Bureau of Bureau Australian cat. 3218.0, no. final report to the Australian Greenhouse Greenhouse Australian report to the final National Plan for Clean Air, National Plan Regional population growth, Australia, 2011: Australia, population growth, Regional Motor vehicle census, Australia, 31 January Motor vehicle census, Australia, South Australian transport facts 2011, transport South Australian . , Australian Government Department of the , Australian ) provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics to of Statistics Bureau by the Australian ) provided cat.no. 9309.0, special tabulations ( cat.no. 9309.0, DEWHA (2009). resources Heritage and the Arts, Canberra, Environment, Water, www.scew.gov.au/sites/www.scew.gov.au/files/ resources/906a04da-bad6-c554-1d0d-45216011370d/files/ wastemgt-rpt-national-waste-policy-framework-less-waste- more-resources-print-ver-200911.pdf ABS (2012f). 2012, sa.xlsx and Transport Department of Planning, the South Australian on 19 October 2012, Infrastructure [email protected]/mf/9309.0 Adelaide City Council (2013). City Council, Adelaide, environment/noise/noise-initiatives Edwards J, Anyon P, G, Lapszewicz J, Morgan T, Grant Beer T, H and Williams D (2001). Watson Nelson P, fuels, transport Stage 2 study of life-cycleOffice on the emissions analysis of alternative fuels for heavy vehicles, Commonwealth Melbourne, Organisation, Research Scientific and Industrial www.environment.gov.au/archive/settlements/transport/ comparison/pubs/comparison.pdf (2012). COAG Council on Environment Governments Standing Australian Canberra, and Water, national-plan-for-clean-air.html CTEE (2011). and the Environment, Adelaide. Energy for Transport, ABS (2012d). Table 54: Estimated resident population Estimated resident 54: ABS (2012d). Table In: South Australia. by single year of age, quarter 2012 March statistics, demographic Canberra, Statistics, of Bureau Australian gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/0/8FE9547FDA1990C2CA2 57AD7000D1346/$File/3101054.xls ABS (2012e). South Australia, Canberra, Statistics, ducts/3218.0~2011~Main+Features~South+Australia?OpenD ocument , , cat. www. cat. no. . . www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ , cat. no. 3101.0, Australian Australian , cat. 3101.0, no. Australian demographic demographic Australian . www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ . Australian demographic statistics, December demographic Australian Population projections, Australia, projections, Population Australian Standard Geographical Classification Geographical Standard Australian cat. no. 3101.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, of Statistics, Bureau Australian cat. 3101.0, no. Struggling growers find fruits of labour in mining find growers Struggling www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/allprimarym www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/66f306 . cat. no. 1216.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, of Statistics, Bureau Australian cat. 1216.0, no. . Australian demographic statistics, March quarter 2012 statistics, March demographic Australian 4C2BED109CA257A8500206850/$File/31010_Mar%202012. pdf In: 63–66 Canberra, of Statistics, Bureau Australian 3101.0, no. www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/BEC1AAE 06850/$File/31010_Mar%202012.pdf to note: the impact of improvements ABS (2012c). Technical (2006–2011). the 2011 PES on measuring population growth statistics, March quarter 2012 statistics, March Canberra, of Statistics, Bureau ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/BEC1AAE4C2BED109CA257A85002 ocument article 4: advice on the use of 2011 Feature ABS (2012b). In: ERP. rebased preliminary quarter 2011, Canberra, ainfeatures/81C5AE743DDCF8F0CA257A850013DF4C?opend censushome.nsf/home/tablebuilder?opendocument&navpo s=240 ABS (2012a). local area, by dwelling type, 2006 Census, 2011 Census], local area, by dwelling type, 2006 Census, 2011 Census], Australian TableBuilder, 12 December 2012 from retrieved www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/ Canberra. Statistics, of Bureau subscriber.nsf/0/0E09CCC14E4C94F6CA2574B9001626FE/$F ile/32220_2006%20to%202101.pdf [Statistical area ABS (2011). Dwelling type by statistical local ABS (2008). of Bureau Australian Australia, Series A for South 3222.0, 53, Canberra, Statistics, Canberra, Canberra, f503e529a5ca25697e0017661f/50F6E014E67EBB7CCA25 6F1900127934 ABS (2005). (ASGC), ABC (2012). Corporation, Broadcasting Australian program, PM abc.net.au/news/2012-12-05/mining-boom-gives-growers- fruitful-sideline/4410440 6 References 66 People and places waste_to_resources_policy www.epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/waste/legislation/ Environment Protection Authority SouthAustralia, Adelaide, EPA (2010). Authority SouthAustralia, Adelaide. reports Environment 2008–09to20011–12, Protection EPA (2008–12).Environment Protection Authority annual Adelaide, 2008, EPA (2008). xstd_files/Air/Guideline/guide_airquality.pdf. Authority SouthAustralia, Adelaide,www.epa.sa.gov.au/ January 2006. EPA guidelines.Environment Protection ground levelpollutantconcentrations (DGLCs) EPA (2006).A Transport andInfrastructure, Adelaide. patronage report, DPTI (2011). Planning Adelaide. andLocal Government, statistical divisions,2006–36, DPLG (2010b). www.dplg.sa.gov.au/plan4adelaide/index.cfm Department ofPlanning Adelaide, andLocal Government, of theSouthAustralian Planning Strategy, DPLG (2010a). strategic-priorities Adelaide, and Cabinet, Strategic Plan, SouthAustralian DepartmentofthePremier DPC (2012). Resources andEnergy, Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentforManufacturing,Trade, earth resources informationsheetM50(February 2012), DMITRE (2012). aspx?type=VehicleEmissions#1 www.greenvehicleguide.gov.au/gvgpublicui/Information. Department ofInfrastructure andTransport, Canberra, DIT (2012b). SOAC_FULL_WEB_FA.pdf infrastructure/mcu/soac/files/2012_00_INFRA1360_MCU_ Canberra, Major CitiesUnit, Government DepartmentofInfrastructure andTransport, DIT (2012a). files/Our_Cities_National_Urban_Policy_Paper_2011.pdf Canberra, Government DepartmentofInfrastructure andTransport, for aproductive, sustainableandliveablefuture, DIT (2011). 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Building+and+development/South+Australia’s+land+supply www.sa.gov.au/subject/Housing,+property+and+land/ for SouthAustralia, Government ofSouthAustralia (2011a). Adelaide. Australian DepartmentofPlanning andLocal Government, for SouthAustralia andstatisticaldivisions2006–36, Government ofSouthAustralia (2010). Capacity%20Report%20April%202012.pdf and%20Computer%20Recycling%20Estimates%20and%20 publications/reuse-recovery-and-recycling/Television%20 www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/resource-centre/ prepared forZero Waste SAbyEquilibrium,Melbourne, estimates andrecovery andprocessing capacity, recycling experienceandcapacityinSouthAustralia: waste Equilibrium (2012). community/smokewatch/smokewatch_in_mount_gambier environmental_info/air_quality/working_with_the_ Protection Authority, Adelaide, EPA (2012). report.aspx Group, report HIA EconomicsGroup (2011). pubs/technicalreports/tr143.pdf Safety Agency, Yallambie, Victoria, Government Australian RadiationProtection andNuclear Australia 2003and2004, Hardege L(2005). Urban Policy andResearch household greenhouse emissionsandtherole ofplanning. Gleeson BandBurkeM(2010).Urbanconsolidation, Gray R, heritagedirections2012.pdf files/3eb89fd9-e587-4013-b858-a0e600ba5929/her-gen- of SouthAustralia, Adelaide, 2012: afuture forheritageinSouthAustralia, Government ofSouthAustralia (2012). bd8 OD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ecb6570048ab3d3c8b45ff7675638 HealthyConnectedCommunities-PHCS-HiAP-20111013.pdf?M connect/ecb6570048ab3d3c8b45ff7675638bd8/ Adelaide, through ahealthlens villages forthefuture—transit-oriented developments connected communities:creating healthyurban Government ofSouthAustralia (2011b). +Australia +and+planning+system/The+planning+strategy+for+South , September2011quarter, HIAEconomics AppendixC, http://economics.hia.com.au/publications/land_ www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/ . . SmokeWatch inMountGambier, Environmental radioactivity monitoringin GovernmentofSouthAustralia, Adelaide, An assessmentoftelevisionandcomputer , GovernmentofSouthAustralia, technicalreport no. 143,Australian 28(3):335–346. . www.environment.sa.gov.au/ HIA-rpdata.com residential land www.epa.sa.gov.au/ . www.arpansa.gov.au/ Heritage directions Population projections The planningstrategy Healthy . Environment Government report South . 67 People and places www.zerowaste.sa.gov.

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Targets, http://blog.id.com.au/2012/ http://blog.id.com.au/2012/ 36(2):93–100. Wind turbines and health: a rapid review of review Wind turbines and health: a rapid South Australia’s recycling activity report activity report recycling South Australia’s South Australian transport facts, transport South Australian . Has the turned on coastal growth? Has the tide turned on 2011 census—our expanding households 2011 census—our expanding Australia state of the environment 2011, state of the environment Australia National Health and Medical Research Council, National Health and Medical Research . . South Australian Active Living Coalition, South Australian www.scew.gov.au/sites/www.scew.gov.au/files/ Zero Waste SA, Waste Glenelg, South Australia. Zero Parsons Brinckerhoff and Sustainability Policy Institute, Brinckerhoff and Sustainability Parsons Fremantle. Curtin University, Communities, Canberra. R, D (2007). P and Bilsborough Newman Trubka cities costs of alternative development paths in Australian Summary. In: Summary. Minister Government to the Australian independent report and Population Environment, Water, for Sustainability, Strategic Plan Audit Committee, Adelaide, Audit Plan Strategic au/targets 2011 Committee (2011). of the Environment State http://saactivelivingcoalition.com.au/wp-content/ uploads/2012/09/StreetsforPeople_FactSheet_Sept-2012.pdf Committee (2012). SASP Audit South Australian Active Living Coalition (2012b). (2012b). Active Living Coalition South Australian for people: compendium for South Australian Streets practice, Australian Active Living Coalition, Active Australian http://saactivelivingcoalition.com.au/wp-content/ uploads/2012/05/SA-Active-Living-Coalition-Brochure.pdf Rawtec (2012). 2010–11, (2012a). Active Living Coalition South Australian Pekol A (2011). A (2011). Pekol the Environment, Spring Hill. and Energy for Transport, NHMRC (2010). NHMRC the evidence, Canberra. Newman P and Kenworthy J (1989). Newman P and Kenworthy dependence: an international sourcebook, Brookfield. Newman P (1999). Sustainability and Australian cities. Newman P (1999). Sustainability and Australian Planner Australian Informed Decisions blog, Informed Decisions blog, australian-housing-trends/2011-census-our-expanding- households australian-demographic-trends/has-the-tide-turned-on- coastal-growth idblog (2013). pdf idblog (2012). Informed Decisions blog, Council, resources/0c513e54-d968-ac04-758b-3b7613af0d07/files/ps- tv-comp-consultation-ris-televisions-and-computers-200907. Environment Protection and Heritage Council: consultation Heritage Council: consultation and Protection Environment and computers, impact statement—televisions regulatory and Heritage Protection the Environment for prepared Hyder Consulting and PricewaterhouseCoopers (2009). and PricewaterhouseCoopers Hyder Consulting 68 People and places 69

Climate change

1 Why is it important?

Earth’s surface is warming rapidly, and our global climate -- biodiversity of higher temperatures, reduced is changing, with impacts already discernible to the and altered patterns of rainfall, and changes in present generation. Rising air temperatures, increasing the severity and frequency of extreme weather severity and frequency of heatwaves, changing rainfall and bushfire patterns with more extreme and frequent drought and -- coastal settlements, infrastructure and coastal flood, altered ocean temperature and chemistry, and ecosystems of sea level rise and storm surge sea level rise all present potential significant risks to our -- marine ecosystems, fisheries and aquaculture environment, economy, society and way of life. of warmer, more acidic and altered South Australia is already seeing the effects of climate ocean currents change (Box 1). South Australia’s future climate challenges -- human health and infrastructure of an increased include: number and severity of heatwaves, bushfires and • securing a reliable urban water supply extreme weather events. • coping with the effects on -- agricultural productivity of higher temperatures, more frequent extreme weather events, reduced rainfall and greater variability of rainfall distribution

Opposite page: The junction of the River Murray with the Southern Ocean, 1846 State Library of South Australia B15276/43 70 Climate change In summary Aspect andobservation is changing. Sea temperature andacidityare increasing; salinity Oceans direction/strength, etc. variances basedonlocalgeomorphology, wind The globaltrend isforarise insealevel,with Sea level supplied andused. of totalinstalledcapacityandtheproportion Renewable energy hasincreased asaproportion state emissions(74%). Energy production isstillthedominantsource of Energy (air and seasurface)and extreme temperatures. The long-term trend isforincreases inaverage on record. The reporting periodincludes thewarmestyear Temperature The long-term trend isforadeclineinrainfall. wettest yearsonrecord. The reporting periodincludes thethird andfifth Rainfall State sources ofgreenhouse gasesare increasing. are increasing. Atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases the world. Per capitaemissionsare stilloneofthehighestin state product havedecreased. Per capitaemissionsandperunitofgross State greenhouse gasemissions Very poor • Assessment grade • • • • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ In trend 71 Climate change In trend ˜ ˜ Confidence In grade ˜ ˜ Very good Very Good Poor • • Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Evidence Limited evidence or limited consensus Adequate high-quality and high level of consensus evidence Assessment grade Assessment ™ › ˜ Very poor Very Very good Very Level of Level confidence Good Stable Unclear Poor • • Improving Deteriorating Very poor Very • • Grades Recent Recent trend The increased frequency of extreme events will of extreme frequency The increased services, infrastructure impact police, emergency maintenance, volunteers, etc. forestry will affect water supplies rainfall Reduced and agriculture. leading to increased, Climate variability has extreme and severity of some frequency increased weather events such as heatwaves. Marine and terrestrial biodiversity Marine and terrestrial negative to variable, with are in biodiversity Trends biological species ranges, changes in gene pools, dynamics. patterns and ecosystem and agriculture Human health, infrastructure, Aspect and observation Aspect and 72 Climate change Source: ClimateCommission(2013) • Drought • • Rainfall • • • • • Hot daysandheatwaves Box 1 reduced Australia’s agricultural output by26%. During 2002–03,drought isestimatedtohave as thetemperature increases. heavy rainfall eventswillbecomemore frequent Across Australia, itismore likelythannotthat year periodorwere verymuchaboveaverage. that eithersetall-time rainfall records foratwo- Over 2010–11,everystateandterritoryhadsites of losslife. significant natural hazard in Australia interms Centre hasshownthatheatwavesare themost Research attheNatural Hazards Research rapid thanclimatemodel projections. such daysrose Thisincrease to25.1. ismore but during2000–09theaverage numberof number ofdaysperyearabove35 °Cwas17.5, In Adelaide,thelong-term average (1961–1990) heatwave havebecomeevenhotter. have increased, andthehottestdaysduringa the duration andfrequency ofheatwaves in manypartsofAustralia. Over1971–2008, The nature ofheatwaveshasalready changed heatwave periods. during heatwaveperiodscompared withnon- total hospitaladmissionsof7%wasrecorded In Adelaide,from 1993to2006, anincrease in Australian region. surface temperatures onrecord forthe on record andincludedthehighestsea The summerof2012–13wasthehottest The criticaldecade:extreme weatherforSouthAustralia • Bushfires • • • • • • Sea levelrise • significantly at16of38weatherstationsacross measures ofbushfire threat,increased The Forest Fire oneofthe DangerIndex, by theendofcentury. analysis project asignificantincrease indrought nearly alloftheclimatemodelsusedinarecent For bothsouth-west Australia, andsouth-east almost 1%. reduced nationalgross domesticproduct by In 2006–07, itisestimatedthatdrought on record. into theMurray–Darling systemwere thelowest During thedrought of1997–2009, theinflows on average everyyear. called one-in-a-hundred-year eventwouldoccur A multiplyingfactorof100meansthataso- one thousand. hundred and,insomeplaces, byasmuch extreme events,typically byafactorofseveral lead toverylarge increases intheincidenceof cities, asealevelriseof0.5 metres would For coastalareas around Australia’s largest large impacts. the estimatesfor2100, leadstosurprisingly with 1990),whichliesnearthelowerendof A sealevelriseof0.5 metres (compared extending intoNovemberandMarch. a longerduration fire season,withfire weather Australia,south-east andhasbeenmanifestas The increase hasbeenmostprominent in the stationsrecording asignificantdecrease. Australia between1973and2010, withnoneof 73 Climate change Hallett wind farm Department of Manufacturing, Innovation, Trade, Resources and Energy Resources Department of Manufacturing, Innovation, Trade, 74 Climate change more urbanisedpopulation, whichdependsoncomplex change presents much larger achallenge fortoday’s and However,in thepast. recent human-induced climate Humanity hasdealtwithsmall variationsinclimate following thelastglacialperiod, knownastheHolocene. developed duringarelatively stableperiodofclimate variability. Modernhumancivilisationhas evolvedand evolutionary eventsandtimesofnatural climatic in palaeoanthropology showingacorrelation between to pastclimatechange,withagrowing bodyofwork linked Our evolutionaryhistorycanbe,atleastinpart, human influences. to pastclimatechangecanactamplifycurrent (Australian AcademyofScience2010).Processes similar us thatglobalclimateissensitivetosmallinfluences acidity andsealevel.Past climate changealsoshows and wateravailability, icecover, vegetation,ocean atmospheric andoceaniccirculation, rainfall patterns changes haveaffectedtheworlddramatically, altering The geologicalrecords showusthatpasttemperature Academy ofScience2010, CSIRO 2011). level ofgreenhouse gasesintheatmosphere (Australian of continentsandoceans,natural variationsinthe Earth’s orbitaround thesun,changingconfiguration than today, drivenbychangesinthesun’s intensity, yearsago;ithasbeenbothwarmer andcooler 4.5 billion has variedenormouslymanytimessinceEarthformed pattern ofweatheroverdecadesorlonger. Earth’s climate Climate changerefers tolong-term changeintheaverage 2.1 biology, oceanography, hydrology andgeology. change, includingatmosphericphysics,chemistry, disciplines contributetoourunderstandingofclimate sophisticated climatemodels.Anumberofscientific climate measurements from therecent pastand evidence from tree ringsandlakesediments,etc.), including ourhistoricclimaterecord (palaeoclimatic science hasbeenderivedfrom arange ofsources, Strong andclearevidencesupportingclimatechange 2 What doweknowaboutit? Past climatechange air temperature hasincreased bynearly1°CinAustralia 100 years from 1910to2009(Figure 1).Average surface land andovertheoceanrose byjustover0.7 °Cinthe Globalaveragethe geologicalpast. temperatures bothon Our current climateischangingfarmore rapidly thanin 2.2 systems (CSIRO 2011). infrastructure andgloballyinterdependent agricultural Academy ofScience2010). and changestoanimalplantbehaviour(Australian decreasing oceanalkalinity, shifting weathersystems, sea ice,increasing watervapourintheatmosphere, continued decreases intheextentandvolumeofarctic Greenland andAntarctic icesheets,sealevelrise, of mountainglaciersandicecaps,lossfrom the temperature: warmingoceans,widespread retreat that are consistentwiththeincrease inglobalaverage Around theworld,manychangeshavebeenobserved to persist. to risingtemperatures, andthisdrying trend islikely in southernAustralia since1970, whichhasbeenlinked 2011). There hasbeenacleardeclineinaverage rainfall were thewarmestsincerecords beganin1900(BoM and temperatures forthepastdecade(2001to2010) temperatures havebeenrisingsteadilysincethe1970s, the past100 years(CSIRO 2011).SouthAustralian average past 50 yearswarmingatnearlytwicetherate asover 2011). Therate ofglobalwarmingisincreasing, withthe will continuetorise(ClimateCSIRO Commission 2011a, and SouthAustralia, higherthantheglobalaverage, and Current climatechange 75 Climate change normal weather variability should not be confused with The global temperature. in average a sustained increase between an ice global temperature in average difference period is only 5 °C. age and an interglacial closely correlate increases temperature Because future with the cumulative emissions of the main greenhouse emissions growth dramatic gas—carbon dioxide—the mitigation in developing nations highlights the urgent levels in developed nations, coupled with the very rapid the very rapid levels in developed nations, coupled with particularly industrialisation of many developing nations, Not only are China and India (Anderson and Bows 2011). at which they but the rate global emissions increasing, actual Between 2003 and 2007, is growing. increasing are faster than the highest emissions at a rate emissions rose slowdown due to scenario (A1FI) and, despite a temporary a record reached emissions growth the global recession, et al 2012). high in 2009 and 2010 (IEA 2011, Peters warming of 2 °C In the late 1990s, a globally averaged as the guardrail above pre-industrial levels was proposed start to beyond which the effects of climate change risks and impacts on water supplies, have dangerous and human health ecosystems, food production, Union 2004, 2011). CSIRO the European of (Council between of 2 °C as the threshold The characterisation climate change is premised acceptable and ‘dangerous’ on an early assessment of the scope and scale of the however, research, recent accompanying impacts. More the impacts associated with 2 °C sufficiently has revised as extremely that 2 °C can now be regarded upwards (Anderson and Bows 2011). A 2 °C warming dangerous’ used to greater are may not sound significant—we on a day-to-day basis—but fluctuations temperature climate system responds to these emissions. It should these emissions. It to responds climate system of a significant period is generally there be noted that system inputs of the climate changes to the time before these long of As a result changes to the system. in result in gas concentrations existing greenhouse system lags, Earth to a further warming will commit the atmosphere levels of emissions of future irrespective of 0.5 °C, (CSIRO 2011). gas emission scenarios greenhouse A number of future Panel by the Intergovernmental have been published Climate models have (Box 2). (IPCC) on Climate Change warming to be estimated for these enabled projected scenarios. While it is considered emissions different assess which emissions scenarios too early to reliably reduce the lack of global effort to likely, the more are attention on the high-end emissions has focused recent (Betts et al. 2011). Since scenarios for mapping our future there in 2000, produced the emissions pathways were in global emissions increases have been unprecedented high emissions ongoing gases, reflecting of greenhouse temperature change, 1880s to the change, 1880s to the temperature present Global annual mean surface air The future of climate change The future Causes of climate change NASA and GISS (2012) The blue bars show uncertainty estimates. The blue bars show uncertainty Projections of future climate are dependent on the level are climate of future Projections gas emissions and how the human greenhouse of future Commission 2011b). 2.2.2 these relate more to precise timescales or magnitudes timescales to precise more these relate impacts and do not affect the major of expected future Climate Academy of Science 2010, conclusions (Australian period and continues to advance strongly. period and continues to advance strongly. Given the complexity of the climate system, some in the science of climate change, but uncertainties remain agricultural and industrial revolutions (Australian (Australian and industrial revolutions agricultural Academy of Science 2010). Scientific understanding of climate change has been built over a long anthropogenic There is compelling evidence that the recent global is compelling evidence that the recent There by human emissions warming is being caused largely gases, emitted since the start of the of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide trap energy emitted by Earth energy trap gases such as carbon dioxide would be—and keep the planet warmer than it otherwise than a century ago. was established more incoming solar radiation but absorb outgoing radiation, but absorb outgoing radiation, incoming solar radiation and surface of warming the lower atmosphere thereby the planet. The basic physical principle—that greenhouse to incoming short-wave solar radiation but absorb the solar radiation to incoming short-wave emitted by Earth. This means longer wavelength radiation gases have little effect on that atmospheric greenhouse Greenhouse gases are those gases in Earth’s atmosphere atmosphere Earth’s those gases in gases are Greenhouse transparent They are that selectively absorb radiation. 2.2.1 Figure 1 Figure Note: Source: 76 Climate change stable sincetheendoflast iceage. particularly inthepastfewdecades, afterbeingrelatively gases havebeenrisingoverthe past250 years,but reveal thatatmosphericconcentrations ofgreenhouse of airtrapped inicecores (Figure 2). Theseobservations Grim inTasmania) and,forpasteras, from theanalysis monitoring stationsaround theworld(includingCape known from recent measurements takenata numberof Atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gasesare changed agricultural practices anddeforestation. (e.g. cement production), andreducing sinksthrough the burningoffossilfuelsandindustrialprocesses by increasing sources ofgreenhouse gases,such as have increased theconcentration ofgreenhouse gases gases from theatmosphere (sinks). Humanactivities of emissionsgases(sources) andtheremoval of concentrations ofgreenhouse gasesare thenetresult temperaturelife-supporting onEarth.Atmospheric very smallconcentrations butacttomaintainawarmer, effect iscausedbyseveral different gasesthatexistin Thenaturalalmost nowarmingeffect. greenhouse nitrogen andoxygen—non-greenhouse gasesthatexert Earth’s atmosphere consistsmainly(about 99%)of 2.3 and theimplicationsthesehaveforadaptationplanning. climate change understanding oftheimpactshigh-end reductions inglobalemissions,weneedtoincrease our Given thedifficultyofachieving rapidandlarge 2011b, CSIRO 2011,Newetal.2011). and Bows2011,Bettsetal.ClimateCommission by asearly2060–70 are muchmore likely(Anderson rises of3 °Cor4 °C(relative tothepre-industrialperiod) temperature increase andtemperature atorbelow2 °C, little tonochanceofmaintainingtheglobalmeansurface concerted mitigativeactionataglobalscale,there isnow of recentwithoutimmediate, analysessuggestthat, CSIRO 2011,GarnautNewetal.2011).Anumber reductions are required (Climate Commission2011b, gas emissionsare insufficient—rapid, deepandongoing that long-term gradual reductions inglobalgreenhouse atmosphere. Thelatestscientificassessmentsemphasise existing greenhouse gasestoberemoved from the timescales andpathwaystostabilisation,forsome reduced toverynearzero andeven,dependingon atmospheric concentrations requires emissionstobe concentrations, rather thanstabilisethem.Stabilising will onlyslowtherate ofincrease ofatmospheric task before us.Reducing theemissionsofcarbondioxide Concentrations ofgreenhouse gases oceans andlandvegetationaspartofthenatural CO change (CSIRO 2011). largest singlecontributortohuman-inducedclimate influence of CO of years(Australian Academy ofScience2010).The remains intheclimatesystemforhundreds tothousands CO greenhouse gasesonEarth’s temperature 2011). (WMO about 64%ofradiative forcing—the influenceof atmosphere iscarbondioxide (CO The secondmostprevalent greenhouse gasinthe warms, providing anamplifyingeffect. atmospheric concentration increases astheatmosphere although itisnotdirectly influencedbyhumans,its Science 2010).Itisanimportantgreenhouse gasbecause, the present-day greenhouse effect(Australian Academyof abundant greenhouse gasandaccountsforabouthalfof atmosphere aspartofthewatercycle,ismost Water vapour, whichexistsnaturally inthelower century to389.6 ppminJune 2012(CSIRO 2012a).CO from 278 partspermillion(ppm) inthemid-18th CO exchanges were largely inbalance.Sinceindustrialisation, carbon cycle.Before humaninfluences,thesenatural decades, emissionsfrom humanactivitiesexceeded those emissions are thedominant natural source, inrecent but, warming effectthan CO concentration intheatmosphere, CH 2011).Althoughatalower contributing about18%(WMO gas intermsofitsimpactonthe radiative imbalance, Methane (CH economies (CSIRO 2011). rapid Indiaanddeveloping economic growth inChina, emissions since2000, coincidingwithaperiodof 2010). There hasbeenarecent acceleration ofCO concentrations torise(Australian Academy ofScience 45% remaining inthe airandcausingatmospheric by natural ocean andlandsinks,withtheremaining Just overhalfoftheemissionsCO during thecolderseasons. plant growth absorbsthegas,andthengoesupagain falls duringtheNorthernHemisphere’s summerwhen observatory startedin1956.) Theconcentration ofCO rate thanpreviously. (Continuous monitoringatthe 2013, 25%higherthanin1960, andincreasing atafaster Loa ObservatoryinHawaii,peakedat400 ppmon4 May Hemisphere’s CO and deforestation (reducing sinks). TheNorthern fossil fuels(increasing sources ofgreenhouse gases) levels are risingmainlyasaresult oftheburning 2 2 2 isconstantlytransferred betweentheatmosphere, isalsoanimportantgasbecauseasignificantfraction concentrations haveincreased byabout40%, 4 ) isthenextmostimportantgreenhouse 2 ontheradiation balanceofEarthisthe 2 concentration, asmeasured atMauna 2 foragivenmass. 2 ), whichcontributes 2 4 havebeenabsorbed hasamuchhigher 2

2 2

77 Climate change ) emissions for 1990–2008 and 2009 ) emissions for 1990–2008 2 Annual industrial carbon dioxide (CO Annual industrial carbon dioxide Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emissions scenarios Climate Change on Panel Intergovernmental Manning et al. (2010) of all 40 emission 2009. Emissions fall within the range represents and the open circle the years 1990–2008, represent Black circles special report. The inset in the upper left of the IPCC lines) marker scenarios (coloured and six illustrative scenarios (grey shaded area) corner shows these scenarios to the year 2000. Figure A Figure increase surface temperature warming for A1FI is a 4.5 °C global average estimate of future The best IPCC above of 2.9–6.9 °C with a likely range levels; Figure A), 4 °C above 1980–99 above pre-industrial levels (or assessment report, of the fourth IPCC 2007). Since the release 2000, pre-industrial levels by 2100 (IPCC climate models supports a best estimate of recent the more evidence available from in 2007, produced rise of 4 °C by by the 2090s, with a temperature to pre-industrial temperatures 5 °C rise relative around in the 2060s (Betts et al. 2011). reached the 4 °C could be strong, the 2070s. If carbon cycle feedbacks are rises, reflecting temperature The other scenarios describe a world with lower emissions and corresponding adoption of clean and efficient technologies. and different rates of change in economic structures differing has established a new set of emissions pathways, known as the Representative the IPCC Recently, impact assessment as the basis for the next stage of scenario modelling and Pathways, Concentration based on different in that they are the earlier emissions pathways et al. 2010). These differ from (Moss gas concentrations. of greenhouse levels of planned mitigation and consider a wider range Source: Note: The projected emissions from the IPCC special report are shown in Figure A. Since 2005, shown in Figure global GHG are special report the IPCC from emissions The projected A1B and A1FI. scenario range—between above the middle of the IPCC’s to track emissions have continued world with by an integrated characterised scenario is the highest emissions category, The A1FI emissions 9 billion in mid- a global population that reaches an emphasis on fossil fuels and economic growth, rapid greenhouse future to be one of a number of plausible the IPCC by scenario is considered The A1FI century. action. global society does not take mitigative if our gas projections Box 2 Box Panel by the Intergovernmental published scenarios were gas emissions greenhouse of future A number Meteorological by the World jointly established was 2000). The IPCC (IPCC Change (IPCC) on Climate to assess the scientific, socio- technical and Programme Environment the United Nations and Organization 2000). The change (IPCC the risk of human-induced climate for understanding relevant economic information assumptions different until 2000 and then reflect based on observed emissions emissions scenarios are IPCC (Betts et al. 2011). and technological development global population, economic growth about future 78 Climate change (WMO 2011). (WMO Fossilmanagement. fuelburningalsoproduces N soil cultivation,fertiliseruseandlivestockmanure anthropogenic source ofN industrialisation, to324.1 ppb. Agriculture isthemain and concentrations haveincreased by20%since the overall globalincrease inradiative imbalance, Nitrous oxide (N lifetimes thanCO greenhouse gaseswithmuchlongeratmospheric replace CFCs, are rapidly increasing. Theseare potent damaging totheozonelayerandsoare beingusedto layer, concentrations ofHCFCs andHFCs, whichare less as aresult ofinternationalactiontoprotect theozone CFC concentrations are decreasing intheatmosphere contribute about12%toradiative imbalance.Although used inrefrigeration andair-conditioning systems, (HCFCs) andhydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)—which are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons Human-made syntheticgreenhouse gases— permafrost inthisrecent increase. the possiblerole ofthethawingCH again since2007. Scientistsare currently investigating slowed between1999and2006buthasbeenincreasing The long-term upward trend inCH through chemicaldegradation. biomass burning.CH landfill waste;lossesfrom coal,oilandgasextraction; and arise from ruminantlivestockproduction; ricecultivation; billion (ppb) Human-inducedCH inJune 2012. more than150%sinceindustrialisationto1763.7 partsper Atmospheric concentrations ofCH from natural sources bytwo-fold ormore (CSIRO 2011). 2 O) hascontributedabout6%of 2 . 4 isremoved from theatmosphere 2 O emissions,including 4 4 atmosphericlevels haveincreased by 4 -rich northern 4 emissions 2 O Figure 2 Sources: Note: on airextracted from icesamplescollectedfrom Antarctica (LawDome). Cape Grimmeasurements are from 1976;oldermeasurements are based Bureau ofMeteorology, CSIRO (2012a) Atmospheric concentrations ofcarbon dioxide, methaneandnitrous oxide 79 Climate change and the

Climate change (Suppiah et al. 2006), These reports are based are These reports Climate change under enhanced greenhouse Climate change under enhanced greenhouse 2010). Southern and Atlantic oceans is also occurring (Climate is also occurring (Climate oceans and Atlantic Southern 2011b). Commission also show a warming surface temperatures Global sea while the temperatures by 0.7 °C, on average rising trend, have Australia waters surrounding of the surface 2011). since 1900 (CSIRO 0.9 °C by about increased additional average for projected The latest best estimates 1990 to from for South Australia increases temperature to 1.5 °C, on region depending 0.8 °C from 2030 range additional (Table 1). By 2070, and emissions scenario to be between 1.2 °C and 3.5 °C,warming is expected temperature These regional with 1990. compared by the South Australian produced have been projections a from and Development Institute (SARDI) Research contained in the 2006 synthesis of the projections report CSIRO conditions in South Australia of Meteorology and Bureau 2007 CSIRO technical report. in Australia: (SARDI for the IPCC on global climatic models prepared from the 1961–90 average the from Long-term trend in South Australia’s average temperature, measured as the difference as the difference measured temperature, average in South Australia’s trend Long-term climate Observed and projected changes in changes and projected Observed Figure 3 Figure Source: Climate Commission (2013) Source: indicate that warming of the deeper waters of both the indicate that warming of the deeper waters moderated by the vast amounts of heat that the oceans by the vast amounts moderated decades. The upper layer of the have absorbed in recent recent observations and ocean has warmed significantly, (CSIRO 2011). (CSIRO has been the atmosphere of warming of The rate rapidly than maximum (daytime) temperatures over temperatures (daytime) than maximum rapidly has also been an overall There most of the 20th century. while the of heatwaves, in the frequency increase has decreased cold weather of extremely frequency rise—approximately 1 °C—in South Australia (Figure 3). Australia South 1 °C—in rise—approximately more increased temperatures Minimum (overnight) trend is continuing. The past decade (2000–09) has been The past decade (2000–09) has been is continuing. trend 2011). began in 1900 (CSIRO the warmest since records has been a steady temperature there 1950, around From Commission 2011a), a greater increase than the global increase a greater Commission 2011a), has Most of this increase value of about 0.7 °C. average this and half of the 20th century, in the second occurred 2.4.1Temperature has surface air temperature South Australian The average over the past 100 years (Climate risen by just under 1 °C Global climate change will affect South Australian Australian South change will affect Global climate and rainfall. temperature 2.4 80 Climate change (Climate Commission 2011b). Annular Mode, whichoperates inthehigherlatitudes Pacific Ocean;theIndianOceanDipole;andSouthern El Niño–Southern Oscillation,relating tothetropical most importantimpactonAustralian rainfall are the region toregion. The modesofvariabilitywiththe being naturally highlyvariableovertime and from circulation patterns;thisresults inAustralia’s rainfall in relative seasurfacetemperatures andatmospheric by several modes ofnatural variabilitycausedbychanges Year-to-year anddecadalrainfall inAustralia isinfluenced (CSIRO 2010). atmospheric circulation associatedwithglobalwarming to changes inlarge-scale been linked,atleastinpart, decline inSouthAustralian rainfall since 1970, whichhas of thenorthandwest(Figure 4).There hasbeenaclear but increasing springandsummerrainfall inmanyparts winter rainfall overthesouth,eastandwesternfringes, with ageneral trend towards decreasing lateautumnand Australia’s rainfall haschangedoverrecent decades, Rainfall 2.4.2 Source: Note: Table 1 region South Australian NRM South East SA Murray–Darling Basin SA AridLands Northern andYorke Kangaroo Island Alinytjara Wilurara Ranges Adelaide andMountLofty represent regional outcomes. on low-resolution globalmodelresults thatmaynotaccurately is someuncertaintyintheregional projections astheyare based no difference underthelowandhighemissionsscenarios.There the lagtimesofclimatesystem,andtherefore showlittleor estimates are largely insensitivetofuture emissionsbecauseof methods andafullrange ofresults. Notealsothatthe2030 scenario. Seethe source documentfor a descriptionofthe percentile andrange from alowemissionstohigh SARDI (2010) The temperature ranges are bestestimatesbasedonthe50th Best estimateoftherange high emissionsscenario Australia (relative to1990)forlow– temperature increase inSouth of annualaverage additional 0.8–1.5 0.8–1.0 2030 (°C) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

1.3–2.3 1.2–2.8 1.8–3.5 1.3–2.8 1.3–2.8 1.2–2.3 1.6–3.5 1.3–2.8 2070 (°C)

b a Southern Hemisphere thatbringstorm systems, cold strong westerly windsinthemidtohigh latitudesofthe Oscillation) reflects movementof thenorth–south Southern AnnularMode(also knownastheAntarctic behaviour ofthesenatural modes(IPCC 2010).The atmospheric circulation and maybealteringthe Higher temperatures andwarmingoceans affect of (CSIRO 2011). 15–30 years Australia insouth-eastern andthesouth-west historical natural variationshasemerged overthepast a pronounced dryingtrend thatislarge compared with detected likelysignalsofclimatechange.Inparticular, area ofactiveresearch), anumberofrecent studieshave influences on rainfall from natural variations(thisisan Although ithasbeendifficulttodistinguishhuman Figure 4 Source: BoM (2012a) (millimetres per10years), 1970–2011 Australian totalannualrainfall Trends in(a) Australian and(b) South 81 Climate change Adelaide skyline Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara year period from 1997 to 2009, known as the millennium year period from was the driest in the last 110 years of rainfall drought, was unprecedented The millennium drought records. to southern Australia; constrained in that it was largely was an absence of wet months and wet years; and there from decline differed the seasonal pattern of rainfall occurring mainly in with reductions droughts, previous contributed autumn. The change in seasonality of rainfall flow: soils stream in high drop to a disproportionately drier at the start of the run-off more season because were by vegetation and dry soils was taken up winter rain 2011, 2012b). (CSIRO Recent research has also shown that much of the has also shown research Recent in southern South decline since 1970 rainfall observed in atmospheric is linked to changes and Victoria Australia 2010, (CSIRO of the tropics via an expansion circulation part of is a fundamental The Hadley Circulation 2012b). It is the atmospheric circulation the global climate system. the equator. from warm, dry air poleward that transports band of an east–west it creates As this cools and sinks, ridge known as the subtropical high atmospheric pressure (including of both hemispheres over the mid-latitudes for the relative and is responsible southern Australia) aridity at these latitudes. half of the year (November to April), During the warmer continent sits south of the Australian ridge the subtropical It then fronts. rain-bearing and acts to block southern allowing thereby moves north during the cooler months, The southern Australia. to reach autumn and winter rains ridge has been expanding and intensity of the subtropical well and this correlates since 1970, in strength increasing over this time. The 13- with rising global temperatures settled (Darren Ray, Senior Meteorologist/Climatologist, Senior Meteorologist/Climatologist, Ray, settled (Darren Climate Services Centre, Regional South Australian comm., 24 April 2010). pers. of Meteorology, Bureau spring and summer rainfall in Australia. Climate model in Australia. spring and summer rainfall support this weakening over coming decades, forecasts is ongoing and is still not in this area but the research a weakening of the Walker Circulation in the Pacific and in the Pacific Circulation a weakening of the Walker phase of the leading to conditions similar to the El Niño linked to lower Southern Oscillation. El Niño events are There is some evidence to suggest that global warming is There the likelihood of dry states associated with the increasing 2010), by causing Oscillation (CSIRO El Niño–Southern has been decreasing (Abram et al. 2008, Cai et al. 2008, (Abram has been decreasing et al. 2008, BoM 2012c). Ihara spring rainfall over southern Australia. The number of The over southern Australia. spring rainfall since 1950 (reaching been increasing positive events has while the over the past decade), high frequency a record rainfall) number of negative events (bringing increased usual waters in the tropical west,tropical and cooler than normal usual waters in the in the tropical circulation) ocean to altered waters (due in late winter and east. with a reduction This is associated The Indian Ocean Dipole is a measure of differences in in of differences is a measure The Indian Ocean Dipole equatorial of the western and eastern the temperatures event is caused by warmer than Indian Ocean. A ‘positive’ Antarctic, leading to reduced winter rainfall over southern over southern winter rainfall leading to reduced Antarctic, (BoM 2012b). Australia several decades, there has been an increasing tendency tendency an increasing has been there decades, several ‘positive’ phase, with in a to remain for this mode the towards contracted winds remaining the westerly fronts and rainfall to southern Australia. Over the past Over the to southern Australia. rainfall and fronts 82 Climate change not accurately represent regional outcomes. model results, cautionshouldbeexercised, astheymay Institute. Sincetheyare basedonlow-resolution global by theSouthAustralian Research andDevelopment projections. TheestimatesinTable 2 havebeenproduced possibilities isrelatively large compared withtemperature much harder topredict thantemperature, therange of particularly inautumnandwinter. Sincerainfall is in annualrainfall across allregions ofSouthAustralia, vary byregion, butshowthepossibilityofdecreases Estimates forreductions inrainfall forSouthAustralia Commission 2011a). risks toagriculture andurbanwatersupplies(Climate together withhighertemperatures, posessignificant Australia’s dryingtrend islikelytocontinue,andthis, southern Australia sits(CSIRO 2011).Consequently, South will bedecreased rainfall inthemid-latitudes,where all globalclimatemodelsgenerally agree thatthere of confidenceastemperature predictions; however, Rainfall predictions donothaveashighadegree the expansionofHadleyCirculation (CSIRO 2012b). rainfalls continuedtobebelowaverage, consistentwith climate becomesdrier. In2011,lateautumnandwinter Abundant rainfall canstillbeexpectedevenif, overall, the surface temperatures onrecord tothenorthofAustralia. Southern AnnularMode,coupledwiththewarmestsea and wetphasesoftheIndianOceanDipole (the wetphaseoftheElNiño–SouthernOscillation), 2010–11 were brought aboutbyastrong La Niñaevent important ininfluencingstream flow. Record rainfallsin The expansionoftropical influencesonclimatewillbe season rainfall falls. willbeoffsetbyhigherwarm-season It isalsouncertaintowhatextentthereduced cool- eastern Australia maynotbe asreliable inthefuture. season ofwatersupplysystemsacross mostofsouth- planning andmanagementisthatthetraditional filling One oftheimplicationsthesefindingsforwater Table 2 rainfall season. spring andsummer, rather thanthenormalsouthern 2010). Thisrainfall wasunusualbecauseitfellduring Centre, Bureau of Meteorology, pers.comm.,24 April SouthAustralianClimatologist, Regional ClimateServices La Niñaevents(Darren Ray, SeniorMeteorologist/ past twoyears,coincidingwithstrong, record-breaking rainfall fallingacross Australia south-eastern overthe variability, suchasLaNiñaevents,seenwithrecord may particularlyoccurduringwetterphasesofnatural and warmeroceansaround Australia (CSIRO 2011).This rainfall events,drivenbyawarmer, wetteratmosphere increase infloodriskduetoanincrease inextreme Despite adeclineinaverage rainfall, there maybean Source: Note: management region South Australian natural resource South East SA Murray–Darling Basin SA AridLands Northern andYorke Kangaroo Island Eyre Peninsula Alinytjara Wilurara Adelaide andMountLofty Ranges the lowandhighemissionsscenarios. future emissionsandtherefore showlittleornodifference under results. Notealsothatthe2030estimatesare largely insensitiveto emissions scenario. Seethesource document forthefullrange of the 50thpercentile andrange from alowemissionstohigh SARDI (2010) These rainfall reduction ranges are abestestimatebasedon Best estimateoftherange of emissions scenario (relative to1990)foralow–high additional rainfall reductions 3.5–4 2030 (%) 3–4 3.5 3.5 4.5 3 3 3

7.5–15 7.5–15 2070 (%) 8–15 8–10 7–30 8–15 8–15 8–15

83 Climate change and reductions in numbers of regional species, including in numbers of regional and reductions the giant cuttlefish, seem to be in the short term algal excessive levels from connected to low oxygen and could blooms caused by high sea water temperature, in the long term to climate change drivers. be related draw more insufficient data at this time to are There definite conclusions about the causes. habitat disruption. The leafy sea dragon, South Australia’s South Australia’s habitat disruption. The leafy sea dragon, storm events marine emblem, is likely to suffer from caused by ocean warming, and habitat degradation Pecl 2011, acidification and sea level rise (NCCARF et al. 2011). 10 most valuable A risk assessment of South Australia’s species has indicated that wild fishery and aquaculture blacklip and greenlip lobster, rock 4 of these (southern whiting) at high risk from abalone, and King George are Australian potential climate change impacts. The South zones of upwelling. coastline has two gulfs, which are the deep ocean to Upwelling brings nutrients from food for marine ecosystems. shallower waters, providing environment Effects of climate change on the marine and intensity of may lead to changes in the frequency upwelling events, potentially affecting food availability for southern bluefin tuna and the abundance of sardines. such as overfishing, pollution, habitat Other stressors, from the threat likely to exacerbate loss and disease, are sea water et al. 2011). Increased climate change (Pecl competition from expected to increase are temperatures marine pests to the detriment of native species. evidence of deaths of fish and marine mammals, Recent Projected climate change impacts on South Australia’s on South Australia’s change impacts climate Projected to be large likely are marine environments highly diverse inverse estuaries (where Seamounts and and negative. as the open ocean, such saline than is more the water Gulf)the Spencer waters to corrosive could be subjected many of the occurrence or reduce that will preclude such as molluscs, and the larval stages species, calcareous in ocean temperature Increases species. of all commercial species of kelp to of several causing the range are species and in some cases these southwards, contract coastal waters close to from disappearing altogether are impact of ocean warming and Adelaide. The combined The to be profound. is predicted acidification on kelp of high marine and Bight is a region Australian Great by and many species will be affected coastal biodiversity, increased and weakening of ocean currents the projected sea lion, The endemic Australian ocean temperatures. in South Australia, 80% of the population of which occurs climate that is at high risk from animal is a non-migratory and food availability of reduced change as a result and risk of disease, due to rising temperatures increased released by human released 2 Impacts on oceans and marine Impacts on oceans ecosystems climate change climate Observed and projected impacts of impacts and projected Observed are absorbed by the Southern Ocean. The Southern are 2 specialised environments, and the impacts of climate specialised environments, change will differ among them (Hobday et al. 2008). circulation), altered river run-off into the coastal altered circulation), events (such in extreme and an increase environment will significantly affect marine life. as floods and storms) is diverse, with many marine environment Australia’s and still largely unknown. In addition to altered ocean unknown. In addition to altered and still largely winds and chemistry, rainfall, currents, temperature, by the ocean changes in the nutrient supply (provided Climate change represents a significant risk to the Climate change represents sustainability of ecosystems, fisheries and aquaculture complex potential impacts are however, in Australia; is warming, and becoming less saline and more acidic,is warming, and becoming less saline and more 2011). CRC changing (ACE are while ocean currents CO Ocean also influences weather patterns over southern Observations indicate that the Southern Ocean Australia. system and carbon cycle, because of the unique ocean system and carbon cycle, because of the of heat and about amounts Vast in this region. currents anthropogenic 40% of the total global ocean uptake of and winds. Ocean currents are a key component in the a key are and winds. Ocean currents 2011). The the planet (CSIRO distribution of heat around in the global climate Southern Ocean plays a critical role Ocean currents are changing as a result of altered of altered changing as a result are Ocean currents evaporation, to increased patterns of salinity (related ocean temperature ice melt and changing rainfall), that form carbonate shells, such as corals and plankton. that form carbonate shells, such as corals the marine food a critical part of are These organisms 2011). chain (CSIRO also absorbed about 30% of the CO Further their acidity. activities during this time, increasing organisms effects on acidification could have profound (ACE CRC 2011). The increasing heat content of the oceans heat content of the The increasing 2011). CRC (ACE evidence further measurable and sea level rise provide 2011). Oceans have of the warming of the planet (CSIRO atmosphere. More than 90% of the extra heat energy heat energy than 90% of the extra More atmosphere. over the past 50 years has been by the planet stored expand and rise absorbed in the ocean, causing them to 2.5.1 of warming in the oceans slow the rate The world’s and impacts on infrastructure and water supplies will and water supplies and impacts on infrastructure increase. We are already seeing changes in both marine and changes in both seeing already are We are climate change. We ecosystems due to terrestrial and health, in human agriculture starting to see impacts 2.5 84 Climate change extinctions thiscenturyandbeyond(Steffen etal.2009). events, withahighriskofanaccelerating waveof pose athreat akintopastgeologicalmass-extinction Both themagnitudeandrate offuture climatechange mining (Steffen et al.2009). fertiliser andchemicaluse,urbanisation,agriculture and highly modifiedandovercommitted water resources, biodiversity from vegetationclearing,introduced species, 2010). Climatechangeisexacerbating existingthreats to flora suchas theSouth(TREND Australian donkey orchid regimes insouthernAustralia andtheearlierfloweringof species tohigheraltitudesorlatitudes,changingfire warming. Examples includethemigration ofseveral bird are already underwaywithonlyamodestamountof and globalobservationsshowthatsignificantimpacts dynamics (Climate Commission2011b). Australian species ranges, timingofbiologicaleventsandecosystem warming Earth,withobservedchangesingenepools, Ecosystems are responding inaconsistentwayto disturbance ofpredator–prey relationships. 2010). Indirect effectsfrom climatechangealsoinclude ecological communitiesandecosystems(Hugheset al. changes inthestructure andcompositionofmany responses byspeciestoclimatechangewillresult in severity ofextreme events(Steffen etal.2009).Different of precipitation, andchangesinthefrequency and species through increasing temperatures, altered patterns and decomposition.Indirectly, climatechangeactson as photosynthesis,plantgrowth, water-use efficiency can directly affectimportantphysiologicalprocesses, such on species.Increasing atmosphericCO Climate changewillhavebothdirect andindirect impacts infrastructure from stormsurges (Hughesetal.2010). sectors, suchascoastalwetlandsthatprotect human ecosystems isimportanttoassistadaptationinother and ethicalvalues.Maintainingbiodiversityhealthy 2009). Terrestrial heritage biodiversityalsohasintrinsic, resources formedicines,food,fibre andfuel(Steffen etal. pest control andpollinationservices,aswellgenetic water quality, climateregulation, erosion control, and It provides uswithfresh water, regulation ofairand system. Biodiversity isacriticalpartofourlife-support diversity, withmanyspeciesuniquetothecontinent. Australia andSouthAustralia bothhaverichspecies 2.5.2 Impacts onterrestrial plants andanimals 2 concentrations the 2009event—with four consecutivedaysover43 °C, heatwave (BoM2009,DCCEE 2012a).Theintensityof night inJanuary2009duringanotherexceptional temperatures andrecorded above35 °C, itshottest for anAustralian city, with15 consecutivedaysof 2011b). InMarch 2008,Adelaide setaheatwaverecord significantly overthepastdecade (Climate Commission high temperature extremes inAustralia hasincreased intensity ofextreme weatherevents.Thenumberof disproportionately large increase inthefrequency and Average temperature increases of1–2 °C canleadtoa (CSIRO 2011). through social,economicanddemographic disruptions through impactsonnatural systemsonwhichwerely and floods andstorms.Indirectly, itaffectshumanhealth a riseinextreme eventssuchasheatwaves,bushfires, Climate changeaffectshumanhealthdirectly through 2.5.3 • • • • Infrastructure impactsare predicted toinclude: level rise(CSIRO 2011). regimes, altered groundwater andsoilconditions,sea is atriskfrom highertemperatures, changedrainfall such asbushfire, stormsandfloods,builtinfrastructure In additiontothepotentialdamagefrom extreme events infrastructure (Climate Commission2011a). fatalities, injuriesandburns,lossofbuildings bushfire frequency andintensity, resulting inhuman days anddrierconditionsinSouthAustralia increases The combinationofagreater numberofextremely hot infection (DoctorsfortheEnvironment Australia 2011). such asdenguefever, malariaandRoss Rivervirus by thespread infectiousdiseases ofmosquito-borne Human healthispredicted tobeadverselyaffected heart disease(Nitschkeetal.2011). a steepincrease inmortalityfrom bothrenal andischemic accompanied byunusuallyhotnights—has beenlinkedto flooding andbushfires piping causedbyhighertemperatures, increased damage tobuildingfoundations andgaswater degradation ofroad andbuildingmaterials, and intense andfrequent storm surges stormwater infrastructure androads, duetomore and damagetocoastalinfrastructure, including exacerbated coastal erosion, coastalinundation hail intensityduringstorms structural damage duetoincreased windspeedand the capacityofstormwateranddrainage infrastructure increased floodingdueto rainfall eventsthatexceed infrastructure, agriculture andforestry Impacts onhumanhealth, 85 Climate change Angus Kennedy $27 billion have been identified as at risk of inundation as at risk of inundation have been identified $27 billion 2009). (DCCEE and more rainfall reduced temperatures, Increased to expected events are weather extreme frequent Australia. in South production and livestock crop reduce have regions agricultural South Australia’s Since 1997, season rainfall. decline in growing experienced a marked risk at greater are and plantation industries Forestry 2012a). Viticulture 2011, DCCEE (CSIRO bushfire from change on a number of fronts, is sensitive to climate extreme mean temperature, including changes in quality and quantity of the rainfall, temperatures, and the atmospheric water available for irrigation, et al. gases (Hayman of greenhouse concentrations 2009). are of evaporation and higher rates rainfall Reduced reliability of South the reduce expected to significantly in less water being resulting water supply, Australia’s industry available for irrigation, domestic use and (CSIRO 2011). Moon over eroded mesas near the Painted Hills, Woomera Prohibited Area Prohibited Hills, Woomera mesas near the Painted Moon over eroded rail buckling and signal failure, and road fatigue, due fatigue, due road and signal failure, buckling and rail temperatures to increased in electricity demand surges from power disruptions (Engineers heatwaves frequent more caused by 2010). Australia up to 43 000 residential buildings, with a value of up to 43 000 residential at buildings valued and 1500 commercial $7.4 billion, Coastal environments such as beaches, estuaries, Coastal environments at risk of salinisation islands are wetlands and low-lying In South Australia, and inundation in the coming decades. climate change) will also contribute to extreme short- also contribute to extreme climate change) will events, which may become term coastal inundation in many coastal places. and frequent severe increasingly roads and railways. Mean sea level rise may lead to Mean sea level rise may and railways. roads Sea areas. inundation of low-lying eventual permanent of storminess as a result with more level rise (combined sea level rise presents a widespread risk of inundation a widespread sea level rise presents residential housing, stock of and damage to a significant such as ports, buildings and infrastructure, commercial With most of Australia’s settlements in the coastal region, coastal region, settlements in the With most of Australia’s • • 86 Climate change Figure 5 Source: CO come primarilyfrom theburningoffossilfuels(coal, oil Emissions ofgreenhouse gasesfrom humansources produce approximately 83%ofglobalemissions(Table 3). greenhouse gasemissions:the25largest emitters small numberofcountriesproduce themajorityof the largest increases Arelatively comingafter1945. steeply sincethestartofindustrialrevolution, with Global emissionsofgreenhouse gaseshaverisen 3.1 economic output. head ofpopulationandgreenhouse gasesperunitof sources ofgreenhouse gases,greenhouse gasesper greenhouse gases.Pressure indicatorstherefore include The keypressure inclimatechangeistheemissionof 3 2 -e =carbon dioxide-e equivalent;Mt =milliontonne What are thepressures? Sources ofglobalandAustralian greenhouse gasemissions Baumert etal.(2005) Global comparisonofoverall andper-person emissionsofgreenhouse gases,2005 emissions percapitaare the7thhighestinworld, 1.5% tototalemissions(Figure 5; Table 3). Australia’s world basedontotalemissionsin2005andcontributing 25 greenhouse gasemittingnations,ranked 15thinthe Significantly, Australia isoneofthetop(highest) 2009), andagriculture contributesasimilarproportion. account for15%ofglobalemissions(van derWerf etal. 2000 (Baumertetal.2005).Deforestation isestimatedto accounted forapproximately 60%ofglobalemissionsin generation andtransportation. Energy-related emissions and gas) tocreate energy forelectricityproduction, heat emissions (Garnaut 2008). generating electricityisakeycauseofourhighper-capita with otherOECDnations,Australia’s reliance oncoalfor and Development(OECD) (Garnaut 2008).Compared highest intheOrganisation forEconomicCo-operation higher thananyofthetop25 emittingnationsand 87 Climate change

7 9 30 49 55 41 45 51 79 16 48 88 58 82 42 21 40 86 28 10 39 76 61 O), O), 148 120 Rank 2 emissions) (per-capita (per-capita may cause,

-e) 2 9 ), nitrous oxide (N oxide ), nitrous 4 23 greenhouse gas greenhouse 9.7 8.7 5.7 9.8 5.3 8.5 5.6 1.7 5.4 5.9 2.5 8.1 11.8 27.5 10.5 10.1 15.6 23.3 10.2 13.5 10.6 11.9 10.7 emissions emissions Per capita Per (t of CO , methane (CH 2 100 76.7 79.1 83.0 50.8 a given type and amount of Cumulative % Cumulative 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 5.1 4.9 3.6 2.7 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.5 17.0 19.2 18.3 13.4 total global warming % of world % of world ). 6 as the reference. Gases include CO as the reference. 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ) 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 10 11 12 13 Rank (total 26–186 emissions) -e) cait.wri.org/cait.php?page=yearly&mode=view&sort=val-desc&pHints=shut&url=form&year=2005§or=natl 2 422.6 390.6 375.3 372.2 351.1 328.4 977.5 741.8 642.2 631.0 576.5 568.1 567.8 565.6 560.6 550.3 493.6 436.7 6 435.1 7 242.1 6 900.9 5 046.7 1 939.6 1 865.0 1 349.2 1 010.5 31 361.4 37 796.5 (Mt of CO of (Mt Total emissions emissions Total a a

Top 25 greenhouse gas emitting nations (excluding land use change), 2005 land use (excluding emitting nations gas 25 greenhouse Top -e is ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’, which is a measure of how much which is a measure equivalent’, dioxide -e is ‘carbon a 2 a a Excludes bunker fuels (fuels in tanks of marine and air vessels in international transport) and land-use change emissions. ‘Land-use change’ refers to and land-use change emissions. ‘Land-use change’ refers bunker fuels (fuels in tanks of marine and air vessels in international transport) Excludes Institute Resources the World modelling, and global emissions data from Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water South Australian perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride (SF and sulfur hexafluoride hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (http:// Climate Analysis Indicators Tool &co2=1&ch4=1&n2o=1&pfc=1&hfc=1&sf6=1&update=Update the emissions and removals of greenhouse gases from human land use, land-use change and forestry activities. human land use, land-use change and forestry gases from of greenhouse the emissions and removals of CO using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration a a European Union includes 27 countries; those in the top 25 are also listed separately. The inclusion of the European Union places Australia 16th in the table. Union places Australia The inclusion of the European also listed separately. Union includes 27 countries; those in the top 25 are European Countries ranked 26th Countries ranked to 186th world emissions Total Thailand Argentina 25 Top Turkey Saudi Arabia Poland Ukraine Spain South Africa Italy Australia France Iran (South) Korea United Kingdom Mexico Indonesia Brazil Germany Canada Russian Federation Russian India Japan United States United States of America Union (27) European China Country CO Sources: a Note: Table 3 88 Climate change Sources: CO2-e =carbondioxide equivalent;LULUCF =landuse,land-usechangeandforestry; Mt =milliontonne;nanotavailable Table 4 combustion offuelsonsite(such asgasanddieselto emissions from thegeneration ofelectricity, thedirect 2010 (Figure 6). Emissionsfrom theenergy sectorinclude emissions, contributing73%ofthetotalinventoryin The energy sectoristhedominantsource ofstate increased by4%between1990and2010(Table 4). Excluding LULUCF, totalSouthAustralian emissions overall netemissionsfellby6%,from 32.2 Mt to30.4 Mt. reduced deforestation andincreased forestry plantings), source in1990buta1.4 Mt sinkin2010, asaresult of over thisperiodisincluded(thesectorwasa1.5 Mt as thereference. Ifthereduction inLULUCF emissions functionally equivalentamountorconcentration ofCO type andamountof (CO reforestation anddeforestation activities). CO change andforestry [LULUCF] sector—afforestation, (including netemissionsfrom thelanduse,land-use in 2010, at30.4 million tonnes(Mt) ofCO South Australia contributed 5% ofAustralian emissions 3.2

LULUCF Total including LULUCF Total excluding LULUCF Waste Agriculture processes Industrial imports Net electricity Energy 2 -e) isameasure-e) ofhowmuch Sources ofSouthAustralian greenhouse gasemissions Resources modelling Australian GovernmentDepartmentofClimate ChangeandEnergy Efficiency, andSouth Australian DepartmentofEnvironment, WaterandNatural South Australian greenhouse gasemissions greenhouse gas 1990 20.7 32.2 30.7 5.5 2.7 0.6 1.5 1.2 global warming 2000 33.5 35.6 –2.1 21.7 maycause,usingthe 5.6 3.1 4.5 0.7 2 equivalents Emissions (Mt ofCO 2 equivalent 2007 34.1 23.6 0.7 5.1 3.3 1.4 agiven na 2

2008 32.1 33.4 –1.3 24.1 emissions in2010. Transport emissionsgrew by0.5 Mt Transport wasthesource of19%thestate’s total 24% (AEMO 2012). electricity generation, withgascontributing50%andcoal fossilfuelsprovided2011a). In2011–12, justunder75%of of coalannuallyfrom theLeigh Creek coalmine(AEMO at Port Theseconsumeapproximately Augusta. 3.8 Mt Power Station andPlayford BPower Station, bothlocated South Australia hastwocoal-fired generators: Northern sectors hascontinuedtogrow. consumption inthecommercial, industrialandresidential in thepastfewyears.However, theunderlyingelectricity generation withemissionsdecliningslightly isevident, The impactoftherecent increase inrenewable energy between 1990and2010, withemissionspeakingin2000. generation contributedtoa2.6 Mtincrease inemissions 10% between1990and2010(Table 3.5).Electricity sector emissions(excluding theland-usesector)rose transport andinterconnector emissions.Total energy produce stationaryenergy), thecombustionoffuelfor steady overthisperiod(DCCEE 2012b). emissions, whilepassengerroad emissionsremained (8%) from 1990to2010, causedbyincreasing road freight 0.8 4.9 3.2 0.4 2 -e) 2009 30.0 31.4 –1.4 22.3 0.8 4.8 2.8 0.7 2010 30.4 31.8 –1.4 22.1 0.8 4.7 3.1 1.1 Change from 1990to –1.8 –2.9 –0.4 –0.8 Mt 1.1 0.4 0.5 1.4 2010 –193 –33 –15 % –6 15 83 4 7 89 Climate change a a 8 37 15 10 % change 9.7 5.4 5.9 2.2 2010 23.2 e) 2- 9.7 5.5 5.8 2.0 23.0 2009 9.8 5.5 5.9 3.3 emissions per capita South Australian greenhouse gas greenhouse South Australian 24.5 2008 Emissions (Mt of CO (Mt Emissions highlights the growth in residential emissions beyond in residential highlights the growth in of the increase what would be expected as a result share emissions took up a larger population. Residential The South in 2010 than in 1990. emissions of the state’s by 15% over this period, while population grew Australian 33% increased electricity residential emissions from (Table 6). 3.3 emissions trended Australian basis, South On a per-capita back to 1990 but then declined to peak in 2000, upwards They have fallen below 1990 levels levels by 2007–08. years, primarily under the influence of in the past three in the energy of renewable in the generation increases with the Australian state (Table 7). This can be contrasted after following a in the past few years, where, trend at 1990 emissions per capita were trend, similar upward emissions were per-capita South Australian levels in 2010. lower than the national figures substantially (8–22%) the period 1990–2010. throughout Analysis of emissions on an economic sector basis Analysis of emissions on an economic sector 5.2 5.8 3.2 2007 10.7 25.0 4.8 5.8 4.2 26.2 11.4 2000 7.1 4.8 5.4 4.0 1990 21.3 emissions by sector (excluding emissions by sector (excluding land use, land-use change and forestry), 2010 South Australia’s greenhouse gas greenhouse South Australia’s South Australian energy sector emissions sector energy South Australian a Australian Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, and South Australian Department of Environment, Water and Natural Water and Natural Department of Environment, Australian and South Efficiency, Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Australian Australian Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Australian Efficiency, and South Australian Department of Environment, Water Department of Environment, Australian and South Efficiency, modelling Resources and Natural Resources modelling Resources -e = carbon dioxide equivalent; Mt = million tonne Mt -e equivalent; carbon dioxide = 2 Because of a change in the calculation methodology for fugitive emissions (unintended emissions related to the production, storage, transmission and transmission storage, to the production, emissions related calculation methodology for fugitive emissions (unintended Because of a change in the distribution of fossil fuels) by the Australian Government Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, the 1990 reported figure may be an reported figure the 1990 Efficiency, Government Department of Climate Change and Energy by the Australian distribution of fossil fuels) overestimate. Fugitive Total Other stationary energy Transport Electricity (including Electricity (including interconnector) Sources: CO a Figure 6 Sources: Table 5 90 Climate change Sources: Australian Government DepartmentofClimateChangeandEnergy Efficiency, Australian Bureau of Statistics (cataloguenumber3101.0)andSouth CO Table 8 Table 7 Sources: CO Table 6 the loweremissionsserviceindustriesandimproved economy hasbeenattributedtoastrong growth in in thegreenhouse gasintensityoftheAustralian product—since 1990(Table 3.8).Thesimilarreduction tonnes ofCO intensity oftheSouthAustralian economy—that is,the There hasbeena42%reduction inthegreenhouse gas 3.4 Sources: CO (tonnes ofCO Australian emissionspercapitaincludingLULUCF (tonnes ofCO SA emissionspercapitaincludingLULUCF SA population LULUCF (tonnesofCO Australian emissionsper$millionGDPincluding (tonnes ofCO SA emissionsper$millionGSPincludingLULUCF SA GSP($million) Population (Mt ofCO emissions electricity Residential 2 2 2 -e =carbondioxide-e equivalent;LULUCF =landuse,land-usechangeandforestry -e =carbondioxide-e equivalent;Mt =milliontonne -e =carbondioxide-e equivalent;GDP= gross domesticproduct; GSP=gross stateproduct; LULUCF = land use,land-usechangeandforestry South Australian greenhouse gas emissions pergross stateproduct Australian DepartmentofEnvironment,Water andNatural Resources modelling Environment, Water andNatural Resources modelling Australian Departmentof Environment,Water andNatural Resources modelling Australian GovernmentDepartmentofClimateChangeandEnergy Efficiency, Australian Bureau of Statistics.andSouth Australian Departmentof Australian GovernmentDepartmentofClimate ChangeandEnergy Efficiency, Australian Bureau of Statistics (cataloguenumber5220.0) andSouth 2 -e)

2 -e produced-e permilliondollars of gross state 2 2 2 South Australian emissionspermilliondollars ofgross stateproduct and Australian South Australian andAustralian emissionspercapita Residential electricityemissionsandpopulation emissions permilliondollarsofgross domesticproduct -e/person) -e/person) -e) 1 438 882 2 -e) 2353 1990 1 508 028 3606 2000 1 593 743 3392 2007 52 043 1990 1990 1 438 882 797 619 32.0 22.4 economies (Commonwealth ofAustralia 2008). growth inmanufacturingproductivity ofdeveloping manufacturing hasbeenindecline,parallel withthe energy efficiency(ABS2010).Inaddition, Australian 1 613 346 3154 2008 81 942 2008 467 391 2008 1 613 346 1 634 468 26.8 19.9 83 231 3080 2009 2009 454 361 2009 1 634 468 1 649 947 84 269 2010 3137 2010 25.9 18.4 434 360 % change % change 2010 1 649 947 –46% –42% 33% 15% 25.0 18.4 91 Climate change Australia Emissions reduction in South Emissions reduction greenhouse gas emissions in the state and to facilitate greenhouse the Australian community access to funding from increasingly is, however, Government. South Australia mitigation to from moving the focus pragmatically are Australia and Australia adaptation, as efforts in South modest in a global context. 4.2 key existing emissions reduction South Australia’s Given the rapidly in Table 9. summarised initiatives are climate change policy in Australia, of evolving nature reviewing Government is currently the South Australian a fit to ensure its climate change policies and strategies is also working with the national agenda. South Australia to reducing barriers policy and regulatory to remove (Australian (Australian Securing a clean energy future Securing a clean energy Emissions reduction in Australia Emissions reduction What are we doing about it? we doing about What are be supported by the three other elements of the plan: be supported by the three efficiency and land- energy energy, investing in renewable 2011). (DCCEE based carbon sequestration carbon markets from the start of the flexible price carbon markets from businesses to purchase period, allowing liable Australian overseas. The carbon price will emissions reductions price, commencing with a fixed price from July 2012 and price from price, commencing with a fixed scheme in July 2015. The moving to an emissions trading carbon price mechanism will be linked to international Government 2012) in July 2011. The key element of the Government 2012) in July 2011. The key in the legislative package, passed Future Clean Energy of a carbon Senate in November 2011, is the introduction Since electricity generation is Australia’s largest source of source largest is Australia’s Since electricity generation Government introduced carbon pollution, the Australian its plan for cuts. Emissions are expected to be around 22% higher expected to be around cuts. Emissions are intervention than 2000 levels by 2020 without further 2011). (DCCEE climate change policies, such as the Renewable Energy Energy climate change policies, such as the Renewable Initiative 2012c) and the Carbon Farming (DCCEE Target inadequate to achieve these emissions 2012d), are (DCCEE extent of international action) below 2000 levels by 2020. below 2000 levels by 2020. extent of international action) of 80% target It has also committed to a longer term Existing Australian on 2000 levels by 2050. reductions emissions reduction targets to the international climate to the international targets emissions reduction has now committed to domestic negotiations. Australia on the or 25% (depending of 5–15% emissions reductions 4.1 Government has submitted its official The Australian are also preparing for inevitable climate change by also preparing are with change. to cope and programs developing guidelines The Australian and South Australian Governments are are Governments and South Australian The Australian the level to reduce and programs developing policies emissions. Governments reducing of climate change by 4 92 Climate change Table 9 Initiative Act 2008 Solar Systems) Amendment Electricity (Feed-in Scheme— South Australia A renewable energy planfor 2007–2020 Greenhouse Strategy — SouthAustralia’s Tackling climatechange Reduction Act 2007 Greenhouse Emissions Climate Changeand South Australia’s keycurrent emissionsreduction initiatives (2011) Purpose back intothegrid the provision ofatariffforelectricityfed systemsthrough top solarphotovoltaic(PV) To encourage theuptakeofresidential roof- South Australia’s Strategic Plan renewable energy by2020containedin in achievingthestate’s target of33% Outlines therole ofthestate government buildings andnatural resources) industry, energy, transport andplanning, and actionsgrouped bysector (community, coordinated way. Listsobjectives,strategies targets andcommitments inaplannedand Australia’s greenhouse gasemissions Provides aframework formeetingSouth adaptation energy, andsupportmeasures tofacilitate and thecommercialisation ofrenewable emissions, encourage energy efficiency and programs toreduce greenhouse gas commitment tothedevelopmentofpolicies 2014. TheActrequires astategovernment of electricitygenerated andconsumedby renewable electricitytargets ofatleast20% state of60%below1990levelsby2050,and long-term emissionsreduction target for the use ofrenewable energy. TheActincludesa greenhouse gasemissionsandincrease the encourage andsupportactiontoreduce To establishvoluntarymechanismsto Impact andprogress of theactionscurrently inthestrategy are Given thechangeinnationalpolicy, many industrial processes are alsogrowth areas industrial sectors.Road freight transport and of theresidential, commercial buildingand growth trends remain intheenergy emissions the growth inenergy-sector emissions.Strong years aheadofschedule,andthishasslowed electricity targets havebeenachievedthree emissions increased by4%.Therenewable sector (see Section 3.2).Excluding LULUCF, mainly duetothecontributionofLULUCF greenhouse gasemissionsdecreased by6%, Between 1990and2010,SouthAustralia’s net and Energy, pers.comm.,8 March 2012) Manufacturing, Innovation,Trade, Resources capacity (SouthAustralian Departmentfor the state’s installedelectricity generation February 2012,PVsystemsmadeup3%of approval toconnectsolar panels.Asat households havenowinstalledorreceived More than100 000South Australian Plan released late2011 undergoing review 93 Climate change -e of potential future -e of potential future 2 -e of lifetime energy-related greenhouse greenhouse -e of lifetime energy-related 2 These initiatives are of a transformative nature nature of a transformative These initiatives are and have the potential to substantially lower emissions in the longer term Targets for energy efficiency activities to efficiency for energy Targets have been gas emissions greenhouse reduce for the met in aggregate set. were All targets (2009–11), with first stage of the scheme 657 011 tonnes of CO gas reduction greenhouse energy-related activities (ESCOSA over the lifetime of the of the scheme 2012). The second stage of of 1 million tonnes (2012–14) has a target CO gas reduction. However, there is no there However, gas reduction. to undertake the obligation for householders recommended activities Impact and progress Impact and and the Electricity Act 1996 Electricity Act greenhouse gas emissions within the gas emissions within greenhouse sector residential for likely energy help households prepare carbon from resulting price increases pricing cost for households, energy total reduce households particularly low-income improve energy efficiency and reduce efficiency and energy improve • • Establishes obligations on energy retailers retailers obligations on energy Establishes to provide customers) more 5000 or (with energy- audits and recommend energy Australian to South efficiency activities consumption. energy households to reduce Regulations through REES is given effect made under the 1997. Gas Act to: REES are The objectives of the • Purpose continued -e = carbon dioxide equivalent; LULUCF = land use, land-use change and forestry -e equivalent; LULUCF = carbon dioxide 2 Roofs, and Mini Wind Roofs, Trial Turbine and Climate Smart Building Precincts, Cool Innovation Fund, Various programs, programs, Various including the Low Strategy, Emission Vehicle Sustainable Development Residential Energy Energy Residential Scheme (REES) Efficiency Initiative CO Table 9 94 Climate change Table 10 capacity reached 1203 megawattsfrom 15 windfarms ahead ofthe2014target schedule.Windgeneration state’s generation (Table 10; Figure 7), three years In 2010–11,renewable electricityprovided 22%ofthe generated andconsumedinthestateby2014. and consumedtocompriseatleast20%ofelectricity Act 2007 The to increase renewable energy generation inthestate. Australia’s greenhouse gasemissionshasbeenthedrive To date,themosteffectiveinitiativeto reduce South Year % Climate ChangeandGreenhouse EmissionsReduction 2000–01 has atarget forrenewable electricitygenerated 0.7 Renewable electricityasapercentage oftotalSouthAustralian generation 2001–02 0.6 2002–03 0.7 2003–04 1.8 2004–05 4.0 Department ofManufacturing, Innovation,Trade, Resources andEnergy (DMITRE) 2005–06 Australia 2011a). investment clarityandcertainty(Government ofSouth tailor regulatory frameworks appropriately andprovide but tothedeliberate actionsofthestategovernmentto renewableattributable notonlytoworld-class resources, (AEMO 2012).SouthAustralia’s successinthisarea is to havecomefrom roof-top solarphotovoltaicsystems wind reached 26%ofgeneration, isestimated and2.4% pers. comm.,8 March 2012).For electricityfrom 2011–12, Manufacturing, Innovation,Trade, Resources andEnergy, by theendof2011(SouthAustralian Departmentfor 7.7 2006–07 7.4 2007–08 9.7 Solar installation,AdelaideShowground 2008–09 14.8 2009–10 18.8 2010–11 22.0 95 Climate change -e/MWh) 2 -e/MWh in 2010 if -e/MWh 2 -e/MWh, including -e/MWh, 2 (Government of South (Government e per megawatt hour (CO ‑ 2 leading by example to establish an environment that environment to establish an example leading by renewable energy confidence in builds investor to benefit from to position the state acting early to to better respond national policies and imminent 2011a). of South Australia (Government cost impacts Innovation, Trade, Resources and Energy, pers. comm., and Energy, Resources Innovation, Trade, 2012). 10 March Plan Strategic South Australia’s to limit the carbon a target contains 2011b), Australia electricity generation intensity of total South Australian of CO to 0.5 tonnes electricity emissions current South Australia’s by 2020. of CO intensity factor is 0.65 tonnes and imported electricity generation both South Australian of CO (Table 11). This falls to 0.6 tonnes included. are grid generators only South Australian • • in sites exist high-quality wind resource Many more developed. A number of addition to those already have been publicly announced, further wind projects yet under construction or are although none of these Significant 2011b). (AEMO committed to construction have been identified in prospects potential geothermal 2011a), and the state government (AEMO South Australia exploration geothermal research, continues to support of the most Three projects. and proof-of-concept located are projects geothermal advanced Australian in the Cooper Basin, the northern in South Australia: sites are and the Otway Basin. These plants to pilot electricity to supply energy projected Geologist,within 2–5 years (Betina Bendall, Principal Department for Manufacturing, South Australian has since Climate Change A renewable energy energy A renewable . This outlines the critical role of . This outlines the critical role percentage of total South Australian of total South Australian percentage generation Renewable electricity as a Renewable South Australian Department of Environment, Water and Natural and Natural Department of Environment, Water South Australian Resources; Australian Energy Market Operator (South Australian (South Australian Market Operator Energy Australian Resources; Planning Supply and Demand Outlook), Electricity Supply Industry statistics Utilities (solar ETSA planning reports), Council (annual Government Department of for 2009–10), former Australian statistics from Heritage and the Arts (solar Environment, Water, the Solar Homes and Communities Program) provision of efficient regulation and a competitive of efficient provision government fee-charging regime by created market failures intervention to address regional circumstances specific dissemination of detailed, timely and commercially dissemination of detailed, timely and commercially that the investment information to ensure relevant market is fully informed of opportunities within the state • • principal roles for the South Australian Government are: Government for the South Australian principal roles • South Australia in providing complementary policy to complementary policy in providing South Australia energy renewable Government’s support the Australian the and policies. Specifically, investment programs achieve the 33% renewable energy target and outlined target energy achieve the 33% renewable document its plan in the strategy plan for South Australia 2020. Government recognised In 2011, the South Australian the need for continued state government intervention to Australia 2011b). The Strategic Plan sets a further target sets a further target Plan Strategic The 2011b). Australia so that energy to support the development of renewable by electricity generation it comprises 33% of the state’s and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 Act Emissions Reduction and Greenhouse under this legislation and is reflected been strengthened of South (Government Plan Strategic in South Australia’s The 20% target established under the The 20% target Figure 7 Sources: 96 Climate change and expertiseinwatermanagement technologies,which a comprehensive andintegrated water planningsystem climate change.For example, SouthAustralia already has Work isalsotakingplaceinparticularsectorsaffectedby natural andhumansystems(DEWNR2012). research projects are informingadaptation responses for impacts andcommunityhealthimpacts.Awiderange of natural resource managementimpacts,primaryindustry begin toaddress sealevelrise,sustainablewatersupplies, This includesthedevelopmentofpoliciesandplansthat localgovernment andregionala stategovernment, level. adaptation activityisunderwayacross SouthAustralia at at regional, sectoral andstatewidelevels.Arange of the developmentofmore detailedadaptivestrategies business andthecommunity. Italsoaims tofacilitate non-governmentorganisations,local government, the impactsofclimatechangebygovernmentagencies, The framework aimstoguideactioninpreparing for of SouthAustralia 2010)waslaunchedinAugust 2012. adaptation framework forSouthAustralia Prospering inachangingclimate—a climatechange of climatechangethrough planninganddevelopment. change, SouthAustralia alsoaimstomitigatetheimpacts Along withreducing emissionstolimitthelevelofclimate 4.3 (Government ofSouthAustralia 2011c). conditioners andresidential waterheaterrequirements requirements fornewhomes,managingenergy useofair- 6-star energyEfficiency Scheme (Table 6), efficiency number ofstateprograms, suchastheResidential Energy 15% by2020(compared with2003–04).Thisisthrough a target toimprove theenergy efficiencyofdwellingsby Australia 2011b), containsaresidential energy efficiency South Australia’s Strategic Plan Source: CO Table 11 MWh) (tonnes CO grid generators South Australian CO imports (tonnes grid including South Australian 2 -e =carbondioxide-e equivalent;MWh =megawatt–hours 2 -e/MWh) Adapting toclimatechange emissions factors Australian GovernmentDepartmentofClimateChangeandEnergy (July2012), Efficiency, Table 40:Scope 2 National Greenhouse Accounts Factors 2 -e/ South Australian electricityemissionsfactors 0.78 0.81 1990 (Government ofSouth 0.87 1995 2000 0.92 (Government 0.78 0.89 2005 0.75 0.87 2006 to increasing communityawareness, preparedness and an Extreme HeatPlan toensure acoordinated approach Australian Governmentdepartmentshavedeveloped South Australian State Emergency ServiceandkeySouth will formthebasisforadaptationinwatersector. The response toextreme heatevents(SASES2010). 0.73 0.83 2007 0.66 0.77 2008 0.65 0.72 2009 0.60 0.67 2010 Latest estimate 0.56 0.65 97 Climate change Reducing emissions Reducing If South Australia is to play its part in the timely reduction is to play its part in the timely reduction If South Australia coordinated of global emissions, only a government-wide, to mitigation will be successful in and concerted approach Some moving the state to a low-carbon economy. rapidly abatement initiatives focus on improved of the current of population and efficiencies against a backdrop of are endeavours, while other projects economic growth attitudes and understanding of climate change, to attitudes and understanding of climate demand the incentive for cuts in personal energy provide so and acceptance of low-emissions technologies, transition to rapidly empowered that governments are 2011). Recent economy (CSIRO to a low-carbon Australia have been indicates that, since the 1990s, there research in public levels of uncertainty and diversity increases change and the of opinion about the causes of climate of a perception is also There extent of the problem. and a lack of confidence among scientists disagreement and effects the nature in the ability of science to predict Washington of climate change (Ashworth et al. 2011, have also been affected by the and Cook 2011). Attitudes with the bitterly partisan public policy debates associated Institute 2012). carbon tax (Climate Government is now leading the Although the Australian domestic mitigation agenda, the important it recognises of the states and territories in the national initiative, role and energy of renewable particularly in the promotion transport land-use planning and public efficiency, energy 2011 Committee 2011). Many of the Environment (State will not be impacted sufficiently or at emissions sources state governments all by a carbon price, and this is where have a clear leadership role. 5.1 action require reductions will Effective global emissions international agreements, including on many fronts, investment government regulation, economic reform, and societal change. It will in technological innovation the united efforts of government, the industry and require 2011). 2011, CSIRO (Ackerman and Stanton public at large gas greenhouse Achieving deep cuts in Australia’s to public a major alteration emissions will require What can we expect? What can we more than 7 metres over subsequent centuries, even than 7 metres more with no further warming ecosystems substantial loss of marine and terrestrial of many or most the resilience with and biodiversity, (Whettonecosystems being exceeded et al. 2011). increases in evaporation and drought in evaporation increases the events, increasing rainfall in extreme an increase risk of flooding weather fire in extreme an increase to increasing by 2100, sea level rise of up to 1.1 metres temperature increases of 3–5 °C in coastal areas and of 3–5 °C in coastal areas increases temperature inland 4–6 °C high of extremely in the occurrence increases temperatures rainfall in southern likely significant declines in annual Australia reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and the impact of greenhouse reduce inevitable change will depend on the preparations made now. The magnitude of future climate impacts will depend on The magnitude of future what global effort is made this decade to substantially • • • • • • • temperature rise would include: temperature • be irreversible in a timeframe that is relevant to humans that is relevant in a timeframe be irreversible New et al. 2011). 2011, (Garnaut the effects of a 4 °C global average In Australia, catastrophic. There is a risk that the climate system may There catastrophic. a ‘tipping point’reach at which a small additional change can These responses abrupt response. may trigger a large, of modern civilisation, and that have probably prevailed prevailed and that have probably of modern civilisation, Potential times in our history. for our species at all disruptive to highly from range impacts of climate change A global average temperature increase from pre- from increase temperature A global average stable is well outside the relatively industrial levels of 4 °C the development that have allowed regimes temperature 5 98 Climate change society inthemore vulnerable regions oftheworld(New requiring acompletetransformation inmanyaspectsof changes maymovefrom incremental totransformative, is inmitigatingclimatechange (Garnaut 2011).Climate requirement willdependonhowsuccessfulthe world possible futures. Theextent andcostoftheadaptation Adaptation policyneedstoincorporate awiderange of possibly 4 °Cby2070(CSIRO 2011). that weare headingforglobalwarmingofatleast2 °C— response (CSIRO 2011).Thelatestscientificagreement is emissions resulting from theworld’s slowmitigation existing greenhouse gasesintheatmosphere and future Future climatechangeimpactsare unavoidablegiven 5.2 plant andconstructinganonsitecogeneration plant. 2050, sourcing renewable energy for thedesalination BHP Billitonhascommittedtodeepcutsinemissionsby current emissions.Ingainingapproval fortheproject, around 2020. Thisequatestoaround 15%ofthestate’s from electricityanddieseluseatfullproduction by estimated additional4.7 Mt ofCO copper, uranium oxide, goldandsilver, withanassociated The proposed open-pitminewillincrease production of expansion ofminingactivity, particularlyatOlympicDam. A future pressure onthestate’s emissionsisthe Australia 2011a). energy investmentintensifies (Government ofSouth ascompetitionfor to thenationaleffort, renewable deliberate stategovernmentpolicysupportinaddition the 33%renewable energy target willrequire continued energy resources (Figure 8). However, achievementof solar electricitylevelsinthenorthofstateandwave significant potentialforgeothermalenergy, world-class (Baker andMcKenzie etal.2010).SouthAustralia alsohas entire average electricityneedsintimesofhighwind thisregioninvestment, iscapableofmeetingthestate’s identified inthe Eyre Withnewtransmission Peninsula. An extensiveopportunityforwindgeneration hasbeen market (Government ofSouthAustralia 2011a). and acompetitiveadvantageinglobalcarbon-sensitive economy alsoprovides hedgingagainstcarbonprices and timelygreenhouseAlow-carbon gasabatement. renewable energyanddeliveringsignificant investment, Australia iswellplacedtobuild onitssuccessinattracting With anatural endowmentofrenewable resources, South to berealised wellintothefuture. a demonstrative nature withpotentialabatementbenefits Adapting tounavoidableclimate change 2 -e peryearemitted -e Section 4.3) areSection 4.3) essentialtoensure thatweminimisethe and preparation processes already started(see (Government ofSouthAustralia 2010).Theadaptation climate changeadaptationframework forSouthAustralia since developed to undertakeadaptationplanningin2009andhas The SouthAustralian Government outlinedtheneed opportunities innewmarkets(DCCEE IPCC 2012a, 2012). the statetopositionitselftakeadvantageofpotential export markets.Adaptationplanningwillalsoenable other countrieswillaffectSouth Australia’s importand agriculture andhumanhealth.Climateimpactson environment, citiesandinfrastructure, thecoastalzone, key vulnerable areas are watersupply, thenatural resilience topotentialadverseimpacts.SouthAustralia’s to reduce exposure andvulnerability, andincrease climate change,andadaptationplanningisimportant South Australia ishighlyvulnerable toprojected warming present great challengesforadaptation. et al.2011).Theimpactsonsocietyassociatedwitha4 °C government policyandplanningprocesses. considerations willneedtobeincorporated intoall as ourprimaryindustriesandwatersupply. Adaptation impacts ofclimatechangeonessentialservices,such Prospering inachangingclimate:

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Water

1 Why is it important?

The condition of South Australia’s water resources, and obvious conservation values, rivers and wetlands provide trends in water quantity and quality are paramount issues a range of cultural, economic and ecosystem services. for the state’s future. Our water resources are critical to The state’s water-related environmental assets include life, the environment and economic growth. wetlands along the River Murray corridor that are High-quality water supplies are needed to support included in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International our growing population and enrich our surroundings. Importance, in the south-east, significant Our water resources hold community and Aboriginal rock holes in the northern parts of the state, and the cultural significance. rivers, creeks and estuaries of both urban and regional South Australia. The state’s water resources support a diverse range of ecosystems, which include aquatic flora and fauna, The Murray–Darling Basin is Australia’s largest river wetland and riparian vegetation, and groundwater fauna. system and catchment, and the River Murray, its In addition, the state’s marine waters are recipients of tributaries and Lower Lakes sustain South Australian run-off and, in some areas, groundwater from South communities and their economies. The Lower Lakes Australia’s terrestrial areas. The state’s marine ecosystems and Coorong area is recognised as one of Australia’s are unique and among the most biologically diverse in the most significant ecological assets and is a Ramsar-listed world, with many endemic species, and internationally wetland. This area is also of high cultural importance, and nationally important species. particularly for the Ngarrindjeri people. The state also relies on a network of other rivers and creeks that, Future water availability will also be a key determinant while not on the same scale as the River Murray, are of industry growth, including in mining, manufacturing also essential for the health and wellbeing of the South and agriculture. Australian environment and economy. Despite its largely arid to semi-arid setting, the South Less visible but no less important are the state’s Australian landscape supports a surprisingly rich variety significant groundwater resources, which deliver of riverine and wetland habitats. Wetlands are places environmental, social and economic benefits by supplying in the environment where water and land meet— drinking water, base flow to creeks and other water- occasionally or permanently—including , lakes, dependent ecosystems, water for irrigation and industry, marshes, springs and . In addition to their and habitat for groundwater-dependent organisms.

Opposite page: The River Murray near Lake Alexandrina, 1846 State Library of South Australia B15276/25 106 Water In summary households withrainwater tanksinAustralia. South Australia hasthehighestpercentage of recycling andstormwater reuse, hasincreased. Water supplydiversification,includingwastewater Short-term rainfall hasincreased. Water supply and fewbeingingoodorverycondition. variable, withmanybeinginfairtoverypoorcondition The extentandconditionofaquaticecosystemsare waters are inplace. condition ofSouthAustralia’s rivers,lakesandcoastal Processes formonitoringandassessingtheecological Water quality sustainable limits. sustainable limitsand25are partiallymanagedwithin within sustainablelimits,7are notmanagedwithin areas although35are concludedthat, managed A 2012assessmentofthestate’s 67watermanagement (e.g Goyder InstituteforWater Research). Long-term planningandknowledgehaveimproved that havereduced demandforwater. influenced byfactors,includingabove-average rainfall, in partduetorestrictions. Ithassubsequently been Water usegenerally decreased duringthedrought, Water use Aspect andobservation Grades trend Recent Condition: Regional trends • • Very poor Deteriorating Improving

Variable Fair Good • • Poor Unclear Stable

Unclear Poor Good confidence Level of Trend: Very good ˜ › ™ Very poor

Adequate high-quality evidenceandhighlevelofconsensus Adequate high-quality Limited evidenceorlimitedconsensus Evidence andconsensustoolowtomakeanassessment Variable Stable Improving Assessment grade • • Poor •

Good Unclear Decreasing Very good Confidence In grade ˜ ˜ ˜ In trend › › › Water 107

› ˜ In trend SE SE ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence SAMDB SAMDB Very good Very Good • SAAI SAAI Poor • Assessment grade Assessment NY NY Very poor Very KI KI EP EP AW AW AMLR AMLR Regional trends: Regional contamination in some areas) remain an issue. remain contamination in some areas) relation significant knowledge gaps in are There extent and condition in in groundwater to trends areas. nonprescribed unsustainable levels of use in some are Main pressures changes in land use and climate variability. areas, The number of water resource management areas management areas The number of water resource is subject to formal management arrangements increasing. levels that declined during the drought Groundwater of recent as a result beginning to recover generally are rainfall. increased levels and quality (including Groundwater-use Groundwater quantity and quality Groundwater of riparian vegetation, intensive agriculture practices, practices, of riparian vegetation, intensive agriculture in some parts of the erosion soil and streambank and/or and changesstate; climate variability and climate change; in land use. trends: Regional improved water quality. improved in and wetlands watercourses Many of the ephemeral to above- have responded areas and pastoral agricultural in 2010–11. rainfall average harvesting and unsustainable are Main pressures loss in some parts of the state; dryland salinity, extraction Surface water quantity and quality Surface water quantity are channel of the River Murray Salinity levels in the main Recent Albert have decreased. stable, and those in Lake nutrients back into the high inflows brought algal suppressed and good flows and flood turbidity river, of pollution of localised sources blooms. Management Aspect and observation Aspect and AMLR = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges; AW = Alinytjara Wilurara ; EP = Eyre Pennisula ; KI = Kangaroo Island; NY = Northern and Yorke; Island; NY = Northern and Yorke; ; KI = Kangaroo Pennisula ; EP = Eyre Wilurara = Alinytjara Ranges; AW = Adelaide and Mount Lofty AMLR Basin ; SE = South East Murray–Darling = South Australian Arid Lands ; SAMDB SAAI = South Australian 108 Water Source: GovernmentofSouthAustralia (2012a) Regional trends: of watersources. areas; andsedimentation, eutrophication andpollution Main pressures are unsustainablelevelofuseinsome some bores. increasingly saline,with decreasing waterlevelsin community suppliesinthearidregions are becoming Anecdotal informationsuggeststhatanumberof wastewater. water sources, including recycled stormwaterand to reduce demandandincrease theuseofalternative has beenmitigatedbyincreased rainfall, andinitiatives Consumption generally decreased duringthedrought.It water use. reuse), andimproving theallocationandefficiency of use (includingdesalination,stormwaterandwastewater strategy are diversifyingwatersources forconsumptive Initiatives through SouthAustralia’s Water forGood recharged aquifersafterthedrought. In pastoral areas, significantfloodingin2010–11has are stable,andthoseinLakeAlberthavedecreased. Salinity levelsinthemainchannelofRiverMurray consumptive useacross mostofthestate. average rainfall improved theavailabilityofwater for Recent highflowsintheRiver Murray andabove- Water forconsumption Aspect andobservation SAAI =SouthAustralian AridLands;SAMDB =SouthAustralian Murray–Darling Basin;SE=SouthEast AMLR =AdelaideandMount Lofty Ranges;AW =Alinytjara Wilurara ;EP=Eyre Pennisula ;KI=Kangaroo Island;NY=NorthernandYorke; Grades trend Recent Condition: Regional trends AMLR • • Very poor Deteriorating Improving Variable Fair Good AW • • Poor EP Stable Unclear

Unclear Poor Good confidence Level of KI Trend: Very good ˜ › ™ Very poor NY

Adequate high-quality evidenceandhighlevelofconsensus Adequate high-quality Limited evidenceorlimitedconsensus Evidence andconsensustoolowtomakeanassessment Variable Stable Improving Assessment grade • Poor SAAI

Good Unclear Decreasing Very good SAMDB Confidence In grade ˜ SE In trend ›

Water 109 The use of reuse water decreased from 32 GL in from water decreased The use of reuse used 2009–10 to 25 GL in 2010–11. Agriculture 13 GL). water (50%; most of the reuse Gross state product was $84 million per GL of state product Gross of $9 million per water consumed, an increase year. the previous GL from in South value of irrigated agriculture The gross up from in 2010–11 was $1429 million, Australia $1360 million in 2009–10. water price was $3.09 per kL. The average households recorded South Australian on urban of $354 million an expenditure distributed water. The total volume of water distributed in South in 2010–11 was 315 GL, a 17% decrease Australia Distribution water losses 2009–10. from amounted to 26 GL (8%) of total distributed water supply. • and environmental assessments for the River Murray and assessments for the River Murray and environmental Lakes, surface waters and groundwater. Lower • • • • • additional resources, which are increasingly being increasingly which are additional resources, impacts they can the environmental managed to address appropriate, and, where water resources have on natural of water. a source to also provide information about South Australia’s provides 1 Box water use. water monitors water quality, regularly South Australia condition of the management and the environmental The following states’ rivers, lakes and coastal waters. assessment,section looks at sustainable management

South Australian water use facts, 2010–11 South Australian ABS (2012) The manufacturing industry was a significant accounting for 8% of total water user of water, 10% from use. Its consumption increased 2009–10 to 84 GL. Mining consumed 24 GL while the electricity and gas supply of water, industry consumed 2 GL. consumption per household decreased from from consumption per household decreased 75 kL in 2009–10 to 70 kL in 2010–11. consumer of water, was the largest Agriculture accounting for 646 GL (63%) of the total water consumption in South Australia. 1110 GL in 2009–10, a decrease of 8%. a decrease 1110 GL in 2009–10, per capita was consumption Water (kL). 617 kilolitres a Households consumed 115 GL in 2010–11, Water 123 GL in 2009–10. from slight decrease Water consumption in South Australia in in South Australia consumption Water with compared (GL) 2010–11 was 1023 gigalitres What do we know about it? What do we Source: • • • • Box 1 Box • human consumption, mining and some other potential human consumption, mining and some wastewater and urban stormwater are uses. Treated In addition to surface-water and groundwater resources, resources, In addition to surface-water and groundwater attention increased years received sea water has in recent water for to produce of water for desalination, as a source conditions, which vary widely, as well as human-related as well as human-related conditions, which vary widely, and quality of factors, influence the condition, quantity water resources. from the Murray–Darling Basin, and groundwater of the of Basin, and groundwater the Murray–Darling from and groundwater to smaller creeks Artesian Basin, Great geological and climatic natural systems. The state’s South Australia has diverse water resources. They resources. has diverse water South Australia surface-water quantities of large relatively from range south-east, in the Australia to South inflows resources 2 110 Water areas ofthestate. East andMurray–Darling Basin,butnotinmanyother Thisworkislargelymanagement. completeintheSouth wetlands across SouthAustralia toinformplanningand data are lacking.There isongoingworktoclassify Murray–Darling Basin,butforsomeotherareas scientific ecology ofwetlandsystemstheSouthEastand ecosystems. We haveagoodunderstandingofthe of riverineandwetlandhabitatswithwater-dependent The SouthAustralian landscapesupportsarichvariety 2.2 (Figure 2). by about18%inSouthAustralia overthesameperiod stable between2008–09and2010–11,itdecreased the agricultural sectorforthewholeofAustralia remained South Australia (ABS2012).Whilewaterconsumptionby using more than50%nationallyandmore than60%in Agriculture continuestobethelargest consumerofwater, the average forAustralia. Western Australia andtheAustralian CapitalTerritory, and average consumptionisstillhigherthaninVictoria, (Figure 1). Althoughthisisanencouraging trend, the 726 kilolitres in2008–09to617 kilolitres in2010–11 South Australia’s perpersonwaterusedecreased from be achieved. be managedwithinsustainablelimitsby2018—would Plan target—for SouthAustralia’s waterresources to anditwasunlikelythatthe Strategic2003 and2012, sustainable limitshadnotchangedsignificantlybetween management areas assessedasbeingmanagedwithin deemed thattheproportion ofSouthAustralian water (SASP Audit Committee2010),theAudit Committee In and 7asnotmanagedwithinsustainablelimits. limits, 25aspartiallymanagedwithinsustainablelimits identified 35 areas2012, asmanagedwithinsustainable prepared bytheplan’s independentAudit Committeein managed withinsustainablelimits.Themostrecent audit, area isassessedwithregard towhetherdemandisbeing targets (Government ofSouth Australia 2011a),each As partofreporting on administrative boundaries. catchments, groundwater resource areas and water managementareas, definedbynatural South Australia isdividedinto 67 self-contained 2.1 South Australia’s Strategic Plan progress report 2012 Environmental assessment Sustainable management assessment South Australia’s Strategic Plan (EPA 2013). good’ condition, andnoneare in‘excellent’ condition poor’. Very feware observedtobeina‘good’ or‘very as lyingontherating and‘very spectrumbetween ‘fair’ condition ofthemajority state’s rivers andcreeks Overall, theaquaticecosystemreports identifythe Introduction natural resource management(NRM) regions (see the Assessments havebeenconductedinsevenoftheeight are alsoavailableontheEPA website:www.epa.sa.gov.au. and more detailedinformationontheassessmentprocess assessment process Thereports isprovided inSection 4.5.3. to‘excellent’. poor’ ‘very Additionalinformationonthe aquatic ecosystemsonasix-point scale,ranging from pressures andmanagementresponses. Thereports rate waterways, provide findingsofassessments,andidentify provide informationonthelocationandspecialfeatures of to produce aquaticecosystemconditionreports that human disturbance(Figure 3). Monitoringdataare used ecological conditioninrelation toincreasing levelsof based onadescriptivemodelforinterpreting changein coastal waterstoassesstheirenvironmental condition, (EPA) monitorsSouthAustralia’s rivers,lakes and The SouthAustralian Environment Protection Authority Figure 1 Source: ABS (2012) for more informationabout NRMregions). Total wateruseperpersonby jurisdiction, 2008–09to2010–11 Water 111 Ubrae Wetlands Ubrae Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara 112 Water reaches of theMurray in2011,aslow-oxygen waterfrom eventoccurred inthemiddle A major‘blackwater’ particles) ofpartstheLower Lakes. water (water occupyingthespacesbetweensediment Aciditypersistsinthe sediments andporestill absent. environments, although some pre-drought speciesare is inprogress inmany ofthemarginal riverandlake water exchange between thelakes.Ecologicalrecovery quality ispersistinginLakeAlbertasaresult oflimited recovered butpoorer wellinLakeAlexandrina, water flooded mostriverineenvironments. Water qualityhas Since 2010, increased riverflowshave reconnected and Sulfate SoilsScientific Research Committee2010). wetlands andaround thelakemargins (Lower LakesAcid exposure ofacidsulfatesoilswasreported indry riverine and algallevels(Mosley etal.2012).Acidificationdueto system, whichledtoveryhighsalinity, turbidity, nutrient deteriorated asaresult ofthelackflushinglake isolated anddried,waterqualityintheLower Lakes than 100 yearsoccurred. Manyriverinewetlandswere stressed in2007–09, whenthelowestflowsinmore The RiverMurray andLower Lakeswere severely 2.2.1 Figure 2 Source: ABS (2012) River Murray andLower Lakes Agricultural waterusebyjurisdiction,2008–09to2010–11 way theecosystemfunctioned. communities andplantlife, moderate changesinthe ecosystem showedevidenceof majorchangesinanimal Figure 3. rating Mostsites were givena‘poor’ becausethe over 2010–11usingthedescriptive modelshownin Eight siteswithintheLower Lakeshavebeenassessed falling watertable. dueto exposureIrrigation Area, ofacidsulfatesoilsbya drainage water intheLower Murray Reclaimed A newissueemerged in2011withdiscoveryofacid the Lower Lakes. water wasmostlyre-oxygenated bythetimeitreached major fishkillswere observed inSouth Australia, andthe likely inwarmweather. no Inthe2011blackwaterevent, the presence oflarge volumesofleaflitter, andare more Blackwater eventsare ahighriskfollowingfloodsandin the deathoffish, andotheraquaticanimals. be replenished. Thelackofdissolvedoxygen cancause uses upoxygen inthewateratarate fasterthanitcan breakdown oforganic mattersuchasleaflitterinwater system. Blackwaterisanatural process inwhichthe flooded floodplainsandwetlands returnedtotheriver Water 113 Severe alteration of alteration Severe and function structure Severe disturbance Severe Tolerant species show increasing dominance; species show increasing Tolerant altered functions rare; sensitive species are Very poor Very South Australian Murray–Darling Basin NRM region: Basin NRM region: Murray–Darling South Australian River catchment,Finniss including the tributary and Nangkita creeks) Tookayerta (e.g. Meadows, M, Mosquito Creek Drain South East NRM region: and the coastal L, Creek catchment, Reedy Drain Mile, Deep (e.g. Eight MacDonnell east of Port drains creeks). and Piccaninnie Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM region: First, Ranges NRM region: Adelaide and Mount Lofty and parts and Aldgate creeks, Fourth Sixth, Brownhill, River and Sturt Creek of Cox River catchment; and Tod NRM region: Peninsula Eyre creeks Coonta, and Yeldulknie Mine, Poonana Breakneck, Rocky, Island NRM region: Kangaroo Boom, North-west, Harriet and upper Stunsail Cygnet rivers Mary Springs region: NRM Northern and Yorke and upper Beetaloo Reservoir, from upstream Skillogalee Creek and Spring Arid Lands NRM region: South Australian north of the Willochra streams most creeks, Mambray Balcanoona Brachina, catchment (e.g. Parachilna, and Cooper Creek creeks) Poor Some sensitive species maintained; altered maintained; altered Some sensitive species maintained largely distributions; functions • • The most environmentally significant streams identified significant streams The most environmentally since sampling began in 1994 are: • • • • • Fair Some replacement of sensitive-rare of sensitive-rare Some replacement maintained species; functions fully Human disturbance Good Minimal loss of species; some Minimal loss occur density changes may Native or natural condition Native or natural Very good Very Ecological condition versus level of human disturbance Ecological condition versus level Excellent Other surface waters

No disturbance Ecological condition Ecological invasion, and occasionally point-source discharges from from discharges invasion, and occasionally point-source plants and industries. wastewater treatment because of disturbances that affect aquatic organisms, because of disturbances that affect aquatic organisms, These disturbances water quality and habitat structure. include stormwater inflows, channelisation works, weed are silted, have riparian zones with few or no native are and grasses dominated by introduced plants, and are poorly invariably rate weed species. Urban streams knowledge of the ecology of these arid rivers and their the basin. catchments is limited and not uniform across often nutrient enriched, are streams areas, In agricultural last unaltered dryland river systems in the world, are dryland river systems in the world, are last unaltered governments and the community by considered generally our good condition. However, to be in relatively of native vegetation have been retained and where and where of native vegetation have been retained occur in spring. streamflows among the Basin, which are The rivers in the Lake Eyre The streams in the state that are classified as being classified in the state that are The streams areas large in better condition typically occur where Figure 3 2.2.2 Source: Davies and Jackson (2006) Source: 114 Water reduced thedemandfor irrigation. decreased significantly, partlybecausehigher rainfall has normal levels.Extractions from these resources havealso term decline,thelevelshave not yetfullyrecovered to levels inmostunconfinedaquifers. Inareas oflong- improved recharge andledtoarecovery ofgroundwater Since 2009,above-average rainfall inSouthAustralia has shallow watertable(Figure 4). of evapotranspiration from plantsassociatedwiththe 2006–09, andsalinitiesincreased, mostlikelyasaresult limestone aquiferthatbecamedryinsomelocationsover example, thePolda BasinonEyre Peninsula is ashallow resources hasbeenaffectedbybelow-average rainfall. For In someinstances,thesustainabilityofgroundwater unconfined aquifers. As aconsequence,salinitylevelshaveriseninshallow trends havebeenunderwayformuchlongerperiods. regions, suchasEyre Peninsulathese andSouthEast, aquifers, andgroundwater levelsfell.InsomeNRM Australia reduced recharge toanumberofunconfined In 2006–09,below-average rainfall overmostofSouth rainfall. confined aquifers which receive seasonalrecharge from rainfall, and Groundwater extraction occursfrom Groundwater 2.2.3 Table 1 Table 1 isasummaryoftheassessmentsbyNRMregion. Note: South Australian Murray–Darling Basin;SE=SouthEast AMLR =AdelaideandMountLofty Ranges;EP=Eyre Peninsula; KI=Kangaroo Island;NY=NorthernandYorke; SAAL=SouthAustralia AridLands;SAMDB = Condition Total Very poor Poor Fair Good Very good Excellent monitoring_evaluation_and_reporting The detailedmonitoringresults canbeviewedontheEPA website( The methodwastestedonsitesfrom several regions in2008,butsubsequentassessmentsonlyfocusononeortworegions ineachsamplingyear. Summary ofconditionassessmentresults by natural resource managementregion AMLR , whichare notrecharged directly from 40 13 16 0 6 5 0 KI 6 0 3 3 0 0 0 2008 ). unconfined aquifers, NY 8 1 2 5 0 0 0 MDB 13 0 0 4 7 2 0 Year assessedandNRMregion 2009 www.epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/water_quality/aquatic_ecosystem_ 71 40 24 SE 5 2 0 0 demand againstsustainability. agricultural uses,andrequires adelicatebalancingof The farnorthrelies ongroundwater fordomesticand groundwater resources, suchastheGreat ArtesianBasin. scale operations proposed oroperating nearimportant as aresult ofminingactivities,withanumberlarge- Demand forgroundwater inthefarnorthisincreasing from overlying aquifers. the WillungaBasin,probably duetodownward leakage occurred intheBarossa Valley, andinlocalisedareas in most areas. Long-term gradual increases insalinityhave extractions and restored pressure topre-drought levelsin in salinity. Increased rainfall since2009hasreduced resulted indownward leakageandlocalisedincreases the increased abstraction (extraction forhumanuse) confined aquiferisoverlainbyashallowsalineaquifer, In theAngasBremer Prescribed Wells where Area, the demand andhigherextractions from 2006to2009. some confinedaquifersexperiencedanincrease in Although notdirectly affectedbyannual rainfall recharge, northern AdelaidePlains) andillegalwastedisposal. fertilisation ofhorticultural areas (inparticular, the industrial spillsandleaksoffuelschemicals, Risks totheshallowaquifersbeneathAdelaideinclude in coastallimestoneaquiferssouthofMountGambier. irrigation recycling, andthethreat ofseawaterintrusion increases intheupperSouthEastNRMregion dueto Other issuesforunconfinedaquifersincludesalinity 30 15 11 EP 4 0 0 0 2010 SAMDB 43 14 23 0 5 1 0 AMLR 2011 72 10 24 27 10 1 0 11 NY 0 2 5 3 1 0 2012 SAAL 54 18 29 0 2 5 0

Water 115

2010

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985 1980

Kappawanta

1975 1970 Polda

Groundwater levels in Polda and basins, 1965–2011 levels in Polda Groundwater 1965

DEWNR (2011)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Standing water level (m) level water Standing regional areas, including the South East; and mining, ore including the South East; and mining, ore areas, regional and associated activities in northern areas. processing industrial operations on the Adelaide Plains; wastes or on the Adelaide Plains; industrial operations industrial sites such as timber mills, gasworks, spills from cheese factories, abattoirs and septic systems in been, mines for metals such as copper, gold, lead, silver been, mines for metals such as copper, and zinc. of contamination include Historical point sources and horticultural areas. Concentrations of metals occur at Concentrations areas. and horticultural aquifers rock locations, particularly in fractured several or have are, there Ranges where of the Mount Lofty Nutrients (mainly nitrogen) continue to be detected at nitrogen) Nutrients (mainly include intensive stock sources elevated levels. Probable of fertilisers in agricultural and overapplication grazing reflects the overall increase in groundwater recharge and recharge in groundwater increase the overall reflects rainfall of above-average decline in salinity as a result since 2009. Table 2 summarises the 2011 groundwater status reports status reports the 2011 groundwater summarises Table 2 and by the Department of Environment, Water produced (WaterConnect 2013). The summary Resources Natural Figure 4 Source: 116 Water PWA =prescribed wellsarea; PWRA=prescribed water resources area Table 2 Area Willochra Basin Walloway Basin Tintinara–Coonalpyn PWA Tatiara PWA Southern BasinsPWA Peake–Roby–Sherlock PWA Padthaway PWA Northern AdelaidePlains PWA Kangaroo Flatregion Northern AdelaidePlains PWA T2aquifer Northern AdelaidePlains PWA T1aquifer Musgrave PWA McLaren Vale PWA Marne SaundersPWRA Mallee PWA Lower LimestoneCoastPWA Far NorthPWA Clare Valley PWRA Central AdelaidePWA Valley Barossa PWRA Baroota PWRA Angas Bremer PWA Degradation of theresource, compromising present usewithintheshortterm Adversetrends, indicatinghighrisktotheresource intheshort-to-medium term Adversetrends, indicatinglowrisktotheresource inthemediumterm Noadversetrends, indicatingstableorimproving situation Rising Declining Summary of2011groundwater statusreports Stable Status Water level Salinity Water 117 Water availability and use Water higher temperatures, including more extreme hot extreme including more higher temperatures, greater days, with warming in spring and summer than in winter and autumn coastal from example, damage to infrastructure—for and flooding. erosion decreased rainfall in agricultural regions (especially in (especially regions in agricultural rainfall decreased winter and spring) levels in unconfined aquifers decline in groundwater in the long term with and severity of drought, frequency greater flows in water supply catchments decreased weather events flood risk due to extreme increased conditions) average drier (despite these needs may become more pressing. these needs may become more climate human water use are Many forms of current dependent, private including some human consumption, watering and open-space and public uses such as garden use and some industrial use. irrigation, agricultural Climate change will necessitate changes in water use and allocation. • • 3.2 on water availability One of the most significant pressures climate change. With an is expected to come from of warmer and drier conditions, the expected trend users will come amount of water available for all uses and pressure. under increasing in urban and the same time, population growth At the demand is expected to increase areas regional on drinking water supplies. Expansion of agricultural demand for irrigation activities may lead to an increased efficiency in irrigation although increased water, this demand. Expansion of techniques may help to reduce demand for mining activities in the state will also increase At times, water supplies. various forms of fit-for-purpose ecosystems water is needed by water-dependent more values; in a changing climate, to sustain environmental increased future pressure on the state’s water resources water resources on the state’s pressure future increased through: • • • • Climate change What are the pressures? What are Climate projections from the Commonwealth Scientific from Climate projections for South (CSIRO) Organisation and Industrial Research (Suppiah et al. 2006) suggest a likelihood of Australia planning and allocation processes are more responsive to responsive more are planning and allocation processes climate variability and climate change. Basin and other parts of South Australia has highlighted Basin and other parts of South Australia understanding of the state’s the need for improved water and for ensuring that the state’s water resources, 3.1 Murray–Darling that affected the drought The recent water resources, and particular pressures on the River and particular pressures water resources, and groundwater. Lakes, surface waters Lower and Murray recognise climatic variability and maximise the economic, recognise benefits. The following sections social and environmental Australian affecting South look at the main pressures and increased temperatures in coming decades. temperatures and increased sustainably manage the balance between need to We in ways that competing uses and the environment regulation, catchment disturbance and pest species. In regulation, suggest that much addition, climate change projections rainfall could experience lower annual of South Australia ecosystems. The integrity of river and wetland ecosystems ecosystems. The integrity of river and wetland activities. Many of South by human-related is threatened affected by flow rivers and wetlands are Australia’s Water overallocation and unsustainable use in some overallocation Water major concerns together with land-use change, are areas, and water-dependent water resources facing the state’s ecosystems. has ended, ongoing impacts Although the drought significant management challenges. continue to present a greater appreciation that complex interrelationships interrelationships that complex appreciation a greater of the state’s exist between the quantity and quality and the health of water-dependent water resources significant impacts. The ‘millennium drought’—southernsignificant impacts. 2000 to from that occurred drought extended Australia’s beginning as early as 1997—brought in some areas 2010, Since the 2008 state of the environment report (EPA (EPA report of the environment Since the 2008 state have become our water resources 2008), the risks facing has had drought and widespread acute as severe more 3 118 Water Lakes, aciddrainage from theLower Murray Reclaimed Coorong, submerged acidsulfatesedimentsintheLower limited ecologicalrecovery intheLower Lakes and legacies ofdrought include highsalinityinLakeAlbert, recovering from this severe droughtPersistent event. Australian Murray–Darling Basinenvironment are still impacts across theBasin.ManypartsofSouth in majorwaterquality, ecologicalandsocio-economic preventing seawateringression. Thedrought resulted for thefirsttimeinmodernhistory, with thebarrages below Lock 1 located atBlanchetown) fellbelowsea level flows. Subsequently, thewaterlevelinpoolone (waters in asevere hydrological drought periodofextreme low of records (see Box 2).Basin-wide climaticshiftsresulted experienced theworstdrought inmore than100 years From 2007to2009,theMurray–Darling Basin the Basinand13%insouth). Darling Basinwillhavefallenby11%(9%inthenorthof the mediansurfacewateravailabilityforMurray– Projections inthesameCSIRO report are by2030, that, the Murray mouthhasbeenreduced by61percent’. connected riversoftheBasinshowsthattotalflowat states ‘integrating theflowimpactsdownthrough the total riverflowattheRiver Murray mouth.CSIRO (2008) and diversionsforagriculture havereduced theaverage Since theearly20thcentury, Basin-wide flow regulation 3.4 priority thathasbeengiventoassessingtheseimpacts. quantity ofwaterresources. Thisisreflected inthehigh potential toincrease pressure onboththequalityand anticipated increase inminingactivityalsohasthe recharge unconfinedgroundwater systems.The forestry inintercepting rainfall thatwouldotherwise attention inrecent timesisthepotentialimpactof of waterresources. Anexample thathasreceived some Land-use changesalsoaffectthequantityandquality introduced grasses andweeds. silted, andhaveriparianzonesthatare dominatedby this occurs,streams are oftennutrientenrichedand where agricultural andurbanlandusesdominate.Where changes from naturally vegetatedcatchmentstoones parts ofthestate,inparticular, haveseensignificant tracts ofnativevegetationhavebeenretained. Southern typically occuracross SouthAustralia inareas where large dependent ecosystems.Relatively unimpactedstreams growth havemajorimplicationsforthehealthofwater- Land-use changestosupportpopulationandeconomic 3.3 River Murray andLower Lakes Land-use change • • • • • • Other pressures intheBasininclude: infrastructure damage. bankslumpinganddestabilisation, Irrigation Area, actions intheupstream states.Water abstraction in the LakeEyre Basinmaybeaffectedby management zones andstreambeds. Flow patternsinthestreams in Further north,feral animalsandstockdamageriparian and change,localgeologies. complex interfacebetweenland use,climatevariability exacerbated the problems. Suchissuesexemplify the saline groundwater. However, lowrainfall patternshave in soilandgroundwater systems,leadingtoinflowsof the ensuingmobilisationofnaturally occurringsalts catchment clearance sinceEuropean settlementand cases, theirgenerally poorconditioniscausedby and streams onthewesternsideofLakeEyre. Inmany and theWillochra catchmentintheFlindersRanges, eastern Kangaroo Island,Eyre themid-north, Peninsula, theeasternMountLofty Ranges,centraleast, and affect theconditionofwaterwaysinpartssouth- High salinityandtheepisodicnature ofmanystreams cropping oftenoccursuptostreambanks. are allowedaccesstothestreambed andriverbanks, South EastNRMregions. Inmanycases,cattleandsheep KangarooPeninsula, Island,NorthernandYorke, and streams intheAdelaideandMountLofty Ranges,Eyre zones anddamdevelopmentaffecttheconditionof siltation,weedinvasioninriparian Nutrient enrichment, those where agricultural andurbanlandusedominate. to thechangefrom naturally vegetatedcatchmentsto Pressures inthesouthernareas ofthestatelargely relate 3.5 widespread dryingduringdrought. limited refuge habitatsintheLower Lakesdueto groundwater inflowsandevaporation increased salinityduringlowflows,asa result of to riverbanks zones, associatedwithfarmingandlivestockaccess degradation andweedinfestationinriparian homes, houseboatsandothervessels) intensification of recreational uses (e.g. holiday promote nuisancealgalgrowth practices, urbanisationandstormwaterrun-off, which these are exacerbated bylandclearing,agricultural loads; nutrient enrichmentandhighfine-sediment maintenance ofafunctioningMurray mouth patterns andbiologicalcues,prevent flushingand regulated andreduced flowsthatdisruptflow Other surfacewaters Water 119 continued , for protection and enhancement of the River Murray, and of the River Murray, and enhancement , for protection River Murray Act 2003 Act River Murray Case study: Murray–Darling Basin Murray–Darling Case study: associated areas and ecosystems. and ecosystems. associated areas first prescribed the River Murray in 1976 and first adopted a water allocation plan in 2002. The state has Murray the River first prescribed and has issued notices of the volume subsequently issued various notices and variations of restriction, Consumptive Pool the River Murray of water available for allocation from (MDBA 2008) Initiative Murray under the Living recovery target was the first state to meet its water has enacted the river red gum woodlands. river red was the first state to put a voluntary cap on water entitlements, in 1969 continued accumulation of salinity in floodplain soils and wetlands, degrading these environments as environments these floodplain soils and wetlands, degrading continued accumulation of salinity in and fauna habitats for flora affecting habitats for native fish and Lower Lakes and Coorong, in the drought the effects of severe waterbirds migratory and high elevations, with adverse consequences for black box lack of water for floodplains at mid and salt accumulating in the lower reaches during dry periods salt accumulating in the lower reaches • • • Although South Australia uses about 7% of the total surface water resources within the Basin, the state has uses about 7% of the total surface water resources Although South Australia South Australia: example, For the Murray. to managing water from approach taken a responsible • • • • particular. The river acts as a conduit for salt mobilised within naturally saline sediments, but the saline for salt mobilised within naturally The river acts as a conduit particular. recent and the lack of flow in by irrigation and land clearing, mobilisation of salt has been increased from the the water of floodplain soils. Flows to dilute and flush salt years has caused salt to accumulate in to avoid: critical if we are system are • at the Murray mouth was 11 880 gigalitres per year, but by 1994 it was only 21% of this level. The recent but by 1994 it was only 21% of this level. The recent per year, 11 880 gigalitres mouth was at the Murray the Basin’s in flow associated with climate change brought of further reductions and the prospect drought Project Basin Sustainable Yields Murray–Darling The CSIRO to national attention. problems water resource Basin will have fallen water availability for the Murray–Darling suggests that, the median surface by 2030, 2008). (CSIRO and 13% in the south) by 11% (9% in the north of the Basin in Murray Lower Basin, and the Murray–Darling issue for the Salinity is a significant management produce high-quality food, wine and fibre. Metropolitan Adelaide and country towns all rely on the river all Adelaide and country towns Metropolitan high-quality and fibre. food, wine produce river as the on the rely owners and river communities human needs. Traditional to supply water for and social activities. of their cultural centrepiece because of reduced Basin river system is in decline, largely The ecological health of the Murray–Darling flow to the sea conditions, the median Under natural regulation and overallocation. flows caused by river Darling Basin, with 16 listed under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar of International Importance 16 listed under the Convention on Wetlands Darling Basin, with industries, and is home to more tourism and other productive Basin supports agriculture, The Convention). than two million people. of South wellbeing and environmental is essential for the economic,cultural social, The River Murray Lower and the wetlands of the Coorong, our floodplains, river to protect on a healthy rely We Australians. can on a healthy river so that they rely primary producers mouth. Our irrigators and Lakes and Murray Box 2 Box and wetland floodplain, woodland that supports in Australia is an iconic river Murray The River Murray– in the about 30 000 wetlands are There international significance. of national and communities 120 Water abstraction rates byindustry. Groundwater quality can increased useofgroundwater inminingandhigh quantity isaffectedbyclimate change,aswellthe Groundwater aquifersface avarietyofrisks.Water 3.6 Groundwater over ashorttimeframe. provide modestimprovements tothelocalenvironmental the framework ofactivitiesneededatabroader scale Meanwhile, however, localinitiativesundertakenwithin environmental conditionofourmanystreams and rivers. wide area toleadmajorimprovements inthe programs andotherinterventionsoccuroverasufficiently installation, erosion-control works,flow-diversion may takeyearsbefore fencing,stockexclusion, buffer by governmentandnongovernmentorganisations. It catchment managementactivitiesbeingcarriedout significant benefits regional-scale from the rangeof is likelytobeasignificantlagbefore westarttosee to moststreams inthesouthernpartofstate,there Australia hasbeenprofound. Givenwidespread changes Modification totheterrestrial environment inSouth Section 4.5.4). state’s WaterConnect water informationwebsite(see flow rate andsalinity, are publiclyaccessiblefrom the includingrainfall, data, surface-water stream waterlevel, intensively settledareas ofSouthAustralia. Available dataareSurface-water generally sparserthaninmore and there are resources. fewpermanentsurface-water areRainfall andrun-off highlyvariableintheseareas, careful managementinthearidregions ofthestate. support ofminingandotherdevelopmentsalsorequires river channelbelowLock 1. targets andenvironmental objectivestoprotect theCoorong andLower Lakeswetland siteandthe improved environmental flowsforthehealthofriverandfloodplains;end-of-systemsalinity the riversystem,andremoving orrelaxing constraints onenvironmental waterdeliverytodeliver changes includeprovisions thatsupportthereturn of3200 gigalitres ofenvironmental waterto of significantkeyimprovements totheBasin Plan, associatedlegislationandagreements. Key support gainedthrough theFight fortheMurray campaign,theseeffortshelpedtosecure anumber communities duringthedevelopmentofMurray–Darling BasinPlan. Alongwiththepublic The SouthAustralian Governmentactivelychampionedtheinterests oftheRiverMurray andits Murray–Darling Basin. overallocation andimproving watermanagementacross theBasintodeliverahealthyandworking The Murray–Darling BasinPlan,isahistoricstepinaddressing whichwasadoptedon22 November2012, Box 2 continued pollution sources. Anumberofindustrialandcommercial be affectedbycontaminationfrom eitherpointordiffuse incidents ofgroundwater contamination(Figure 5). The EPA usesasiteconceptualmodeltoassessreported metropolitan area thatwere responded tobytheEPA. groundwater contaminationincidentsintheAdelaide the other. Thereporting periodsawanincrease in means thatimpactsononeofthesewaterswillaffect The interconnection ofgroundwater andsurface waters plumes inbothmetropolitan andrural areas. used industrialfertilisershavecontributedtonutrient Agricultural activitiessincetheearly20thcenturythat to havecontributedmanyhydrocarbon plumes. from theearly20thcenturytopresent are known Service stationsandfueldepotsacross SouthAustralia watertable aquifersinthewesternsuburbsofAdelaide. ‘pug holes’duringthemid-20th centuryhasaffectedthe Adelaide. Inappropriate disposalofindustrialwastesto in watertableaquiferspartofthewesternsuburbs as solvents ledtotrichloroethylene plumesremaining and drycleaners) thatusedchlorinatedhydrocarbons commercial activities(such asmanufacturing factories hydrocarbons. Between1940and1980, industrialand metals, polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons andother underlying aquiferswithwasteproducts suchascyanide, 20th centuries,whichresulted incontaminationof the production ofcoalgasduringthelate19thtoearly and rural aquifersinSouthAustralia. Theseinclude that affectnear-surface aquifersinmetropolitan areas activities havecontributedtomostofthelegacyimpacts Water 121 important groundwater resources (e.g. the Great Artesian Great (e.g. the resources important groundwater for domestic on groundwater far north relies The Basin). increasing are operations uses. Mining and agricultural with potential adverse of groundwater, abstractions Abstractions levels and quality. impacts on groundwater occur for mine dewatering, camp water of groundwater water use and testing process dust suppression, supply, and as part of recovery of technologies (e.g. geothermal), to and extracted acid is injected, circulated mining, where management of water from Appropriate uranium. recover is also a concern. The testing and hydrogeological process in sector is also a significant user of groundwater energy such as Moomba.areas schemes in managed aquifer recharge The increase a risk of contamination years introduced in recent (Box 3) aquifers. Managed of deep tertiary or fractured-rock inject water (usually operations aquifer recharge but also wastewater or river water) of stormwater, most of it in variable quality in winter and then extract that These schemes must be managed to ensure summer. of injected water is maintained. quality control Site conceptual model of contamination EPA (2013) EPA been dug to access groundwater for stock use. been dug to access groundwater from pressure under increasing of the far north are Areas near mining, with a number of large-scale operations aquifer in the peninsula is also at a high risk of impact This is parameters. nutrients and microbiological from have shallow trenches where especially the case in areas dependent ecosystems. is used in southern and western Eyre Groundwater The shallow karstic for drinking water. Peninsula karstic aquifer. High nutrient (mainly nitrate and nitrite) nitrate High nutrient (mainly karstic aquifer. in the South East for a have existed concentrations to groundwater- apparent number of years, with threats East is highly valued for agricultural, industrial and East is highly valued for agricultural, in Mount Gambier purposes. Stormwater drinking-water the underlying into via disposal bores is discharged subterranean drainage), shallow standing water levels, shallow standing drainage), subterranean and and industrial operations, of agricultural the range South in the use. Groundwater potable (drinking-water) Aquifers in the South East generally have a high Aquifers in the South East generally because of their potential contamination risk rating rapid comparatively promotes (which karstic nature Figure 5 Figure Source: Source: 122 Water the ChristieBeachwastewatertreatment planthasbeendevelopedatAldinga. associated withgrowth instormwaterharvestingandreuse, aMAR schemeusingtreated wastewaterfrom growth inprojects involvingMAR inrecent years.AlthoughthemajorityofAdelaide’s MAR schemesare areas where suitableaquifersexisttorecharge andstore water, andthisarea inparticularhasseenarapid South Australia Across isrecognised theAdelaidePlains, internationallyasaleaderinMAR. there are infiltration basins. regional schemesthatcapture large amountsofwaterandrecharge toaquifersviaafieldofwellsor MAR schemescanvarysignificantlyinscale,from smalldomesticschemes recharging roof run-off, to activity isclassifiedasamethodofdisposal rather than MAR. Where thewaterisnotdrained orinjectedforthebenefitofaquifer, orextracted atalaterdate,the encompass different typesofwater, from riverwatertostormwater, and to roof run-off treated wastewater. aquifers, includingaquiferstorage andrecovery, andaquiferstorage, transfer andrecovery. Itcanalso The term‘MAR’ takesintoaccountanumber ofthedifferent waysthatwatercanbe recharged into such asstormwaterortreated wastewater, andrecovering itforsuitableuseswhenisneeded. organisations useMAR toimprove thesecurityoftheiroperations bytemporarily storingrecharged water, of integrated watermanagementoverrecent years.Anumberofcouncils,golfcoursesandother later reuse orforthebenefitofenvironment.Ithasbecomeanincreasingly importantcomponent Managed aquiferrecharge (MAR) isasystematicprocess ofintentionallystoringwaterinaquifersfor Box 3 Managed aquiferrecharge Water 123 , Local Government Act 1999 Government Act Local Environment Protection (Water Quality) (Water Quality) Protection Environment Policy 2003 Policy Natural Resources Management Act 2004 Management Act Resources Natural Statewide actions Statewide The South Australian Environment Protection (Water Protection Environment The South Australian of South Australia 2003 (Government Policy Quality) tool in ensuring that water 2003) is the key regulatory The as appropriate. quality is maintained or improved, of to the protection policy sets out a statewide approach marine and groundwater water quality in surface-water, A range of policies and procedures are in place to guide are procedures of policies and A range the state. water management across 4.1.1 may be ‘prescribed’ Under the NRM Act, a water resource that by the state government, beginning a process the development of a water allocation plan requires information (for more board NRM (WAP) by the relevant see Section 4.2.1). In 2011, the NRM Act about WAPs, and impacts on, that the use of, was amended to ensure can be treated plantation forestry water by commercial This places in a similar way to irrigation allocations. legislative of policy and at the forefront South Australia since it is possibly the first legislation in the reform, water impacts in irrigation and forestry world treating new tools to manage forest It creates a consistent way. system and permit forest including an improved water, water licensing scheme. These tools aim to a forest can region in a particular that water resources ensure be optimally managed, in consultation with the local community. 4.1.2 The Stormwater Management Authority, a statutory Management Authority, The Stormwater the body established under stormwater management. in facilitating It has a role to which Management Fund, administers the Stormwater annual contribution. the state makes an of nongovernment and community A significant number also are community, as well as the broader organisations, resources. involved in the management of our water 4.1 Environment Environment (NRM River Murray River Murray provides the legislative basis for provides provides for the protection and enhancement of and enhancement for the protection provides What are we doing about it? we doing about What are Natural Resources Management Act 2004 Management Act Resources Natural to flood mitigation, and wastewater management, associated with local council owned wastewater schemes. those relevant to protecting the state’s water resources). the state’s to protecting those relevant for some In addition, local government has responsibility of stormwater management, areas particularly in relation which has lead responsibility for public health–related for public health–related which has lead responsibility Industries and issues, and the Department of Primary matters, including to biosecurity in relation (e.g. Regions Other state agencies with roles relevant to the relevant Other state agencies with roles water of the state’s management and protection include the Department for Health and Ageing, resources major infrastructure upgrades that interface with upgrades major infrastructure water resources. the NRM boards. The EPA has the lead responsibility has the lead responsibility The EPA the NRM boards. is the state’s SA Water management; for water-quality Transport water utility; and the Department of Planning, land-use planning and manages and Infrastructure Water and Natural Resources (DEWNR) has the lead Resources and Natural Water under the water resources for managing the state’s NRM Act, planning through including water allocation Water management arrangements are somewhat complex are management arrangements Water The Department of Environment, in South Australia. water resource for use) and quality is well recognised for use) and quality is well recognised water resource to managing its approach in the state’s and reflected water resources. ‘quantity focused’, and the Environment Protection Protection Environment and the focused’, ‘quantity between relationship the focused’, Act as ‘quality to the suitability of a quantity (particularly in relation Act 2003 Act and ecosystems. areas and related the River Murray, of as Although the NRM Act is sometimes thought management of water in South Australia. The management of water in South Australia. 1993 Act Protection managing water quality and pollution. The broader community. broader The foundation for the sustainable Act) is the legislative Managing the state’s water resources to maximise water resources Managing the state’s and social benefit is a critical economic, environmental Government and the Australian priority for the South 4 124 Water managing waterresources inamore localisedcontext. A range ofregional andlocalwaterplans are inplacefor 4.2 Adelaide’s urban andperi-urbanareas. quality ofwaterdischarged intoGulfSt Vincentfrom of theAdelaideCoastalWaters Study forimproving the state initiatives;theseincludetherecommendations quantity, italsoaddresses qualityand supportsother time ofsevere drought.Whilehavingafocusonwater Released in2009, theplanwasdevelopedduringa 94 actions toensure thefuture availabilityofwater. Good government’s watersecurityplanto2050, Water for Underpinning thestate’s legislativerequirements, the 4.1.4 complaints are investigated. Consumer AdvisoryCommittee,toensure thatcustomers’ independent Water IndustryOmbudsman,alongwitha and sewerage services.Thelegislationalsoallowsforan the powertoregulate pricesandstandards forwater in thegasandelectricityindustries.ThisgivesESCOSA for urbanandregional waterandsewerage services,as of SouthAustralia (ESCOSA) astheindependentregulator The Water ActappointstheEssentialServicesCommission from stormwaterandwastewater. including thedevelopmentofalternativewatersupplies to encourage greater innovationinserviceprovision, water pricingforthefirsttime.TheActisexpected provide greater consumerprotection andindependent sustainable. Itaimstorecognise industryneeds,andto delivery issafe,reliable, affordable andenvironmentally across thewaterindustrytoensure thatwaterservice Water Actprovides increased securityandaccountability recent modernisationofwaterindustrylegislation.The The 4.1.3 this legislation. prevention. TheEPA isresponsible forenforcing the publicandindustryisalsoakeyaspectofpollution who donotcomplywiththelegislation.Educationof appropriate penaltiesforcompaniesandindividuals to minimisetheriskofcontamination,andoutlines Protection Act 1993 environments. Thispolicy, togetherwiththe Water IndustryAct 2012

(Government ofSouthAustralia 2009),outlines Regional actions Water IndustryAct 2012 Water forGood , provides thelegislativeframework (Water Act)ispartofthe (Water Environment Since the2008stateofenvironment report, progress a review. five years and,where necessary, amendedfollowing are document;they a‘living’ reviewed atleastevery ensure thatallocationsare fairandequitable.Theplans stakeholder groups andthecommunityare consultedto Current scienceisusedtosetallocations,andwaterusers, water resource intheprescribed waterresources area. how muchwatercanbeallocatedfrom eachprescribed allocated onwaterlicences.Thisinvolvesplacinglimits WAPs settheprinciplesorrulesunderwhichwatercanbe the environment. fairly, takingintoaccounttheneedsofallwaterusersand aim toensure thatanarea’s waterresources are allocated and thetransfer ofalicenceorwaterallocation.WAPs NRM Acttoguidethegranting oflicencestotakewater, used forvariouspurposesintheadministration ofthe Water allocationplans(WAPs)are statutoryinstruments 4.2.1 Northern andYorke region inDecember 2011. for theEyre Peninsula region in April 2011andforthe Australia’s eightNRMregions. RDSSs were released RDSSs are progressively beingprepared foreachofSouth the shortfall. process toassessdemandorsupplyoptionsaddress state governmenttoinitiateanindependentplanning If anRDSSindicatesashortfallinsupply, thisobligesthe nature offuture demandmanagementorsupply options. to assistdecision-makersinplanningforthetimingand Once prepared, RDSSsare reviewed annually asaguide any possiblefuture gapsbetweendemandandsupply. water resources andidentifyexpectedtimeframes for quality water. They alsolistmajordemandsonthese water resources inaregion fordrinkingandnon-drinking supply. Theyprovide informationontheconditionof a long-term (40-year) overviewofwaterdemandand Regional demandandsupplystatements(RDSSs) provide 4.2.2 Australian prescribed water resources, isshownin Table 3. and current andanticipatedfuture demandsforSouth The current statusofWAPs, aswellthecapacity other areas, asprovided forundertheNRMAct. water andgroundwater, andupdatingWAPs insome of waterresources, includingMountLofty Rangessurface has beenmadetowards establishingWAPs foranumber Water allocationplans Regional demandandsupplystatements Water 125 and undertakes works to reduce the to reduce and undertakes works

Great Artesian Basin Sustainability Great Murray–Darling Basin salinity Murray–Darling Initiative management Specific regional initiatives Specific salt interception schemes salt interception irrigation efficiency improving revegetation salinity zoning and planning systems altering land use and modernising farming flow to dilute securing and managing sufficient water the system. and flush salt from Under GABSI, work is under way to repair uncontrolled uncontrolled Under GABSI, work is under way to repair with piped open earthen drains artesian wells and replace work has seen the systems. Recent water reticulation the decommissioning of the Big Blythe well, preventing of water and than one billion litres of more annual release almost 2500 tonnes of salt. • • • • • • 4.3.2 Initiative (GABSI) Artesian Basin Sustainability The Great and state is a partnership between the Australian groundwater governments to conserve and manage Artesian Basin. the Great across to the surface Until the 1950s, artesian water brought by the drilling of wells was pressure under natural and into open drains allowed to flow uncontrolled even in well- for distribution to stock.creeks However, evaporation water was wasted through maintained drains, the health of groundwater- and seepage. This threatened dependent ecosystems and continued access to artesian water by pastoralists. 4.3 help other initiatives that is also implementing The state outcomes in water management sustainable to promote regions. specific 4.3.1 on salinity occurred already Significant work has Basin. South Murray–Darling management in the Basin Murray–Darling is a signatory to the Australia 2001– Strategy Basin Salinity Management Authority’s 2001) 2015 (MDBA actions, reporting and present salinity impact of past are Such activities to the authority. annually on progress as with the community, often undertaken in collaboration outlined in locally based management plans. salinity within actions to control Within South Australia, include: the River Murray Regional natural resource management management resource natural Regional SA Water long-term plans long-term SA Water plans providing advice and education about efficient and providing sustainable chemical and fertiliser use and other farming practices. stock access and their assessing surface water and groundwater interactions and solute transport modelling of groundwater of groundwater support for rehabilitation providing access trenches fencing of springs, creeks and rivers to prevent and rivers to prevent fencing of springs, creeks • • • • • plans, the NRM boards undertake a range of activities a range undertake plans, the NRM boards the sustainability of water resources aimed at improving Activities include: contamination. and preventing plans seek to recognise and address water management and address plans seek to recognise plan for managing the issues, as part of the overall these with In accordance resources. natural regional Regional NRM plans are prepared by each of the state’s by each of the state’s prepared NRM plans are Regional the NRM Act. with in accordance These eight NRM boards 4.2.4 Peninsula (November 2008), Kangaroo Island (December Island (December 2008), Kangaroo (November Peninsula 2010) and upper Spencer (October Peninsula 2009), Yorke Gulf (April 2012). infrastructure and resources have the capacity to meet have the and resources infrastructure customer requirements. future for Eyre plans have been released Since 2008, long-term proactive approach to planning the strategic direction for direction to planning the strategic approach proactive assets and guiding investment augmenting SA Water’s that with a focus on ensuring in new infrastructure, the wastewater treatment plants have capacity to plants have treatment the wastewater demand. These regional in increases meet potential a They provide timeframe. plans have a 25–30-year Long-term plans are prepared by SA Water to ensure ensure to by SA Water prepared plans are Long-term that water supply and have a secure that customers 4.2.3 126 Water Figure 6 South Eastenvironment inthenorth.Inhigh-flow years, to bedivertedwhere itismostneededintheupper enables waterfrom high-rainfall catchmentsinthesouth the upperSouthEast(Figure 6). TheREFLOWS floodway delivering fresh watertowetlandsandwatercourses in south tonorthmovementofwaterintheregion and upper SouthEastNRMregion, recreating thehistoric 90 kilometres offloodwaysto reconnect thelowerand The REFLOWS project hasinvolvedtheconstructionof 4.3.3 South EastREFLOWS project REFLOWS project location Australian governments. The project hasbeenfundedbytheAustralian andSouth East DrylandSalinityandFloodManagementProgram. constructed undertherecently completedUpperSouth of more than620 kilometres ofdrains thatwere The REFLOWS floodwaycomplementsthenetwork reduce salinityinthelagoons. REFLOWS watermayreach theCoorong, andhelpto Water 127 Local Local Stormwater management Stormwater . The SMA operates as the planning, prioritising operates . The SMA mandate this approach. identify and develop new stormwater projects develop new stormwater identify and and wastewater plans for stormwater develop master Adelaide for Greater plans for the quality improvement develop water to areas priority Ranges Watershed Mount Lofty or have a neutral that new developments ensure water quality beneficial impact on and management current review comprehensively Ranges Watershed Lofty of the Mount protection and Basin Authority work with the Murray–Darling working River Murray healthy, a others to ensure Lofty of the Mount for key areas complete WAPs Ranges values for priority water develop environmental Ranges and bodies, including those in the Mount Lofty coastal waters Adelaide’s urban design for water-sensitive targets introduce Section 4.4.3),(see and develop and implement to Australia for South approach the best regulatory and multi-objective approach to management of and multi-objective approach stormwater for the area. wastewater and harvesting stormwater for capacity The A joint application progressively. is increasing reuse by the state and local governments to the Australian funding Government has been successful in attracting in Adelaide, which for seven major stormwater projects announced in late 2009; another was announced were A key aim of Water for Good is to increase the state’s the state’s is to increase for Good A key aim of Water and other environmental water security and to provide (Figure 7). diversified water supply sources benefits from in interest has been growing years, there In recent and use of desalinated stormwater and wastewater reuse, and sea water. groundwater 4.4.1 was (SMA) Management Authority The Stormwater of the established on 1 July 2007 as a consequence Management) Amendment Act Government (Stormwater 2007 with the Stormwater and funding body in accordance of South between the State Management Agreement Association. A key Government and the Local Australia element is the development of stormwater management The purpose of plans for catchments or specified areas. that stormwater management is these plans is to ensure NRM on a total catchment basis. The relevant addressed various local government authorities and state board, for the catchment work government agencies responsible implement and fund a coordinated together to develop, • • • • • • • • plan (Government of South Australia of South Australia plan (Government

Lake Eyre Basin Lake Eyre Mount Lofty Ranges Waste Control Control Ranges Waste Mount Lofty Program Urban water management increase the state’s stormwater harvesting capacity the state’s increase to the Adelaide region and other population centres of and other population centres to the Adelaide region including actions to: South Australia, • The Water for Good The Water to a ‘water- South Australia 2009) aims to transition relevant It describes many actions that are sensitive state’. areas in providing safe and secure water supplies, and safe and secure in providing areas managing urban stormwater and wastewater. 4.4 urban challenges face South Australian Considerable dynamics of arid rivers and the kinds of information to assess and maintain their health. required wetlands surveys are contributing to our understanding wetlands surveys are of the ecology of these arid river systems. These projects have also identified many gaps in our knowledge of the and extreme flow variability of arid rivers means that and extreme to is required approach and long-term a broadscale understand how these systems work. Ongoing habitat and Methodologies and techniques used to assess other river Methodologies and techniques used to for not necessarily applicable or appropriate systems are and catchments. The vastness Basin rivers the Lake Eyre The Lake Eyre Basin Ministerial Forum requires a review a review requires Forum Basin Ministerial The Lake Eyre and catchments of the condition of all watercourses area. Agreement Basin within the Lake Eyre Agreement area. The agreement recognises the ecological recognises area. The agreement Agreement Basin, and its social and importance of the Lake Eyre page xviii). economic values (see South Australian governments to jointly address the governments to jointly address South Australian resources natural management of water and related Basin rivers within the Lake Eyre of the cross-border The Lake Eyre Basin Agreement establishes a cooperative establishes a cooperative Basin Agreement The Lake Eyre and Queensland for the Australian, framework Department for Health and Ageing, and the EPA. Department for Health 4.3.5 network. The program is being delivered by the Adelaide is being delivered network. The program with the Adelaide and Mount Hills Council, in partnership the South Australian SA Water, Ranges NRM Board, Lofty the maintenance of existing systems, upgrade to a existing systems, upgrade the maintenance of or connect onsite systems to a effective system, more management scheme or a sewer community wastewater in the Mount Lofty Ranges watershed are currently currently are Ranges watershed Lofty in the Mount Ranges Waste Lofty by the Mount being targeted to improve is designed The program Program. Control Failing or faulty onsite wastewater treatment systems systems treatment onsite wastewater or faulty Failing 4.3.4 128 Water prioritising ofwater-related infrastructure. framework. Itwillalsoconsiderplanningandthe integrated regional waterplanningand investment and economicbenefitsthatcan bedelivered underan blueprint willtakeaccountofthesocial,environmental with theregion’s otheravailablewaterresources. The development anduseoftheseresources, inconjunction a framework thatensures theoptimalmanagement, wastewater infrastructure willbeundertakenwithin integrated. As well,investmentsinstormwaterand for stormwaterandwastewaterinWater forGoodare The blueprintwillensure thatmasterplanninginitiatives blueprint forurbanwaterGreater Adelaideby2014. Good. Akeyactionisthedevelopmentofanintegrated for achievingthestormwater-related actionsinWater for (Government ofSouthAustralia 2011b), asaroad map The statereleased aStormwater Strategy and communityamenity, inadditiontowaterreuse. Most oftheseprojects address waterqualityimprovement in stormwaterharvestinganduseprojects by2013. millioninvested These projects willseemore than$150 were successfulinattracting Commonwealthfunding. in 2010. three In2012, furthercouncil-sponsored projects Figure 7 Source: 13% 19% 25% Government ofSouthAustralia (2009) 11% 6% Greater Adelaide’s watersuppliesunderWater forGood 2025 Now 3% 50% 73% and aquifers Rivers, reservoirs Desalination and wastewater Recycled stormwater Saving water Water restrictions and aquifers Rivers, reservoirs Desalination and wastewater Recycled stormwater Saving water

in 2011

Resources ManagementRegional Plan. Good, andtheAdelaideMountLofty RangesNatural government policies,includingthe30-Year Plan, Water for The stormwaterfocusoftheACWQIP islinkedtokey and sedimentloadsaffectingAdelaide’s coastalwaters. Adelaide region, withtheaimofreducing thenutrient is onimproved stormwatermanagementacross the and communities.Much ofthefocusACWQIP partnership withotheragencies,localgovernment implementation, whichhavebeendevelopedin The ACWQIP identifieseightstrategies for seagrass andimprovement inreef condition. coastal waterqualityand,overtime,allowthereturn of wastewater treatment plantsandstormwater, toimprove 2013) setstargets toreduce discharges from industry, Coastal Water QualityImprovement Plan (ACWQIP) (EPA negatively onAdelaidecoastalwaters.The along withindustrialandwastewaterdischarges, impact that sedimentsandnutrientsfrom urbanstormwater, The AdelaideCoastalWaters Study (Fox etal.2007)found 22% 26% 15% 11% 26% 2050 2014 3% 56% 41% and aquifers Rivers, reservoirs Desalination and wastewater Recycled stormwater Saving water and aquifers Rivers, reservoirs Desalination and wastewater Recycled stormwater Saving water Water 129 Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara Christies Beach Wastewater treatment plant treatment Christies Beach Wastewater Water-sensitive urban design Water-sensitive management of water resources, and includes a range and includes a range management of water resources, Not only will broadscale of policies to support WSUD. benefit the Adelaide region application of WSUD across and wetlands, urban waterways, including streams reducing the impact but it will also have benefits in stormwater on of sediment and nutrient loads from the promotes coastal waters. The ACWQIP Adelaide’s application of WSUD to improve catchment-to-coast 4.4.3 Strategic South Australia’s for Good builds on Water stormwater recycled the state’s to increase target Plan by 2025 (from harvesting capacity to 35 gigalitres in May 2012). It acknowledges the role 12.4 gigalitres design (WSUD) urban can play in that water-sensitive urban water-sensitive the development of creative, Good includes actions to for communities. Water uptake of greater and support WSUD targets introduce 2011, the state government In WSUD in South Australia. of a WSUD consultation statement, endorsed the release to which outlined possible statewide WSUD targets water conservation, and the quantity and address in the WSUD Feedback on proposals quality of run-off. assisting the development of consultation statement are by the for consideration WSUD policy recommendations state government. supports new urban development Plan The 30-Year that contribute to sustainable and redevelopment is focused on achieving nutrient and sediment reductions and sediment reductions on achieving nutrient is focused treatment and wastewater industry from for discharges is the lead agency coast. The EPA plants to Adelaide’s point- and sediments from of nutrients seeking reduction licensing conditions. through discharges source Wastewater management Wastewater reuse and reduce the nutrient load discharged to the nutrient load discharged and reduce reuse the environment. upgrade—the plant currently provides about 3 billion provides plant currently upgrade—the for horticultural wastewater each year of treated litres of the plant purposes. The $272 million upgrade the capacity and improve the plant’s will increase wastewater being produced. quality of the treated increase This will enable further opportunities to Southern Urban Reuse Project—the South South Project—the Southern Urban Reuse investing are governments and Australian Australian 1.6 billion litres to supply $62.6 million in a project wastewater per year to new housing of treated southern suburbs. developments in Adelaide’s Plant Treatment Christies Beach Wastewater Project—this project will provide extra treatment treatment extra provide will project Project—this Glenelg to pipeline from facilities, a 10-kilometre district, business and around central Adelaide’s Lands. It will the Park around of pipeline 30 kilometres litres 3.8 billion an extra provide have the capacity to for reuse. water of recycled Glenelg to Adelaide Parklands Recycled Water Water Recycled Adelaide Parklands Glenelg to main cause of poor water quality and seagrass loss along main cause of poor water quality and seagrass is based on these the Adelaide coastline. The ACWQIP ACWQIP one in the role under strategy findings. The EPA’s Inputs of nutrients and sediments from industrial, Inputs of nutrients and sediments from found by the were wastewater and stormwater discharges et al. 2007) to be the (Fox Study Adelaide Coastal Waters for point-source discharges are expected to develop are discharges for point-source and to reduce programs continuous improvement effluent to the environment. eventually cease discharging Point-source discharges from wastewater treatment wastewater treatment from discharges Point-source plants, community wastewater management systems and Industries responsible licensed by the EPA. industry are councils have also supported efforts to conserve water efficiency. water-use and improve projects through other water conservation, stormwater other water conservation, through projects and wastewater initiatives, such as those under the 2012). Local (DSEWPaC Project Cities and Towns Statewide has seen many South Australian local councils implement local councils implement has seen many South Australian with council-owned schemes associated water recycling In community wastewater management schemes. water addition, many local councils have undertaken wastewater reuse in many regional areas. Examples Examples areas. in many regional wastewater reuse an Project, Recycling Wastewater the Statewide are local government, which initiative of South Australian In addition to Adelaide-based projects, there has been there In addition to Adelaide-based projects, and in developing stormwater significant progress • • • Capacity for wastewater reuse is being increased. Recent Recent is being increased. wastewater reuse Capacity for include the following: projects 4.4.2 130 Water requirements, andassessedsome ofthesocio-economic South Australian Government’s environmental water proposed sustainablediversion limitswouldmeetthe (MDBA 2010).Thisanalysisconsidered whetherthe had beenusedinthe Australian Governmenttoreview thesciencethat In 2010, theGoyderInstitutewasaskedbySouth other relevant stakeholders. identified incooperation withgovernmentagenciesand climate change.Desired outcomesthatsupportpolicy are water, waterforindustry, environmental waterand The institute’s research focusesonthethemesofurban integrated approach towatermanagement. identify future threats towatersecurityandassist inan scientific advicetoinformgoodpolicydecision-making, year research program thataimstoprovide independent of SouthAustralia. Theinstitutehasa$50-million,five- University, theUniversityofAdelaideand Australian CSIRO, Governmentthrough DEWNR, Flinders reform inAustralia. ItisapartnershipbetweentheSouth South Australia’s watersupplyandcontributeto in 2010tosupportthesecurityandmanagementof The GoyderInstituteforWater Research wasestablished 4.5.1 resources are describedbelow. to improving ourunderstandingofthestate’s water water use.Somekeyinitiativesthathavecontributed development anddecision-makingtoachievesustainable being sustainablymanaged,andtounderpinpolicy the extenttowhichstate’s waterresources are Science andmonitoringare neededtounderstand 4.5 the future. quality benefitsforlocalurbanstreams andwetlandsin developments. Thisisexpectedtoprovide water stormwater managementguidelinesinplanningnew local councilsalsopromote WSUDandbest-practice The EPA, NRMboards, otherstateagenciesandsome across Adelaide. include capacitybuildingtopromote theuptakeofWSUD local communities.ImplementationoftheACWQIP will Board, localgovernments,arange ofstateagenciesand including theAdelaideandMountLofty RangesNRM of WSUDrequires coordinated effortsbymanygroups, and nutrientloadsreachingImplementation thecoast. water qualityfrom stormwater, andreduce sediment Knowledge underpinningplanning and policy Goyder InstituteforWater Research Guide totheproposed Basin Plan Publications are availableat:www.goyderinstitute.org/ targets relevant toSouthAustralian circumstances. and anassessmentrecommendations forWSUD water andgroundwater around drains inthesouth-east, approaches tomodellinginteractions betweensurface management inthestate.Theseincludeastudyof reports ofrelevance tootherareas ofwaterresource The GoyderInstitutehasalsorecently published opportunities oftheproposed waterrecovery scenario. provide adviceabouttheecologicalbenefits,risksand perceived limitationsindevelopmentoftheplan,andto evaluation oftheproposed plan,toprovide adviceabout methods usedbytheSouthAustralian Governmentinits to provide expertjudgementabouttheadequacyof quality assurance, theGoyderInstitutewasrequested scenario itself. Intheinterests ofsoundgovernanceand the consequencesofproposed waterrecovery the SouthAustralian Government wasabletoevaluate was released forpublicconsultationattheendof2011, implications forthestate.Whenproposed BasinPlan • • include thefollowing: some commencedbytheformerDepartmentforWater) science andmonitoringinitiativesfrom DEWNR(including prescribed andnonprescribed waterresources. Recent DEWNR monitors,investigatesandprepares reports on potential implicationsofclimatechange. knowledge ofthestate’s waterresources, includingthe role ofDEWNRistoundertakemonitoringandimprove the state’s waterandothernatural resources. Akey agency forpolicy, managementandadministration of Resources andtheDepartmentforWater. Itisthelead of theformerDepartmentEnvironment andNatural DEWNR wasestablishedin2012through themerger 4.5.2 publications. (including water levelandsalinitytrends), and ecosystems andgroundwater monitoringsites on regional hydrogeology, groundwater-dependent groundwater resources. Theyincludeinformation these provide asnapshot ofthecurrent statusof preparation ofgroundwater status reports— Lower Lakesand Murray mouth. River Murray anditsfloodplains,theCoorong, with respect totheSouth Australian sectionofthe analysesoftheproposedhydro-ecological BasinPlan (Government ofSouthAustralia 2012b)—these include response totheproposed Murray–Darling BasinPlan modelling scenariostoinformthestategovernment’s analyses ofMurray–Darling BasinAuthority Natural Resources Department ofEnvironment, Water and Water 131 Glossy ibis

Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara . specific water resources, including published reports published including resources, specific water on climate change impacts. information about current water permits, licences, information about current allocations and approvals status reports groundwater aquatic ecosystems reports condition of technical publications about the state and Each stream site is assessed using a descriptive model is assessed using a descriptive site Each stream relation ecosystems in change in aquatic for interpreting uses The assessment levels of disturbance. to increasing and models that of science-based approaches a range physical changes chemical and the biological, capture and lakes. streams occurring in South Australia’s 4.5.4WaterConnect brought key water information has been The state’s website, WaterConnect: together under a single www.waterconnect.sa.gov.au access to the most current The website provides and water resources Australia’s information about South water activities, including: • • • • Environment Protection Authority Authority Protection Environment assessments resources of the Northern and Yorke NRM region, NRM region, of the Northern and Yorke resources and resources groundwater and on the prescribed NRM region. Peninsula in the Eyre catchment Tod Australia’s water resources for subsequent water resources Australia’s modelling of climate change impacts as investigations of downscaling methodologies the basis of climate impact modelling change investigations of the impacts of climate surface-water and groundwater on the prescribed an assessment of risk and prioritisation of South an assessment of risk and prioritisation Resources project—this entails a staged approach approach entails a staged project—this Resources change to assessing the implications of climate (both water resources for South Australia’s to date and surface water). Work groundwater has included under this project the Impacts of Climate Change on Water the Impacts of Climate Change on Water - - - provide a useful reporting format that can support a useful reporting provide decision-making within government,environmental the community and industry. sufficient frequency to allow for regular state of the frequency to allow for sufficient reporting environment describe aquatic ecosystem condition in a manner that is suitable to inform public understanding and management responses identify the key pressures provide a statewide monitoring framework for a statewide monitoring framework provide with the NRM regions that cycles through streams - - - regions that are currently nonprescribed. To date, To nonprescribed. currently that are regions groundwater nonprescribed DEWNR has published of Alinytjara NRM regions assessments for the Island, Northern Peninsula, Kangaroo Eyre Wilurara, Arid Lands. and South Australian and Yorke, identify risks to water supplies and determine identify risks to water is needed. whether further monitoring information provides Program—this a Groundwater regional managers and resource to assist natural insight into future industries, with a valuable from resources groundwater opportunities to access an assessment of the status of the groundwater the groundwater of the status of an assessment and use conditions. climatic at current resource can help decision-making status reports Groundwater allocations, identify groundwater about sustainable condition, resource in groundwater trends emerging • • • • The EPA prepares aquatic ecosystem reports on the aquatic ecosystem reports prepares The EPA and lakes. These are creeks health of South Australia’s designed to: 4.5.3 • • 132 Water ML =megalitre; PWA =prescribed wellsarea resources area ML =megalitre; PWA =prescribed wellsarea; PWRA=prescribed water Table 3 resource Prescribed water resource Prescribed water Southern BasinsPWA Musgrave PWA Northern Intake Middle BeachIntake watercourse Little Para prescribed Dry Creek PWA Chapmans Creek Intake Central AdelaidePWA Ranges PWRA Western MountLofty Plains PWA Northern Adelaide McLaren Vale PWA Barossa PWRA Adelaide and MountLofty Ranges South Australia’s prescribed waterresources: statusofwaterallocationplans,supply capacity andcurrent demandbynatural resource managementregion

Eyre Peninsula 356 731 (ML/year) Resource capacity (ML/year) 26 500 27 147 Resource capacity 6 560 8 136 1 786 No plan

206 500 (ML/year) demands (ML/year) 11 100 demands Current Current 5 631 2 530 9 109 96

Water 133

69 869 6 100 Current Current (ML/year) demands (ML/year)

Current demands Current

Plan under way Plan capacity 20 350 127 750 capacity Resource Resource Resource Resource (ML/year) (ML/year) Northern and Yorke Northern South Australian Arid Lands South Australian continued Far North PWA PWA North Far Clare Valley PWRA Valley Clare PWRA Baroota Prescribed water Prescribed resource Prescribed water Prescribed resource ML = megalitre; PWA = prescribed wells area = prescribed PWA ML = megalitre; ML = megalitre; PWRA = prescribed water resources area resources water PWRA = prescribed ML = megalitre; Table 3 Table 134 Water ML =megalitre; PWA =prescribed wellsarea resources area ML =megalitre; PWA =prescribed wellsarea; PWRA=prescribed water Table 3 resource Prescribed water resource Prescribed water PWA Tintinara Coonalpyn Tatiara PWA Padthaway PWA Morambro Creek PWA Lower LimestoneCoast Angas Bremer PWA watercourse River Murray prescribed Sherlock PWA Peake, Roby and Noora PWA Marne SaundersPWRA Mallee PWA Ranges PWRA Eastern MountLofty South Australian Murray–Darling Basin continued South East plan Lofty Rangeswaterallocation To beincludedinEasternMount 6 592 000 (ML/year) (ML/year) Resource Resource capacity capacity 188 404 14 605 61 300 2 489 5 138 151 356 756 487 109 100 55 096 870

(ML/year) (ML/year) demands demands Current Current 573 800 24 365 56 540 140 587 1 820 4 106 22 215 55 437 19 404 28 200

Water 135 communities. the Basin plans for ongoing development of water allocation the state across water resources prescribed water ongoing investment to diversify the state’s supplies the interface between issues regarding addressing mining development and water plans development of water quality improvement the ACWQIP of the state—in for key areas particular, Ranges Watershed and the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Plan Quality Improvement water as an development of the blueprint for urban management plan for Greater urban water integrated Australia) Adelaide (the first for a capital city in communities and ensuring water security for remote access appropriate to ensure developing approaches to water for these communities. and forecasting development and use of strategic monitoring capabilities for water resources as real-time use of markets and technology (such the availability of information to improve data apps) and access to data for government, and industry continued investment in building knowledge of continued investment policy and risks, to underpin our water resources development and to focus management Basin Plan implementation of the Murray–Darling such as the Commonwealth and associated programs, and across in South Australia Strategy, Recovery Water Major priorities and emerging issues to help improve the issues to help improve Major priorities and emerging to inland waters relate ecological condition of the state’s so that nutrients farm management practices improving in the landscape, rather retained and sediments are and wetlands. This may than being washed into streams of social, economic and environmental involve a range to support a wider uptake of fencing, stock approaches • • • • • • • • knowledge of climate change, and the opportunities for knowledge of climate necessary that are measures mitigation and adaptation change and other significant risks to climate to respond management priorities over Key described in this chapter. five years include: to the coming three • • Issues and priorities What can we expect? What can we water-dependent ecosystems water-dependent projects, significant investment in water diversification wastewater including stormwater and recycled South Adelaide and regional schemes in metropolitan variability in supply to deal with long-term Australia to climate effects. and demand, as well as responding current legislative and planning frameworks that legislative and planning frameworks current management sustainable water resource promote and build on NRM framework) an integrated (within efforts protection existing environmental and monitoring, assessment research, scientific and on the condition of water resources reporting It is therefore vital to continue to monitor and evaluate It is therefore and ecosystems. water resources the status of the state’s to advance our research Also essential is scientific forecast reductions in overall rainfall, and increased and increased rainfall, in overall reductions forecast and floods, which and severity of droughts occurrences ecosystems. can affect water users and water-dependent its anticipated impact on water resources and water- its anticipated impact on water resources dependent ecosystems. Impacts may include reduced result of as a recharge flows and groundwater stream A key uncertainty in this positive outlook is the complex consequences of climate change, with hydrological 5.1 waterways and helping us to understand the time waterways and helping us to understand the condition of our more it will take to improve degraded waterways. monitoring and assessment programs are communicated communicated are monitoring and assessment programs to the wider public, industry and government is also protecting expected to assist in prioritising works, Recent work to improve the way in which the results from from the way in which the results work to improve Recent • • decoupled from future pressures facing the state’s water facing the state’s pressures future decoupled from The elements include: resources. • foundational elements are already in place or are being being in place or are already are foundational elements cause to believe that projected implemented. This gives can be significantly growth population and economic Although the process to reverse many historical impacts many historical impacts to reverse Although the process ecosystems and associated water resources on the state’s is being made. The progress is challenging, significant 5 136 Water developments occurinanappropriate manner. management andregulatory regime sothatsuch water resources, andproviding anappropriate potential impactsonboththequantityandqualityof consideration andprioritytobegivenassessingthe water resources inthoseareas. Thiswillrequire increased related activities,are expectedtoincrease thedemandfor An anticipatedminingboominSouthAustralia, and stormwater flooding. of water-sensitive urbandesignpractices willreduce conditions, itisalsohopedthatincreased implementation scale interventionsmayberequired toimprove stream and peri-urbanriverscreeks. Althoughsomelarge- strategies tominimisehumandisturbancesurban other stream restoration programs willhelptodefine local stream environments. Future workonthisand of large stormwaterinflowsinthedegradation of recent research ishelpingustounderstandtherole Urban streams willalwaysbedifficulttoimprove, but rainfall periods. the state,particularlyduringprolonged drought andhigh- and sedimentsthroughout therange ofenvironments in design appropriate bufferstoeffectively trap nutrients Further workalsoneedstobedoneunderstandand farmland more effectivelythaninthepast. exclusion, revegetation andotherprograms tomanage Our CleanEnvironment (Government ofSouthAustralia The government’s focusonPremium Food andWinefrom expert advice. by substantiallyimproved science,aswellindependent ensure thatfuture regulation gas is informed of coal-seam Coal SeamGasandLarge CoalMiningDevelopmentwill addition, therecent NationalPartnership Agreement on potential impactsoftheseactivitiesonwaterresources. In together inaco-regulatory approach tominimisethe A numberofstategovernmentagenciesare working deposits across anumberofbasinsinSouthAustralia. include arange gas ofshalegas,tightgasandcoal-seam the nextreporting period(DMITRE2012).Theseprojects unconventional gasprospects inSouthAustralia during increased exploration of, andproduction from, arange of South Australia 2013).Itisanticipated thatthere willbe create anewsource ofexportincome(Government of to transform energy supply, provide energy securityand Statement describesthepotentialofunconventionalgas The SouthAustralian Government’s 2013Economic the faceofincreasing andseriouspressures. state’s social,environmental andeconomicwellbeingin provide theecosystemservicesneededtounderpin South Australia’s waterssothattheycansustainably drivers forthesuiteofmeasures aimedatmanaging togetherwithagrowing2012c), population,willbekey Onkaparinga RivernearOldNoarlunga Barbara Hardy Institute Water 137 South Australia Location of oil and gas infrastructure, mining projects and coal gasification projects in and coal gasification projects mining projects of oil and gas infrastructure, Location Figure 8 Figure Source: DMITRE (2012) Source: 138 Water Organisation, Adelaide. findings Coastal Waters Study: final report Townsend M,Westphalen GandWilkinsonJ(2007). Henderson B, KampfJ, NayerS,Pattiaratchi Petrusevics C, P, Collings G,EllisD, Fairweather P, Fallowfield H,HarrisG, Fox BatelyGE,BlackburnD, BoneY, DR, BryarsS,Cheshire A, reporting quality/aquatic_ecosystem_monitoring_evaluation_and_ Adelaide, reporting EPA (2013). Adelaide, 2008, EPA (2008). projects/sa-statewide.html environment.gov.au/water/policy-programs/cities-towns/ Water, Population andCommunities,Canberra, Government DepartmentofSustainability, Environment, Government AssociationofSouthAustralia DSEWPaC (2012). Adelaide. Manufacturing, Innovation,Trade, Resources andEnergy, in SouthAustralia DMITRE (2012). Resources, Adelaide. Australian DepartmentofEnvironment,Water andNatural groundwater levelandsalinity statusreport 2011 DEWNR(2011). aquatic ecosystems. gradient: adescriptivemodelforinterpreting changein Davies SPandJacksonSK(2006).Thebiologicalcondition Scientific andIndustrial Research Organisation, Adelaide. Darling BasinSustainableYields Project a report totheAustralian Governmentfrom the CSIRO Murray– CSIRO (2008). ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4610.0 Australian Bureau ofStatistics, Canberra, ABS (2012). 6 References Environment Protection Authority SouthAustralia , CommonwealthScientificand Industrial Research , Environment Protection Authority SouthAustralia, .

www.epa.sa.gov.au/soe/home www.epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/water_ Aquatic ecosystemmonitoring, evaluationand Water Australia, account, 2010–11 State oftheenvironment report forSouthAustralia Groundwater dataforMusgrave PWA Water availabilityintheMurray–Darling Basin: Roadmap forunconventionalgasprojects , SouthAustralian Departmentfor Statewide CitiesandTowns Project, Local Ecological Applications . . , vol1, , Commonwealth Summary ofstudy . , Australian www.abs.gov.au/ 16(4):1251–1266. , catno. 4610.0, , South www. Adelaide , full-plan.pdf d6fa26ca-72e0-404e-900c-a1d400fe3fd8/water-for-good- South Australia, Adelaide, a plantoensure ourwater future to2050 Government ofSouthAustralia (2009). (2003.10.01)/2003.-.UN.PDF (WATER%20QUALITY)%20POLICY%202003/2004.11.24_ au/LZ/C/POL/ENVIRONMENT%20PROTECTION%20 General’s Adelaide, Department, Environment Protection Quality) (Water Policy 2003 Government ofSouthAustralia (2003). html. au/salinity/basin_salinity_management_strategy_20012015. Murray–Darling BasinAuthority MDBA (2001) Environment, Water andNatural Resources, Adelaide. (2010) (2010). Lower LakesAcidSulfateSoilsScientific Research Committee pdf. www.premier.sa.gov.au/ecostat/Economic_Statement_web. Government ofSouthAustralia (2013). strategic-priorities South Australia, Adelaide, Strategic Plan—sevenstrategic priorities Government ofSouthAustralia (2012c). Government ofSouthAustralia, Adelaide. Government response tothe draft Murray–Darling BasinPlan Government ofSouthAustralia (2012b). 2012–2017, GovernmentofSouthAustralia, Adelaide. state natural resources managementplan Government ofSouthAustralia (2012a). stormwater-strategy-report.pdf. au/files/4a764047-86a8-44d0-94c3-a1db00b5a3a8/ Department forWater, Adelaide, the future ofstormwatermanagement, Government ofSouthAustralia (2011b). Adelaide,http://Cabinet, Strategic Plan Government ofSouthAustralia (2011a). , prepared fortheSouthAustralian Departmentof Acid SulfateSoilsResearch Program summaryreport . , SouthAustralian DepartmentofPremier and . BasinSalinityManagementStrategy 2001–2015, . saplan.org.au www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/ http://saplan.org.au/pages/seven- . , www.environment.sa.gov. Canberra, www2.mdbc.gov. www.legislation.sa.gov. South Australian , Governmentof . Economic statement South Australia Water forGood: South Australia’s , Governmentof Stormwater Strategy: South Australia’s Our place,ourfuture: South Australian , SouthAustralia , Attorney- , , Water 139 , , Murray– Climate change . . www.mdba.gov.au/bpkid/ saplan.org.au/pages/our- www.sa.gov.au/upload/ South Australia’s Strategic Strategic South Australia’s Water Resources Management Resources Water Murray–Darling Basin Authority Murray–Darling Canberra, Canberra, , South Australia’s Strategic Plan Plan Strategic , South Australia’s , www.waterconnect.sa.gov.au/GSR/ . Canberra. Programs: the Living Murray, Murray–Darling Murray–Darling the Living Murray, Programs: Basin Plan, Basin Plan, Guide to the proposed Basin Plan proposed Guide to the repared by the Climate Impacts and Risk repared www.mdba.gov.au/basin-plan . . Resources, Adelaide, Resources, Pages/default.aspx CCgreenhouse_conditions_2006.pdf South status reports, (2013). Groundwater WaterConnect and Natural Department of Environment, Water Australian Government of South Australia, Government of South Australia, franchise/Water,%20energy%20and%20environment/ climate_change/documents/what_is_cc/CSIRO_FullReport_ Australia, p Australia, Research Scientific and Industrial Commonwealth Group, for the Research, Marine and Atmospheric Organisation under enhanced greenhouse conditions in South Australia: conditions in South Australia: under enhanced greenhouse on assessment of climate change, an updated report to South relevant impacts and risk management strategies progress PH, McInnes KL, Whetton Suppiah R, B, Jones RN, Preston D (2006). Macadam I, Bathols J and Kirono SASP Audit Committee(2010). Committee(2010). SASP Audit 2010 report progress Plan Adelaide, http:// Committee, Audit low flows on the water quality of the Lower Murray River Murray Lower quality of the low flows on the water and Lakes (South Australia). 26(13):3923–3946. Canberra, Canberra, MR, E, Heneker TM, Hipsey Leyden Mosley LM, Zammit B, KT (2012). The impact of extreme Skinner D and Aldridge Darling Basin Authority Darling Basin guide MDBA (2012). Basin Authority, Basin Authority, MDBA(2010). MDBA (2008). MDBA (2008). 140 Water Full pageimage 141

Biodiversity

1 Why is it important?

Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms, from genes The South Australian Government’s No Species Loss to species to entire ecosystems, that occur in all Strategy (Government of South Australia 2007a), the State environments on Earth—land, water, air and sea. Healthy, Natural Resources Management Plan (Government of natural ecosystems underpin South Australia’s economic, South Australia 2012) and the state of the environment environmental, cultural and social wellbeing. report for South Australia in 2008 (EPA 2008) all report that, despite our efforts, biodiversity in South Australia The components of biodiversity, including animals (birds, continues to decline. Climate change impacts are expected mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians, invertebrates), to exacerbate the decline. vegetation, soil, biogeochemical cycles and microorganisms, provide a range of essential ecosystem The following messages about Australia’s biodiversity services. ‘Ecosystem services’ describes the benefits that in Australia state of the environment 2011 (State of the humans derive from the environment, such as: Environment 2011 Committee 2011) equally apply to • purification of air and water South Australia: • pollination, seed dispersal and pest control • Biodiversity has declined since European settlement. • soil generation and fertilisation • Pressures are not being substantially reduced, nor is the decline in biodiversity being arrested or reversed. • detoxification and decomposition of wastes • Most pressures on biodiversity that arise directly • flood and drought mitigation or indirectly from human activities appear to still • ultraviolet protection be strong. • stabilisation of climate. • The major future drivers of change—climate change, For example, the rivers, wetlands and floodplains of the population growth, economic development and Murray–Darling Basin are estimated to provide $187 billion associated consumption of natural resources—must be in ecosystem services each year (Lindenmayer 2007). managed carefully if a sustainable relationship between Biodiversity also provides the basis for many economic biodiversity and human society is to be achieved. uses. For example, apart from our obvious use of crops • Data on long-term trends in biodiversity are limited, and domestic animals, invertebrates such as worms, ants, making it difficult to interpret the state or trends of spiders, wasps, leafhoppers and mites are being used in major animal and plant groups. adhesives, antibiotics and industrial products. • Australia can improve its biodiversity management.

Opposite page: Insects of South Australia State Library of South Australia B15276/48 142 Biodiversity In summary Aspect andobservation or stable(positive),andsomerising(negative). depth togroundwater, withmost measures declining There isavariabletrend indrylandsalinityand soil acidification. There hasbeenanincrease inthearea andrate of sowing methods. There hasbeenanincrease incrop area usingno-till and stable. Soil conditioninproduction areas isfairtomoderate protected from erosion. There hasbeenasteady increase incropping land Soil andlandmanagement Climate changehasaltered fire regimes. communities since 2008. endangered andvulnerable speciesandecological There hasbeenanetincrease inthenumberof communities ispoorand declining. The statusofthreatened species andecological 20 indicatorspecies. There isavariabletopositive trend inthestatusof and actions. There hasbeenanincrease inrecovery plans Threatened speciesand ecologicalcommunities revegetation since2008. There hasbeenadecrease inthearea of There hasbeenanincrease inillegal clearing. under someformofprotected statussince2008. There hasbeenanincrease ofabout10%inthearea moderate anddeclining. Native vegetationextentandconditionisfairto Native vegetation Very poor • Assessment grade • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence ˜ ˜ ˜ In trend Biodiversity 143 In trend › Confidence In grade ˜ Very good Very Good Poor Evidence and consensus too low to make an assessment Evidence Limited evidence or limited consensus Adequate high-quality and high level of consensus evidence Assessment grade Assessment • ™ › ˜ Very poor Very Very good Very Level of Level confidence Good Phytophthora Phytophthora and gorse are and gorse are Stable Unclear Poor • • Caulerpa taxifolia and sarcoptic mange of wombats have mange of wombats have and sarcoptic Improving Deteriorating Very poor Very • • the number of terrestrial vertebrate pests is vertebrate the number of terrestrial steady the number of wildlife diseases is unknown. feral camels, feral in distribution and abundance decreasing and chytridiomycosis is unknown in distribution abundance. the numbers of weeds, marine pests, aquatic pests and native plant diseases are increasing weatherloach, silverleaf nightshade, weatherloach, silverleaf cinnamomi abundance in distribution and increased and bridal creeper carp, European deer, feral distribution and steady in opuntioid cacti are abundance rabbits, feral goats, European fanworm, oriental goats, European feral rabbits, here has been an increase in number, distribution in number, has been an increase here • • • • • • • Grades Recent Recent trend There have been six confirmed detections of new have There pest incursions since 2008. vertebrate For new pests and diseases: For Introduced species species Introduced T pest plants, animals and and abundance of most have decreased. diseases. Only a few established pests and diseases: key For Aspect and observation Aspect and 144 Biodiversity flora are covered andfauna, inthe communities. Wetlands andrivers,theirassociated native vegetation,andthreatened speciesandecological In thissection,biodiversityisdiscussedwithreference to Source: Table 1 resources inSouthAustralia, showninTable 1. assessment oftheconditionandextentkeynatural (Government ofSouthAustralia 2012)provides an The State Natural Resources ManagementPlan 2 Key natural resource species Impact ofintroduced communities species andecological Status ofthreatened condition ecosystem extentand Coastal andmarine and condition Aquatic ecosystemextent landscapes Geological features and production areas Soil conditionin and condition Native vegetationextent What doweknowaboutit? Government ofSouthAustralia (2012) Condition andextentofkeynatural resources inSouthAustralia Condition Poor Poor Variable Variable Variable Fair/moderate Fair/moderate Water chapter. Trend Declining Declining Declining Variable Variable Variable Declining (Williams 2005). (Williams cultural benefits,andisimportantforAboriginalculture Native vegetationprovidessocialand manyeconomic, (Australian Greenhouse Office2006, Emesetal.2006). climate through carbonstorage andclimateregulation 2005);andmitigatestheimpactsofawarming (Williams for wildlife;maintainsthehealthofland,soilandwater environment. Itprovides habitatandasource offood Native vegetationisakeycomponentofSouthAustralia’s 2.1 and 2011–12. clearance applicationsundertheActbetween 2009–10 (see Table 2 Section 4.1.1). showsstatisticsforvegetation circumstances, butitmust beoffsetby restoration work Vegetation clearingcanbeundertakenunder some the introduction ofthe clearingofnativevegetationceasedafter Large-scale 2012). Lofty Ranges,as little as4%coverremains (Bradshaw areas, suchastheAdelaidePlains andadjacentMount to coveronly9%ofthestate’s totalarea andinsome Bradshaw2007; 2012).Nativeforests are nowestimated small tosupportbird etal.2003, biodiversity(Westphal southern MountLofty Ranges,where thepatchesare too remaining vegetationisnowfragmented, especiallyinthe since the19thand20thcenturies(Figure 1). The has beencleared foragriculture andhumansettlements native vegetationinthesouthernpartsofSouthAustralia native vegetationremains intheseareas. Much ofthe vegetation clearingrates andonly26%of inthepast, state) withhigherrainfall haveexperiencedmuchhigher In contrast, temperate areas (theremaining 13%ofthe degraded asaresult. Much ofthisisusedtosustainpastoral industriesandis and approximately 96%ofvegetationcoverremains. 87% ofthestate)havehadminimalvegetationclearance, approximately 85%.Thearidnorthernparts(covering land area (DSEWPaC 2010),nativevegetationcovers Of SouthAustralia’s 984 221.37 square kilometres in 2.1.1 Native vegetation Native vegetationextent Native Vegetation Act 1991 . Biodiversity 145 Barking owl Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara 146 Biodiversity the sevenyearsofcollectingdata. received for2011–12isabove theaverage recorded over information aboutNRMregions). Thenumberofreports 12 andthesixpreceding years (see the by natural resource management (NRM) region for2011– number ofreports allegingclearance ofnativevegetation Illegal clearingcontinuestooccur. Table 3 presents the Figure 1 Source: DEWNR (2013) Native vegetationextentinSouthAustralia Introduction for technical issues,andtoinconsistent investmentof on astatescale.Thisisdueto methodologicaland quantify nativevegetationcondition systematically modified tosomedegree. However, it is difficultto throughout SouthAustralia andmuchofithasbeen Human enterprisehashadanimpactonnativevegetation 2.1.2 Native vegetationcondition Biodiversity 147 47 110 to clear (n) Individual trees refused refused Individual trees ) 115 356 334 to clear (n) to clear (n) Individual trees consented Individual trees

Native Vegetation Act 1991 Act Native Vegetation The method focuses on ‘lead’ and ‘lag’ indicators to track and ‘lag’ focuses on ‘lead’ The method track indicators to to and how these relate vegetation condition changes in Lead (NCSSA 2010). of native vegetation management can of vegetation that attributes represent indicators threat of disturbance or after management change soon tend to change after while lag indicators reduction, after management intervention some time has elapsed 2009) (Table 4). et al. (O’Connor 30.00 135.57 to clear (ha) is a rare is a rare Scrubland refused Scrubland refused Nothomyrmecia macrops clear (ha) 1074.24 1107.09 1712.55 was rediscovered here in the 1970s, here was rediscovered Degraded native Degraded vegetation consented to Clearance applications (under section 28 of the section 28 of (under applications Clearance Vegetation clearance statistics for South Australia, 2009–10 to 2011– 12 Australia, statistics for South clearance Vegetation and the area still attracts myrmecologists. The still attracts and the area town has stencilled ants in various places along the public streets. Australia. This predatory insect is very similar to insect This predatory Australia. but now extinct widespread of previously a group in ants. The farm town of Poochera Cretaceous 24) is perhaps the (population South Australia tourism. only place in the world with ant-based Nothomyrmecia Nothomyrmecia The dinosaur ant in South nocturnal ant found only in mallee habitat 2010–11 2011-12 2009–10 Year ha = hectare; n = number ha = hectare; Council (2012) Native Vegetation Source: the agricultural zone (NCSSA 2010). the agricultural Table 2 condition assessment methods have been developed. condition assessment the Bushland Condition Monitoring In South Australia, parts of since 2003 in different method has been applied ‘vegetation condition’, but it has continued to grow in to grow but it has continued ‘vegetation condition’, of NRM programs with the implementation importance vegetation A number of different Australia. throughout Australian regions. the term definition for no standard currently is There effort in monitoring and evaluation in different South in different monitoring and evaluation effort in 148 Biodiversity completed in2000 andasecondround, begunin2005, more than14 years.The first round ofassessmentswas the conditionoflandinpastoral leasesat intervalsofnot The SouthAustralian Pastoral Board is required toassess Condition Monitoring indicators. condition inthethree regions basedon11 of12Bushfire Basin. Theresults provide asnapshotofvegetation Yorke, and partoftheSouthAustralian Murray–Darling regions—Adelaide andMountLofty Ranges,Northernand condition datafrom 840 sitesinthree SouthAustralian The followingcasestudy(Box 1) examines vegetation Table 4 Source: Note: a Table 3 Lead indicators Region Fallen logsandtrees Weed threat andabundance Total grazing pressure Feral animalimpact Total Program (CDP) Change Detection South East Murray–Darling Basin South Australian Lands South Australian Arid Northern andYorke Kangaroo Island Eyre Peninsula Lofty Ranges Adelaide andMount CDP usessatelliteimagerytodetectchangesinnativevegetationcover. No clearingwasrecorded fortheAlinytjara Wilurara region. Native Vegetation Council(2012) Lead andlagindicatorsofbushlandconditionintheBushlandConditionMonitoring Reports ofillegalclearance inhectares bynatural resource managementregion, method 2004–05 to2011–12 a 2004–05 163 26 31 26 14 16 41 9 2005–06 229 48 36 23 27 29 60 Lag indicators 6 Mistletoe infestation Lerp damage Structural diversityB:plantlifeforms Structural ground cover diversityA: Plant speciesdiversity Fallen logsandtrees Recruitment ofspecies Primary canopyhealth Hollow trees 2006–07 158 31 21 17 12 15 54 8 2007–08 recruitment ofmanyshrubs suchaspearlbluebushand with highrates ofproduction ofephemeral stockfeed and in 2009.Positive responses torainfall eventswere noted species hadoccurred, despitesomeheavyrainfall events losses ofbladdersaltbush,andnorecruitment ofthe periods overthe10 yearsto2010resulted inextensive (Pastoral Board 2011).Thereport noted thatextendeddry reported ongeneral trends intheir2010–11annualreport any dataanalysisatthistime,butthePastoral Board Itisnotpossibletoreportis dueforcompletionin2014. 161 30 30 11 25 59 2 4 2008–09 223 36 44 23 10 31 77 2 2009–10 255 54 48 37 18 48 49 1 2010–11 211 48 36 28 14 34 50 1 2011-12 231

50 33 36 29 15 14 53 1 Biodiversity 149 range of distribution range occupied of habitat area number of populations estimated) (measured, number of individuals estimated). of population decline (measured, rate species. Species assessed as near threatened mostly align species. Species assessed as near threatened species. with Schedule 9: rare of South (Government Plan Strategic South Australia’s to ‘lose no native species 2011) includes a target Australia for this target The measure of human impacts’. as a result that are species is a set of 20 indicator species—threatened and habitats, organisms of South Australia’s representative by much effort is focused on their protection and where the state. An assessment is made of across organisations in population abundance of each species, taking into trends prevalence account its population numbers, distribution, etc. All speciesof native habitat, predators, food sources, (half of the list is annually reviewed on the indicator list are A summary of the most recent assessed every six months). in Table 5. is provided review In South Australia, the assessment of conservation status of conservation the assessment In South Australia, and uses the standardised at all four levels is undertaken criteria: IUCN assessment • • • • • assigned assessments, species are of these As a result conservation status category of IUCN to a standardised endangered, extinct, endangered, presumed critically Although or least concern. near threatened vulnerable, apply the standards Australia assessments in South NPW Act has not yet Australian described, the South IUCN categories. been amended to use the contemporary extinct, assessed as presumed Instead, species that are under all included are or endangered critically endangered (Schedule 7). Species species schedule the endangered with Schedule 8: vulnerable align assessed as vulnerable (NPW that protect such that protect (EPBC Act). Threatened (EPBC Act). Threatened Environment Protection and Protection Environment National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act National Parks Native Vegetation Act 1991 Act Native Vegetation communities Threatened species and ecological species and Threatened regional—recognised in South Australia through through in South Australia regional—recognised NRM plans. priority lists in regional threatened within Australian, with lists linked to the with lists linked to within Australian, threatened EPBC Act through state—recognised in South Australia species under the South schedules of threatened Australian Act) global—recognised through the IUCN Red List of the IUCN Red through global—recognised Species (IUCN 2012) Threatened lists of species through national—recognised • • • four levels: • or endangered’. The conservation status of species can be assessed at under the ‘the vegetation comprises the whole, communities where vulnerable or a part, of a plant community that is rare, under the Commonwealth’s under the Commonwealth’s 1999 Biodiversity Conservation Act recognised not generally ecological communities are provisions are there law; however, in South Australian native species and their associated abiotic environments’ environments’ native species and their associated abiotic one of several 2012). They are (Bonifacio and Pisanu significance’ listed ‘matters of national environmental Threatened ecological communities are threatened threatened ecological communities are Threatened distinct assemblages of interacting ‘geographically quality and connectedness or isolation; and relative risks and relative quality and connectedness or isolation; and competition, fire such as predation, posed by threats climate change. ecological requirements; geographic range; population range; geographic ecological requirements; of range size and numbers of populations; rates decline; habitat quantity, and population contraction International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for Conservation of Nature International Union species (IUCN 2011). Different risk assessment criteria levels of risk based on their biology and have different Threatened species are those species deemed to be at risk those species deemed to be at risk are species Threatened under certain future, the foreseeable of extinction within 2.2 is an expansion of mining exploration and operations; and operations; of mining exploration is an expansion the available at were data no comprehensive however, time of writing. storms in 2009 were showing signs of recovery. showing 2009 were storms in zone the pastoral to vegetation in threat An emerging low bluebush. Areas that were affected by severe dust affected by severe that were Areas low bluebush. 150 Biodiversity Table A feral herbivores andweedscontinue. vegetation variesfrom property toproperty, andimpactssuchasselectivegrazing grazing bystock, by water points,resulting indegradation ofvegetation,soildisturbanceanderosion. Theconditionofnative vegetation inthepastoral zone.Historically, livestockimpactshavebeenprevalent around permanent The 2008stateoftheenvironment report forSouth Australia (EPA 2008)reported theconditionofnative from landmanagementimpacts. in allregions, andlowstructural diversityinsomeregions. Tree healthispoorbecauseofdiebackresulting recruitment ofplantspeciesandhighweedthreat andabundance.There isalownumberofhollowtrees Vegetation conditionremains affectedbygrazing pressure; the mostseriousconsequencesare low Negatives trees isgoodorexcellent in40–70% ofsites. species hasbeenlostfrom eachsite.Ground coverisrelativelyandtheabundanceoffallenlogs intact, Plant speciesdiversityremains reasonably highinthemajorityofsites,thoughanaverage of25–30% of Positives data from 2011. South Australian Murray–Darling Basinnatural resource managementregions ofSouthAustralia, using Vegetation conditionissummarisedfortheAdelaideandMountLofty Ranges,NorthernandYorke, and Box 1 Indicator pressure Total grazing Hollow trees of species Recruitment diversity Plant species Vegetation conditioninSouthAustralia’s agricultural zone Case study:Vegetation conditionintheSouthAustralian agricultural zone AMLR (2009) grazing pressure impacts excellent control of 91% ofsiteswith classified asexcellent with only4%ofsites numbers ofhollowtrees, 69% ofsiteswithpoor recruitment with poororvery Around 40%ofsites diversity or excellent species 69% ofsiteswithgood NY (2011) pressure control of grazing impacts, 25%with grazing pressure poor control of either poororvery 60% ofsiteswith of hollowtrees excellent numbers with goodor Only 40%ofsites recruitment poor orvery 57% ofsiteswith species diversity moderate togood >75% ofsiteswith SAMDB (2010) pressure impacts control ofgrazing with excellent 70% ofsites hollow trees numbers of with verypoor >75% ofsites recruitment poor orvery >35% ofsiteswith species diversity good orexcellent >70% ofsiteswith Summary ofregions models indifferent regions use typeandmixed farming relates todifferences inland- and SAMDB) andprobably low–moderate inAMLR is variable(highinNYand Grazing pressure impact very poorinallregions Hollow tree numbersare regions farming modelsindifferent land-use typeandmixed relates todifferences in prevalent. Thisprobably domestic grazing ismost lowest recruitment where poor toverypoor, with Recruitment isgenerally be lost or sensitivespeciesmay have changed,andrare abundance ofspeciesmay good; however, the Species diversitygenerally Biodiversity 151 of dieback from soil of dieback from compaction, fragmentation and competition with weed species is generally cover Ground good, with lower cover in NY than other regions, to relating probably in land-use differences farming type and mixed regions models in different life form diversity Plant good in was generally and and SAMDB, AMLR This is probably poor in NY. because of differences impacts in the in grazing regions different damage is isolated to Lerp some locations and some species tree Mistletoe infestation is isolated to some locations species and some tree Weed threat and threat Weed NY abundance is high in in AMLR and moderate This probably and SAMDB. in to differences relates land-use type and mixed farming models in different regions fallen logs of Retention good is generally and trees Canopy health is generally because probably poor, Summary of regions Summary infestation canopy health 90% of sites with good or excellent cover ground >85% of sites with or good moderate plant life form diversity >75% of sites with little or no lerp infestation All sites across had the region very low mistletoe 29% of sites with poor or very poor and weed threat abundance control >55% of sites with good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees 50% of sites with poor to very poor SAMDB (2010) SAMDB 80% of sites with little or no lerp infestation 85% of sites with very low mistletoe infestation ground cover ground 24% of sites with good or excellent plant life form diversity good or excellent good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees 70% of sites with poor to very poor canopy health 90% of sites with or good moderate 75% of sites with poor or very poor and weed threat abundance control 70% of sites with NY (2011) 73% of sites with little or no lerp infestation the region All sites across had very low mistletoe infestation 77% of sites with or good plant moderate life form diversity with good or excellent with good or excellent abundance of fallen logs and trees >70% of sites with to very poor moderate canopy health >80% of sites with good cover ground or excellent Around 40% of sites with Around poor or very poor weed and abundance threat control 40% of sites Around AMLR (2009) AMLR continued O’Connor et al. (2009), NCSSA (2010), O’Connor NRM Pty Ltd (pers. comm, 2012) NRM Pty Ltd et al. (2009), NCSSA (2010), O’Connor O’Connor Some indicators were only measured in woodlands and forests (e.g. canopy health and fallen logs and trees). (e.g. canopy in woodlands and forests only measured Some indicators were vegetation in intact native favour measurement ‘better’ native vegetation because data collection programs Sites included represent vegetation types in the NY random sampling of vegetation condition across stratified with those found through highly consistent are Results (i.e. eligibility criteria for some programs exclude sites of low to very low quality). sites of low to very exclude criteria for some programs (i.e. eligibility = 57; (n Milne and Mahoney 2011). region Mistletoe infestation Lerp damage Lerp Plant life Plant forms diversity Ground cover Ground Primary Primary canopy health Fallen logs and Fallen trees Weed Weed and threat abundance Indicator 1. 2. 3. Sources: AMLR = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges; NY = Northern and Yorke; SAMBD = South Australian Murray–Darling Basin Murray–Darling = South Australian SAMBD = Northern and Yorke; Ranges; NY = Adelaide and Mount Lofty AMLR Notes: Box 1 Box 152 Biodiversity and periodicrandom eventssuchasfires anddroughts. and populationdeclines,fragmentations and isolation, 2011)—which is stilltoreach fulleffectfollowinghabitat of speciesislikelyduetoeventsinthepast(Szaboetal. reflect an ‘extinction debt’—where thefuture extinction and bird speciesstilllistedwithinthestatemayalso proportions ofendangered, vulnerable andrare mammal and ongoingthreats tomanysurvivingspecies.Thehigh centre ofmodern(last200 years) speciesextinctions Box 2 andTable 6 showthatSouthAustralia isamajor South Australia. listed threatened speciesthathavebeenrecorded in (e.g. Burbidge et al.1988).Box 2 showsthenationally those extinctionsthatwere SouthAustralian species and birds are welldocumented,asistheproportion of The extinctionrates anddeclinesofAustralia’s mammals 2.2.1 Source: Note: Table 5 of species Total number Plants Reptiles Birds Molluscs Fish Mammals trends, whichincludebycatch,drought andhabitatdestructionbybushfire. wing batandblack-eared miner. Progress reports fortheStrategic Plan 2011(SASPAudit Committee2012)includeassessmentsofthecausesthese Government ofSouthAustralia (2007a) For someoftheindicatorspecies,negativetrends were recorded inconsecutive assessments,includingfortheAustralian sealion,southernbent- National listsofthreatened species Trend instatusof20 indicatorspecies Positive Pin-lipped spider-orchid Small-flowered daisy-bush cockatoo South Australian glossyblack tammar wallaby South Australian mainland Yellow-footed rock-wallaby Southern rightwhale 6 Stable Pygmy blue-tongue skink Pygmy blue-tongue Black-eared miner tailed blackcockatoo AustralianSouth-east red- Southern bent-wing bat Southern brown bandicoot Monarto mintbush orchid White beautyspider- Hindmarsh greenhood 8 (Figure 2). of threatened speciesthanothertaxonomic groups of mammals,birds andfreshwater fishinnationallists There are proportionally more SouthAustralian species Negative southern emu-wren Mount Lofty Ranges Malleefowl population) (upper SpencerGulf Giant Australian cuttlefish Murray hardyhead Yarra pygmyperch Australian sealion 6 Total number of species 20 1 5 1 2 6 5 Biodiversity 153 continued calycina subsp. subsp. var. var. var. Environment Environment Grevillea treueriana Grevillea Hibbertia crispula achilleoides Ixodia arenicola Beyeria subtecta Caladenia brumalis Caladenia calcicola Caladenia concolor Caladenia formosa Caladenia ovata Caladenia versicolor Caladenia woolcockiorum volubilis Cheiranthera Codonocarpus pyramidalis calycina Correa calycina Correa halmaturorum Corybas dentatus Dodonaea procumbens Eleocharis papillosa Glycine latrobeana Acacia araneosa Acacia carneorum Acacia glandulicarpa Acacia latzii Acacia menzelii Acacia pickardii Acacia praemorsa Acacia rhetinocarpa Acacia phebalioides Asterolasia • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (63 listed) Vulnerable • • • • • • • • • , that have been recorded in South been recorded , that have subsp. subsp. (R.Bates

subsp. subsp. subsp sp. Hale sp. Prostanthera eurybioides Prostanthera despectans lepida Pterostylis Pterostylis 21725) trichophylla Pultenaea Senecio behrianus epipactoides Thelymitra Haloragis eyreana Haloragis limitanea Lachnagrostis equestre Leionema monoplocoides Lepidium Olearia microdisca frenchii Prasophyllum goldsackii Prasophyllum pruinosum Prasophyllum Eriocaulon australasicum Eriocaulon carsonii carsonii paludicola collina Euphrasia muelleri Euphrasiacollina osbornii plicata Frankenia Caladenia richardsiorum Caladenia rigida Caladenia tensa Caladenia xanthochila Caladenia xantholeuca Dodonaea subglandulifera • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • subsp. subsp. Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Act Conservation and Biodiversity Protection 2012) at April (as Australia Nationally listed threatened species, as listed under the Commonwealth the Commonwealth as listed under species, listed threatened Nationally Caladenia lowanensis Caladenia macroclavia Caladenia colorata Caladenia conferta Caladenia gladiolata Caladenia hastata Brachyscome muelleri Brachyscome Caladenia argocalla Caladenia audasii Caladenia behrii Acacia pinguifolia Acacia spilleriana Acacia whibleyana Acacia robusta Veronica derwentiana Veronica homalodonta cretacea Acacia enterocarpa Acacia Hibbertia tenuis murfetii Prasophyllum bryophila Pterostylis cyanapicata Thelymitra Acanthocladium dockeri Acanthocladium Caladenia intuta Cassinia tegulata Senecio helichrysoides • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (43 listed) Endangered • • • • • • • Critically endangered (8 listed) Critically endangered • • • Plants (115 listed) (115 Plants extinct (1 listed) Presumed • Box 2 154 Biodiversity • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Box 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • Solanum karsense Senecio psilocarpus Senecio megaglossus Senecio macrocarpus glabrescens Pultenaea villifera Ptilotus beckerianus Pterostylis xerophila Pterostylis tenuissima Pterostylis mirabilis sylvicola Pterostylis cucullata cucullata Pterostylis cucullata Pterostylis chlorogramma Pterostylis arenicola Prostanthera nudula Prostanthera calycina Prasophyllum validum Prasophyllum spicatum Prasophyllum pallidum halmaturina Pomaderris halmaturina Pleuropappus phyllocalymmeus Phebalium lowanense pannosa Olearia pannosa Microlepidium alatum Logania insularis Limosella granitica Lepidium pseudopapillosum glabrisepalum Spyridium eriocephalum Spyridium coactilifolium continued subsp. var. subsp. subsp. var. subsp. • • Critically endangered (2listed) • Presumed extinct(1listed) Birds (39listed) • Vulnerable (1listed) Amphibians (1listed) Animals • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (15listed) (south-eastern subsp.) Red-tailed blackcockatoo graptogyne Calyptorhynchus banksii Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus Regent honeyeater Anthochaera phrygia Orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster Lofty Rangessubsp.) Spotted quail-thrush (Mount anachoreta Cinclosoma punctatum Kangaroo Islandemu Dromaius baudinianus Southern bellfrog Litoria raniformis Xerothamnella parvifolia Thelymitra matthewsii Tecticornia flabelliformis Taraxacum cygnorum Swainsona pyrophila Swainsona murrayana Stackhousia annua

• • • • • • • • Vulnerable (21listed) • • • • • • • Hylacola pyrrhopygiaparkeri Tristan albatross Diomedea exulans exulans Amsterdam albatross amsterdamensis Diomedea exulans Northern royal albatross sanfordi Diomedea epomophora subsp.) cockatoo (SouthAustralian halmaturinus Calyptorhynchus lathami (Mount Lofty Ranges subsp.) Chestnut-rumped heathwren Thick-billed grasswren Amytornis modestus Amytornis barbatus (western subsp.) Slender-billed thornbill Acanthiza iredalei iredalei Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma Mallee emu-wren Stipiturus mallee Lofty Rangessubsp.) Southern emu-wren (Mount intermedius Stipiturus malachurus Night parrot Pezoporus occidentalis Black-eared miner Manorina melanotis Southern giant-petrel Macronectes giganteus Swift parrot Lathamus discolor

Glossy black

continued

Biodiversity 155

continued

Short-tailed hopping mouse Short-tailed Notomys longicaudatus hopping mouse Long-tailed Onychogalea lunata wallaby nail-tailed Crescent Desert rat-kangaroo ecaudatus Chaeropus bandicoot Pig-footed Conilurus albipes rabbit-rat White-footed hirsutus hirsutus Lagorchestes hare-wallaby) Mala (rufous leporides Lagorchestes Eastern hare-wallaby apicalis Leporillus rat stick-nest Lesser eugenii eugenii Macropus (South wallaby Tammar Australia) greyi Macropus wallaby Toolache leucura Macrotis bilby Lesser Notomys amplus bispinosus Euastacus Glenelg spiny freshwater crayfish Bettongia lesueur graii bettong Burrowing (boodie) Bettongia penicillata penicillata bettong Brush-tailed Caloprymnus campestris • • • • • • • • • • • Endangered (1 listed) Endangered • Mammals (52 listed) extinct (17 listed) Presumed • • •

Carcharodon carcharias Carcharodon white shark Great plana Synemon Golden sun moth Murray cod Murray clivicola Flinders Ranges purple- spotted gudgeon obscura Nannoperca pygmy perch Yarra variegata Nannoperca pygmy perch Ewen’s maraena Prototroctes grayling Australian Murray hardyhead Murray Maccullochella macquariensis cod Trout Macquaria australasica Macquarie perch pusilla Dwarf galaxias Maccullochella peelii peelii Thalassarche melanophris Thalassarche albatross Black-browed melanophris Thalassarche impavida Campbell albatross fluviatilis Craterocephalus • (2 listed) Invertebrates (1 listed) Critically endangered • • • • • • • (7 listed) Vulnerable • • • • (10 listed) Fish (3 listed) Endangered •

continued Thalassarche cauta salvini Thalassarche albatross Salvin’s Thalassarche bulleri Thalassarche albatross Buller’s cauta cauta Thalassarche Shy albatross Rostratula australis Rostratula painted snipe Australian malachurus Stipiturus parimeda (Eyre Southern emu-wren subsp.) Peninsula leucogaster (eastern whipbird Western subsp.) mollis Pterodroma petrel Soft-plumaged Princess parrot Princess anthopeplus Polytelis monarchoides parrot Eastern regent Psophodes nigrogularis Pedionomus torquatus Pedionomus wanderer Plains fusca Phoebetria Sooty albatross alexandrae Polytelis Macronectes halli Macronectes Northern giant-petrel rufogularis Pachycephala whistler Red-lored Southern royal albatross Southern royal Halobaena caerulea Blue petrel ocellata Leipoa Malleefowl Diomedea epomophora epomophora Diomedea epomophora • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Box 2 Box • 156 Biodiversity • Endangered (11listed) • • • • • • • • • • • • • Critically endangered (1listed) • Box 2 Sooty dunnart(Kangaroo Sminthopsis aitkeni Red-tailed phascogale Phascogale calura (mainland) Eastern barred bandicoot subsp. Perameles gunnii Marsupial mole(itjari-tjari) Notoryctes typhlops Southern brown bandicoot Isoodon obesulus Southern rightwhale Eubalaena australis eastern mainlandpopulation) Spotted-tailed quoll(south- Dasyurus maculatus Mulgara Dasycercus hillieri Brush-tailed bettong Bettongia penicillataogilbyi Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Southern bent-wing bat bassanii Miniopterus schreibersii Gould’s mouse Pseudomys gouldii Desert bandicoot Perameles eremiana (mainland) Western barred bandicoot Perameles bougainvillefasciata Sandhill dunnart Sminthopsis psammophila Island dunnart) continued

unnamed

• • • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (23listed) • • • • (McDonnell Rangesrace) Black-footed rock-wallaby Petrogale lateralis long-earedSouth-eastern bat Nyctophilus corbeni Dusky hoppingmouse Notomys fuscus Australian sealion Neophoca cinerea Numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus Southern elephantseal Mirounga leonina Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Greater bilby Macrotis lagotis Greater stick-nest rat Leporillus conditor (Nuyts Islandsubsp.) Southern brown bandicoot Isoodon obesulusnauticus Golden bandicoot Isoodon auratus auratus Western quoll Dasyurus geoffroii Kowari Dasyuroides byrnei Ampurta Dasycercus cristicauda Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis Subantarctic furseal Arctocephalus tropicalis

• • • • • • • • • • • • Vulnerable (6listed) • • • Endangered (3listed) Reptiles (9listed) Grey-headed flyingfox Pteropus poliocephalus Heath rat Pseudomys shortridgei Shark Baymouse Pseudomys fieldi Plains mouse(Plains rat) Pseudomys australis Long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus Yellow-footed rock-wallaby xanthopus Petrogale xanthopus Bronzeback leglesslizard Ophidiocephalus taeniatus Krefft’s tigersnake Notechis scutatusater Tjakura Liopholis kintorei Striped snake-lizard Delma impar Green turtle Chelonia mydas Flinders worm-lizard Aprasia pseudopulchella skink Pygmy blue-tongue Tiliqua adelaidensis Leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta

Biodiversity 157

. None has yet been removed because of . None has yet been removed The action plan for Australian birds 2010 birds The action plan for Australian category than 10 years earlier. Eleven others are listed in a Eleven others are category than 10 years earlier. category for the first time, including six because of threat of new subspecies of grass- recognition taxonomic recent oceanic The list also includes at least 14 threatened wrens. but use in South Australia, that do not breed seabirds waters. It also includes an assessment South Australian waders for the first time, migratory of non-breeding 14 South Australian taxa have also been recommended for have also been recommended taxa 14 South Australian These birds. the national list of threatened from removal primarily due to better knowledge are recommendations and, of threat of distributions, population sizes or degrees used to define for some, because new criteria have been near threatened Section 4.2). (see recovery Birds species has bird The continuing decline of Australia’s of the EPBC Act list of threatened underpinned a revision species in et al. 2011). This follows earlier action plans for (Garnett plan (1990 and 2000). The 2010 action birds Australian new listings for 19 species or subspecies recommends already Eight of these were in South Australia. that breed now assessed to be in a worse status listed but are ) , Caladenia ( Glenelg Thelymitra Thelymitra Basedowia , subsp. subsp. ) and plant species (Australasian (Australasian Acacia spilleriana Acacia ( bird species (Gawler species (Gawler bird reptile (Pernatty (Pernatty reptile endangered Pultenaea trichophylla Pultenaea vulnerable and Hibbertia tenuis , endangered critically endangered mammal species (Pearson mammal species (Pearson vulnerable vulnerable Fisheries Management Act 2007. Management Act Fisheries endangered Acacia praemorsa Acacia Acacia imbricata Acacia , (fairy tern) ( Veronica derwentiana Veronica ), three ), three vulnerable and taxonomic group, April 2012 group, taxonomic Proportions of nationally listed threatened species recorded in South Australia by in South Australia species recorded of nationally listed threatened Proportions vulnerable vulnerable Cassinia tegulata , ), one spiny freshwater crayfish. This freshwater crayfish has crayfish This freshwater crayfish. spiny freshwater species under also been added to the list of protected the South Australian Prasophyllum pruinosum Prasophyllum and one species: three four bird albatross) and grey-headed bittern, mallee emu-wren and one : the one freshwater nine plant species: five intuta cyanapicata homalodonta Austrostipa nullanulla Austrostipa • • • Since the last South Australian state of the environment state of the environment Since the last South Australian 2008), 14 species that occur in South in 2008 (EPA report under the EPBC Act: have been added to the lists Australia Figure 2 knob-tail gecko) and one gecko) knob-tail de-listed have been grasswren) Ranges thick-billed species. A further the EPBC Act list of threatened from ( tenerrima one Island rock-wallaby), Over the same period, three Over the same period, three 158 Biodiversity et al. 2102). inaworseconservationstatuscategory(Szabo listing) Australia wouldnowbelisted (or recommended for listed threatened bird speciesthatoccurinSouth had notbeeninplaceoverthepastdecadeormore, eight ifconservationactions their analysesalsosuggestthat, driven bythreats operating outsideofAustralia. However, Australian statesandterritories, excluding statuschanges indices ofspeciessurvivalforcontinentalbirds ofall South Australia hasthesecond-worst IUCNRed List for Australian birds, Szaboetal.(2012)demonstrate that As afollow-up analysistothethree decadalactionplans andshorelines ona regular basis. and 15taxa assessedas threatened visitSouthAustralian Yellow-tailed blackcockatoo Barbara Hardy Institute vertebrate animalsinSouthAustralia aslistedunder Table 6 liststhenumbers ofthreatened plantand 2.2.2 fisheries managementpractices. their populationscarefully managedthrough sustainable conservation statusneedstoberecognised nationallyand species,acknowledgingthattheir dependent’ been addedtoadifferent EPBCActlistof ‘conservation orangeshark, roughy andsouthernbluefintuna—have exploited fishesthatoccurinSouth Australia—school found inSouthAustralia). In addition,three commercially (25% ofnativefreshwater fishspecieslistednationallyare overrepresented inthelistsofthosethatare declining fish speciesthatoccurinSouth Australia appeartobe (e.g. Hammer etal.2009)and,asFigure 2 indicates, inland watershascometothefore relatively recently The plightofmanyfishspeciesthatdependonour Fish extinct, eightthatshouldbelistedas extinct, are three speciesoffreshwater fishpresumed tobe atthestatelevel,thereet al. 2009)haveindicatedthat, Plan forSouthAustralia’s Freshwater Fishes (Hammer Status assessmentsundertakenasabasisfortheAction Freshwater fish revised periodically. changed betweenschedules,theentire schedulesare or afewspeciesbeingaddedto, deletedfrom, or gazetting, whichhasmeantthatrather thanone,two, to theschedulesrequire acomplexlegalprocess for in SouthAustralia. Itisprimarilybecauserevisions on actualchangesinthestatusofthreatened species environment report waspublished.Thisisnotareflection on havenotbeenrevised sincethe2008stateof The threatened speciesschedulesthatTable 6 isbased the NPWAct. Schedules 7, SpeciesSchedules) of 8and9(Threatened Threatened SpeciesSchedules. before anyofthemcanbeaddedtotheSouthAustralian Amendments willneedtobe made totheNPWAct in lightofmuchmore information nowbeingavailable. Management Act 2007 of aquaticspeciesthatare protected underthe identified intheactionplanhavebeenaddedtolists Several ofthe small-bodiedthreatened fishspecies listing. considered secure enoughtonotberecommended for rare nine as (or nearthreatened). Only26 species(45%)were endangered species South Australian listsofthreatened , nineas . Allspeciesawaitreassessment vulnerable critically endangered andthree as Fisheries , Biodiversity 159 (27) 0 (0) 4 (15) 4 (15) 8 (30) Amphibians 9 (4) 9 (4) (235) 35 (15) 53 (23) Reptiles National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. Act and Wildlife National Parks (7) c Birds (473) 32 (7) 34 89 (19) 155 (33) (26) b (180) 21 (12) 32 (18) 74 (56) 21 Mammals (3) a Plants (5858) 196 (3) 431 (7) 161 788 (14) ) grassy ) grassy

) grassy woodlands ) grassy Eucalyptus odorata National Parks and National Parks presumed extinct presumed extinct presumed Eucalyptus microcarpa presumed extinct presumed Numbers of South Australian state-listed threatened species, 2012 state-listed threatened of South Australian Numbers National lists of threatened ecological National lists of threatened communities The total number of native species within each taxonomic group used to calculate the percentage in each threat category is the same as used in the category in each threat used to calculate the percentage group species within each taxonomic The total number of native 2008 state of the environment report. Fish are not included in the table because they are not listed under the not listed under the included in the table because they are not are Fish report. 2008 state of the environment the community of native species that depend on the Great from of groundwater discharge natural Artesian Basin. buloke woodlands of the Riverina and Murray– bioregions Darling Depression ( box grey of and derived native grasslands south-eastern Australia iron grass natural temperate grassland of South grassland temperate natural grass iron Australia ( peppermint box woodland of South Australia swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula ------lower Murray River and associated wetlands, lower Murray the systems from floodplains and groundwater junction of the Darling River to the sea mallee communities. Island narrow-leaf Kangaroo - endangered - - - - - critically endangered Includes 8 species Includes 26 species Includes 26 species Total (%) Total Vulnerable (%) Vulnerable (%) Rare (No. of South Australian native species) native of South Australian (No. (%) and endangered Critically endangered Status under the Status 1972 Wildlife Act c Note: a b • Australia have been nominated for listing: Australia • An additional two ecological communities in South • • Six ecological communities that occur in South Australia South Australia Six ecological communities that occur in Act. under the EPBC listed as threatened currently are These are: 2.2.3 Table 6 160 Biodiversity fragmentation andincremental changes(Forman 1995). remaining nativevegetation covercontributestoongoing occurred butcontinued degradation inthepast, of Vegetation isnolongercleared tothe extentthatthis 3.1.1 number ofpressures thatcanleadtofurtherdegradation. colonisation. Nativevegetationremains subjecttoa hasdeclinedsincethetimeofEuropeanSection 2.1.2) (see andinmany areas Section 2.1.1) itscondition(see been greatly reduced intemperate partsofthestate In SouthAustralia, theextentofnativevegetationhas 3.1 population dynamics(Steffen etal.2009). genetic composition,geographic ranges, lifecyclesand and animalsare likelytoexperienceshiftsorchangesin remains difficultto predict impactsaccurately, butplants and changedfire regimes (Prowse andBrooks 2010).It overharvesting, modificationofthehydrological cycle pressures suchasfragmentation, introduced species, both directly andbyexacerbating existingstresses or change willimpactspeciesandecologicalcommunities Australia’s biodiversity(Prober andDunlop2011).Climate having, andwillcontinuetohave,asignificantimpacton There isalsoincreasing recognition thatclimatechangeis fragmentation andthespread ofinvasivespecies. the EPBCActandresulting recovery plansare habitat The mostfrequently citedthreats inlistingsunder • • • • • • • following pressures onAustralia’s biodiversity: of theEnvironment 2011Committee2011)identifiesthe The 2011Australian stateof the environment report (State 3 changed hydrology. altered fire regimes grazing pressure invasive speciesandpathogens land-use change climate change fragmentation ofhabitat What are thepressures? Pressures onnative vegetation Clearing andfragmentation biodiversity andisafactorthatinfluencesthe Fire playsanimportantrole inshapingAustralia’s 3.1.2 Fire Fischer 2006). pest plants,animalsandpathogens(Lindenmayer of theedgestheseremnant patchestoinvasionsfrom patches ofnativevegetationandincreasing theexposure threatening processes byreducing thearea ofremnant Fragmentation tendstoexacerbate theimpactsofother • remain, andinclude: environment report forSouthAustralia. These pressures vegetation were identifiedinthe2008stateof A numberofotherpressures thatimpactnative 3.1.3 documented (Clarke 2008,Driscolletal.2010). range ofspecies tofire remains poorlyunderstoodand and wildlifemanagementbecausetheresponse ofa (Penman etal.2011).Thisisthecaseforbothvegetation determine iftheyare beingimplementedsuccessfully programs throughout Australia haveinsufficientdatato how tousefire tomeetconservationgoals,andexisting dependent plants.There are manyuncertaintiesabout as forecologicaloutcomessuchregenerating fire- reduce therisksthatfire posestohumanassets,aswell Forestry SouthAustralia; SouthAustralian Water) to of Environment,Water andNatural Resources [DEWNR]; by SouthAustralian Governmentagencies(Department Prescribed burnsare animportantmanagementtoolused (Pittock 2009). 2010) becauseofmore frequent andprolonged droughts are likelytobelarger andmore frequent (Driscolletal. risk ofextinctions.Asaresult ofclimatechange,fires the structure ofecologicalcommunitiesandincrease the Inappropriate fire regimes canleadtomajorchangesin composition, structure andfunctionofnativevegetation. plant recruitment and seedlings,weeddispersal anddisruptionofnative stock grazing—trampling of plants,browsing ofadults Other pressures onvegetation Biodiversity 161 Barbara Hardy Institute Hardy Barbara Grey-box forest, Mt Lofty forest, Mt Grey-box Soil erosion to roads; disruption to transport and electricity supply; disruption to transport to roads; and marine contamination of wetlands, watercourses and human health impacts caused by environments; dust. raised by physical to a risk of erosion Soil is predisposed Very of surface vegetative cover. disturbance or removal where the risk of erosion dry seasonal conditions increase poor crop from vegetative cover resulting is reduced there growth. and pasture 3.2.1 and the clearance however, process; a natural is Erosion of in rates has resulted of land for agriculture cultivation higher than in undisturbed many times are soil loss that threat is the highest priority Soil erosion environments. Approximately soils in South Australia. to the agricultural of cleared land (58% of agricultural 6 million hectares and susceptible to wind erosion, inherently land) are susceptible inherently (31%) are 3.2 million hectares The 2007ab). and Land Program (Soil to water erosion in Target 70 is recognised magnitude of this threat land Sustainable Plan: Strategic of South Australia’s 2011). South Australia of management (Government can have adverse soil erosion Without intervention, impacts. Soil erosion social, economic and environmental of land as it removes capacity depletes the productive soil, which are matter and clay from nutrients, organic also has a Soil erosion most important for plant growth. impacts, including damage of costly offsite wide range on soil Land management and effects Land management and effects direct human impacts such as trampling and such as trampling human impacts direct vehicle movement, soil compaction, destruction and illegal and disturbance of vegetation, firewood collection. and ecosystem processes, and degradation of and degradation and ecosystem processes, habitat quality land and which impacts productive dryland salinity, affected 300 000 hectares native vegetation; of native 2008, 18 000 were by dryland salinity in classified as wetlands were vegetation and 45 000 senescence (ageing and deterioration) of adult plants of adult and deterioration) (ageing senescence of symptomatic of seedling recruitment, and low rates and other purposes for agriculture land cleared invasions— plant and pathogen pest animal, disruption of lifecycles of native species, displacement and pressures. uses affect biodiversity primarily by affecting vegetation. uses affect biodiversity primarily by affecting of soil processes shows a conceptual model Figure 3 land in the state has been changed through grazing, grazing, land in the state has been changed through and the application of fertilisers, herbicides and cropping, of these land pesticides. Changes in the soil as a result Approximately 10.4 million hectares of cleared land of cleared hectares 10.4 million Approximately Most of the in South Australia. used for agriculture are 3.2 • • • • 162 Biodiversity Figure 3 Conceptual modelofsoil processes andpressures

Biodiversity

163 70 2020

SASP SASP Target Target

2018

2016

2014 2012

Year

2010

2008 2006

period of protection of agricultural of agricultural period of protection soil erosion land from cropping (days in South Australia,2002–12 3-year per year, soil protection rolling mean Trend in the average annual in the average Trend 2004 DEWNR (2011)

350 300 250 200 150 Soil protection (days per year) per (days protection Soil Figure 4 Source: sustainable land management The adoption of more sowing and stubble retention, such as no-till practices, No-till erosion. of soil from the protection has improved slot in the sowing involves sowing the seed in a narrow soil to minimise soil disturbance and maximise residue on the soil surface. protection Soil protection is expressed as the average number of number as the average is expressed Soil protection land is adequately cropping that agricultural days per year overall has been an There erosion. from protected 10 years, over the last in soil protection trend upward and other challenging years of drought despite several Strategic Australia’s South (Figure 4). management issues in South to achieve a 25% increase has a target 2011 Plan land that is adequately cropping agricultural Australia’s the 2003 baseline. from by 2020, erosion from protected of 272 days from an increase requires The target 2003 to From to 340 days in 2020. in 2002 protection 272 to 328 days. from increase, was a 21% 2011 there Tim Herrmann Spreading lime Spreading the occurrence, intensity and timing of tillage intensity and the occurrence, operations cover. of surface and nature the quantity the land management practices they use. These trends they use. These trends the land management practices change that can quantitative evidence of practice provide protection. explain observed changes in erosion Telephone surveys of agricultural land managers are also land managers are surveys of agricultural Telephone in land managers’ knowledge conducted to assess trends soil management issues, and and attitudes towards, of, in actual erosion in the long term. The DEWNR has used in actual erosion protection observational field surveys to assess the since 1999. erosion land from cropping of agricultural occurrence is highly sporadic. Instead, the protection Instead, the protection is highly sporadic. occurrence because is monitored, the risk of erosion of soil from a matching trend in in the risk would result any trend severe or prolonged drought. or prolonged severe because its directly is difficult to measure Soil erosion areas of South Australia over the past 70 years because over of South Australia areas soil losses but farming practices, in of improvements events, and after wind or rainfall still occur with extreme in late summer and autumn, when feed availability and in late summer and is declining. residues and pasture crop the cover of annual declined in the agricultural has steadily Soil erosion as tillage and stubble burning. Grazing management management burning. Grazing as tillage and stubble especially in dry years and factor, is also an important occur risks associated with grazing The highest droughts. • such practices risk is due to cropping Most of the erosion soil erosion are: soil erosion • The critical management practices that affect the risk of that affect the risk management practices The critical 164 Biodiversity of agricultural land(20%) are affectedbysoilacidity in SouthAustralia. Approximately 1.9 million hectares threat tothesustainable managementofagricultural soils After erosion, soilacidityisthesecondhighest priority 3.2.2 late summerandautumnwhenground coverdeclines. technique forpreventing erosion duringdroughts andin below criticalprotective levels.Itisaveryimportant removed from paddocksbefore surfacecover declines from erosion. Confinementfeedingallowsstock to be providing higherlevelsofplantcovertoprotect the soil erosion. Crop andpasture production is also increased, the surfacesoil,improving soilstrength andresistance to Clay spreading anddelvingincreases theclaycontent of there are large areas ofseverely water-repellent soils. in theSouthernMalleeandupperSouthEastareas, where soils from winderosion. Thesetechniquesare widelyused repellent soilisbecomingafactorintheprotection of The useofclayspreading anddelvingtomanagewater- Source: Figure 5 improvement inerosion protection. no-till sowingislevellingoff, andthismaylimitfurther burning before sowingthecrop. Thetrend inadoptionof corresponding reduction intheuseoftillageandstubble in allthemajorcropping regions. There hasalsobeena 2000 to66%in2011(Figure 5). Thistrend hasoccurred sown usingno-tillmethodshasincreased from 16%in Telephone surveysshowthattheproportion ofcrop area Crop area sown to no-till (%) 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 DEWNR (2011) Soil acidity 2000 16 methods inSouthAustralia, 2000–11 crop area sownusingno-tillsowing Change intheproportion (%)of 2002 23 Survey year 2005 47 2008 62 2011 66 Surface soilaciditycanbereadily treated byapplying • • • • The consequencesofuntreated highlyacidicsoilsinclude: higher acidification rates. soils andhigherlevelsofproduction alsotendtolead derived from legumeplantsorfertilisers.Sandy-textured ammonium-forming fertilisers,andleachingofnitrogen or useofammonium-containing from thepaddock, including removal ofgrain, hayandlivestockproducts acidification canbeaccelerated byagricultural practices higher rainfall areas ofthestateare naturally Soil acidic. (Soil andLandProgram 2007ab). Manysoilsinthe cost asakeybarriertoitsuse. Australia compared withotherstates,farmersoften cite areas. Despitetherelatively lowcostoflimeinSouth understanding andawareness ofsoilacidityinacid-prone indicate thatthere isinconsistencyinlandmanagers’ to damaginglevels.TheDEWNRlandmanagersurveys are stilllarge areas oflandwhere acidification continues only 53%ofthatrequired tobalanceacidification.There year overthisperiodwasapproximately 113 000tonnes— 213 000 tonnes.Theaverage amountoflimeappliedper the agricultural zoneofSouthAustralia is approximately of limerequired tobalancetheannualacidification rate in steady since2007–08 (Figure 6). Theestimatedamount declined through theearly2000s,andhasbeenrelatively Lime useinthestaterose through thelate1990sbutthen addressed thesoilacidificationproblem. extent towhichfarmershavebothrecognised and since 1999.Thisprovides anindirect measure ofthe annually intheagricultural regions ofSouthAustralia The DEWNRhasmonitored theamountoflimesold increased riskofsubsurfaceacidification. acidic topsoilsare notadequatelytreated, there isan 10 cm depth) ismore difficultandexpensivetoIf treat. rate ofacidification.However, subsurfaceacidity(below and effectivemanagementofsoilnitrogen can reduce the irrigation water. The use of deeper rooted perennial plants incorporating calcareous oralkaline clay, orusingalkaline liming products. Aciditycanalsobeameliorated by structural breakdown ofthesoil. groundwater nutrients, leadingtocontaminationofsurfaceand increased leachingofiron, aluminiumandsome rainfall togroundwater increased soilsalinityduetoincreased drainage of plants reduced growth andproduction ofmostagricultural Biodiversity 165 land that was affected by dryland salinity in most regions land that was affected by dryland salinity in most exception The one 2% per year. by around decreased factors such as time since Island, where was Kangaroo clearing the original native vegetation, and a continuation 2% in an average resulted rainfall, of close to average in land affected by dryland salinity in monitored increase the visits to monitoring sites through catchments. Field and its replacement with annual crops and pastures has and pastures with annual crops and its replacement This has caused levels. in higher groundwater resulted land wetlands, native vegetation and agricultural streams, degraded. to become salt affected, waterlogged and that approximately Dooley et al. (2008) reported affected by dryland salinity were 360 000 hectares This equates to 2.3% of all land in in South Australia. that the net zone. They also reported the agricultural has not measurably extent of salinity in South Australia to 11 years (1997–2008) due largely since 2000, increased South experienced across rainfall of lower than average districts. agricultural Australia’s the extent of early 1990s to the mid-2000s, the From management region, and total for South Australia management region, Estimates of the amount of lime sold from 1998–99 to 2010–11 by natural resource resource 1998–99 to 2010–11 by natural sold from Estimates of the amount of lime Dryland salinity Regional lime sales data is approximate because of difficulties in delineating lime sales between regions. because of difficulties in delineating lime sales between is approximate lime sales data Regional because of to lost agricultural production and salt damage production because of to lost agricultural In many parts buildings and other infrastructure. to roads, of native vegetation of the state, historical clearance and biodiversity assets, and the productivity and and biodiversity assets, and the productivity Dryland salinity has many and pastures. quality of crops communities, economic impacts, particularly in regional 3.2.3 impacts land, water Dryland salinity in South Australia an issue in the Mount Lofty Ranges, Kangaroo Island Ranges, Kangaroo an issue in the Mount Lofty Soil acidification will continue to and South East regions. action is improved. unless remedial increase cropping districts due to high levels of production and districts due to high levels of production cropping fertilisers. Subsurface acidity use of nitrogenous increased and is recognised, than previously widespread is more acidic (DEWNR 2011). issue in Soil acidification is becoming an increasing Lime also needs to be applied to raise the pH of soils that Lime also needs to be applied to raise acidic. additional 1.1 million An estimated already are already topsoils that are to treat tonnes of lime is required Figure 6 Basin; SE = South East Note: EP = Eyre Penisula; NY = Northern and Yorke; AMLR = Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges; KI = Kangaroo Island; SAMDB = South Australian Murray–Darling Murray–Darling = South Australian Island; SAMDB Ranges; KI = Kangaroo = Adelaide and Mount Lofty AMLR NY = Northern and Yorke; Penisula; EP = Eyre 166 Biodiversity Source: Table 7 2 metres, whichtheninducessurfacesoilsali critical salinisationdepthofthesoilsurface(lessthan recharge hasbrought shallowgroundwater towithina Of more immediateconcernare areas where episodic reactivated outbreaks ofdrylandsalinityislikely. reversed, acorresponding increase intheriskofnewor previously fallingtrends indepthtogroundwater are If theserisesingroundwater are sustainedsuchthat in bothlocalandregional groundwater flowsystems. (Figure 7; trend 1inTable 7). Thisscenariowasobserved than 4 metres deeptowithin1 metre ofthesoilsurface has resulted inepisodicriseofgroundwater from more However, areturn toabove-average rainfall since2008 early 1990s. depth togroundwater (13 centimetres peryear)sincethe decreased. Figure 7 illustrates adeclininglineartrend in salinity posedtovaluableassetsacross thestatehad due totherainfall deficitand,asa theriskthat result, South Australia were exhibitingstableorfallingtrends to 2008,themajorityofgroundwater levelsacross In summary, theanalysisshowsthatfrom themid-1990s trends (Table 7). to groundwater canbesummarisedusingfourresponse average orabove-average rainfall inrecent yearsondepth since 2008(DEWNR2012a).Theimpactofareturn to were analysedtodeterminewhethertrends hadchanged of depthtogroundwater from 130 bores across thestate monitoring trends indrylandsalinity. Latein2011,records Depth togroundwater isthemainindicatorusedfor dryland salinitysince2008(DEWNR2012a). state haveshownlittlechangeintheextentorseverityof Trend 4 3 2 1 DEWNR (2012b) 2012 groundwater response torainfall Trends 2012 forgroundwater depthandsalinityrisk, Salinity riskisincreasing where groundwater isapproaching 2mof the soilsurface Bores maintainarisinglineartrend, with orwithoutamarkedepisodicrisein20102011. unchanged intheshortterm Bores continuetoexhibitavariableorseasonalresponse torainfall. Salinityriskremains groundwater, ortosite-specific rainfall variability be related totimelagsassociatedwithregional groundwater flowsystemsanddepthof ThelackofanobservedepisodicriseingroundwaterNo increased levelsmay salinityrisk. Bores maintainafallinglineartrend, butwithnomarkedepisodicrisein2010or2011. within 2 metres ofthesoilsurface No increased salinityriskintheshortterm,except where episodicrisebringsgroundwater to Bores maintainafallinglineartrend, butwithamarkedepisodicrisein2010and/or 2011. nity), and these canbeusedasanindicatorofsoilhealth. resistance tobreakdown, andtherelative proportions of components oforganic carbonhavevaryingdegrees of carbon thatcanbegrown andstored insoils.Thevarious texture are twokeyfactorsthatdeterminetheamountof (from natural breakdown anderosion). Rainfallandsoil inputs (from plantsandmicroorganisms) andlosses The amountoforganic carbonisabalancebetween organic matterinsoilsandisanindicatorofsoilhealth. Soil organic carbonisameasure oftheamount 3.2.4 of interventionstosloworhaltariseingroundwater. nature ofthegroundwater systemandtheeffectiveness largely onfuture rainfall patterns,climatechange,the The future impactandriskofdrylandsalinitywilldepend Northern AdelaidePlains. groundwater havecontinuedunabated,suchasonthe areas where long-term risingtrends indepthto management practices, soilhealthandproductivity. techniques, analyticalmethods,andrelationships with carbon, andresearch iscontinuingtoimprove sampling Currently, there are toofewdataavailableonsoil change through carbonsequestration. deficit insoilsprovides opportunitiesformitigatingclimate management practices suchasreduced tillage.Thecarbon but someofthelosscanbereversed byusingappropriate of historicallandclearance foragricultural production, of climatechange.Soilcarbonlosshasoccurred asaresult impact onfertility, productivity, resilience andmitigation A long-term declineinsoilorganic carbonhasanegative Soil carbon Percentage of bores 20 30 15 35 Biodiversity 167 Australia (Biosecurity SA) and the DEWNR, based on a Australia reports, including study sites, field of data sources range and observations by programs control specimen records, the can be variable across land managers. Such trends to whether a pest is new or widespread state, according have been coordinated and whether there in a region, programs. control Australian agriculture and horticulture from pest animals from and horticulture agriculture Australian Difficulties in valuing natural was $620 million per year. no are there ecosystems in dollar terms means that costs. However, for environmental equivalent figures recognised are biological invasions by non-native species ecosystems to natural internationally as a leading threat and biodiversity (Vitousek et al 1997). International and is a constant risk and tourism means there national trade of entry of new pests and diseases to South Australia. is also an ongoing risk of animals and plants held in There captivity or cultivation becoming new pests. This requires effective systems to identify new pests and diseases early so that their establishment can be prevented. have been derived for Distribution and abundance trends expert knowledge in Biosecurity South from this report management region) with long-term mean rainfall and annual rainfall for Jamestown, rainfall and annual mean rainfall with long-term management region) 1991–2011 Bore hydrograph from the Jamestown area (Northern and Yorke natural resource resource natural (Northern and Yorke area the Jamestown from hydrograph Bore Data from DEWNR and the Bureau of Meteorology DEWNR and the Bureau Data from Pests and diseases and Pests control to South Australian farmers in 2006–07 as $209 farmers in 2006–07 to South Australian control million for weeds and $68 million for pests. Gong et al. (2009) estimated the total annual economic loss to species pose costs to both productivity and the natural and the natural species pose costs to both productivity (ABS of Statistics Bureau environment. The Australian 2008) estimated the annual cost of weed and pest marine pests in ballast water or soilborne diseases on vehicles and footwear. The impacts and management of invasive introduced (i.e. established wild populations; Virtue et al. 2004), (i.e. established though many fewer have become major weeds. Other such as accidental introductions, pests originated from escaped or were released to form wild populations. released escaped or were 70% of settlement,Since European approximately have become naturalised plants in Australia garden and pathogens (including fungal, bacterial and viral and viral and pathogens (including fungal, bacterial originated as deliberate Some pests organisms). plants and pets, which such as garden introductions, Introduced pests and diseases cover a wide range of pests and diseases cover a wide range Introduced plants, algae invertebrates, life forms—vertebrates, 3.3 Figure 7 SWL = standing water level Source: 168 Biodiversity 80 kilometres downstream theprevious season.Expert South Australian border, havingmoved approximately toads are currently about 500 kilometres from the A surveybyBiosecuritySAin 2011confirmedthatcane South whichflows intonorth-eastern Australia.Creek, south-western Queenslandriversystemstowards Cooper Cane toads( illegally heldspecieswithinSouthAustralia. incursions from interstate,andescapeorrelease of Australia remains atriskfrom natural orhuman-aided bulbul wasdiscovered intheAdelaidesuburbs.South was discoveredandared-whiskered atAdelaideairport, illegally offered forsaleinAdelaide,anIndianmynah on interstatetransport, ared-eared sliderturtlewas incursions since2008:three lonecanetoadsarrived There havebeensixconfirmeddetectionsofvertebrate Incursions environment report. figure hasnotchangedsincethe2008stateof fish) establishedinthewildSouth Australia. This There are currently 35 exotic vertebrates (excluding pest animalmanagement. Animals Strategy provide nationalpolicyframeworks for Vertebrate Pests CommitteeandtheAustralian Pest legislation (see Section 3.3.2).Theintergovernmental South Australia (PIRSA).Fish are managedunderseparate SA intheDepartmentofPrimary IndustriesandRegions andstatecoordination throughthe DEWNR, Biosecurity Act), withregionally ledprograms bytheNRMboards in under the mammals, birds, reptiles andamphibians) are managed In SouthAustralia, terrestrial vertebrate pests(invasive 3.3.1 • • • as follows: Trend innumbersofnewpestsanddiseasesare • • • • pests anddiseasesare asfollows: Trends indistributionandabundanceofkeyestablished Unknown—wildlife diseases. Steady—terrestrial vertebrate pests plant diseases Increasing—weeds, marinepests, aquaticpests,native Unknown—chytridiomycosis. Decreasing—feral camels, opuntioid cacti Steady—feral deer, European carp, bridalcreeper, Phytophthora cinnamomi oriental weatherloach,silverleafnightshade, Increasing—rabbits, feral goats,European fanworm, Vertebrate pests Natural Resources ManagementAct 2004 Bufo marinus ) are currently movingdown , sarcoptic mangeofwombats Caulerpa taxifolia , gorse (NRM strong increase inpreceding years.Thiscoincideswith about 300 000, counteringfourconsecutiveyearsof some oftherangelands area declinedduring2010to with kangaroo surveydata),goatnumbersacross Dog Fence. BasedonDEWNRaerialcounts(collected Flinders ranges andeasternpastoral areas southofthe central areas ofthestate,particularlyGawlerand Feral goats( levels(DEWNR2012b).to pre-disease Flinders RangesNationalPark,numbershaverecovered numbers inthestatesince2008.For example, inthe disease havebothcontributedtoincreased rabbit and thewaningeffectivenessof rabbit haemorrhagic animal pesttomanage.Favourable seasonalconditions mainland SouthAustralia andcontinuetobeadifficult Rabbits ( Established vertebrate pests their long-term survivalinaridcentral Australia. opinion isdividedonwhetherconditionsare suitablefor Management Act 2007. are managedbyBiosecurity SAthrough the industries oftendepend.At thestatelevel,aquatic pests ecosystems onwhichfishing, aquaculture andtourism species forhabitatandfood, and adverselyaffectingthe biodiversity andindustriesby outcompetingnative and freshwater environments. Suchpestscanimpact and algaethatposeathreat toSouthAustralia’s marine Aquatic pestsincludeexotic fish,shellfish,invertebrates 3.3.2 infrastructure, andscarce waterresources. cultural sites, pastoral production, communityandrural severe impactsonrangelands biodiversity, Aboriginal reduction inferal camelnumbersisrequired toreduce movement across stateandterritoryborders. Asubstantial Project, unpublisheddata),withconsiderable seasonal 750 000 in2012(Australian Feral CamelManagement the feral camelpopulationwasestimatedatapproximately across therangelands northoftheDogFence. Nationally, Feral camels( livestock diseasesandcanbetraffic hazards. native vegetation,damagepasture andcrops, host Feraloccurring intheupperSouthEast. deerimpact and MountLofty Ranges,withthehighestabundance southern SouthAustralia, particularlytheMidNorth Feral deer( breeding success. in response tofavourable seasonalconditionsandgreater estimated populationrose againto390 000, mostlikely and ongoinghelicopterculling.However, in2011,the a program oflandholderincentivesforgoatcontrol Aquatic pests Oryctolagus cuniculus Cervus Capra hircus Camelus dromedarius spp.) occurinfrequently across ) occurinthesouthernand ) occuracross mostof ) are widelydistributed Fisheries Biodiversity 169 ) ) was Nassella tenuissima ) was detected and destroyed ) was detected and destroyed Phalloceros caudimaculatus Phalloceros Nassella trichotoma in 2010. Incursions and maintains into an area A plant that is introduced naturalised itself without human help is considered number of and can become a weed. The recorded has increased in South Australia plant species naturalised is indicative of the The increase since 2008 (Figure 8). cultivation of plants escaping from ongoing process linked to increased but is also plantings), (e.g. ornamental since 2009. government investment in field surveillance a under the NRM Act provides of plants The declaration of serious weeds. legal basis for containing the spread 2008 plants have not changed since Numbers of declared NRM SA and regional Biosecurity However, (Figure 8). state-level reviewing have been collaboratively boards under the NRM Act, and policies and plant declarations plants is likely to increase the total number of declared pending the outcomes of this review. plant since 2008 The most serious incursion of a declared ( was the sale of Mexican feathergrass undertook a traceback boards NRM retailers. by several to detect Mexican feathergrass program and destroy planting of serrated plantings. In addition, a garden tussock ( Ranges NRM Board by the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Speckled livebearer ( Speckled livebearer in Willunga Creek of stretch four-kilometre found in a in South of this species record was the first 2008. This implemented. was program and an eradication Australia, 18 months, the over of the area treatment Following galaxia species and native population was eradicated area. into the treated reintroduced were 3.3.3 Weeds some form of wild plants that require are Weeds their harmful effects to reduce management action the environment, human health or on the economy, oversight the government’s Australia, In South amenity. the is primarily through in managing weeds role by the NRM led programs NRM Act, regionally with in the DEWNR, through boards and state coordination Committee Weeds Biosecurity SA in PIRSA. The Australian national provide Strategy Weeds and the Australian policy frameworks. ) was has increased has increased has declined in its . ) has extended its range to ) has extended its range , which was confirmed in , which was confirmed Sabella spallanzanii Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Caulerpa taxifolia Cyprinus carpio Cyprinus Teredo navalis Teredo almost the whole of the Murray–Darling Basin. Carp can almost the whole of the Murray–Darling water quality and damage aquatic habitats, and reduce (Koehn et al. 2000). is difficult large-scale control Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries carp ( European detected for the first time in South Australia in 2011, when Australia detected for the first time in South during survey work in the upper caught fish were several of any Basin. Release of the Murray–Darling reaches is illegal under the of these species, following capture, waterways, with unknown biological repercussions. Oriental weatherloach ( intentional release of exotic aquarium species. Species of exotic intentional release are basins in Australia native to other drainage that are into South Australian being released also increasingly on the distribution and extent of these species in on the distribution and extent of these South Australia. to the accidental or related directly are Newer threats available food and habitat, predate on native species available food and habitat, on native predate impacts on entire with adverse and affect water quality, is very little information available ecosystems. There Freshwater pest species Freshwater for pest fish compete with native species Freshwater The European fanworm The European Island and potentially Kangaroo after reaching its range disturbed habitats. of the state in other regions remains clear after the 2003 eradication program and the program clear after the 2003 eradication remains marina in 2008 secondary infestation in the North Haven was effectively eradicated. recent records. recent The invasive seaweed Lakes area River since 2008. The West in the Port range by Biosecurity SA in 2011 after Wiltshire Lincoln by Biosecurity SA in 2011 after Wiltshire Port report. An et al. (2010) could not list it as a confirmed based on be present likely to species are additional three considered currently established in South Australia established in South Australia currently considered (Wiltshire naval et al. 2010). This number includes the shipworm Australia, based on those species examined in the study. based on those species examined Australia, could be marine species that 20 introduced are There organisms attach to the outside of ships—has been a the outside of ships—has attach to organisms of marine (60%) to the translocation contributor larger in shipping ballast water (24%) pests than commercial increases in vessel traffic and climate change. Commercial change. Commercial and climate in vessel traffic increases recognised one of the most commonly shipping is by Hewitt and research Recent carriers of marine pests. that vessel biofouling—where Campbell (2010) suggests South Australia’s coastal waters are under increasing increasing under waters are coastal South Australia’s of pest species as a result of marine a range from threat Marine pest species Marine pest 170 Biodiversity control programs. distribution ofgorseisdeclining asaresult ofintensive Ranges, Clare Valley Theoverall andthelowerSouthEast. problem inhigh-rainfall areas includingtheMountLofty Gorse ( biological controls. Adelaideandisnotsusceptibletothe East andnorth-east Western Capebridalcreeper, hasestablishedintheSouth established. However, avariantoftheweed,termed Rust andleafhopper biologicalcontrols are nowwidely bushland across muchofsouthernSouthAustralia. South African vine thatspread from gardens toinvade Bridal creeper ( are availableat impacts, biology, current distributionandmanagement, and waterhyacinth). Full detailsonWoNS, includingtheir serrated salvinia, tussock sagittaria, weed, pricklyacacia, parthenium mesquite,parkinsonia, weed, cabomba, subject tosurveillanceandresponse programs (alligator gorse, silverleafnightshadeandwillows) and10are boneseed, brooms, Chileanneedlegrass, opuntioidcacti, boxthorn, asparagus weeds,athelpine,blackberry, 11 are widelyestablishedinSouthAustralia (African (Australian Weeds Committee2012).Ofthe32WoNS, followingariskassessmentprocessmanagement, governments asrequiring nationallycoordinated by theAustralian Governmentandstateterritory established weedsthathavebeenformallyendorsed (WoNS)Weeds are ofNationalSignificance high-impact Established weeds Figure 8 NRM Act= Ulex europaeus Natural Resources ManagementAct 2004 Changes inindicatorsfor introduced plants,2008and2012 Asparagus asparagoides www.weeds.org.au/wons ) isaspinyshrubthatcauses a ) isavigorous . far north-west (BiosecuritySA2012).Buffelgrass invasion northern pastoral zone,withextensiveinfestationsinthe control. InSouthAustralia, itisnowscattered across the in northernAustralia forpasture production anddust ciliaris and impacts.Akeyexample isbuffelgrass ( Australia thathavethepotential toincrease theirrange Besides WoNS, there are other established weeds in South seed bymovementsoflivestockandfodder. Its distributionisslowlyincreasing becauseofdispersal region, where regular control programs are implemented. ,easternEyre Peninsula andupperSouthEast land, present inallregions butmostabundantinthe deep-rooted perennial weedofpasture andcropping Silverleaf nightshade( vegetation andreduce pastoral productivity. state’s extensiverangeland regions. Theydisplacenative shrubs withthepotentialtospread widelyacross the (known genericallyaspricklypears) are spiny, succulent Wheel cactus( fire frequency. monocultures thatdisplacenativeplantsandincrease poses ahighrisktoaridrangelands, formingdense ), aperennial tussockgrass thathasbeenplanted Department ofPrimary Industries andRegions SouthAustralia Opuntia robusta Solanum elaeagnifolium Jumping chollaatArkaroola Wilderness ) andotheropuntioidcacti Cenchrus ) isa Biodiversity 171 var. var. Sarcoptes scabiei Sarcoptes Batrachochytrium Batrachochytrium has spread throughout the the throughout has spread and controlling its spread relies relies its spread and controlling is a water mould that is carried is a water mould that P. cinnamomi P. ) is a potentially fatal epidermal disease of ) is a potentially fatal epidermal disease P. Cinnamomi P. that burrows under the skin, resulting in under the skin, resulting that burrows Native plant and wildlife diseases and wildlife Native plant the Yorke Peninsula (Taggart and Sparrow 2010). (Taggart and Sparrow Peninsula the Yorke southern hairy-nosed wombat population is affected by southern hairy-nosed the et al. 2009), and it also threatens the mite (Ruykys survival of some of the smaller wombat populations on may eventually lead to liver and kidney damage and may eventually lead to liver and kidney months to three pneumonia. can die within two Wombats 75% of the the disease. In the Murraylands, of contracting It is caused by a parasitic mite ( It is caused by a parasitic wombati) loss, and intense itching, wounds, scabs and hair prevalence in South Australia is largely unknown. is largely in South Australia prevalence mange is a skin disease that affects wombats. Sarcoptic vulnerable southern bell frog (Voros et al. 2012). The frog southern bell vulnerable in the 1970s. It is Australia in fungal disease emerged although its in Australia, believed to be widespread Chytridiomycosis (caused by Chytridiomycosis (caused dendrobatidis et al. 2004), including the nationally amphibians (Berger eradicating eradicating and adopting strong areas affected on quarantining hygiene procedures. is suspected to have spread to the lower Eyre Peninsula. to the lower Eyre is suspected to have spread in the South Australian been detected It has recently known method of is no There Arid Lands NRM region. causing eventual death of a wide variety of native causing eventual death plant species. Island, and and parts of Kangaroo Ranges Mount Lofty and species. cinnamomi Phytophthora of susceptible plants, the roots rots in soil and water and particularly if they are already stressed by other factors by other factors stressed already particularly if they are loss and climate change, with such as drought, habitat populations of vulnerable survival risks to the long-term potentially impact agricultural crops, domestic animals domestic crops, impact agricultural potentially the is likely to reduce health. An outbreak and human animals in a population, and/or number of native plants Exotic diseases have the potential to devastate have the potential to diseases Exotic as animals, as well of native plants and populations 3.3.4 172 Biodiversity ha =hectare; km=kilometre; na=datanotavailable Table 8 natural resources. TheGovernmentofSouthAustralia, that contributetotheprotection andmanagementof the three spheres ofgovernment(local,stateandfederal), There are manyorganisations andindividuals,aswell 4 Activity Number ofvolunteersandhours contributed strategies/guidelines completed Number ofresource managementplans/ established Number ofnewmonitoringprograms Number ofstudies/reports completed maintained Number ofcultural heritagesitesprotected or water qualitycompleted Number ofconstructionworkstoimprove measures New areas ofnativeanimalconservation Area revegetated Extent offencing improved New areas ofnativevegetationprotected or New conservationagreements established Area treated forsustainablelandmanagement developed Number ofawareness-raising materials events Number oftraining orawareness-raising What are wedoingaboutit? Number ofactivitiesandoutputsdelivered between2008–09and2010–11,asreported in Natural Resource ManagementProgram annualreports 260 750 ha 9631 hours 2008–09 213 384 129 135 65 na na na na na na na outputs between2008and2011. subprograms. Table 8 describessomeoftheactivitiesand through itsNRMProgram, investsmoneythrough several 453, covering4130ha 1227 volunteers, 3.1 millionha 31 140 hours 10 500 ha 2009–10 104 km 762 ha 159 106 148 20 45 10 na 8 2136 volunteers, 141, covering 54 308 hours 60 140 ha 44 852 ha 11 139 ha 3167 ha 2010–11 646 ha 68 km 436 125 251 81 63 27 1 Biodiversity 173 757 763 389 592 850 867 1696 4 500 2 187 ($‘000) Funding Funding 12 601 2010–11 9 2 21 22 46 14 13 42 17 186 No. of No. projects 406 807 ($‘000) 1 134 1 328 1 223 6 379 2 472 1 043 1 208 Funding Funding 16 000 2009–10 7 17 11 12 41 11 27 55 24 205 No. of No. projects 20 an additional $18.7 million (GST exclusive) was allocated was exclusive) $18.7 million (GST an additional for our Country Caring Country (a on Working through subprogram). by individuals, groups, contribution made The relative the and a comparison of and agencies, organisations complex and not activities are value between different here. reported 998 948 558 a 1 802 1 088 7 674 3 286 1 828 ($‘000) 18 202 Funding Funding 2008–09 2 8 8 16 35 38 17 13 46 183 No. of No. projects Resource Management Program annual reports, 2008–09 to 2010–11 2008–09 annual reports, Management Program Resource Funding allocated by the Government of South Australia, as reported in Natural in Natural as reported of South Australia, allocated by the Government Funding b the contribution and funding made by local government associations and environmental nongovernment organisations. the contribution and funding made by local government associations and environmental Australian Government Caring for our Country (CFOC) baseline funding, CFOC competitive grant funding, environmental stewardship, Community stewardship, funding, environmental competitive grant baseline funding, CFOC Government Caring for our Country (CFOC) Australian etc. Action Grants, funding other small grant) (and Government Vegetation SA State the contribution made by ‘friends of’ groups • • • • Reported differently in different annual reports (combines state government agency, multiregion strategic projects and stormwater projects; does not stormwater projects and strategic multiregion (combines state government agency, reports annual in different differently Reported Water Quality with Plan for Salinity and Trust and National Action Heritage combines the final year investment of the joint Natural The 2008–09 figure Other than 2008–09, the information does not include: Includes Australian Government funding Includes Australian South Australia’s NRM Program investment; however, the 2009–10 and 2010–11 figures do not. the 2009–10 and 2010–11 figures investment; however, NRM Program South Australia’s include projects with no assessment process—for example, legislative review legislative example, with no assessment process—for include projects Total South East NRM Board Other South Australian Murray–Darling Basin Murray–Darling South Australian NRM Board Northern and Yorke NRM Board Northern and Yorke Arid Lands NRM Board South Australian Eyre Peninsula NRM Board Peninsula Eyre Island NRM Board Kangaroo Board NRM Board Wilurara Alinytjara Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM Ranges NRM Adelaide and Mount Lofty Proponent 2. b Notes: 1. NRM = natural resource management resource NRM = natural a Table 9 2008 and 2012, $17.5 million was allocated to fund was 2012,2008 and $17.5 million received eight NRM regions The 91 competitive projects. in base-level exclusive) and funding, $88.36 million (GST the state’s natural resources. The Australian Government Government The Australian resources. natural the state’s through in South Australia investment a large has made initiative; between for our Country funding its Caring Table 9 shows the financial investment made in managing made in managing financial investment shows the Table 9 174 Biodiversity 2007 includes a target to‘losenonative speciesasa extent andcondition. SouthAustralia’s Strategic Plan environment. Thisincludestargets fornativevegetation is toimprove thecondition andresilience ofthenatural A keygoalofthe2012State NRMPlan (DEWNR2012b) the managementofallnatural resources inthestate. animal andplantcontrol. Theintentistobetterintegrate togetherwithlegislationfor soil andlandmanagement, and functionstointegrate theadministration ofwater, The NRMActprovides regional NRMboards withpowers 4.1.2 reform project onenvironmental offsets. with theCouncilofAustralian Governments’national of restoration. Thisworkisbeingdoneinconjunction of anoffsetare equitableand realistically reflect thecost requirements, andtoensure thatpaymentsmadeinplace consistency betweenmethodsusedtodetermineoffset benefit offsets are calculated.Thisisintendedtoimprove Vegetation Councilofthewayinwhichenvironmental The DEWNRisundertakingareview fortheNative Source: Table 10 ( 2)(Table 10). (column 1),orpaymentintotheNativeVegetation Fund through managementorrestoration ofnativevegetation by anenvironmentalThiscanbeachieved benefitoffset. native vegetationinSouthAustralia mustbeaccompanied Vegetation Regulations 2003, authorisedclearance of Under the historical clearance. to provide alevelofprotection towhatremains following Native vegetationlegislationhasbeeninplacesince1991 4.1.1 pressures onnativevegetation. strategies andprograms are beingusedtoaddress At thestatelevel,arange oflegislation,policies, 4.1 2011–12 2010–11 2009–10 Native vegetation Year Native Vegetation Council(2012) State governmentpolicy Native vegetationlegislation Native Vegetation Act 1991 Summary ofenvironmental benefit clearance, 2009–10to2011–12 offsets fornativevegetation Total benefit 2166.26 area (ha) 161.10 320.24 and Native Financial offset($) 29 509.00 39 804.59 8 278.00 private landconservationissupportedthrough heritage and Public landconservationismanagedbytheDEWNR, forests 2008), as changes havebeenincreases inthearea oflandclassed area increased to27 906 210 hectares. Theprimary status, anincrease of1%since2003.In2011,thetotal ofthestate,wasundersomeformprotected25.8% report, approximately 25 306 485 hectares ofland,or the NPWAct In SouthAustralia, protected areas are establishedunder 4.1.3 communityandindustry(DEH2007). government, for SouthAustralia 2007–2017 strategy 2011). Thedeliveryofthistarget issupportedbythe result ofhumanimpacts’(Government ofSouthAustralia environmental problem (Lindenmayeretal.2012). anticipate howdifferent groups ofpeople respond toan planting trees andfailingto thatbecome invasivetaxa, clearing nativevegetationto establish tree plantations, are include possible.Thesepotential ‘bio-perversities’ but policymakersare aware thatnegativeoutcomes to promote positivecarbon andbiodiversitybenefits, Government BiodiversityFund. Thishasthepotential new fundingopportunitiessuchastheAustralian Further investmentinrevegetation isoccurringthrough lowest in2008. revegetation activities(except forestry—softwood) was decreased in2008from theprevious year. Thearea of all than the2007level)(Table 11).Allrevegetation activities 2008 wassubstantiallylowerthantheaverage (50%less revegetated of12 876hectares eachyear. Revegetation in South Australia fluctuatedconsiderably, withameanarea Between 1999and2008,thetotalarea ofrevegetation in Country) funding. Australia usingstateandnational(e.g. Caring forour have beenconductedoverseveral decadesinSouth programs torestore nativevegetationcommunities response tothelossofnativevegetation.Large-scale Revegetation isausefulindicatorofmanagement 4.1.4 native forest reserves underthe under Commonwealthlegislation.Forestry SAmanages andIndigenousprotectedunder theNPWAct, areas agreements undertheNativeVegetation sanctuaries Act, Indigenous protected area (an increase (Figure 9). of35.6%) wilderness area Protected areas Revegetation programs No speciesloss—a nature conservationstrategy . Inthe2008stateofenvironment (an increase of27.9%) and (an increase of39.6%since , whichaimstoinfluence Forestry Act 1950 . native Biodiversity 175 Protected areas in South Australia areas Protected Figure 9 176 Biodiversity and needtolook beyondanevent-based management need tobebasedonthebest information available for biodiversityconservation, managementdecisions vegetation istoprovide ecologically sustainableoutcomes Act 2005 recognised inSouthAustralia ( and property andenhances biodiversityvalues,iswell The needtomanagefire inawaythatprotects life land (DEWNRFire ManagementBranch, pers.comm.). by unplannedbushfires, includingasmallarea ofprivate During thesameperiod,244 700 hectares were burnt Forestrymanaged bytheDEWNR, SAandWater. were burntinprescribed burningoperations onland Between July2008andDecember2011,33 900hectares of high-riskpubliclands. target touseprescribed burningforfuelreduction in5% levels. In2010, theSouthAustralian Governmentseta and conductingprescribed burningtoreduce fuelhazard agencies haveplacedastronger emphasisonplanning the subsequentRoyal Commission,landmanagement private lands.Sincethe2009Victorianbushfires and framework forthemanagementoffire onpublicand The DEWNRfire managementpolicyprovides a 4.1.5 Source: Table 11 vegetation Type of Total softwood Forestry— hardwood Forestry— species Product Tagasaste Saltbush Farm forestry grasses Native indigenous) Native (non- Indigenous DEWNR (2012) Fire managementpolicyandprograms , DENR2011a).Iffire management ofnative Area ofSouthAustralian revegetation activities(hectares), 1999–2008 12 890 3 050 2 940 1 490 1 050 3 770 1999 570 10 10 0 30 620 21 130 2000 2 940 1 210 4 050 210 630 380 Fire andEmergency Services 50 20 13 190 6 730 1 300 3 910 2001 250 790 90 10 70 40 12 230 2002 6 010 4 060 100 320 450 330 890 10 60 1 090 4 540 7 420 2003 590 440 100 560 30 50 20 maximise biodiversityoutcomes. applying thisknowledgetofire managementpractices to communities andtheirresponse tofire regimes, andthen knowledge offlora andfaunaspecies,populations and biodiversity istherefore basedonaccumulating The managementoffire tomaintainorenhance • • • 2011a). Zoningisderivedfrom: management planningonDEWNR-managed lands(DENR has azoningpolicythatoutlinestheusedforfire areas ofnativevegetationinSouthAustralia. TheDEWNR fire regimes willtherefore beneededwhenmanaging view. Careful consideration ofthedifferent elementsof perspective toincludeabroader spatialandtemporal environmental assets. the threat thatfire posestolife,property and the activitiesconsidered appropriate tomitigate manual 2011b) inaccordance withthe Overall fuelhazard guideforSouthAustralia the overall fuel hazard, whichisassessedusingthe procedure manual environmental assets,usingthe the levelofperceived risktolife,property and 13 750 2004 6 640 5 130 580 510 190 590 (DENR2011a) 70 10 30 11 870 2005 1 120 4 630 4 430 640 920 (DENR2011a) 30 10 60 30 1 300 3 390 9 140 3 810 2006 180 170 230 10 50 0 Fire policyandprocedure Fire policyand 11 000 2007 2 000 3 470 5 180 240 10 20 80 0 0 (DENR 1 750 6 740 4 030 No data 2008 610 160 180 10 0 0 Biodiversity 177

endangered ), as these are the the ), as these are ) grassy woodlands of ) grassy and ) often benefit from the ) often benefit from rare vulnerable and Eucalyptus odorata critically endangered endangered . A proportion of the species for which no of the species . A proportion feral animal management, weed management,feral fire management, and propagation assisted pollination plans, with many species recovery implementing range the species’ entire out across activities carried of a range and storing seeds from collecting plant populations. threatened individuals in different information highlighted the need for emergency rescue rescue information highlighted the need for emergency in the design of a captive breeding action and resulted from the collected fish species were Different program. in captive facilities, which included primary wild and bred fish habitat schools and farm dams. Activities to restore implemented and additional water was allocated in were undertaken key sites. These management actions were until water levels and groups organisations by different species compared with those that are considered considered with those that are species compared vulnerable noted include oceanic specific conservation activities are species and a few poorly poorly known whale seabirds, parrot). species (e.g. night known terrestrial plans ecological communities, recovery threatened For of the for the buloke woodlands have been prepared bioregions, Depression Riverina and Murray–Darling on natural the community of native species that depend Artesian the Great from of groundwater discharge of grassland temperate natural grass Basin and iron for being prepared plans are Recovery South Australia. ( peppermint box and for swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula. South Australia surveys underpin effective conservation Systematic is the species. One example actions for threatened fish habitats within the South surveys of freshwater Basin and the south-east of Murray–Darling Australian the state. Data collected over the past decade identified native declines in populations of several catastrophic Yarra fish species, such as the purple-spotted gudgeon, The loss of aquatic hardyhead. and Murray pygmy perch declines due to drought vegetation, and water-level identified as the causes. This were and over extraction • • of state-listed summarises the numbers Table 12 of these for which one or more species threatened only is being employed. The table focuses strategies in Schedules 7 and 8 of the on those species listed NPW Act ( attention. The many other priority species for immediate 9 ( species listed in Schedule the habitats and improve to protect activities undertaken species. and vulnerable and populations of endangered species of threatened shows the percentage Figure 10 plans. recovery that have current that investment has demonstrate and Figure 10 Table 12 focused on the South Tackling Tackling (Bardsley and (Bardsley Prospering in a Prospering A regional climate change decision A regional (Government of South Australia 2010), of South Australia (Government (Government of South Australia 2007b), 2007b), of South Australia (Government Climate change policy and research Climate change Native vegetation reform project reform Native vegetation (CCSA 2009) and (CCSA communities Threatened species and ecological Threatened implementing local action plans to help protect implementing local action plans to help protect species through individual populations of threatened • Several conservation strategies are being used to try to are conservation strategies Several the decline in possible, recover halt and, where slow, species, including: threatened many of the state’s national carbon sequestration models (Hobbs et al. 2010). national carbon sequestration 4.2 and Tertiary Education) and the Future Farm Industries Farm and the Future Education) and Tertiary carbon to improve Centre Research Cooperative assessment methodologies and refine sequestration Government Department of Climate Change and Energy and Energy Government Department of Climate Change of Government Department Australian (now the Efficiency Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research Industry, et al. 2011, Fordham et al. 2012), and participating et al. 2012), and participating et al. 2011, Fordham with the Commonwealth Scientific and in a project the Australian (CSIRO), Organisation Industrial Research research projects that focus on climate change. These projects research species populations as part of include modelling flora (Delean Linkage project an Adelaide University ARC as climate change occurs through actions such as as climate change occurs through (DEH 2006). maintaining native vegetation corridors a partner in a number of The DEWNR is currently Management regimes need to increase the capacity of need to increase Management regimes including by ecosystems to adapt to climate change, opportunities for plants and animals to migrate creating framework for natural resource management management resource for natural framework 2008). Sweeney climate change: South Australia’s Greenhouse Strategy Strategy Greenhouse climate change: South Australia’s 2007–2020 in a changing climate: blueprint for a sustainable Australia future for South Australia to climate policy approach outlines South Australia’s This is complemented by change adaptation. South Australia’s adaptation framework, adaptation framework, South Australia’s climate change adaptation framework changing climate: a priority urban growth areas. priority urban growth 4.1.7 the land-use planning system. The outcome of the project project The outcome of the planning system. the land-use value of high conservation mapping of areas will be the plans for structure part of producing native vegetation as The Government of South Australia is undertaking a is undertaking of South Australia The Government vegetation in of native the integration improve to project 4.1.6 178 Biodiversity Note: c b a State SeedConservationCentre attheAdelaide Botanic long-term conservationoptionsformanyplants.The threatened plantspecies isanimportantadjuncttothe the collectionandlong-term storage ofseeds threatenedmost, speciesand theirvariouspopulations, Although itmaynotbefeasibletomanageall,oreven two threatened speciesare highlightedinBox 3. increased andhabitatwasimproved. Recovery plansfor Figure 10 Table 12 Taxonomic group Vascular plants(totalspecies) Amphibians (totalspecies) Reptiles (totalspecies) Birds (totalspecies) Mammals (totalspecies) et al. 2011) established attheAridRecovery Reserve (Moseby etal.2011) Slater’s skinkhasnotbeenrecorded inSouthAustralia formanydecadesandshouldbelistedaspresumed extinct(Pavey 2004). Mount Lofty Rangesspottedquail-thrush shouldnowbepresumed extinctgiventhetimesincelastrecord andamountofsearching undertaken(Garnett Two mammalspeciespreviously considered extinctfrom SouthAustralia—the burrowing bettongandthewesternbarred bandicoot—are nowwell of Nature criteria(IUCN2012b). Schedule 7statisticshavebeendividedinto Percentage threatened ofstate-listed speciesineachthreat categorywithrecovery Numbers ofspeciesforwhichconservationorrecovery strategies are beingemployed, April 2012 actions occurring,April2012 Presumed extinctin presumed criticallyendangered extinct, South Australia 26 26 8 1 0 b a c endangered collections are summarised inTable 13. Australian threatened speciesrepresented in these occasionally checkedforviability. ThenumbersofSouth the UnitedKingdom.Theseeds are carefully stored and coordinated bytheRoyal BotanicGardens atKew in more thanadecade,originallybasedonglobalproject Gardens hasbeenaccumulatingsuchcollectionsfor Critically 17 (20) 1 (1) 1 (5) 3 (3) and 0 endangered Endangered 62 (142) 13 (18) 12(29) according toInternational UnionforConservation 2(7) 0 114 (196) Vulnerable 10 (21) 5 (32) 1 (4) 0 (9) 18 (66) 26 (42) 193 (357) 3 (17) Total 1 (4) Biodiversity 179 Dr Jane McKenzie Adult female Australian sea lion and her pup at Lilliput Island, near Franklin Island sea lion and her pup at Lilliput Island, near Franklin Adult female Australian Case studies: The most effective recovery plans depend on good science depend on good recovery plans The most effective Case studies: Red-tailed black cockatoos Red-tailed in the south-east black cockatoos of of feeding habitat for red-tailed has also guided recovery Research on the seeds of bulokes, that these cockatoos feed almost exclusively has shown Research South Australia. will birds 2003). It has also shown that the stingybark eucalypts (Koch desert stringybark and brown have better because these trees on isolated and small stands of stringybark trees often feed preferentially and woodland blocks. This information has clumps and in forest in larger growing than trees seed crops plantings of stringybarks and bulokes the importance that fence-line and paddock-corner demonstrated their on farmland across trees these to restore This is the basis for a project can have for these birds. in South Australia. range natural Australian sea lions Australian sea Australian on the work undertaken management is the informing effective of science A good example over the Institute and collaborators and Development Research at the South Australian lion by researchers has shown that et al. 2011). This research 2011; Lowther et al. 2010, (Goldsworthy past 20 years or more that the same may be true at Seal Bay is declining, and suggested colony of sea lions breeding the large and Eastern in nets used by the Southern It has also shown that sea lions drowning for other colonies. Australian the on the populations. As a consequence, Fishery is having an impact Scalefish and Shark establish of sea lion colonies to and proximity numbers has used relative Management Authority Fisheries recently detected has This level of management this fishery. sea lion management zone for an Australian it is expected that some sectors of the fishery; over time, of closures have triggered bycatch levels that to be maintained, and need management protocols lines in place of gill nets. These fishers will adopt long begin to recover. determine when and if the colonies colonies continued, to monitoring of breeding Box 3 180 Biodiversity Mount Lofty Ranges andKangaroo Islandregions. Assessments havecommenced forboththeAdelaideand NRM region andfinal reports are nearingcompletion. have beencompletedfortheSouthAustralian AridLands Species ConservationAssessmentProject communities/Regional significantprojects/Regional plants-and-animals/Threatened speciesecological environment.sa.gov.au/managing-natural-resources/ Murray–Darling BasinandSouthEastregions (see the Eyre NorthernandYorke, Peninsula, SouthAustralian To date,regional assessmentshavebeencompletedfor ecosystems andthreats. also assistintheidentificationof regional priorityspecies, assessments canbederivedinthefuture. Thesereviews related baselinefrom whichstateandnationalstatus local populationtrends, toprovide adetailed,ecosystem- vertebrate andassessing animalsusingIUCNcriteria, regional statusclassificationsofvascularplantsand interested individuals,hassystematicallybeenassessing This process, involvingstateandlocalexperts subregions ofAustralia (see Section 2.1.1). Regionalisation forAustralia (IBRA)regions and for eachNRMregion, basedontheInterimBiogeographic the statebyleadingaprogram of speciesstatusreviews to reassess thestatusofplantandanimalspeciesacross populations ofthreatened species,theDEWNRcontinues While focusingconservationeffortonmanagingpriority climate change. viable inthesoil),andseedtolerance totemperatures and collected isactuallyfertileandhowlongitmayremain seed viabilityandlongevity(what proportion ofseed aspects ofseeddormancyandhowthismaybebroken, much more aboutseedbiologyforeachspecies,including These seedcollectionsalsoprovide abasisforlearning Table 13 if seedbankincluded(%) Threatened plantswithconservationactivity Seed bankonly Seed bankandotheractions Total numberofthreatened species Numbers ofthreatened plantspeciesforwhichthere are representative seed collections attheState SeedConservationCentre, April2012 ). Assessments endangered Critically www. 85 17 20 2 Endangered 4.3.1 and soilquality. programs toaddress variousissuesinlandmanagement The GovernmentofSouthAustralia hasputintoplace 4.3 industry groups. communication betweenNRM staffandfarming practices, improving grazing andincreasing management, increasing theadoptionof stubbleretention andno-till Mallee SustainableFarming Theprojects Inc. focuson the SouthAustralian No-Till Farmers Associationand of SouthAustralia, Agriculture Excellence Alliance, industry collaborators includetheAgricultural Bureau Australian Murray–Darling BasinNRMboards. The the Eyre NorthernandYorke, Peninsula, andSouth developed withfarmingindustryorganisations and implement thetarget.Partnership projects havebeen provides strategic andfinancialsupportforprojects to The DEWNRSustainableDrylandAgriculture Initiative management practices toreduce theriskofsoilerosion. and encouraging bestpractice are drivingtheadoptionof projects aimedateducatingandinforminglandholders farming zone.Arange ofcommunity, industryand agency between thegovernmentandNRMboards inthegrain East NRMboards. Thisreflects strong collaboration Yorke, SouthAustralian Murray–Darling Basin,andSouth plans prepared bytheEyre Northernand Peninsula, erosion protection targets andstrategies intheNRM A keyachievementtodatehasbeentheinclusionof farming businesses. industry organisations, communitygroups andindividual Australian regional Government, groups, farming an ongoingcollaborative effortbetweentheSouth area ofcropping landprotected from erosion requires Achieving theStrategic Plan target ofincreasing the 142 45 23 62 Land management Soil erosion Vulnerable 114 196 49 70 Rare 253 256 431 59 Total 238 348 449 789 Biodiversity 181 Upper South East drain Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Soil carbon 4.3.4 is conducted by the DEWNR and the CSIRO A project rainfall and farming assessing the influence of soil type, carbon. of soil organic system on the amount and nature the clay content of sandy soils, through Increasing and delving, has the techniques such as clay spreading the amount of carbon improve potential to dramatically held in the soil. The DEWNR is also working with industry to gain a better understanding of how soil carbon groups emissions. to offset carbon dioxide can be improved Dryland salinity Soil acidity erosion, water quality, and habitat and native vegetation. water quality, erosion, regions. Most projects have involved an integrated have involved an integrated Most projects regions. package of NRM and sustainable land management soil outcomes, including management of dryland salinity, include salinity management. Programs to promote to promote include salinity management. Programs recharge the management of dryland salinity through have been undertaken in all agricultural reduction reduction are being developed through the state being developed through are reduction partnership with the FFICRC. government’s plans and investment strategies NRM boards’ The regional Practical and profitable options for large-scale adoption and profitable Practical plant systems and associated recharge of perennial over an estimated area of more than 100 000 hectares than 100 000 hectares of more over an estimated area of 50% of land (Dooley et al. 2008). This is a reduction affected in the upper South East, or almost 30% of the land. agricultural dryland salinity–affected state’s 200 000 hectares affected. The Upper South East Dryland 200 000 hectares has established Salinity and Flood Management Program the risk of salinity has reduced network that a drainage The area in the state most severely affected by dryland severely in the state most The area salinity is the upper South East, with approximately assess the extent of surface and subsurface acidity. assess the extent of surface and subsurface 4.3.3 improve land managers’ understanding and awareness land managers’ understanding and awareness improve options; retest its causes and treatment of soil acidity, monitoring sites; and test additional sites to previous 4.3.2 The DEWNR, and in partnership with industry groups to is developing and delivering programs NRM boards, FFICRC through the DEWNR and the South Australian Australian the DEWNR and the South through FFICRC and Development Institute. Research rainfall areas. This will provide land managers with land managers This will provide areas. rainfall The South erosion. the soil from options to protect more of the partners to the Government is one Australian The Future Farming Industries Cooperative Research Research Industries Cooperative Farming The Future (FFICRC) is evaluating and developing farming Centre plants in medium to low- systems based on perennial These practices also provide opportunities for farmers to for farmers opportunities also provide These practices landscapes. manage carbon in their Plan includes initiatives that promote practices that practices that promote includes initiatives Plan as of the target, such the achievement complement practices. and no-till residue burning of crop reduced The Australian Government’s Clean Energy Future Future Clean Energy Government’s The Australian 182 Biodiversity thought toberemaining inearly2012. management unitsontheisland, withonlyafewgoats NRM Board haseradicated feral goatsfrom fiveofseven decommissioning waterpoints. TheKangaroo Island through fencing,shootingandtrapping goats,and Basin NRMBoard isrunningprograms tocontrol goats South Australia. TheSouthAustralian Murray–Darling of theFlindersandGawlerranges andOlaryHillsof at protecting andrestoring thesemi-arid environments anecological restorationBounceback, program aimed Flinders Rangesthatfocusesonareas associatedwith funded program ofaerialcullingintheGammonand run ‘Gammons Goats’, aCaringforourCountry– The SouthAustralian AridLandsNRMBoard has Feral goats identify prospective newbiocontrol agentsoverseas. effectiveness of rabbit haemorrhagicdiseaseandto (IACRC), andisparticipatinginresearch toimprove the in theInvasiveAnimalsCooperative Research Centre funded bytheNRMProgram. BiosecuritySAisapartner Murray–Darling BasinNRMregions inrecent years, Yorke, SouthAustralian AridLands,andSouthAustralian been conductedintheEyre Northernand Peninsula, coordinatedLarge-scale, rabbit control programs have Rabbits introduction ofcanetoads. awareness ofthepotentialforhuman-assisted nurseries andotherrelevant organisations toraise Biosecurity SAhasworkedwithtransport industries, Cane toads are underway. established inSouthAustralia andmanagementstrategies A numberofpestvertebrate speciesare already 4.4.1 managing pestspeciesare describedbelow. to managingpestsanddiseases.Recent initiativesfor for amore collaborative efficient, andstrategic approach the integration ofNRMintotheDEWNRaimstoallow coordination. TheestablishmentofBiosecuritySAand provision oftechnicaladvice,regulation, educationand (where applicable)providing supportthrough research, managing terrestrial pests,withgovernmentandindustry community. Landholdershavetheprimeresponsibility for industryand partnerships betweengovernment, Pest anddiseasemanagementisbestachievedthrough 4.4 Pests anddiseases Vertebrate pests focusing onaerialcullingandmusteringforslaughterto withcurrentcamel management, removal activities South Australia istakingastrategic approach toferal funding hasalsobeenprovided viatheNRMProgram. Management Project. InSouthAustralia, complementary through theCaringforourCountryAustralian Feral Camel the NationalFeral CamelActionPlan, primarilyfunded Feral camelmanagementisbeingimplementedthrough Feral camels prescribed undertheNRMRegulations. farms toensure thattheycomplywithfencingstandards NRM boards across SouthAustralia regularly inspectdeer technical assistancefrom theIACRC andBiosecuritySA. program, alsofundedthrough CaringforourCountrywith The Kangaroo IslandNRMBoard hasadeereradication for ourCountry, whichinvolvesaerialsurveyandculling. feral deerproject (2008–13),withsupportfrom Caring East NRMBoard. Theboard hasimplementedafive-year Feral deercontrol isahigh-priorityissuefortheSouth Feral deer the longterm. communities toself-manage the feral camelpopulationin protect priorityassets,pluscapacitybuildingofAboriginal Department ofEnvironment,Water andNatural Resources Feral camelsintheSimpsonDesert Biodiversity 183 Cassytha causing extensive dieback of gorse infestations. causing extensive dieback at outlier infestations and at key biodiversity assets at outlier infestations and at key biodiversity by opuntioid cacti. threatened Silverleaf nightshade for silverleaf nightshade was A state-level strategy and adopted by the minister in 2011. Currently, prepared NRM by regional administered programs control on containment by eliminating concentrate boards of seed small infestations and minimising the spread ingested by stock. a Silverleaf nightshade was declared and Biosecurity SA is hosting the national in 2012 WoNS to develop and implement a national strategy coordinator for the weed. Buffel grass in September 2010 Augusta A workshop held in Port the plan that informed a state operational drafted Strategic Buffel Grass development of the South Australia of in October 2012. The declaration released 2012–17, Plan in the under the NRM Act is being considered buffel grass of plant declarations. review current Gorse Peninsula, Island, Eyre on Kangaroo Isolated occurrences the subject North are South East and Mid and in the the National under programs eradication of long-term Lofty the Adelaide and Mount In Plan. Gorse Strategic protected are areas and forestry grazing Ranges region, and gorse is managed in native gorse infestations from using the Biological control vegetation in the region. the the gorse thrips is reducing gorse spider mite and has investigated The University of Adelaide vigour. weed’s plant the native parasitic the phenomenon of pubescens Wheel cactus cacti was prepared for opuntioid A state-level strategy and Minister for Environment and adopted by the a declared Opuntioid cacti were Conservation in 2010. in 2012, and Biosecurity SA is hosting a national WoNS plan for the weed. A national strategic coordinator WoNS further development of chemical and biological proposes programs onground of techniques and targeting control , for home gardeners. The review The review for home gardeners. Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries Aquatic pests Aquatic Grow me instead Grow biodiversity assets. Western Cape bridal creeper in north- Cape bridal creeper biodiversity assets. Western by the for eradication east Adelaide is being targeted Ranges NRM Board. Adelaide and Mount Lofty The Western Cape form of bridal creeper has now been Cape form of bridal creeper The Western extensively mapped in the South East, the focus is and high-value and protecting on containing further spread in South Australia and management strategies are are and management strategies in South Australia under way. Bridal creeper of the state. established already A number of weed species are of declared plants (see section 3.3.3) is also likely to plants (see of declared for sale of some key ornamental declaration recommend in certain parts species that cause serious weed problems weed outbreaks. To address this, the South Australian this, the South Australian address To weed outbreaks. and Garden Government has worked with the Nursery the to produce Industry Association of South Australia booklet 4.4.3 Weeds of new source a key plants remain Invasive garden for the koi herpes virus as a biological control agent for the koi herpes virus as a biological control for carp. in the exclusive production of male offspring, and the production in the exclusive of a fatality gene to kill individuals (Koehn introduction is also investigating the potential et al. 2000). The IACRC molecular approaches include immunocontraception include immunocontraception molecular approaches technology’ ‘daughterless in carp fertility, to reduce results gene which modification of a sex-determination national approach to managing existing and new exotic to managing existing and new exotic national approach to approaches Biological species threats. freshwater Potential being explored. are carp control European Committee and its working group associated with pest Committee and its working group Freshwater fish management has developed a National which aims to develop a coordinated Strategy, Fish Pest of exotic species and diseases is the most cost-effective species and diseases is the most cost-effective of exotic management approach. Pests Vertebrate the intergovernmental Nationally, tools to stop the further spread of these species within of these species spread tools to stop the further aquatic challenging to eradicate the state. It is technically methods to minimise the entry pests, and prevention and responds to incursion reports by the community and by the community and reports to incursion and responds species exotic where It monitors areas other stakeholders. and supports and develops known to be present, are eradication programs for aquatic pests within South for aquatic pests programs eradication and boards with NRM collaboration often in Australia, surveys undertakes Biosecurity SA regularly industry. Working under the Working local management and SA leads education, Biosecurity 4.4.2 184 Biodiversity Source: GovernmentofSouthAustralia (2012) Table 14 resources( GovernmentofSouthAustralia, 2012). for themanagementofSouthAustralia’s natural plan, SouthAustralia 2012–2017 Our placeourfuture: statenatural resources management 4.5 Goal 3:Improved condition andresilience ofnatural systems Goal 2:Sustainablemanagementandproductive useofland,water, airandsea Goal 1:People takingresponsibility fornatural resources andmakinginformeddecisions Target 13:Limittheestablishment ofpestsanddiseasesreduce theimpactsofexistingpests Target 12:Improve theconservationstatusofspeciesandecologicalcommunities Target 11:Increase andculturally understandingoftheconditionlandscapes(geological importantfeatures) Target 10:Improve conditionofcoastalandmarineenvironments Target 9:Improve conditionofterrestrial aquaticecosystems Target 8:Increase extentandimprove conditionofnativevegetation Target 7:Improve soilandlandcondition Target 6:Maintaintheproductive capacityofournatural resources Target 5:AllNRMplanning andinvestmentdecisionstakeintoaccountecological,socialproduction considerations Target 4:Improve capacityofindividualsandcommunitytorespond toclimate change Target 3:Improve institutionalandorganisational capacitytosupportpeoplemanagenatural resources Target 2:Involvemore peopleinthesustainable management ofnatural resources Target 1:Ensure peopleare betterinformedandimprove capacityinNRMdecision-making Overall direction fornatural resources management Guiding targets fornatural resources management provides overall direction environment reporting. valuable contributionofdataforfuture stateofthe these targets, theresults ofwhichshouldprovide a the stateandconditionofnatural resources against monitorandevaluate The NRMCouncilmustaudit, natural(Table 14). resources managementeffort The plan includes3goalsand13targets toguidethe Biodiversity 185 to stop investing. will depend on an The success of the new approach level of whole-of-government cooperation unprecedented commitment of and commitment, and on the long-term Government. the South Australian use the same information to make informed planning use the same information to make informed and how to invest will decisions. Decisions about where by assessing the effectiveness of current be improved investments against ecological, social and and future condition of of the and measures economic targets, resources. natural will be that information will ensure The framework and the same information collected and used regionally, consistent and to deliver credible, will then be aggregated health for resource of natural measures easily interpreted underpin high-level will thereby the state. The framework and be used to regularly investment in NRM programs on the state of the environment. report is the development of clearly to this framework Key measurable and indicators that are articulated targets resources. of the condition of the natural and reflective is no way there that can be measured, Without targets of investments in of comparing the cost-effectiveness or management efforts. Information projects different different 1) across must be comparable: on these targets and resources natural times, 2) between different parts of the state. Only then can 3) between different be used to guide when, and to what extent,targets to and when resources, of natural invest in the improvement 5.3 Information is not enough ongoing that there It is widely recognised monitoring information available long-term) (especially policy development and decision- in a form to support evaluating monitoring and to targeting, making in relation resources. investments in natural a Government is developing The South Australian that will framework based NRM reporting regionally managers to resource natural allow state and regional Alternative energy Climate change What can we expect? What can we Environment 2011 Committee 2011). Environment needs such as land conversion for biofuels and carbon technologies like biochar as possible future sequestration of the challenges for biodiversity management (State The 2011 Australian state of the environment report report state of the environment The 2011 Australian human energy from pressure identifies increased currently experienced in Australia. currently 5.2 the interactions of climate change with newly arrived of climate the interactions pressures create pests and diseases has the potential to than those widespread and more far stronger that are of the Environment 2011 Committee 2011) notes that of the Environment effects of existing climate change is likely to magnify the example, For in coming decades. biodiversity on pressures 5.1 (State report state of the environment The 2011 Australian challenge biodiversity and management practices. challenge biodiversity and management management of natural resources, as well as to more as well as to more resources, management of natural such as climate change. In threats and emerging recent that will further emerging are addition, new pressures focused restoration of important habitats to reduce of important habitats to reduce focused restoration This would and fragmentation. further loss, degradation responses to conventional threats effective more require use and such as invasive species and the unsustainable decline remain present. Some historical biodiversity decline remain but it is possible to loss may never be fully recovered, decline and to undertake reduce future effectively more in South Australia, we will continue to see the effects in South Australia, to come. for many years pressures of existing and past many of the causes of biodiversity Despite our efforts, While the Government of South Australia and its agencies of South Australia While the Government the in place to address and programs putting policies are challenging biodiversity that are issues most pressing 5 186 Biodiversity Research management: scienceorjustwishful thinking? Clarke MF(2008).Cateringfor theneedsoffaunainfire Australia, Adelaide. for asustainablefuture CCSA (2009). of Australia. Aboriginal knowledgeofthemammalscentral deserts Fuller PJand SouthgateRI(1988). JohnsonKA, Burbidge AA, Journal ofPlant Ecology forest degradation inAustralia sinceEuropean colonisation. 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Canberra. farms, ABS (2008). 6 References cat. no. cat. 4260.0, Australian Bureau ofStatistics, , GovernmentofSouthAustralia, Adelaide. 35:385–394. Natural resource managementonAustralian Australian WildlifeResearch SouthAustralia inachangingclimate:blueprint , Australian GovernmentDepartmentof Australian Veterinary Journal South Australia buffelgrass strategic , ConservationCouncilofSouth 5(1):109–120. The threatened ecological A regional climatechange Weeds ofNational Investingintrees 15:9–39. , Australian 82:31–36. Wildlife , South , biodiversity’, TheEnvironment Institute,Universityof synergistic climatechange andlanduseimpactson Project ‘Planning foratransformed future: modelling and Brook B(2011).Interim progress report: ARC Linkage Delean S,Fordham D, Watts MJ, HabyN,HarrisB, Stead M Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentforEnvironment andHeritage, DEH (2007). Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentforEnvironment andHeritage, DEH (2006). Salinity Forum In: extent andtrends inSA. 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report prepared fortheSouth Proceedings ofthe2ndInternational , South , South . , , , Biodiversity 187 Action Action www. www. , Carbon report prepared prepared report Tackling Tackling www.iucnredlist.org/ Prospering in Prospering . South Australia’s South Australia’s Our place, our future: Our place, our future: in remnant stringybark in remnant The relative contribution The relative . , Government of South Australia Australia , Government of South . . http://saplan.org.au , The National Centre for Marine Conservation , The National Centre IUCN Red List of Threatened Species List of Threatened IUCN Red , South Australian Department of Premier and Department of Premier , South Australian DWLBC report 2010/02, South Australian South Australian 2010/02, report DWLBC Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List categories Guidelines for using the IUCN Red , South Australian Department of Premier and of Premier Department , South Australian , International Union for Conservation of Nature, , International Union for Conservation of Nature, , Government of South Australia, Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia, , Government of South www.iucnredlist.org . 3.1, 2nd edition, International Union for Conservation of and Cambridge, UK: Gland, Switzerland iv + 32pp. Nature, influencing food availability for P (2003). Factors Koch black cockatoo south-eastern red-tailed the endangered Calyptorhynchosbanksia graptogyne woodland, and implications for management. thesis, PhD University of Adelaide. Heritage by Native Fish Australia (SA) Inc, Adelaide, Australia Heritage by Native Fish environment.sa.gov.au/Plants_and_Animals/Threatened_ species_and_ecological_communities/Conservation_status_ of_threatened_species/State Hewitt C and Campbell M (2010). of marine and translocation of vectors to the introduction invasive species Maritime Australian Sustainability, and Resource College, Launceston. M (2010). Neumann CR and Tucker Hobbs TJ, southern Murray–Darling revegetation: from sequestration Basin region, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Department of Water, Research Industries Cooperative Farm and Future Centre, Adelaide. IUCN (2011). and criteria Subcommittee, and Petitions Standards documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf IUCN (2012a). Cambridge, International Union for Conservation of Nature, UK, List categories and criteria: version IUCN Red IUCN. (2012b). Government of South Australia (2007b). (2007b). of South Australia Government strategy greenhouse South Australia’s climate change: 2007–2020 Cabinet, Adelaide. (2010). of South Australia Government climate change adaptation draft a changing climate: a for South Australia framework Change Council Climate the Premier’s (in partnership with Management Council), Adelaide. Resources and Natural (2011). Australia Government of South Plan Strategic Cabinet, Adelaide, (2012). Australia Government of South Australia management plan, South resources state natural 2012–2017 nrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/0/Reports/nrm-gen-stateNRMplan. pdf J (2009). S and van Weenen Hammer M, Wedderburn fishes, freshwater plan for South Australian and Department for Environment for the South Australian , The www.epa.

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Coastal and marine environment

1 Why is it important?

South Australia’s marine environment spans more than and flora of South Australia include both the typical cold 60 000 square kilometres of waters and more than temperate biota of , Victoria and southern New 5000 kilometres of coastline (Geoscience Australia 2010). South Wales and the transitional warm to cool temperate The coast, estuaries and adjacent marine waters are a biota of southern Western Australia. A range of habitats unique part of the South Australian environment. It is is evident, from warm salty waters in the gulfs to cool- a distinct, complex and interconnected natural system, water kelp forests in the south-east, and from the low- with finite resources that are vulnerable to overuse and productivity waters of the Great Australian Bight to the degradation when not well managed. nutrient-rich upwellings of the south-east. These factors have combined to produce a rich diversity of organisms and communities along the South Australian coast, 1.1 Unique features and species which is unparalleled in Australia and the world (Edyvane endemism 1999). South Australian waters support more than 6000 invertebrate species, 350 fish species, 16 breeding Australia’s long period of geologic isolation from the rest seabird species, 33 mammal species, 1200 algae species of the world (more than 65 million years), the state’s and 12 seagrass species. In the Southern Ocean, 75% of extensive continental shelf, the long east–west ice-free the red algae species, 85% of the fish species and 95% of extent of the southern coastline, and the characteristic the seagrass species are found nowhere else in the world, low nutrient condition of coastal waters have all giving them local, national and international significance contributed to the biological richness and endemism (Government of South Australia 2004). of South Australia’s temperate marine environments The largest breeding colonies of Australian sea lion, and (Edyvane 1999). South Australia has a wide range of more than 80% of the total population, are found in coastal landforms and marine habitats, and also a variety our state. South Australia also has 32 species of whales of oceanographic conditions, including a high degree of and dolphins and more than 70 species of seabirds, variability in sea temperatures. including little penguin, osprey and the white-bellied Of particular significance are the two large, sheltered sea eagle. We are still to discover some of the many tidal gulf ecosystems of and Spencer species of invertebrates. South Australia has 24 coastal Gulf, which provide habitat for some of the largest areas wetlands that support populations of migratory birds of of temperate , seagrass and tidal saltmarsh conservation significance. communities in Australia. In addition, the marine fauna

Opposite page: Yellow-nosed albatross (Diomedea chlororhyncos Lath.) Richter HC in Gould’s birds of Australia, National Library of Australia an10049041 192 Coastal and marine environment In summary Aspect andobservation which increases theriskofpestspeciesincursions. Port handlingandshippingtraffic hasincreased, Pest plantsandanimals cuttlefish andlittlepenguin). There isadeclineinsome species(e.g. giant diversity are variableand declining. conditionand Coastal andmarineecosystemextent, Sea levelisrising. Ocean acidityisincreasing. Ocean salinityandcurrents are changing. (e.g. New Zealandfursealandsouthernrightwhale). There hasbeenanincrease insomespecies implemented. New fishery recovery strategies havebeen number. Marine protected areas haveincreased insizeand Threatened speciesand ecosystems improving. The qualityofcoastalandmarinewatersis Human populationinthecoastalzoneisincreasing. The area occupiedbyaquaculture isincreasing. The capture andreuse ofstormwaterare increasing. increasing. The qualityanduseoftreated wastewaterare Disturbance andpollution and ) are declining. (including foreshore, rocky reefs, seagrass, saltmarsh The extentandconditionofcoastalecosystems ecosystems Extent andconditionofcoastalmarine Grades trend Recent • • Very poor Deteriorating Improving • • Poor Unclear Stable Good confidence Level of Very good Very poor ˜ › ™ • Assessment grade Adequate high-quality evidenceandhighlevelofconsensus Adequate high-quality Limited evidenceorlimitedconsensus Evidence andconsensustoolowtomakeanassessment • • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence › › ˜ › In trend Coastal and marine environment 193 Economic and social benefits Ecosystem services Ecosystem single sector in the state’s aquaculture industry, industry, aquaculture single sector in the state’s gross 53% of the state’s accounting for approximately The other in 2009–10. production value of aquaculture (18%) and marine finfish two main sectors are 2011). The industry is expected to (14%) (EconSearch in 2010–11 state product contribute $306 million to gross 2012). (EconSearch bioprospecting, flood and storm protection, education, storm protection, flood and bioprospecting, and nutrient cycling. research 1.3 live within than 90% of South Australians More of the coast (ABS 2002), and many rely 50 kilometres for their on the coast and adjacent marine waters the from livelihood. Social and economic benefits include benefits from coast and marine environment tourism, urban development, commercial recreation, shipping and transportation, fisheries and aquaculture, mining, manufacturing, science coastal agriculture, and education. and and recreational) (both commercial Fishing (tuna, aquaculture oysters, mussels, abalone, freshwater have yabbies and others) and marine finfish, marron, economically important to South become increasingly in the total value of seafood production Australia; 2012). 2010–11 was almost $426 million (EconSearch in 2009–10 total seafood production South Australia’s 68 000 tonnes, of which aquaculture was approximately is the largest 49%. Tuna contributed approximately 1.2 sheltered the South Australian dominate Seagrasses and important spawning habitats and provide nearshore of fish and invertebrates. for a wide variety nursery areas nutrient performs many functions, including Seagrass (by coastal erosion reducing cycling, carbon storage, and filtering attenuating wave action) stabilising sand and in the water column. out suspended solids complex habitats create and their macroalgae reefs Rocky and biologically the most productive and support some of These systems have been shown diverse ecosystems. for a wide and nursery areas to be important spawning to and contribute variety of fish and invertebrates, also easily services. They are biodiversity and ecosystem accessible to humans. and marine coastal, estuarine South Australia’s of ecosystem services number a large ecosystems provide regulating, Provisioning, that have yet to be quantified. services include food supply, and supporting cultural to 30 metres tall can be found in the south-east,to 30 metres along with the smaller intertidal and subtidal bull kelp. trenches at have sponges that are have sponges that are at Backstairs Passage trenches corals. and gorgonian in diameter, than one metre more up communities of giant kelp reaching Underwater forest beaches in the Southern Hemisphere. Colourful sponge beaches in the Southern Hemisphere. can be found in the shallow waters of Pelican gardens Island. The deep Lagoon and Bay of Shoals off Kangaroo Western Australia) area of temperate-water seagrass seagrass of temperate-water area Australia) Western as well as being a wetland of meadows. The Coorong, high-energy international importance, also has the largest Western Australian border to Cape Adieu, and Spencer border Australian Western in southern forests mangrove Gulf has some of the largest (after has the second largest South Australia Australia. known locally as ‘Little Patty’, which is found in only one known locally as ‘Little Patty’, Peninsula. location on the west coast of Eyre the from Ninety metre–high limestone cliffs extend numbers of southern right whales to breed and calve numbers of southern right whales to breed other end of the spectrum, our waters the At each year. smallest live-bearing starfish, also home to the world’s are giant cuttlefish (Steer et al. 2013). Our waters are feeding feeding et al. 2013). Our waters are giant cuttlefish (Steer bottlenose dolphins, blue whales, for endangered grounds increasing and sperm and pilot whales, and attract significance, including two types of seadragons, and significance, including two types of seadragons, and pipefish, as well as the species of seahorses several of Australian aggregation known breeding largest world’s 200–400 species of macroalgae have been described of macroalgae 200–400 species (Edyvane 1999). has many fish species of conservation South Australia level of temperate species biodiversity in macroalgae biodiversity in macroalgae species level of temperate in the times the level recorded three is approximately approximately where of Australia, regions tropical 50–80% greater than for comparable regions around around regions for comparable than 50–80% greater and more 800 species the world, with approximately algae alone. The in red recorded than 75% endemism diversity and endemism in the temperate regions of regions in the temperate diversity and endemism in the world. The richness among the highest are Australia is (i.e. 1155 species) flora macroalgal of the temperate In contrast, approximately 13% of fish, 10% of molluscs 13% approximately In contrast, endemic in the tropical are and 13% of echinoderms marine macrofloral Similarly, of Australia. regions and 189 species of ascidians have been recorded (Lewis (Lewis been recorded of ascidians have and 189 species 85% of fish species, approximately et al. 1998). Of these, endemic. 90% of echinoderms are 95% of molluscs and that extends across the southern coast of Australia, coast of Australia, the southern across that extends of 22 species 1155 species of macroalgae, approximately of echinoderms of fish, 110 species 600 species seagrass, Within the Flindersian Province, a biogeographic region region biogeographic a Flindersian Province, Within the 194 Coastal and marine environment Figure 1 CoorongVincent, andOtway—are showninFigure 1. Murat, Eyre, SpencerGulf, NorthSpencerGulf, GulfSt The eightmarinebioregions inSouthAustralia—Eucla, a varietyofspecies,somewithonlylimiteddistribution. different proportions ofhabitattypes,andare hometo oceanographic andecologicalcharacteristics, comprising in Australia. Theseecosystemshavedistinctive characteristics thatare distinctfrom thoseelsewhere large marineecosystem,withbiologicalandphysical regions. Eachofthesebioregions canbeconsidered a are classifiedinto60 distinctmarinebiogeographical Nearshore Australian coastalandmarineenvironments 2 What doweknowaboutit? South Australia’s marine bioregions coastal watersisbasedonaclassificationsystemthat possible. TheassessmentofSouthAustralia’s shallow The informationisprovided atbioregional scale,where sandflats andmudflats,estuaries,beachesdunes. have beenassessed;theyincludeseagrasses, reefs, the SouthAustralian coastal and marineenvironments Key ecosystems,habitatsandspeciesthatmakeup 2.1 a gradient ofhumandisturbance(Figure 2). based onamodelofchangeinbiologicalconditionalong and waterqualityparameters. Theclassificationsystemis incorporates seagrass and reef habitatconditionindices, Bioregional environmental assessment Coastal and marine environment 195 Saras Kumar, Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Kumar, Saras cow and calf, Great Australian Bight Marine Park Australian Great Southern right whale cow and calf, 196 Coastal and marine environment of thestate’s shallowcoastalwaters.The newinformation and coverofseagrass hasbeenobtainedforthemajority (EPA 2008),more detailed information abouttheextent 2008 SouthAustralian stateoftheenvironment report western endoftheSouthAustralian coastline.Sincethe McDonnell neartheVictorianborder toFowlers Bayat the Australia, growing inshallow, sheltered baysfrom Port There are 21 speciesinninegenera ofseagrass inSouth important carbonsink(Fourqurean etal.2012). erosion bystabilisingsediments.Seagrass isalsoan food forsomemarineherbivores, andhelpstoprevent other organisms, seagrass isalsoanimportantsource of vital ecologicalroles. Aswellasproviding habitat for high valueasproductive coastalhabitats,withnumerous Seagrass meadows are recognised globallyasbeingof Seagrasses2.1.1 condition. located awayfrom nutrientsources were inabetter Protection Authority (EPA) in2010showedthatareas monitoring bytheSouthAustralian Environment Consistent withthemodelabove,ecologicalcondition Figure 2 Source: Gaylard etal(2013) Ecological conditiongradient andclassificationsystemforshallownearshore marine waters inSouthAustralia

Table 1 provides thebioregional assessmentforseagrass. the future. and coverofseagrass meadowscanbeassessedin provides abaselineagainstwhichchangeintheextent Coastal and marine environment 197 rise. at continued , two condition condition. , while on condition, with good good

poor Posidonia excellent very to Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis (Bryars and Wear 2008). The 2008). (Bryars and Wear moderate spp. Throughout there are are Spencer Gulf there Throughout spp. Halophila australis Amphibolis , and spp. and spp. due to exposure to heat and ultraviolet light (Seddon 2000). This light (Seddon to heat and ultraviolet due to exposure Heterozostera Posidonia Posidonia , two species of . Many of the seagrass meadows in these bays provide habitat and nursery areas for and nursery areas habitat bays provide meadows in these . Many of the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica good Amphibolis with seagrass meadows of with seagrass excellent indicating of epiphytic algae on the seagrasses, in dense growths signs of nutrient enrichment reflected et al. 2013). (Gaylard under stress that the habitats are beds over 53% of the sea floor, support seagrass warm, shallow waters North Spencer Gulf bioregion’s total seagrass (50% of the state’s kilometres 4215 square At and northern reaches. mostly in the central and one of the in South Australia, meadows recorded of seagrass area this is the largest coverage), has limited water movement and low The area meadows in Australia. seagrass of temperate areas largest dissipated. There not readily of pollution that are to land-based sources so it is vulnerable wave energy, has been a loss of in the gulf with climate change, as temperatures is expected to continue and might increase trend other areas of the Eyre region were largely in good condition and the overall condition of the bioregion condition of the bioregion and the overall in good condition largely were region of the Eyre other areas was considered Bay supports the only D’Estrees importance. recreational and and various fishes of commercial prawns to be in Island; this bed is considered bed on the south coast of Kangaroo seagrass 2009). (KI NRM Board such areas, sheltered the more they occur in in this bioregion, not widespread are Although seagrasses the Wardang around and areas Victoria west, Bay in the east, Harbour in the Port Hardwicke as Franklin seagrass Highly productive along the mid-east coast (including Balgowan). and other areas Island group, were There currents. area, which is exposed to strong Reef of the Tiparra also a feature meadows are patches or sand) in the south-east of Spencer interspersed with reef (often small stands of seagrass Protection The Environment Bay. Port Minlacowie and the southern part of Hardwicke such as off Gulf, Harbour as assessed the ecological condition between Arno Bay and Franklin Authority the ecological condition was classified as Moonta and Wallaroo, around the eastern side of the gulf, at Kangaroo Island—boast extensive areas of seagrass meadows, which are estimated to cover an area an area estimated to cover meadows, which are seagrass of areas Island—boast extensive at Kangaroo such as the Sir Joseph Banks and The lee side of some islands in the bioregion, of 56 956 hectares. in conditions and supports dense seagrasses sheltered provides Investigator groups, expansive and diverse. Almost all known South are region of the Investigator Group The seagrasses including six species of the region, species have been documented across Australian species of healthy. all considered are region meadows in the Investigator Group seagrass Point Port Lincoln, the Billy Lights stormwater run-off sea-cage from aquaculture, Within Boston Bay, all contribute nutrients into the sheltered discharges plant and fish-processing wastewater treatment bays and condition of both Boston and Louth bays. This is likely to contribute to the eutrophic in these bays was in seagrass losses. The remaining subsequent seagrass in The seagrasses enrichment in these areas. nutrient indicating widespread dense epiphytic algal growth There are no seagrass beds currently mapped in the Eucla bioregion. However, an expedition by an expedition However, in the Eucla bioregion. mapped beds currently seagrass no are There dominated by beds of seagrass located extensive patches and others Gurgel of Department (F Gurgel, outer limestone reefs the beach and the study site between the Coymbra evaluate The study did not November 2012). pers. comm., Resources, and Natural Environment, Water the to determine required are and further assessment and mapping seagrass, the condition of the habitats in this bioregion. condition of seagrass This bioregion border. Australian the Western before of seagrass area Bay is the last large Fowlers of covering an area South Australia, in recorded of seagrass 15% of the total area represents evidence suggests that loss Smoky Bay alone (DEH 2007a). Anecdotal Bay and in Streaky 86 160 hectares of nutrient inflow. Bay is likely to be due to high levels beds in Smoky of seagrass Venus, Baird, bioregion—including in the Eyre sandy embayments number of sheltered, The large Peninsula, Bay Eyre and D’Estrees Peake bays off Louth and Boston, Proper, Sceale, Coffin, Waterloo, Bioregional assessment of seagrass assessment Bioregional Gulf North Spencer Spencer Gulf Eyre Murat Eucla Table 1 198 Coastal and marine environment Table 1 Coorong Gulf St Vincent continued is understress from excess nutrients(Gaylard etal.2013). condition. Throughout theregion there were heavyepiphyte loadsonseagrasses, indicatingthatthearea habitat has been lost (Western Cove), probablyhabitat hasbeenlost(Western asaresult ofeutrophication (Bryarsetal.2003,Gaylard headlands. Insomeofthesebays,there isevidencethatseagrass meadowsare degraded andseagrass The northerncoastofKangaroo Islandisdominatedbyseagrass-filled embaymentspunctuatedby rocky Kangaroo Island(Nepean bio-unit) et al. 2013). particularlynearsmallcoastaldevelopmentssuchasBlackPointenrichment, andWool Bay(Nelson the region as Ardrossan andTroubridge Island.Recent investigationsbytheEPA classified theecologicalconditionof The low–wave energy environment ofwesternGulfSt Vincentsustainslarge seagrass meadowsbetween Yorke Peninsula (Orontes bio-unit) seagrass lossinthefuture (Gaylard etal.2013). in habitats consistingmainlyof subjected tolarge tidesand limitedwaterexchange. Overall, thesiteswere dominatedbydenseseagrass Seagrass meadowsdominatetheshallow, low-energy environment atthetopofGulfSt Vincentandare Northern GulfSt Vincent(Clinton bio-unit) good conditionandnotaffectedbydischarges from theLightRiver. Levels ofepiphytecoverobservedinYankalilla Bayare low. Seagrass offtheLightRiverdeltaisinvery Yankalilla BayandLightRiver quality, asoutlinedinthedraft AdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan (EPA 2013). option formitigatinglosses;however, successfullong-term recovery willrely onimprovements inwater methods byIrvingetal.(2010)foundthatsand-filled hessianbagsprovided aviableandcost-effective patchy, andthere are indicationsofnutrientenrichment throughout theregion. Testing ofrehabilitation condition ofthewaterslessthan15 metres deepisconsidered tobe surveyed were typicallydensewithlowepiphyteloadsinclearwater. Further south,theecological investigations bytheEPA determinedtheecological conditiontobe (Gaylard etal.2013).Althoughlosseshavebeenreported forthedeeperwatersoffshore, recent seagrasses particularlyaround Semaphore, while thearea betweenGrange andGlenelgwasdegraded throughout thispartofthecoastanddeterminedthatconditionwas to causefurtherlossofseagrass alongthissectionofcoastline.TheEPA assessedtheshallowwaters of discharges inthenearshore waters,duetolack ofmixingwithdeeperwatersare likelytocontinue The numerous discharges ofnutrientsandsedimentintothecoastalwaters,highresidence time (EPA 2013).Theremaining seagrasses are fragmented, leavingthemvulnerable tofurtherdegradation. adjacent towastewaterdischarges, asindicatedintheAdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan 5000 hectares ofboth Seagrass bedsalongthemetropolitan coastlinehavebeencharacterised bythelossofmore than Adelaide Metropolitan coastline in front ofthetownshipKingston. western partofthebioregion. Thenearshore seagrass hasregressed approximately 100 metres offshore of higherwavepower;somepatches ofseagrass are interspersed betweenreefs andsandyareas inthe from agricultural drains There andcoastaldevelopment. islittleseagrass northofthe Granites because meadow (25 062 hectares). Thismeadowisvulnerable totheimpactsofhigh-nutrient waterflowing Inthemoremovement. sheltered watersofLacepedeBay, there isadenseandextensiveseagrass Seagrass bedsare scarce alongmostofthecoastbecausehighwaveenergy andactivesand significantly impacted (such as Western Cove)whileinothers (such asBayofShoals) itwasin 2005). Theregion wasassessedasgenerally in very good condition.However, there are emergingwhichmightleadto signsofnutrientenrichment, very good Amphibolis , butlarge partsoftheregion were undersignificantstress becauseofnutrient Posidonia spp. and spp. and Posidonia good Amphibolis condition,butinsomeareas theseagrass was spp. inthenearshore watersandinseveral locations spp., andtheregion wasconsidered tobe very good poor fair, becausetheseagrasses are withsomeareas ofintact becausethemeadows good continued Coastal and marine environment 199 Dr Jane McKenzie is found at is found at Amphibolus Amphibolus Posidonia ), wire grass ( grass ), wire Adelaide coastline, looking south from Port Adelaide Port Adelaide coastline, looking south from Posidonia australis Posidonia ). Historical seagrass loss documented in has in Rivoli Bay loss documented seagrass ). Historical r small patches occur near and Boatswain Point. Seagrass meadows meadows Seagrass Point. and Boatswain occur near Beachport r small patches Heterozostera tasmanica Heterozostera ) and eelgrass ( ) and eelgrass Seagrasses are a minor feature of the Otway bioregion. The most easterly bed of The most the Otway bioregion. of a minor feature are Seagrasses othe MacDonnell, and Port ( dominated by strapweed are bioregion in the Otway antartica in the seagrass The remaining (Seddon et al. 2003). discharges impacts of drain been attributed to the (Wear losses the previous from and seabed instability resulting wave energy to high bay is vulnerable et al. 2006). continued Otway Table 1 Table 200 Coastal and marine environment Table 2 high tidesbutexposedduringlowtides,theseintertidal zones, preventing erosion ofsandybeaches.Covered by reduce theimpactofhigh-energy waveactiononcoastal of coastalenvironments. Intertidalrocky reefs helpto the extremes oftidesconstitutesanimportantseries The stripoflandthatfringestheseaandliesbetween Reefs2.1.2 Eyre Murat Eucla Gulf Spencer North Gulf Spencer Bioregional assessment ofreefs rare anduncommonspecies. Theconditionoftworeefs withintheEyre bioregion, locatedaround thetoeof large diversityandabundance ofinvertebrates (sponges, ascidians,bryozoansandhydroids), includingsome Eyre Peninsula supportdifferent assemblages,despitetheirgeographic proximity. These reefs generally havea shore platformstoatleast50 metresintertidal wave-cut deep. Reefs atthebottomofYorke Peninsula and granitewave-exposed outcrops andreef platforms.Insomepartsofthe Eyre bioregion, reefs extendfrom diverse range ofsubtidalreef habitats,includingledges,boulders,caves,crevasses, overhangs,cobblereefs, The coastoftheEyre bioregionislandandreef alternatesbetweenintermittent, exposures. There isahighly algae provide animportant foodsource forherbivores andhabitatforother animals. Reef, Fowlers BayandPoint Bellare characterised byadiversity of red algae.Thediverseassemblagesof macroalgae (includingvarious speciesof including rocky partsofbays, headlandsandaround islands,supportadiversecoverofbrown canopy Of thehabitatsthathavebeenmappedinMurat bioregion, 17.2%are subtidalreef. Reefs inthebioregion, assigned. Surveysaround theBundaCliffsconsidered theseascapetobe systematically surveyedbecauseoftherelative inaccessibilityofthearea; therefore, nooverall trend canbe The marinehabitatsoftheAlinytjara Wilurara Natural Resource ManagementRegion havenotbeen relatively pristine. and difficultcoastalaccesshavehelpedtoensure thattheenvironments ofthe Great Australian Bight are Of thehabitatsthathavebeenmappedinEuclabioregion, approximately 12.5%are subtidalreef. Isolation Australian Government(PIRSA2012ab). of cuttlefishin2011hasprompted anextensionoftheprotection area andaninvestigationbytheSouth molluscs andascidians(sea squirts). Theoverall conditionofthesereefs isnotknown.Adeclineinnumbers area alsoprovides habitatforthemanyspeciesandabundantnumbersofechinoderms,includingseaurchins, recognised asanimportantarea forspawningaggregations oftheAustralian giantcuttlefish becomes low-relief subtidalrocky reef outto70–130 metres offshore. Thesubtidal reef around is fragments,consists ofaplatformplate-like whichextends outbeyondtheintertidalzoneandgradually The onlyintertidalreef intheNorthSpencerGulfbioregion isfoundaround BlackPoint andPoint Lowly. It largely unknown. portion oftheinshore benthichabitatshavebeenmapped,theconditionofecological communitiesisstill The SpencerGulfshoreline includesawidevarietyofbedrock platformsandintertidalreefs. Althoughalarge NRM Board 2009). Hanson Bay—are identifiedashavinghigherspeciesrichnessthanother Australian temperate coastlines(KI Kangaroo Islandandhave highinvertebrate andalgaldiversity. Two sitesin thisarea—Browns Beachand regionally unusualassemblages. Intertidalreefs (rocky shores) are acommonfeature ofthecoastline Parts ofthewestandsouthcoastKangaroo Islandalsosupportadensecoverofmacroalgae, including Yorke hasbeendescribedas Peninsula, typica Cystophora andSargassum l through Reef Healthsurveys(DEH2008). Table 2provides thebioregional assessmentforreefs. because oflimitedmonitoring. The healthofmostreefs inSouthAustralia isnotknown intertidal areas are likelytoundergo considerable change. harvesting. Withcontinuedpopulationgrowth, these They alsosufferthehighestimpactfrom pollutionand environment forhumanrecreation andotherpursuits. zones are oneofthemostaccessiblepartsmarine ), andmanyspeciesofred algae.Nuyts excellent (AW NRMBoard 2011). continued . The

Coastal and marine environment 201 continued condition, good . The unusually high were predominantly in the south and predominantly were Ozius truncatus good (Turner et al. 2007). Reefs that were considered that were (Turner et al. 2007). Reefs caution . fair since they are covered in a dense canopy of macroalgae and have a high fish diversity and abundance (Brock and have a high fish diversity and abundance (Brock in a dense canopy of macroalgae covered since they are and Kinloch 2007). metropolitan coast. was found between Hallett Cove and Southport The highest amount of sedimentation metropolitan and in autumn et al. 2007). The ecological near the mouth of the Onkaparinga River (fluvial origin), (Turner to between Marino and Sellicks was considered the area deep in condition for waters less than 15 metres be reef of coastal algae and the number and diversity of fish as a measure brown of larger Based on the presence to be in Island could be considered on Kangaroo health (Turner et al. 2007), the subtidal reefs during the Reef Health surveys, many of the reefs along the metropolitan coastline have a health status coastline have a along the metropolitan Health surveys, many of the reefs during the Reef index of in to improve reefs for the condition of Adelaide metropolitan trend is a general There areas. nonmetropolitan (Westphalen 2011). to south (best condition) condition) north (worst condition from was conducted over reefs baseline investigation of the sedimentation on 12 metropolitan A preliminary sedimentation was found along the 2007 to 2008. Spatial variation in reef summer and autumn from winter, identified Port Stanvac as an important reef in the region for molluscs, echinoderms and red algae, because region for molluscs, echinoderms and reef in the Stanvac as an important Port identified Over in South Australia. to date on other intertidal reefs species that have not been recorded it supports rare found. of taxa in the number increase to be an overall appeared the past 20 years, there and abundant macroalgae dominated by large were bioregion in the Gulf St Vincent reefs The subtidal rocky and . echinoderms, molluscs ascidians, hydroids, life, such as sponges, bryozoans, invertebrate the of fish, including the western blue groper, species abundant habitat for several also provided The reefs developed Based on the health indices species of wrasse. western blue devil, the harlequin and several densities of scavenging and predatory crustaceans within these aquatic reserves might indicate disruptions crustaceans within these aquatic reserves densities of scavenging and predatory of to determine the role is required 2008). Research NRM Board to the normal ecological balance (AMLR in marine systems. crabs predatory in 1988, in 1998 and at the end intertidal reef Stanvac undertaken at the Port Biodiversity surveys were appears to have biological Stanvac area Port to Dutton and Benkendorff (2008), the of 2007. According coast and Fleurieu Peninsula. The surveys Adelaide metropolitan importance for intertidal diversity along the species. The lowest invertebrate biodiversity was recorded within the Noarlunga Reef and Aldinga aquatic within the Noarlunga Reef biodiversity was recorded species. The lowest invertebrate to have a appeared Peninsula Fleurieu Lady Bay on traffic. was heavy recreational there where reserves, Myponga boulder fields found at remote 2008). The NRM Board richness (AMLR higher intertidal species due to the lack of probably biodiversity, indicated high invertebrate Victor Harbor, and Kings Beach, near Reserve appeared at Aldinga Aquatic within boulder field areas low diversity recorded disturbance. Relatively crab of the predatory to be due to unusually abundant populations communities vary according to wave exposure and type of substrate. Red and brown leafy algae dominate and brown Red and type of substrate. to wave exposure communities vary according Yorke and Fleurieu tips of the high-energy rock around crystalline on cliffs of hard lower intertidal zones algae, barnacles worms, green islands. Above the algae, layers of polychaete nearshore peninsulas and some crevices. while little blue snails appear in and limpets can be observed, suggested that, in general, Fleurieu Peninsula around of 15 intertidal reefs of surveys In 2006–07, results sites and no introduced communities at most diverse invertebrate in good health, with were these reefs Intertidal reefs in the Gulf St Vincent bioregion are typically calcareous or limestone rock platforms. Intertidal platforms. Intertidal or limestone rock typically calcareous are Vincent bioregion Gulf St in the Intertidal reefs basalt and of granite, reefs Harder Bay. and Lady Aquatic Reserve at Aldinga Reef occur reefs limestone Peninsula, the tip of Fleurieu the Cove. Around and Hallett Valley occur at Second volcanic conglomerates studied. The intertidal cliffs, and is little adjacent to sheer coastal band occurs as a narrow intertidal zone continued Gulf St Vincent Table 2 Table 202 Coastal and marine environment Table 2 Coorong Otway continued of thecoastlinefrom CapeJaffatoNorthumberlandisdominatedbyflatlimestone reefs.Theshallow of plantandanimalspecies.Apartfrom longstretches ofhigh-energymuch beach,suchastheCanundaarea, In theOtwaybioregion, nearshore rocky platformsandrocky intertidalareas provide habitatforanabundance westerly extentofthiscold-water plant. the outer, more exposedpartsofthereef. Thisisofspecialinterest becauseCapeJaffa represents themost reefs oftheneighbouring Otwaybioregion andothercold-water areas Australia, ofsouth-eastern isfoundon the transition betweentwobiogeographical regions. Giantkelp, whichtypicallydominatesthehigh-energy Margaret Brock Reef, westofCapeJaffaandatthesoutherlyextentCoorong bioregion, islocatedin around 11 metres to60 metres. calcareous reefs inthisarea stretch from onthe LacepedeShelf, theCoorong toCapeJaffa, from adepthof crevices andare amajorhabitatforrock lobster, spongesandotherbenthicinvertebrates. Theparallel species. Indeeperwater(more than25 metres), theflatcalcareous platform reefs containmanyholesand the presence ofoffshore reefs dominatedbyinvertebrates andimmobilefilterfeeders, ratherthanalgal sediments, bryozoansandmixed red macroalgae toadepthofatleast35 metres. Surveyshavealsorevealed In thesouthernpartofCoorong bioregion, mixed patchreef andsandhabitatisdominatedbycoarse by adifferent mixofalgae,withanabundancebryozoansinwatersdeeperthan20 metres. latter isaknownhabitatforjuvenileabalone.Thereefs atthesouthernendofLacepedeBayare dominated branching algae,withadiverseunderstorey ofgreen andred foliosealgae,andcrustosecoralline algae.The In theshallowhigh-energy areas, reef systemsare mostlydominatedbykelpsandothertough,brown, of thepresence ofledges,crevices andcracks. Theyare idealhabitatforadultandjuvenilerock lobsters. western partofthebioregion, nearPortthere Elliot, isaseriesofreef structures, whichare sand asaresult ofthehighturbulencein region, andfewplantsanimalsare foundonthem.Inthe 4.5 kilometres offshore, runparallel alongmuchoftheCoorongManythese coast. reefsare covered in . Much ofthesea-floor habitatforthis region isunmapped. Low platform reefs, approximately Subtidal reefs includelowplatformreefs, offshore calcareous reefs tothesouth,andfringinggranite reefs in their condition. reef. Limitedresearch hasbeenconductedontheintertidalreefs inthisregion, andlittleisknownabout Most ofthereef habitatwithintheCoorong bioregion issubtidal;there isonlyasmallportionofintertidal diversity ofbrown, green andred macroalgae. important becausetheyprovide habitatforvariousattachedandmobileinvertebrates, andhaveahigh ofbiodiversity.‘hot spot’ Thelimestonereefs around Robe andNora Creina are alsoconsidered ecologically Margaret Brock Reef, ontheboundarybetweenCoorong andOtwaybioregions, isconsidered tobea including intertidalreefs (SENRMBoard 2010). There isnoconditionbaseline orbenchmarkforthegeneral conditionofmosthabitattypesinthesouth-east, rocky poolsandcrevices containseastars,gastropods andbivalveshells,anemones andotherinvertebrates. calcareous platformreefs intheRobe area extendtoadepthofabout20 metres. many Intheintertidalarea, complex asaresult Coastal and marine environment 203 continued er. These can result from urban and industrial development, urban and industrial from These can result and dumping, stormwater run- and include dredging and trawling. discharges, sewage and industrial off, is very poor. Knowledge of the condition of these habitats assessment for sandflats the bioregional 3 provides Table and mudflats. more mobile sand grains and are dominated by burrowing dominated by burrowing and are sand grains mobile more worms. They also provide polychaete species, including and resident and habitat for migratory areas foraging or shorebirds. wading birds impacts to human vulnerable habitats are These beach and ocean-based activities, both land-based from marine including coastal development, urban run-off, activities such as bait digging pollution, and recreational driving on beaches. The beaches for fishing and especially by human collection of living organisms also impacted are 2008, Dutton and NRM Board (AMLR and trampling Benkendorff 2008). contain a rich infauna and bottoms Soft-sediment and epifauna. a substrate The epifauna itself provides of the productivity and captures habitat for a rich fauna The organisms the water column via its filter feeders. critically important as food for higher on the bottom are maintaining levels of the food web and contribute to habitats are stability of the bottom. Soft-sediment that disturb the seabed. to any activities vulnerable NRM Board 2008). 2008). NRM Board the environment (i.e. benthic environment Soft sediments form the majority of the Eucla bioregion animals, such as sponges, ascidians and invertebrate Filter-feeding associated with the sea floor). These of the sea floor in the shelf waters of the Eucla bioregion. a dominant feature bryozoans, are For on the sea floor. sponges, form three-dimensional structures particularly the larger invertebrates, sea Bight, the invertebrate-covered Australian Great in the invertebrates many fish and mobile large camouflage and shelt for feeding, breeding, areas floor provides Intertidal soft sediment includes the Merdayerrah Sandpatch (a geological monument at the most (a Sandpatch Intertidal soft sediment includes the Merdayerrah to Cape Adieu, the coastline East of the Bunda Cliffs and Head of Bight western edge of the bioregion). headlands and barriers and interspersed with rocky by beaches backed with dune is characterised dune and dynamic backed by a large wave-exposed The in some areas reefs. beach habitats are used beach coastline are undisturbed of relatively by sandbars. The vast stretches system, and fronted 2011). NRM Board (AW including little penguins, hooded plovers and oystercatchers by birds, mean that A lack of coastal development and limited exploitation or harvesting of coastal resources in South with other coastal areas pristine compared are and coastal environments the nearshore vehicles associated with fishing (AW is the impact of four-wheel-drive exception The only Australia. Bioregional assessment of sandflats and mudflats assessment of sandflats and Bioregional Sandflats and mudflats Sandflats Eucla Table 3 interstices between the sand grains (Womersley and interstices between the sand grains habitats have coarser and Thomas 1976). High-energy with dunes and reef, seagrass or soft-sediment subtidal subtidal or soft-sediment seagrass with dunes and reef, communities, habitats. As in other subtidal soft-bottomed or the ‘gaps’ many tiny plants and animals live within the adjacent seagrass meadows. The larvae of many meadows. the adjacent seagrass Most in these rich feeding areas. species settle and grow associated beaches are to high-energy medium-energy fishes and shorebirds (some of national and international fishes and shorebirds continually washed by the tide, importance). Mudflats, and a linking habitat between mangroves provide Intertidal flats are generally associated with low-energy with low-energy associated generally Intertidal flats are complex food webs. The smaller coastlines and have food for crustaceans, small plants and animals provide NRM Board 2008). Sandy beaches, and estuarine 2008). NRM Board habitats are the soft-sediment sandflats and mudflats zone. within the intertidal of niches for plants and animals that can tolerate the and animals that can tolerate of niches for plants of wetting, drying, salinity, conditions often extreme (AMLR to sun and submersion exposure temperature, extent but are relatively open systems that rely on other systems that rely open relatively are extent but also regularly and are for connectivity, marine habitats a range These habitats create inundated by the . Intertidal habitats provide a transition zone between zone between transition a habitats provide Intertidal in narrow They are and marine ecosystems. terrestrial 2.1.3 204 Coastal and marine environment Table 3 North SpencerGulf Spencer Gulf Eyre Murat continued sheltered watersinthenorthernpartsofSpencerGulfbioregion. nearshore environments atPort Hughes isrelatively good. Subtidalsoftsedimentsare afeature ofthe soft-sediment habitatsandcommunitiesinthisbioregionWater thanabouttheirextent. qualityinthe with smallrocky headlands, andshore platforms.Much lessisknownabouttheconditionofintertidal of thegulfcompriseslong,sandybeacheswithasingleornarrow beltofdunesbehind,interspersed with extensiveseagrass meadowsatthefront (EPNRMBoard 2009).Muchside ofthemid-eastern have wideintertidalsandflats,backedbyverylow-energy tomoderate-energy high-tide beaches, protected from thesouth-west swell,andwavesgenerally developfrom onshore winds.Mostbeaches wind waves,withgreater tidalranges intheupperreaches. TheEyre Peninsula beachesare mostly The beachesofSpencerGulfare generally low-energy environments andare dominatedbylow- various fishesand crustaceans. they supportalarge variety ofinvertebrates, particularlymolluscsandworms,provide habitatfor region’s Soft-sediment mappedbenthic habitat. communitiesare foundinsheltered embayments; Authority’s 65 ambientwater-quality monitoringsites.Sandybottomformsalarge proportion ofthe Bay) wasrelatively good,withthelowestnutrientlevelsrecorded oftheEnvironment Protection Water qualityinthenearshore environments ontheEyre Peninsula (Boston Bay, CoffinBay, Venus condition (as aresult ofthelowlevelcoastaldevelopment),butrecognised thatdatawere patchy. (KI NRMBoard 2008)reported thatmanyoftheisland’s coastalandmarineecosystemswere ingood bioregion TheKangaroo thanabouttheir extent. IslandNatural Resources Management(NRM) Board Much lessisknownabouttheconditionofintertidalsoft-sediment habitats andcommunitiesinthis EPNRMBoard 2009 2009a, the Republic ofKorea, usethetidalflatsandbeachesthroughout the region (DEH2007ac, Wader birds, whichare protected bybilateral agreements betweenAustralia Japanand andChina, this hashelpedtoformaseriesofbaysandestuaries,sandybeachesrocky shores (DEH2007b). Eyre, JussieuandBolingbroke peninsulabeachesare mostlysheltered from south-westerly swells,and are typicallydominatedbylow-wind wavesandare commonlyfronted byseagrass meadows.The lower SpencerGulfare generally low-energy environments, eitherreflective orlow-tide terraces. They calcarenite cliffs,oratbasesofinthewestern area ofthisbioregion. Thebeachesalongthe There are manysmallsandybeachesthatare opentohigh-energy waveactionbetweenthe dominant feature oftheMurat bioregion, accountingforonly4%ofitsarea. fish andbirds, includingmigratory birds, visittheseareas tofeed.Subtidalsoftsedimentsare nota in mangrove forests provide keynurseryhabitatforfishandwesternkingprawns. Manyspeciesof systems.Shallow,deeper andaccumulatebiggersand-dune sandybays,mudflatsandtidalareas to beshallow. Thiscontrasts withexposedbeachesonthewesternsideofMurat, whichare generally habitats (DEH2007a, in theStreaky Bayarea becausemanyoftheembaymentsare dominatedbymangrove andsaltmarsh Surf beachesands a large proportion of theNorthSpencerGulfbioregion. are activeonlywhenfloodedbyspringhightidesand storm surges. Soft-sediment communitiesform forming barrierislandsare multiplelinesofearlierstranded barriers,separated bysupratidal flatsthat 400 metres long, 10–50 metres wide,andrarely more than1 metre high.Landward oftheactively lines parallel totheshore alongthesheltered shoreline, from Cowell toPort Theyaverage Augusta. the influenceofstormsurges orextreme tidalevents.About340ofthesebarriersare arranged in coastal sandbarriers,whichare absentfrom higherenergy stretches ofthelowergulfandformunder extensive seagrass meadowsatthefront.Adistinctivefeature ofNorthSpencerGulfis theunusual have wideintertidalsandflats,backedbyverylow-energy tomoderate-energy high-tide beaches,with the area are increased bythetidal currents ofthenorthern gulfregion. Themajority ofthebeaches flats, whichare occasionallyinundatedbyhighspringorstormtides.Thediversityand productivity of intertidal mudflats,mangroves andsandflats.Thesupratidal zonecomprisesmainly of bare carbonate Coastal geomorphologynorthofPoint Lowly consistsofwidesupratidal samphire andmudflats, heltered beachesare scattered withintheFowlers Bayarea; theyare lesscommon EP NRMBoard 2009 ). ). Where reefs protect thecoastline,beachprofiles tend DSEWPaC continued Coastal and marine environment 205 bioregion is home to a diverse group of soft-sediment communities, which were identified as identified which were communities, of soft-sediment to a diverse group is home bioregion The intertidal and subtidal areas in the Otway bioregion are dominated by both flat and high-relief dominated by both flat and high-relief are in the Otway bioregion The intertidal and subtidal areas bays. sheltered in some of the more of seagrass patches of sand, and small areas limestone reefs, absent, are sandy beaches and coastal dunes and barriers can be found. Subtidal soft- reefs Where 7% accounting for approximately of the Otway bioregion, not a dominant feature bottom habitats are sand interspersed among the reefs. mostly found as patches of of its area. They are (194 kilometres from the Murray mouth to ). The lengthy ocean beach is an important mouth to Cape Jaffa). The lengthy ocean beach is an important the Murray from (194 kilometres single largest for many marine species, including Australia’s and nursery area feeding, breeding listed vulnerable site for the state’s is also an important nesting population of cockles. The region of the 2010). The condition and trends (SE NRM Board birds wading hooded plover and for migratory unknown because of inconsistent and insufficient in the south-east are intertidal coastal environment 2010). information (SE NRM Board fine sediments. The high by mouth is characterised Murray the from offshore directly The region also settling, but are immobile species from prevent constant sand movements in this area and energy Animals associated with invertebrates. habitat for bottom-dwelling and burrowing likely to provide worms; crustaceans, rays and skates; (e.g. flounder and flathead); include flatfishes these sandy areas Goolwa sea snails; and a variety of bivalve molluscs, including the well-known such as sand crabs; cockle or pipi. ecosystems were in good condition (as a result of the low level of coastal development), but of the a result (as in good condition ecosystems were (particularly ammonia) in A link has been found between nitrogen patchy. that data were recognised (Bryars et al. Island region the Kangaroo loss in of and seagrass regions the nearshore 2006). coast was in poor condition for several the metropolitan Monitoring indicated that water quality along an ecological assessment in 2011 of Adelaide’s from indicators and continues to decline. Results found and 558 individuals were taxa showed that 58 macroinvertebrate beach-nourishing program were found of invertebrates taxa beaches studied. The most dominant 15 metropolitan the across between 77 at The total number of species found ranged beetles). species (mostly typically terrestrial Outlet. South and 8 at Torrens Semaphore dunes, beach ridges by large dominated sandy ‘barrier coast’, is a large, bioregion The Coorong longest continual sandy beaches sandy beaches, including one of Australia’s and high-energy This 2005) report (Tanner surveys recent Sprigg (1976). More and assemblages by Shepherd six distinct losses The . within the gulf and in assemblages, both losses in all of these declines or and wastewater as dredging other impacts, such but trawling, to prawn linked predominantly were also contributed. discharges, Port Port Clinton to St Vincent from flats dominate the upper portion of Gulf Sandy to muddy tidal St Vincent Gulf on eastern 2008). Mudflats Adelaide (Womersley NRM Board and Thomas 1976, AMLR beach biodiversity Overall, and seagrasses. habitats samphire associated with coastal mangroves, are around beaches, which are 2008). Dissipative NRM Board (AMLR modest in gulf waters is relatively 2008). Tidal mudflats NRM Board Goolwa, rich in fauna (AMLR coast towards the eastern Fleurieu are important for wading birds nationally and internationally Vincent are Gulf St and other habitats in or shorebirds. coast and marine many of the island’s that reported (2008) Island NRM Board The Kangaroo continued Otway Coorong Gulf St Vincent Vincent Gulf St Table 3 Table 206 Coastal and marine environment rain. Thisdiscoloured waterisretained inthenearshore solids intonearshore coastalwatersafterperiodsof Urban stormwatercontributes large loadsofsuspended promising results (see Section 4). to reduce theimpactsfrom thesedischarges shows seagrass leaves orresult inbreakage ofleaves.Aprogram seagrasses, reduce theamountoflightavailableto the growth offast-growing epiphytes,whichsmother into themarineenvironment.Thenutrientspromote bicarbonate. Thesedischarges contributenutrientloads well asfrom alarge manufacturer ofsodaash andsodium discharges from three wastewatertreatment plants,as Adelaide’s metropolitan coastreceives nutrient-rich receiving waters. that are likelytoaffect theecologicalconditionof good monitored in2010theseregions wasconsidered tobe leakage andagricultural run-off. Theecologicalcondition from andland-basedaquaculture, sea-cage septic-tank Tumby andArnobays,receive nutrientsdischarged Other partsoftheLower SpencerGulfregion, including found inbothBostonandLouth bays. This islikelytocontributetheeutrophic conditions discharges allcontributenutrientsintothesheltered bays. Point wastewatertreatment plantandfishprocessing Bay, from stormwaterrun-off Port Lincoln,theBillyLights tanks locatednearsmallcoastaltowns.WithinBoston River inperiodsofheavyrain, andleakagefrom septic this region from includerun-off agriculture intothe Tod particularly duringautumn.Othernutrientsources in were inpoorcondition,withsignsofexcess nutrients, Monitoring atLouth Bayin2010showedtheseagrasses the nutrientsintonearshore areas suchasLouth Bay. located welloffshore, thewindandtidalactiondrives waters. Althoughthebulkofaquaculture farmsare in thisregion isdischarge ofhighloadsnutrientsinto from Port Lincoln.Thecumulativeeffectofmanyfarms bluefin tunaandyellowtailkingfishinthewatersoffshore comes from aquaculture sea-cage ofbothsouthern The pressure onwaterqualityinthelowerSpencerGulf ecosystems. canopy macroalgal ecosystemstoturf-dominated reef increasing epiphyteloadingonseagrass, andashiftfrom effects onbioticenvironments. Theseeffectsinclude concentrations canhavedisproportionate degenerative Consequently, evensmallincreases innutrient and animalshaveevolvedtothriveintheseconditions. in nutrients(oligotrophic) andclear, andtheplants The coastalwatersofSouthAustralia are typicallylow 2.1.4 . TheLower SpencerGulfhasavarietyofpressures Coastal waterquality loss ofseagrass. nearshore watersafterrain, whichcouldleadtofuture coastal towns) transport nutrientsandsedimentintothe Peninsula from (inadditiontostormwaterrun-off Present andpastlandmanagementpractices onYorke the groundwater intothenearshore marineenvironment. tanks, whichresult intheleakageofnitrogen through a varietyofpressures, includinghighdensitiesofseptic The northernandeasternYorke Peninsula issubjectto water qualityhasimproved are showingpositiveresults. metropolitan Seagrass coast. planting trials in areas where and thedegradation ofrocky reefs alongtheAdelaide has resulted inalossofover5000 hectares ofseagrass increases innutrientsanddecreases inwaterclarity Beach andNorthHaven.To date,thecombinationof waters from dredging atboatingfacilitiessuchasWest and deadseagrass beingdischarged intothenearshore This problem isexacerbated bythesuspendedsediments and theamountoflightavailabletoseagrass andalgae. waters, where itcandecrease theclarityofwater from theGlenelgwastewater treatment plant. associated withdischarges suchasstormwaterandwater a slightelevationinlevelsofmetals,whichwere largely the majorityofAdelaide’s metropolitanshowed coast, Pirie, WhyallaandthePort River. Urbanareas, including that havealonghistoryofindustrialisation,includingPort or industrial).Thehighestmetallevelsoccurred inareas translocated musselsandthebroad landuse(rural, urban An associationexistedbetweenmetallevelsinthe had relatively highmetallevels(Gaylard etal.2011). throughout SouthAustralia showedthatsomeareas A studyofmetaluptakeintranslocated bivalvemussels and furtherseagrass lossispossible. Nepean Bayare understress from nutrientenrichment, indicated thatadditionalseagrass habitatsthroughout Additionally, monitoringbetween2009and2011 than 2695 hectares ofseagrass from Western Cove. To date,there hasbeenalossordegradation ofmore in nutrientdischarges tothenearshore environment. high densitiesofseptictanksincoastaltownscanresult recreational fisheries.Inadditiontoagricultural run-off, reducing biodiversityandimpactingoncommercial and cause thedegradation ofseagrass androcky reefs, River bayonKangaroo Island.Thesedischarges can from agricultural lands,particularlyintotheCygnet rich andsediment-rich thatisdischarged run-off The southernregion ofGulfSt Vincentreceives nutrient- Coastal and marine environment 207 South Australian estuaries are generally poorly poorly generally are estuaries South Australian of a range from and often under threat understood and Environment, Water The Department of sources. mapped 102 estuaries, (DEWNR) Resources Natural to assess their condition surveyed these were and 25 of 2010). et al. (Rumbelow of that a high percentage These surveys showed to high levels state have moderate the estuaries across Threatening process. threatening of disturbance for each physical barrier water regime, altered included processes and head), dumping, habitat middle or lateral, (mouth, nutrient enrichment, vermin, overgrazing, fragmentation, from weeds, vegetation destruction, impacts tracks, marine buffer disturbance, erosion, vegetation recreation, and potential marine pathogens debris, aquaculture and 4). Some locations showed low dissolved (Figures 3 levels. oxygen ). Estuaries are ). Estuaries are Number of estuaries with particular land use directly adjacent to boundaries Number of estuaries with particular land use directly Rumbelow et al. (2010) Rumbelow Natural Resources Management Act 2004 Management Act Resources Natural Figure 3 Figure Source: protection, filtration of water as it flows from land to sea, of water as it flows filtration protection, of nutrients, and habitat for plants and cycling regulation and animals. critical transition zones linking land, freshwater habitats zones linking land, freshwater critical transition and the sea. and many ecosystem services They provide and storm-surge control erosion functions, including measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of mixture variation in salinity due to the measurable on or under the land’ derived from seawater with water ( ecosystem processes and associated biodiversity, which biodiversity, and associated processes ecosystem or intermittently periodically, is either permanently, is a the ocean within which there occasionally open to In South Australia, an estuary has been defined as ‘a ‘a as has been defined an estuary In South Australia, including its of water, coastal body partially enclosed 2.1.5 Estuaries 208 Coastal and marine environment foreshore erosion. detect lossofbeachvolume, a fallinbeachheightor mainly intownshipsandare regularly profiled to infrastructure from coastalerosion. Theseare located the conditionofbeachesthat are criticaltoprotecting Board fundsacoastalsurveyprogram thatmonitors safety (Short2001).Inaddition,theCoastProtection classified according tophysicalcharacteristics and have beenmappedanddescribed.Theyalso All ofthe1788 beachesalongSouthAustralian coast 2.1.6 need tobeincreased tocoverallmarinebioregions. surveys needtoberepeated, andthenumberofsites These disturbances, andmanyhadahighlevelofimpact. Each ofthesitessurveyedwassubjecttomultiple state are considerably affectedby threatening processes. These results highlighthowestuarinesystemsaround the Figure 4 Source: Rumbelow et Beaches anddunes Extent ofthreatening processes across estuariessurveyedinSouthAustralia

al. (2010) and humanintervention. locations, reflecting both natural sand transport processes Differences betweenyears canbeobservedatsome the Adelaidecoastwith2009, 2010and2011values. 2008 beach volumesat60 monitored locationsalong from DEWNR’s Itcompares the beach-monitoringdata. south ofTorrens Figure 5 Inlet. hasbeen compiled asand-pumpingsystemhasbeenoperational2012, program. Sandiscurrently shiftedusingtrucks;since information isusedtoguidethebeachreplenishment Beach levelsandvolumesare monitored, andthis coastal infrastructure anddevelopmentfrom erosion. protection withasandmanagementprogram toprotect littoral Ithasbeennecessarytocombinerock-wall drift. sediment duetoareduced sandinputandanorthward 30-kilometre Adelaidebeach,forexample, hasdeclining and require managementtoprevent erosion. The Adelaide’s metropolitan beacheshavedecliningsediment Coastal and marine environment 209 for more information about NRM regions.) for more and is taken as bycatch in commercial and recreational and recreational and is taken as bycatch in commercial lobster pots. Resources Ranges Natural The Adelaide and Mount Lofty commissioned a survey of the Board Management (NRM) not species and concluded that population estimates were possible at the sites surveyed because of the low numbers photo-catalogued individuals were observed—only three sighted at Seacliff, and none were at Aldinga Reef, Further or Milkies reefs. Macs Ground Northern Outer, needed to better ascertain the status of the studies are harlequin fish and the many other species of conservation waters (Bryars 2011). (See the concern in South Australian Introduction

. Species protected . Species protected , a coastal reef fish , a coastal reef National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act National Parks Othos dentex Variation in volumes of beach sediment, 2009–11 Variation Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Threatened species Threatened grows to 76 centimetres in length, is incidentally captured in length, is incidentally captured to 76 centimetres grows and charter- recreational on hook and line by commercial, spear fishers, recreational by boat fishers, is targeted Living Australia 2012). The harlequin fish prefers high- 2012). The harlequin fish prefers Living Australia and rocky deep, quality coastal waters less than 45 metres with drop-offs, caves and ledges. The fish, which reefs is the harlequin fish coast the central and occurring from endemic to Australia of (Atlas Australia Western of Victoria to south-west noncommercial fish, to determine their conservation noncommercial deficient in data that most species are status. However, could determine their conservation status. One example endangered, vulnerable or rare (Table 4). (Table 4). or rare vulnerable endangered, was undertaken for desktop review A comprehensive than 200 species of many species, including more protected under the protected and the and Wildlife Act can be listed as under the National Parks 2.2 coast and marine species are and rare Threatened Figure 5 Figure Source: 210 Coastal and marine environment Table 4 Endangered National Parks andWildlifeAct caretta Loggerhead turtle( Fairy tern( Little tern( Sooty albatross ( epomophora sanfordi subspecies) ( Royal albatross (northern chlororhynchos chlororhynchos Ocean subspecies) ( Yellow-nosed albatross (Atlantic chlororhynchos carter Ocean subspecies) ( Yellow-nosed albatross (Indian Osprey ( ( seaeagle White-bellied ( Subantarctic furseal musculus Blue whale( Haliaeetus leucogaster Arctocephalus tropicalis ) Pandion haliaetus ) Sterna nereis Sterna albifrons Balaenoptera Diomedea Coast andmarinespeciesprotected under South Australian legislation Diomedea fusca Caretta Diomedea Diomedea ) i) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) Vulnerable Fin whale( Southern rightwhale( Leatherback turtle( Green turtle( Southern giantpetrel ( subspecies) ( Great skua(Macquarie andHeard Island Light-mantled albatross ( subspecies) ( Black-browed albatross (Campbell Island Wandering albatross ( epomophora epomophora Royal albatross (southern subspecies) ( Grey-headed albatross ( Salvin’s albatross ( Shy albatross ( Buller’s albatross ( Hooded plover( Australian sealion( Humpback whale( Sei whale( Balaenoptera borealis Balaenoptera physalus Catharacta skualonnbergi Diomedea melanophrisimpavida Chelonia mydas Diomedea cauta Thinornis rubricollis Diomedea bulleri Diomedea cautasalvini Megaptera novaeangliae Dermochelys coriacea Neophoca cinerea Diomedea exulans Eubalaena australis Macronectes giganteus Diomedea chrysostoma Diomedea palpebrata ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) Diomedea ) ) ) Australian sealionpupsinrockpool atNorthPage Island ) ) ) ) ) ) Protected Fisheries ManagementAct Mogurnda Scalefish ofanyspecies Scalefish ofthegenus Syngnathidae Scalefish ofthefamily carcharias Great whiteshark( Spencer GulfandSt Vincent gouldii Western bluegroper • • classes carryingexternaleggs: Crustaceans ofthefollowing • • • blue swimmercrab bug ( edwardsii southern rock lobster( slipper lobster( gigas giant crab ( pelagicus ) inthewatersofornear ) Ibacus )

) ) Pseudocarcinus sp.) Carcharodon Scyllarides ( Dr JaneMcKenzie Achoerodus Ambassidae ( Portunus Jasus sp.)

Coastal and marine environment 211 Water quality Water Box 1 is estuarine areas quality in coastal and Water area by how the surrounding affected greatly uses in coastal catchments is used. Major land include that affect estuaries and coastal waters sea- horticulture, cropping, pastoralism, Additionally, and forestry. cage aquaculture plants, wastewater treatment stormwater, and effluent disposal and sewage treatment substantial systems in coastal towns discharge quantities of nutrients, heavy metals, matter into loads and organic microbiological estuaries and coastal waters. of have influenced several These pressures estuaries and coastal waters. For the state’s in the matter of organic breakdown example, Inman River estuary sediments and nutrient cause high levels of ammonia in processing litre). per 40 milligrams the estuary (above species, particularly to numerous This is toxic fish species, and can cause algal blooms. estuaries also The Onkaparinga and Cygnet amounts of nutrients and excessive receive organic matter. losses in Nepean Bay and Boston Seagrass nutrient levels. likely to be due to high Bay are losses in the Spencer and mangrove Seagrass Gulf coastal waters have been attributed to a combination of nutrient enrichment, industrial pollution and climatic conditions. It is also loss in likely that at least some of the seagrass Rivoli Bay (in the south-east) is attributable to water from drainage of agricultural discharges (Wear et al. 2006). Lake George Land-based activities What are the pressures? What are environment, entering and changing the food web of the underwater world and influencing many biological entire systems (Figure 6). aquaculture, marinas and boat ramps. Sediments from Sediments from marinas and boat ramps. aquaculture, effluent, from and nutrients or toxins or run-off, erosion persist in the marine industry and agriculture stormwater, fished, and some are overfished. The growing number overfished. The fished, and some are includes of coastal developments along the coastline boating facilities, public access points, offshore regional economic and recreational benefits may be compromised. benefits may be compromised. economic and recreational and traffic boating, shipping Uses such as recreational fully Most fisheries are increasing. are aquaculture resources. Unless these impacts are well managed, Unless these impacts are resources. the ability of the including for their cumulative impacts, to sustain the varied coastal and marine environment comes at some environmental cost (see Box 1), in the in Box 1), cost (see comes at some environmental of habitats, degradation form of pollution, erosion, of pests and unsustainable use of some introduction 75% live in greater Adelaide. Many commercial, industrial Adelaide. Many commercial, 75% live in greater Australia’s South activities benefit from and recreational This inevitably diverse coastal and marine resources. More than 90% of South Australians live within than 90% of South Australians More of the coast (ABS 2002), and approximately 50 kilometres such as climate change. 3.1 Pressures on the coast, and adjacent marine estuaries Pressures both land-based and marine-based from waters result global influences well as broader human activities, as 3 212 Coastal and marine environment Figure 6 Pressures andimpactsoncoastal andmarineenvironments Coastal and marine environment 213 Wildlife interactions that might occur with some marine with some marine that might occur Wildlife interactions sharks and seabirds, with interactions farming include (Harrison 2003). marine mammals protected 3.2.1 Tuna for 53% of South bluefin tuna accounts Southern from (GVP) value of production gross Australia’s years, 2011). In recent (EconSearch aquaculture to steadily; it is projected has risen production by 10% in 2011–12 and 20% continue to increase on the 2011). The pressures in 2012–13 (EconSearch tuna farming include from marine environment and parasites co-infection nitrification, from increased marine debris. Commission for the is a member of the Australia Tuna, was which Bluefin Conservation of Southern the species from established in 1993 to protect that the overfishing. A 2011 stock assessment showed but that low, relatively spawning stock biomass remains 2011). the outlook for the stock is positive (CCSBT South Australian aquaculture development, 2008–12 and planned aquaculture South Australian Figure 7 Figure Source: Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, Fisheries and Aquaculture, unpublished data and Aquaculture, Fisheries South Australia, Industries and Regions Department of Primary Source: food entering the water, adverse interactions with marine adverse interactions food entering the water, albeit rarely. have been reported, vertebrates increased because of human activities in the marine increased and fishery discharge environment, particularly refuse in of the increase (Harrison 2003). As a result discards barramundi and algae. barramundi that the abundance and distribution of is evidence There markedly have marine vertebrates and certain seabirds licensees farming a variety of marine and freshwater variety of marine and freshwater licensees farming a bluefin tuna,species, including southern yellowtail oysters, yabbies and marron, kingfish, abalone, regional South Australia (EconSearch 2012). (EconSearch South Australia regional aquaculture 650 individual approximately are There and 20 549 tonnes in 2010. In 2010–11, aquaculture aquaculture In 2010–11, in 2010. and 20 549 tonnes state product to the gross contributed $90 172 million in of this was generated 70% Approximately (Figure 7). Aquaculture 3.2 Aquaculture increased South Australia in production Aquaculture 13 548 tonnes in 2002 in 1997 to 3883 tonnes from 214 Coastal and marine environment the potentialspread ofdiseasetonativeflora andfauna nutrient discharge tocoastal orfreshwater environments, marron. Pressures from land-basedaquaculture include predominantly abalone,finfish species,yabbiesand Land-based aquaculture in SouthAustralia comprises 3.2.5 etal.2004). (Wear with nativeoysters( feral populations includecompetitionforfoodandspace Harbour andDenialBayin1990. Thepressures from these oysters were reported forthefirsttimein Franklin of wildpopulations.SmallpopulationsPacific waters, concernhasbeenraised overtheestablishment Because Pacific oystersare exotic toSouth Australian (EconSearch 2011). approximately 10%peryearoverthenextthree years value since2003,andtheisprojected togrow by Intertidal shellfishfarminghasmore thandoubledin contributes 18%ofaquaculture GVP inSouthAustralia. Collectively,harvest. theintertidalshellfishculture sector the intertidalzonetocontainstockgrow outand far lesscommonly, fixed ‘rack and rail’ systemswithin oysters. Oysterfarmsmostlyusehangingbasketsor, Intertidal shellfishculture isthefarmingof Pacific 3.2.4 recognised asanenvironmental pressure. of debrisrelated tosubtidalshellfishaquaculture is and marinefinfish,theaccidentallossand/or disposal years (EconSearch 2011).Aswithsouthernbluefintuna by approximately 19.5%peryearoverthenextthree in valuesince2003,andtheisprojected togrow South Australia. Subtidalshellfishhasmore thandoubled culture sectorcontributes8%ofaquaculture GVP in grow Collectively, outandharvest. thesubtidalshellfish longlines, andbenthicstructures toharbourstock species vary;theyincludecontainedanduncontained subtidal shellfishspecies.Culture techniquesforboth Blue musselsandgreenlip abaloneare thefarmed 3.2.3 southern bluefintunafarming,describedabove. pressures from finfishfarming are similartothosefor that escapeshavelong-lasting ecologicalimpacts.Other seem tosurviveforlong.Therefore, itisnotanticipated kingfish, when recaptured, exhibitpoorhealthanddonot Fowler etal.(2003)concludedthatescapedyellowtail occur from finfish-licensedholdingcages.A reportby requirements haverevealed thatescapesofstockcan total aquaculture GVP (EconSearch 2011).Reporting Yellowtail kingfishcontribute14%ofSouth Australia’s Finfish3.2.2 Land-based aquaculture Intertidal shellfish Subtidal shellfish Ostrea angasi ) andotherfilterfeeders fishing mustalsobemanagedtominimisethefootprint impact negativelyonecosystems.Bycatchofcommercial overfishing hasthepotentialto reduce biodiversityand play importantroles intheirmarineecosystems,and Species targeted bycommercial andrecreational fishing at unsustainablelevels. state thatcouldbelostifaquaticresources are harvested Fishing alsobringseconomicandsocialbenefitstothe lead toirreparable damagetotheaquaticenvironment. and there isariskthatcontinuedoverexploitation might 09 (KnightandTsolos 2011).Aquaticresources are finite, increase inproduction of24%(9102 tonnes) since2008– worth anestimated$202 million.Thisrepresented an Australia’s commercial wildfisherieswas47 581 tonnes, During 2009–10, thetotalvolumeofproduction ofSouth 3.3 Fishing natural waterways. populations, andthethreat ofescapestockinto • • • • following: South Australian commercial fisheriesincludethe that fishingplacesontheaquaticenvironment. Effort andfishing dayshavesubstantially decreased, signs forrecovery ofthe species inrecent years. of southernrock lobster, there have beenpositive Southern rock lobster:Following adeclineinnumbers 400 tonnes forthe2011–12fishing season. was setforthe2009–10fishing season,increasing to and decreasing catchrates. Alimitof300 tonnes concerns, followingyearsofincreasing catcheffort management systemin2007toaddress sustainability Pipi (Goolwa cockle):Thepipifisherymovedtoaquota (Jones 2009). fishers is splitevenlybetweenrecreational andcommercial 2011). ThestatewidecatchofKingGeorge whiting reconsider managementarrangements (Fowler et al. several years, andthatthere isnoimmediateneedto in July2011,statedthatthefisheryhasbeenstablefor fishers. Thelateststockassessmentpublished report, heavily targeted bybothrecreational andcommercial considered an‘icon’speciesofSouthAustralia, andis King George whiting:KingGeorge whitingis et al.2010). Gulf, where thebiomasswasconsidered low(Fowler levels in2008–09,except forthesouthernSpencer stocks were assessedashealthyandatsustainable large increase intargeted longlineeffortforsnapper, major contributortothenationalcatch.Inspiteofa and recreational fishers,andSouth Australia isthe Snapper: Snapperishighlyvaluedbybothcommercial Coastal and marine environment 215 Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully Fully fished Fully fished Fully Overfished Overfished fished Fully Overfished fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully Overfished Status Status and other environmental and other environmental species Fisheries stock status for selected for selected stock status Fisheries PIRSA (2006) Spencer Gulf prawn Southern Zone abalone Zone abalone Central Zone abalone Western Pipi (Lakes and Coorong) Pipi lobster rock Southern Zone southern lobster rock Northern Zone southern Southern garfish Southern calamari whiting King George Snapper Giant crab Blue crab Sardine Vincent prawn Gulf St Fishery year period, 97% of all the encounters involved trawl or net year period, 97% of all the encounters involved trawl and Boyle 2013). (Tsolos operations activities also have the potential to damage Fishing deployment of illegal impacts include habitat. Potential beds and damage reefs, mooring over seagrass artificial anchors. from to reefs Source: endangered with threatened, activities can interact Fishing species. Some species have been listed as or protected the of conservation concern under and/or protected 2007 Management Act Fisheries interfered legislation, and must not be taken or deliberately data submitted voluntarily by commercial with. From and Research licence holders to the South Australian 582 incidents were Development Institute (SARDI), there or endangered with 1921 threatened, involving interactions fisheries species in South Australian–managed protected during 2009–10 to 2011–12. Of these, 1802 animals were or escaped, and 119 died. Dolphins accounted released for 609 of the animals and 917 individual pinnipeds were is skewed by a The latter figure involved in interactions. with fishing in the Lakes number of seals interacting large during 2009–10 and 2010–11. Over the three- and Coorong Table 5 Table

pressure. Recovery strategies will be developed to strategies Recovery pressure. recover that stocks and ensure fishing pressure reduce timeframes. to acceptable levels within agreed optimum sustainable levels. Current fishing pressure is fishing pressure optimum sustainable levels. Current sustainable. considered not sustainable and/ Overfished—harvest levels are or yields may be higher in the long term if catch or reduced in the short term, or the stock effort levels are fishing excessive previous from may still be recovering Underfished—underutilised and has the potential to sustain harvest levels higher than those currently being taken. at, or close to, fished—harvest levels are Fully fishery (Dixon et al. 2011), and a recovery strategy recovery strategy et al. 2011), and a fishery (Dixon have for the gulf is in place. Spencer Gulf catches season, with stable since the 1973–74 remained coast 1048 to 2522 tonnes. West from catches ranging opportunistic, with annual catches fishing is more since 1990–91. less than 200 tonnes generally relatively stable catches and increases in prawn in prawn stable catches and increases relatively Gulf prawn size over time suggest that the Spencer limits (Dixon fishery is being fished within sustainable fishery has Vincent prawn et al. 2010). The Gulf St is likely to experienced a decline in biomass, which for the the potential egg production have reduced Australian sardine: The South Australian sardine sardine Australian The South sardine: Australian fishery by Australian South fishery is the largest at indicates that catches are volume of catch. Evidence the level of spawning biomass sustainable levels, with et al. 2010). (Ward range being within the target in effort, Historical reductions prawn: king Western catch of abalone from South Australian waters is South Australian catch of abalone from take of The recreational year. about 870 tonnes per at less than 10 tonnes in abalone was estimated (Jones2007–08 at catches are 2009). Recent (Mayfield et al. the fishery sustainable levels across 2011). Stobart et al. Hogg 2011, 2008, Mayfield and while catch per unit effort has considerably increased. increased. considerably per unit effort has while catch continuing challenges the fishery faces Despite this, (Linnane healthy levels of recruitment to ensure et al. 2011). The total commercial and blacklip abalone: Greenlip • • • PIRSA Fisheries and Aquaculture classifies the stocks classifies and Aquaculture PIRSA Fisheries into exploited species (Table 5) of commercially three categories: Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Industries and Regions Department of Primary and 2011, Knight (PIRSA) (Knight and Tsolos Australia 2011). Vainickis Details on other fisheries are available from the available from Details on other fisheries are • • • 216 Coastal and marine environment that leadtostarvationanddeath. causing physicalblockage,internalscarringandinjuries prey species.Thiscanaffecttheirdigestivesystems, ingested bymarinewildlifethatmistakethedebrisas balloons, plasticfragments andfoodwrappers) canbe facilitate drowning. Debris(e.g. plastic bags,rubber, infections, anddamagetobodylimbs,can mobility, leadingtostarvation.Itcanalsocreate wounds, For marinespecies,entanglement indebriscanrestrict at sea. nonbiodegradable floatingmaterialslostordisposedof commercial solid, fishingactivities;andship-sourced, adhesives; derelict fishinggearfrom recreational and bottles), ropes, fibreglass, piping,insulation,paintsand includes land-sourced plasticgarbage(e.g. bags and on theSouthAustralian marine environment.It Marine debriscontinuestobeapersistentpressure marine wildlife. international sources thatmightcauseharmtovertebrate plastics andothertypesofdebrisfrom domesticor marine debris’. Harmfulmarinedebrisrefers toall caused byingestionof, orentanglementin,harmful process: ‘Injuryandfatalitytovertebrate marinelife (EPBC Act;Cwlth) listsmarinedebrisasakeythreatening The 3.4 Environment Protection andBiodiversityAct 1999 Marine debris

commercial shipping(24%)inAustralia. translocation ofmarinepeststhanballastwaterfrom biofouling isalarger contributor(60%)tothe Hewitt andCampbell(2010)suggeststhatvessel recognised marinepestvectors.Recent research by Commercial shippingisoneofthemostcommonly outlined inthe pests. Thesepestsandtheprograms tomanagethemare fish stocksandtheirhabitats,to raise awareness of assess andrespond toallpeststhatposeathreat toour expensive. Biosecurityprograms are inplacetoidentify, established, eradication israrely possible,andcontrol is and aquaculture industriesdepend.Onceapestiswell adversely affectingtheecosystemsonwhichfishing outcompete nativespeciesforhabitatandfood,thereby from increased vesseltraffic. Marinepestscan threat from arange ofmarinepestspecies,resulting South Australia’s coastalwatersare underincreasing 3.5 1509 portcallsbycargo ships(Figure 8). 2010–11, SouthAustralia’s commercial portshadatotalof carrying more than26.8 million tonnes ofproduct.During our waters,makingmore than1000 portcallsand contributor totheeconomy—some 500 vesselstraverse South Australia’s shippingindustryisanimportant Pest plantsandanimals Little penguinkilledbymarinedebris atTroubridge Island Biodiversity chapter. Dr JaneMcKenzie Coastal and marine environment 217 and production Coastal and offshore exploration exploration Coastal and offshore exploration licence applications. There is one inshore is one inshore licence applications. There exploration Vincent, licence covering most of Gulf St petroleum under the licence to has occurred but little exploration date, and none in the marine part of it. One application in part of Spencer exploration is pending for petroleum licence also covers part of A geothermal exploration Gulf. Spencer Gulf and a small portion of in the south-east. in Australian waters. In developing these requirements, waters. In developing these requirements, in Australian Government has been working with the Australian that implementation arrangements stakeholders to ensure and effective in minimising the both practical are biosecurity risk posed by biofouling. due to in shipping traffic With an expected increase there in other trades, growth exports and natural mineral management of the will be continued focus on risk-based coastal waters. 3.6 activities include mineral exploration Coastal and offshore Offshore and production. exploration and petroleum mining has the potential to alter patterns of sediment movement, and associated and affect ecological processes exploration number of mineral A large biodiversity. near located onshore leases are licences and production of the salt and gypsum extraction the coast, and several tenements extend into inland waters. A substantial by 16 mineral amount of Spencer Gulf is covered chapter. Number of port calls by cargo ships in South Australia, 2001–02 to 2010–11 ships in South Australia, Number of port calls by cargo Biodiversity and Sediments. Government is also investigating new The Australian for vessels arriving biofouling management requirements arrangements will be consistent with the International arrangements International Convention for Maritime Organization’s and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water the Control A comprehensive set of management arrangements for set of management arrangements A comprehensive domestic ballast water is being developed to complement for international vessels. These the existing requirements concern (Wiltshire detailed information More et al. 2010). in the pest species section of on these species is provided the Australia since the 1800s are currently listed as trigger currently since the 1800s are Australia species in the marine pest monitoring manual, which of particular as species regarded means that they are requirements, and by minimising the amount of requirements, biofouling on vessels. in South Thirteen of the 99 pest species reported roles in preventing the spread of marine pests. Pests are are of marine pests. Pests the spread in preventing roles water according contained primarily by managing ballast management mandatory ballast water to Australia’s The Australian Government, through the National System System Government, the National through The Australian of Marine Pest and Management for the Prevention important Incursions, and the shipping industry play and container vessels, visiting Adelaide has increased has increased and container vessels, visiting Adelaide (BITRE 2012). deeper channels and larger berths, but are more efficient more berths, but are deeper channels and larger task. freight fewer trips for any given The and require vessels, including bulk carriers size of large average Figure 8 Figure ships that require larger towards is a trend there Globally, Source: BITRE (2012) Source: 218 Coastal and marine environment initiatives are addressing thisgapinknowledge. and temperature duetoclimatechange.Various research ocean environment, suchas changesinacidity, salinity the SouthAustralian impactsofotherchangesinthe understood, there islimitedinformationavailableabout Although changesinsealevelare relatively well and risingcoastalgroundwater levels. erosion, changingdistributionoftidalplantcommunities increasedincreased coastal seawaterfloodingrisk, The consequencesofsealevelrisecouldinclude and analysis. currently beingupdatedtoreflect more recent projections Thispolicyis government developmentplansin1994. into thePlanning Strategy forSouthAustralia andlocal and NewCoastalDevelopment1991)wasincorporated 1991 sealevelrisepolicy(Policy onCoastProtection impacts incoastalareas. TheCoastProtection Board’s in developingstrategic responses toclimatechange Recognising this,SouthAustralia hasledthenation to therisksofsealevelrisecausedbyclimatechange. 2013). Coastalinfrastructure isparticularlyvulnerable century andiscontinuingtorise(Climate Commission Global sealevelhasrisen0.21 metres overthelast 3.7 disaster couldoccurinSouthAustralia. Australia thatcouldreduce thechancesthatthistypeof from pastdisastersintheGulfofMexicoandnorth-west coastal ecologicalcommunities.Lessons havebeenlearnt can havemajorenvironmental impactsonmarineand Oil-well drillinghasthepotentialtocausespills,which 2008). between offshore seismicexploration andwhales in 2007)and larger cetaceans Act tointeractions betweenoffshore seismicoperations and of theEnvironment Protection andBiodiversityConservation the Australian Government’s regulated byCommonwealthlegislationandguided used inseismicexploration. Seismicoperations are to operate inthesamefrequency astheair-gun pulses than toothedwhales,astheiracousticrange isthought impact onwhales.Baleenwhalesmightbemore affected Seismicsurveyshavethepotentialto wells in2013–14. expected, aswelldrillingoffivedeepwaterpetroleum the Great Australian Further Bight. seismicexploration is A majoroffshore seismicsurveyisbeingundertakenin Climate change EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1—Interaction (Environment Australia 2001;revised Guidelines ontheapplication , (DEWHA Dr JaneMcKenzie Pearson Island Coastal and marine environment 219 in June 1995. National Parks National Parks Fisheries Act 1982 Act Fisheries . These two areas comprise the Great comprise the Great . These two areas Great Australian Bight Marine Park Australian Great maintaining ecological processes in the marine maintaining ecological processes environment in the adapting to the impacts of climate change marine environment or natural of and conserving features protecting heritage importance cultural and allowing ecologically sustainable development use of marine environments opportunities for public appreciation, providing of marine education, understanding and enjoyment environments. and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act Bight Marine Park. Australian and the in general, Bight region, Australian The Great have adjacent to the Nullarbor Cliffs, in particular, area of and values that are biological and physical resources • • • • • estimated Development in Sydney for Policy The Centre park highly the ecosystem services value of the marine zones, which cover almost 6% of state protected $20 million per year waters, to be worth approximately (Hoisington 2012). 4.2.2 Whale Sanctuary Bight Marine Park Australian The Great under the was proclaimed Bight Marine Australian the Great In September 1996, under the was proclaimed National Park network comprises 19 multiple-usenetwork comprises marine parks that The bioregions. South Australia’s distributed across are of each of the eight areas network includes representative marine that overlap with the state’s marine bioregions parks network covers a total area jurisdiction. The marine 44% of South kilometres—approximately of 26 912 square Australian the Great includes waters—and Australia’s (Figure 1). Bight Marine Park is to conserve The aim of the network of marine parks marine biological diversity South Australia’s and protect and habitats, and to assist in: Natural Resources Management Plan Management Plan Resources Natural

Marine parks network Natural Resources Management Resources Natural Plan Marine protected areas areas Marine protected South Australia’s Strategic Plan and Plan Strategic South Australia’s What are we doing about it? we doing about What are trends in the condition of habitats and species in trends marine parks and sanctuary zones. trends in the extent and condition of coastal trends seagrass, reefs, rocky ecosystems (including foreshore, saltmarsh and mangroves) effectiveness of management of South Australia’s Australia’s effectiveness of management of South a 2011 baseline) marine park network (from and reporting the monitoring, evaluation from results for the marine parks network. program The South Australian Government established the The South Australian Areas, of Marine Protected System Representative commonly known as marine parks, in 2009. This marine areas under different forms of protection. under different marine areas 4.2.1 4.2 Government holds a number of The South Australian are in place to achieve the identified targets. are Apart from programs for the ongoing management of the programs Apart from coastal and marine environment, the following initiatives • ecosystems (Target 10), including the following measures: ecosystems (Target 10), • The South Australian a has 2011b) of South Australia (Government 2012–2017 and marine the condition of coastal to improve target • environments’ (Target 71). The plan includes the following 71). The plan (Target environments’ for meeting the target: measures • South Australia’s Strategic Plan (Government of South (Government Plan Strategic South Australia’s to ‘maintain the health 2011a) has a target Australia unique marine and diversity of South Australia’s 4.1 The South Australian Government has established policies Government The South Australian the environmental and improve to protect and programs and marine environment. health of the coastal 4 220 Coastal and marine environment Figure 9 Source: 20 years ofannualmonitoring(Figure 9). pairs—67—recordedfemale–calf attheHeadofBightin has beenincreasing, and2011sawthehighestnumberof thenumberofsouthernrightwhales waters ofthepark, Although there isnohabitatmonitoringinthestate • • • • • Act andtheNationalParks Theyinclude: andWildlifeAct. international andnationalsignificanceundertheEPBC of theMerdayerrah Sandpatch. Nullarbor Cliffsandtheextensivetransgressive dunes geomorphological interest,includingthespectacular coastalareas ofhigh limestone-dominated and flora also containselementsofwarmtropical marinefauna because ofthepresence ofatropical current,thearea invertebrate fauna(such asseasquirtsandslugs); important marinebiodiversity, particularlyamong whales andhumpbacks) whales, killerwhalesandrorquals (bluewhales,minke endangered marinemammals,includingsperm seasonal habitatforotherspeciesofrare and of geneticdiversityforthespecies probably negligiblerates ofsealing,represent asource Nullarbor Cliffs), which,becauseoftheirisolationand the rare Australian sealion(particularlyalongthe important populationsandbreeding coloniesof two majorcalvingsitesintheworld calving areas forthisspeciesinAustralia, andoneof Bight), whichare themostimportantbreeding and southern rightwhale(particularlyattheHeadof breeding andcalvingareas fortheendangered Environment andNatural Resources Data collectedbyEubalaenaPtyLtd andtheDepartmentof Numbers ofcalvingsouthern right Australian Bight whales attheheadof Great tidal creeks andestuarineriversintheregion allprovide Themangroves, seagrass,park. saltmarsh, tidalflats, an additional300 dolphinsasoccasionalvisitorstothe bottlenose dolphins( The area isalsohometoabout30 resident Indo–Pacific • • • • • • • Australia. Itcontains: the mostintensivelyusedmarinewaterwayinSouth The Port AdelaideRiverandBarkerInletispossibly 4.2.3 outline key conservation priorities along the coast, outline keyconservationpriorities alongthecoast, contain detailedmaps,andplant andanimallists.They region (AMLR NRMBoard 2007, 2009). Theseplans has completedcoastalandestuary actionplansforits The AdelaideandMountLofty RangesNRMBoard 4.3 • • • • • • Dolphin SanctuaryAct 2005 viability oftheregional environment.The manages existingandfuture activitiestosupportthe the environment where theylive.Thedolphinsanctuary isdesignedtoprotectin 2005, thedolphinsbyprotecting The AdelaideDolphinSanctuary, whichwasproclaimed excess nutrientsinthewater. and thermalpollution,introduced marinepests,litterand environment, whichhasseenanincrease inchemical Intensive useover150 yearshasseverely affectedthe habitat andfoodforthedolphins. birdwatching anddolphinwatching. important recreational activities,includingfishing, European andAboriginalcultural andhistoricalvalues new developments,bothindustrialandresidential movements annually the state’s withthousandsofvessel majorport, light andheavyindustries a large wastewatertreatment plant metropolitan Adelaide’s powerplants development in management of the area. development inmanagementofthearea. promote theprinciplesofecologicallysustainable cultural prosperities ofthearea healthy environmentsocialand totheeconomic, promote publicawareness oftheimportancea into accountinmanagementofthearea ensure thattheinterests ofthecommunityare taken improve waterquality maintain, protect andrestore keyhabitatfeatures protect thedolphinsfrom physicalharm Coastal andestuariesactionplans Adelaide DolphinSanctuary Tursiops aduncus setsoutto: ), withatleast Adelaide Coastal and marine environment 221 (DEWR 2007) under the EPBC Act. (DEWR 2007) under All South Guidelines for the ecologically sustainable management Guidelines for the ecologically of recreational fishing in South Australia include a Australia fishing in South of recreational fishing recreational plan; a fishing strategic recreational into bag, boat and size management plan; a review limits; and a survey investigating the social aspects of Australia. fishing in South recreational Southern Zone Rock Lobster fisheries, the Gulf St Vincent fisheries, the Gulf Lobster Southern Zone Rock and Lakes (Lakes Alexandra and pipi in the Fishery, Prawn Fishery. Albert) and Coorong in giant cuttlefish to a decline 2013, in response In March site, the South aggregation Lowly populations at the Point closure a temporary Government approved Australian Spencer Gulf as a of all fishing for cuttlefish in northern the decline. while investigating measure precautionary reports annual fishery assessment SARDI prepares the sustainability of key on and stock status reports Management Australia. species in South commercial fisheries set performance indicators, plans for commercial can against which the performance of the fishery of performance against these be assessed. A review indicators can suggest whether management changes are required. continues to be Australia fishing in South Recreational survey into The most recent activity. an important leisure was undertaken in Australia fishing in South recreational and estimated that 236 000 people undertook 2007–08 Recreational fishing activities in that year. recreational fishing brings important social and economic benefits under way for the management to the state. Projects of pollutants from aquaculture and other sources within and other sources aquaculture from of pollutants of many different to aid the management Spencer Gulf, of pollution in the gulf. sources assessed by are fisheries commercial South Australian of Sustainability, Department Government the Australian Communities against and Population Environment, Water, the of fisheries the from exemptions fisheries have current Australian South that the Act, under recognising export controls in an ecologically managed fisheries are Australian sustainable manner. garfish Australia—southern in South fish stocks Two to that aims strategy a recovery and mulloway—require management of a range stocks by implementing rebuild have been strategies recovery Five measures. response fish stocks in implemented for South Australia’s of management to sustainability concerns, using a range stocks. These fisheries are aimed at rebuilding measures River area, the Northern and mud cockles in the Port

Fisheries Fisheries Posidonia and the and associated Regulations. Both and associated Regulations. Aquaculture Act 2001 Act Aquaculture management Aquaculture and fisheries Aquaculture Light Beach Coastal Action Plan Action Plan Onkaparinga Estuary Rehabilitation for the Hindmarsh, Fleurieu Estuary Action Plans three Inman and Bungala rivers. Metropolitan Adelaide and Northern Coastal Adelaide Metropolitan Action Plan Action Plan Southern Fleurieu Coastal Action Plan Thompson Beach Coastal Action Plan Coastal Parham and increasing the use of integrated multitrophic multitrophic the use of integrated and increasing impacts on nearshore to reduce aquaculture, The Aquatic Sciences division of the SARDI environments. the fate and transport is developing models to predict Options to reduce nutrient loads from aquaculture aquaculture nutrient loads from Options to reduce activities include locating the activities in deeper water Acts rely on a system of licensing; the objective is to Acts rely aquatic protect, manage, use and develop the state’s in a sustainable manner. resources Management of aquaculture and fishing in South Australia Australia and fishing in South Management of aquaculture is governed by the 2007 Management Act 4.4 inform future management actions to improve seagrass seagrass management actions to improve inform future Cove. condition in Western species in Western Cove, coupled with measuring species in Western as an indicator of epiphyte loads on artificial seagrass of both studies will The results nutrients within the bay. some sites), but many of the bags disintegrated before before but many of the bags disintegrated some sites), is The board the seedlings had a chance to take hold. of two transplantation trialling direct currently example, has trialled the use of sand-filled hessian sacks has trialled the use of sand-filled example, seedlings and evaluate revegetation. seagrass to recruit at species to three (up showed recruitment The results Various other initiatives by NRM boards in South other initiatives by NRM boards Various and marine coastal and improve aim to protect Australia for Island NRM Board, ecosystems. The Kangaroo • • • • • • The completed plans are: The completed plans • the conservation, protection and maintenance of natural and maintenance of natural the conservation, protection establish conservation priorities for and to resources, the coast. objectives of the plans. objectives to understand and facilitate are goals of the plans Key stakeholders. They also describe the management and the management They also describe stakeholders. and estuaries, to protect tasks required rehabilitation the achieving towards for stakeholders identify actions make recommendations for action and identify key for action and make recommendations 222 Coastal and marine environment stormwater discharges were found bytheACWS to bethe nutrients andsedimentsfrom industrial,wastewaterand sediment instabilityalongAdelaide’s coastline. Inputsof to extensivelossofseagrass, poorwater quality and through CSIRO from 2001to2007on howtorespond Waters Study (ACWS) wasascientificprogram undertaken searchers asearly60 yearsago. TheAdelaide Coastal the Adelaidecommunity, environmental managersand reef healthandsedimentinstabilitywere firstnoticedby Issues ofpoorwaterquality, lossofseagrass, declining beaches andshorelines. vegetation, andprotective andstabilisingservicesfor greater thanequivalentterrestrial-based areas ofnative fishers, carbonstorage valuesthatare manytimes species thatare fishedbycommercial and recreational Vincent andtheAdelaideregion. Theyprovide habitat for Healthy seagrass ecosystemsare importanttoGulfSt by 2050’. the returnofseagrass oftheblue-line closertoshore in abalancedmanagementapproach thataimstosee economic valuesare considered inequalandhighregard aquatic ecosystemswhere environmental, socialand The community-agreed visionintheACWQIP is‘Healthy reef condition. over time,allowthereturn ofseagrass andimproved stormwater toimprove coastalwaterqualityand, from industry, wastewatertreatment plantsand (ACWQIP; EPA 2013)setstargets toreduce discharges The AdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan 4.5.1 pollution anddebris. Plans andprograms are underwaytoaddress water 4.5 • • • • • • Future prioritiesforthefisheries sectorare: management planforrecreational fishing. developing andimplementingastrategic planand under the commercial fisheriespursuanttothe requirements developing andimplementingmanagementplansfor promoting infisheriesmanagement co-management fisheries managementdecision-making integrating considerations socio-economic into of commercial andrecreational fisheries maintaining andimproving sustainablemanagement addressing resource accessandallocationissues Reducing pollution Improvement Plan Adelaide CoastalWater Quality Fisheries ManagementAct 2007 Resource ManagementRegional Plan. and theAdelaideMountLofty Ranges(AMLR) Natural the 30-Year Plan forGreater Adelaide,Water forGood, document islinkedtokeygovernmentpolicyincluding other agencies,localgovernmentandcommunities.The that havebeendevelopedinapartnershipapproach with The ACWQIP identifieseightstrategies forimplementation visual appreciation. (via desalination), primaryandsecondaryrecreation, and aquatic foodconsumption,industrial,raw drinkingwater waters includeaquaticecosystems,cultural andspiritual, environmental valuesidentifiedforAdelaide’s coastal catchments andcoastalwaters.Thecommunity-agreed guide desired waterqualityimprovement forAdelaide’s values andwater-quality objectivesintheACWQIP, to developing thecommunity-agreed vision,environmental Community andstakeholderinputhasbeenakeypartof ACWQIP hasbeenbasedonthesefindings. main causeofpoorwaterqualityandseagrass loss.The in thisregion thatare mostatrisk from entanglementin have beenconductedatthree locations.Marinespecies In theGreat Australian BightMarinePark,annualsurveys 20 selected sitesuptofourtimes peryear. Volunteers2011c). surveyone-kilometretransects at running since2008(Government ofSouthAustralia involving schoolsandGreen Corpsteams,hasbeen community-based marinedebrismonitoringprogram, threat abatementplan.OnEyre aregional Peninsula, achieved someoftheobjectivesnational (e.g. Tangaroa Blue,Teachwild), theiractionshave surveys. Combinedwithnongovernmentorganisations NRM regional boards havefacilitatedmarinedebris of theplanatlocallevels. vertebrate marine life,includingimplementingmeasures preventing theimpactsofharmfulmarinedebrison a coordinated nationalapproach tomitigatingand ThethreatEPBC Act. abatementplanaimstoprovide on vertebrate marinelife Threat abatementplanfortheimpactsofmarinedebris In June2009,theAustralian Governmentdevelopedthe 4.5.2 improve waterqualityfrom stormwater(EPA 2013). water-sensitive urbandesignfromto catchmenttocoast, communities. TheACWQIP promotes applicationof governments, arange ofstateagenciesandlocal more players,includingtheAMLR NRMBoard, local Management ofstormwaterdischarges involvesmany point-source discharges through licensingconditions. The EPA drivesreduction ofnutrientsandsedimentsfrom Marine debris (DSEWPaC 2009b) underthe Coastal and marine environment 223 . steering committee citizen science Education, capacity building and Education, capacity building South Australia. South Australia. between DEWNR,Partnerships the Marine Discovery and the Maritime Museum the South Australian Centre, the delivery of have allowed Museum South Australian to school groups. education programs several NRM boards provide members of the public who members of the provide NRM boards with Program volunteer for the Coastal Ambassadors for, to care skills required knowledge and practical coastal, estuarine and marine monitor and protect workshops to assist also hold The boards environments. planting and caring for the community with sourcing, native local coastal plants. monitoring is a community environmental Reefwatch run by the Conservation Council of South Australia project and overseen by a community and intertidal monitoring, as well as It includes reef has Program or in Peril with schools. The Feral programs divers, anglers been designed to enable recreational that of marine organisms and boaters to help keep track of special concern. It has been designed to identify are to the a potential threat marine pests that are introduced marine ecosystem, as well as local species that might be in danger of disappearing. with the aim of engaging the A citizen science program, community to monitor the effectiveness of the marine parks network, as a partnership is being developed between DEWNR and the Conservation Council of 80 kilometres have been cleared in the region, with the in the region, have been cleared 80 kilometres and of friends groups of school classes, participation is project focus of the volunteers. The current community quantify coastline but not to the debris from to remove no formal quantitative is origin. There its type and sources classifying harmful for assessment in the region of marine debris. launched its Regional NRM Board Peninsula The Eyre in 2008. This project Program Marine Debris Monitoring monitoring community-based consists of a region-wide marine officers, coast and supported by board program, active role local communities to take an to encourage Since 2008, volunteers at in their coastal environments. than more have collected Peninsula Eyre 20 sites across Bay far west as Fowlers sites as 2.5 tonnes of debris, from on the shores Bight to Whyalla Australian near the Great of Spencer Gulf. 4.6 Government Association and DEWNR. One of its projects set out to clear up marine debris along 100 kilometres Approximately the Victorian border. of coastline from with the proximity to metropolitan Adelaide. to metropolitan with the proximity Coastal Conservation The South East Cooperative Initiative was devised by the South East Local the bioregion was hard polymer plastic fragments. In the polymer plastic fragments. was hard the bioregion debris was dominated by eastern part of the bioregion, associated presumably plastic food packaging (wrappers), associated with fishing, boating and aquaculture, from from associated with fishing, boating and aquaculture, and marine-based The most both terrestrial sources. debris type (by number) across commonly encountered or entanglement. These comprised a range of soft and or entanglement. These comprised a range user groups plastics associated with numerous hard such as packaging, containers, and debris and sources, between August and October 2010. Of the 985 kilograms Of the 985 kilograms and October 2010. between August identified were and 12 603 items, 10 major litter groups ingestion that could potentially affect wildlife through A large project involving predominantly community involving predominantly project A large staff surveyed 38 sites NRM Board volunteers and AMLR for marine debris Vincent bioregion in the Gulf St of marine rope and hard plastic fragments. These are These are plastic fragments. and hard of marine rope entanglement or ingestion to through a threat considered the seal and penguin colonies. conducted. The results from the surveys indicated less the surveys from conducted. The results than in debris in 2011 (170 kilograms) terrestrial-based Marine debris mainly consisted 2009 (192 kilograms). This provided baseline information on the amount, type This provided the island. and distribution of beach rubbish around 2009 and 2011, two further surveys were In March biennial beach rubbish (including marine debris) data debris) biennial beach rubbish (including marine first full survey was the collections since 2005. In 2007, Day. Australia conducted in conjunction with Clean Up methods across NRM regions. methods across been working on has Island NRM Board The Kangaroo and assessed. Recommendations from the 2011 report the 2011 report from and assessed. Recommendations surveys coinciding with the whale include ongoing beach the debris season, determining the origin of migration survey and standardising (particularly marine ropes) site. Information on temporal trends will become will trends temporal site. Information on surveys at the most recent from available as the data combined are Sandpatch and Merdayerrah Rocks Twin Plastics, which can be ingested or facilitate entanglement,Plastics, type of beach rubbish at each the most common were 2012), two at Merdayerrah Sandpatch (December Sandpatch at Merdayerrah 2012), two 2011) and one at Mexican Hat 2010 and November (November 2010). sea lions. At each site, NRM staff, rangers and school rangers staff, each site, NRM At sea lions. This included transects. surveyed one-kilometre children 2011 and 2010, (March Rocks at Twin surveys three marine debris are southern right whales and Australian right whales and Australian southern are marine debris 224 Coastal and marine environment algal blooms. upwellings, coupledwithincreased temperature, support of algalblooms.Conditionsfavourable foroceanic Satellite imageryforMarch 2013confirmedthepresence high watertemperatures andpossibleharmfulalgae. coast inearly2013hasbeenascribedtounusually The highnumberoffishdeathsalongtheSouth Australian change. Greater knowledgeinthisfieldisneeded. with andadapttomultiplepressures, includingclimate limited foranyinference onhowmarineecosystemscope connectivity inSouthAustralian marinesystemsistoo of communities.Ourunderstandingresilience and continued strength ofinteractions andpersistence populations offoundationspeciescouldenablethe the probability ofphaseshifts,maintenanceintact althoughforecastindicates that, climatesmightincrease on theresistance ofkelpforests toimpactsofpollutants by Falkenberg etal.(2012)from theUniversityofAdelaide not havespacetoretreat whensealevelsrise.Research vegetation, suchasmangroves andsaltmarshes,might There are concerns,forexample, thatsomecoastal are rising;allofthesechangeswillimpactmarinespecies. changing; oceanacidity, sealevelandstormfrequency still havetobequantified.Oceansalinityandcurrents are environment duetoclimatechangeare notcertainand extent ofpotentialandexistingchangesinthemarine and marineenvironment,althoughtheseverity Climate changeislikelytoprofoundly affectthecoastal 5.1 and future challenges. number ofplansandprograms hopetoaddress existing high levelofawareness oftheneedsourcoasts,anda resulting from developmentandresource use.There isa environments are declining,withincreased pressure Many areas ofSouthAustralia’s coastalandmarine 5 What canweexpect? Climate change:understanding resilience andconnectivity The expectedgrowth oftheoilandgasindustry, desalination plants. from variousrelated facilities,suchasportfacilitiesand the expansioninminingandcumulativeimpacts pressure ontheSpencerGulfmarineenvironment from next fewyears(SACOME 2012).There isconsiderable The numberofminesisforecast toincrease duringthe 5.2 mammals havetobecarefully evaluated. reducing carbonemissions, potentialimpactsonmarine initiatives couldpotentiallymakeacontributionto proposed duringthepasttwoyears.Althoughsuch Wave andtide farmsforenergy production havebeen of ecologicalharm. zones intoecosystemsingoodconditionpresents arisk environment. For example, expansionofaquaculture coast willleadtofurtherdegradation ofthenearshore thetrendmanagement, ofdevelopmentonandoffthe absence ofexceptional planningcontrols andpollution degradation oftheadjacentmarineecosystems.In water (e.g. sea-based aquaculture), there isanobservable wherever there isdevelopmentnearwatersorinthe waters throughout SouthAustralia demonstrates that, Monitoring ofecologicalconditionsinnearshore marine 5.3 impacts oncoastalandmarineenvironments. probably require neworexpandedports,withrelated require deeperchannelsandlarger berths.Thiswill Globally, there isatrend towards larger shipsthatwill species, suchasthesouthernrightwhale. increase pressure onmarinehabitatsandmigratory particularly inthewesternpartofstate,islikelyto Growth intheresources sectorand Further coastalandoffshore shipping development Coastal and marine environment 225 Dr Jane McKenzie adopting an ecosystem-based adopting an ecosystem-based to management approach Valuing ecosystem services and ecosystem Valuing Assessment 2005). This should build on the work under Assessment 2005). This should build on of monitoring, way to value ecosystem services as part of marine parks and the evaluation and reporting Plan. Improvement Adelaide Coastal Waters to protect and restore our coastal and our coastal and restore to protect marine environments. 5.5 and significant social and In spite of the obvious has there described in this chapter, economic benefits attempt to value the products been no comprehensive by coastal, estuarine and marine and services provided understanding and quantification of ecosystems. Better ability our services would improve and these products and to fully consider the to manage them sustainably, uses that affect costs and benefits of developments and that integrates them. An ecosystem-based approach for sectors and identifies thresholds management across services ecosystems, taking into account the ecosystem Ecosystem needed (Millennium is greatly they provide, efforts Tuna aquaculture, feeding sardines to tuna with scavenging seagulls, offshore from Port Lincoln from to tuna with scavenging seagulls, offshore feeding sardines aquaculture, Tuna and reporting Improved monitoring, evaluation evaluation monitoring, Improved framework anticipated in the state NRM plan aim to anticipated framework projects and future evaluate the effectiveness of current This will allow us to further improve and programs. reporting under these strategies and plans. The under these strategies reporting envisaged program monitoring, evaluation and reporting network and the reporting marine parks for the state’s Natural Resources Management Plan (Government of (Government Management Plan Resources Natural by a lack of is restricted 2011b), South Australia monitoring, evaluation and and ongoing comprehensive effectiveness of key government strategies and plans, government strategies effectiveness of key of South Australia (Government such as marine parks strategy conservation nature 2012), No Species Loss 2007), and the State of South Australia (Government inadequate monitoring. Furthermore, baseline Furthermore, inadequate monitoring. condition of ecological communities is information on the Assessment of the many areas. needed for greatly on the condition of these ecosystems across the state. For state. For the these ecosystems across on the condition of not possible to fully evaluate the it is many regions, actions because of effectiveness of management Knowledge of coastal, estuarine and marine ecosystems and marine ecosystems of coastal, estuarine Knowledge However, the past five years. during greatly has improved report be done to assess and properly has to much more 5.4 226 Coastal and marine environment Australia environment. Transactions ofthe Posidonia meadowconditioninapristineoffshore marine 2006: seagrasses oftheInvestigator Group region: Bryars SandWear R(2008).InvestigatorGroup expedition Resources, Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentofEnvironment andNatural Lofty RangesNatural Resources Management Board, devil andharlequinfish 2009–2010 and2010–2011 surveysforthesouthernblue concern onAdelaide coastal reefs: combinedresults of Bryars S(2011). Board, Kangaroo Island. CMP07/006, Kangaroo IslandNatural Resource Management on Kangaroo Island Brock DJandKinlochMA (2007). www.bitre.gov.au/publications/2012/files/asf_2010_11.pdf. Infrastructure, Transport andRegional Economics,Canberra, BITRE (2012). Management Board, Adelaide. Regional Plan AW NRMBoard (2011). involved/citizen-science/fielddata-software/teachwild/#t1 Debris Project, Atlas ofLivingAustralia, Atlas ofLivingAustralia (2012).TeachWild: NationalMarine Adelaide. Mount Lofty RangesNatural Resources ManagementBoard, Northern CoastalAction Plan 2009 AMLR NRMBoard (2009).M Management Board, Adelaide. report and MountLofty Rangesregion, integrated natural resources managementplanfortheAdelaide AMLR NRMBoard (2008). Natural Resources ManagementBoard, Adelaide. Plan 2007(partsA–E) AMLR NRMBoard (2007). Statistics, Canberra. Zealand ABS (2002). 6 References , AdelaideandMountLofty RangesNatural Resources , 2001–02, cat. no. cat. 3218.0,, 2001–02, Australian Bureau of 132:81–94. Regional populationgrowth, Australia andNew , Alinytjara Wilurara Natural Resources Sea freight report 2010–11 Monitoring marinefishesofconservation , CoastandMarineProgram report , AdelaideandMountLofty Ranges , report totheAdelaideandMount Natural Resources Management Southern FleurieuCoastalAction Creating asustainablefuture: an etropolitan Adelaide and vol1, Reef fishbiodiversity Royal Society ofSouth , 2volumes,Adelaideand State oftheregion , Bureau of www.ala.org.au/get- . Fish HabitatProgram, Primary IndustriesandResources of eutrophication inWestern Cove,Kangaroo Island Halliday L(2003). Bryars S,Neverauskas V, Brown P, GillilandJ, Gray Land Institute (AquaticSciences), Adelaide. RD01/0208-15, SouthAustralian Research andDevelopment Waters Study Steering Committee,SARDIpublication ACWS technicalreport prepared 14, fortheAdelaideCoastal quality ofAdelaide’s coastalwaters,sedimentsandseagrasses Wear R(2006). Bryars S,MillerD, CollingsG,Fernandes M,MountGand of Environment andWater Resources, Canberra. management offisheries DEWR (2007). Heritage andtheArts,Canberra. Government DepartmentoftheEnvironment, Water, between offshore seismicexploration andwhales DEWHA (2008). Environment andHeritage,Adelaide. South Australia, draft report, DEH (2008). Adelaide. Australian DepartmentforEnvironment andHeritage, coastal andestuarineenvironments—draft report DEH (2007c). Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentforEnvironment andHeritage, marine, coastalandestuarineenvironments—draft report DEH (2007b). Adelaide. Australian DepartmentforEnvironment andHeritage, coastal andestuarineenvironments—draft report DEH (2007a). climatecommission.gov.au/report/extreme-weather/. weather Climate Commission(2013). Bluefin Bali,Indonesia. Tuna, committee CCSBT (2011). 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231

Index

An ‘f’ following a page number indicates a figure; soil acidity, 164–165, 181 ‘t’ indicates a table soil erosion management, xiii, 161–164, 180–181 water consumption, xiii, 109, 110, 112f 30-Year Plan, 24, 41, 49, 55, 129 air monitoring stations, 56, 57f Air NEPM (National Environment Protection (Ambient Air A Quality) Measure), 40, 54 abalone, 214, 215 air pollution, xii, 38–41, 54–59 abbreviations, vi Air Quality Framework, 56 Aboriginal occupation, 6 algal blooms, 224 acidification of oceans, 83 amphibians diseases of, 171 acid sulfate soils, 112 threatened species, 154, 157f, 159t, 178 acknowledgements, vii ant (Nothomyrmecia macrops), 147 acronyms, vi aquaculture, xiv, 83, 193, 206, 213–214, 221–222 adapting to climate change, 64, 96, 98 aquatic ecosystems, 105 Adelaide Coastal Water Quality Improvement Plan, 128, 129, condition of, xiii 222 health assessments, 110–116, 131 Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary, 220 aquatic pests, 168–169, 183 Adelaide Statistical Division: population growth, 22, 27 aquifers see groundwater Adelaide: town planning, 49–50 A renewable energy plan for South Australia, 92, 95 ageing population, 20, 22t, 30 arid biome, 3 agriculture arid river systems, xviii–xix, 127 area occupied by, 3 climate change impacts, 71, 85 Australian Government Biodiversity Fund, 174 exports, x, 7, 9, 18 Australian sardines, 215 farm management, 135–136 Australian sea lions, 83, 179, 220, 223 native vegetation condition, 150–151 Australian Statistical Geography Standard, 22 regional development, 33

Opposite page: Bunyeroo Valley and Flinders Ranges 232 Index carbon monoxide, 54 Carbon Farming Initiative,91 carbon dioxide carbon cycle,76 capitals forhumanwellbeing,2 cane toads,168,182 camels, feral, 168,182 cacti, 170, 183 C Bushland ConditionMonitoringmethod,147, 148t bushfires, 84 72, buses buffel grass, 170, 183 broadhectare 27 24, development, bridal creeper, 170, 183 blackwater events,112 birds: threatened species,154–155, 157–158, 178 159t, bioregional assessments (marine), 194–209 biomes, 3 biological capacity, 6, 7f biodiversity bicycles, xii,37, 53 beaches, 208–209 Basin SalinityManagementStrategy 125 2001–2015, Barossa Valley, 49 barking dogs,42 ballast water, 216–217 B global emissions,75–76 Australia’s emissions,xii atmospheric concentrations, 76, x, 78f absorbed byoceans,83 see also see also summary ofcondition,142–143 pressures on,160–171 policies andprograms, 172–184 185 outlook, native vegetation,144–149, 150–151,160–161,174–177 marine environment,191,193 161–167,land management, 180–181 importance of, 141 185 climate changeimpacts,xiii,71,84, biomes, 3 see communities publictransport fire pestspecies;threatened speciesand climate change, x, xii climate change,x, Clean Energy Future, 91,181 clay spreading anddelving,164 citizen science:marineenvironment, 223 chytridiomycosis, 171 chlorofluorocarbons, 78 carp, 169,183 Caring forourCountry, 173 carbon price,91,97, 98 consumption of resources, x conservation statusofspecies, 149 computer waste,47, 48,60, 62 communicating information,xvi, 11 commercial fisheries, 214–215 coasts Coastal AmbassadorsProgram, 223 coal power, 88 climate systems,global,x climate ofSouthAustralia, 3 77 climate models,75, climate changeimpacts,97 Climate ChangeandGreenhouse EmissionsReduction Act 2007 (SA), 92, 95 (SA), 92, pressures of, 86–90 policies andprograms, 91–96 97–98outlook, 177 native vegetationmanagement, mitigating, 97–98 importance of, 69 historical, 74 current, 74 causes of, 75 adapting to, 96, 64, 98 see also water quality, 128,129,206, 211,222 population growth, 27 24, 220–221conservation andmanagement, on waterresources, 117, 85, 131,135 on marineenvironments, xiv, 71,83,224 on infrastructure, 71,84–85 on humanhealth,71,84 on coasts,218 on biodiversity, 185 xiii,71,84, on agriculture, forestry andwater, 71,85 see also water resources 117, impacts,85, 131,135 summary ofcondition,70–71 projections, 75–76 marineenvironment greenhouse gasemissions

Index 233 (SA), ix, 1, 37, 123 (SA), ix, 1, 37, policies and programs climate change impacts, 71, 85 118, 123 water abstraction, bushfires, 72, 84 bushfires, management, 176 conservation, 177–178 pest species, 168–169, 183 158, 178 species, 155, 157f, threatened greenhouse gas emissions, xii, 70, 86, 88–89 86, xii, 70, gas emissions, greenhouse 185, 224 biodiversity, impacts on see also 54–55 air quality, noise pollution, 59 site contamination, 43 fisheries, 83, 193, 213–215, 221–222 fisheries, 83, 193, 213–215, floods, 82 food waste, 48 Index, Danger 72 Fire Forest forestry Eucla bioregion, 197, 200, 203 200, 197, Eucla bioregion, 169, 183 carp, European fanworm, 169 European licences, 217–218 exploration 18 exports, x, 7–9, extinctions, 84, 152 weather events, 72, 84 extreme 204 200, 197, bioregion, Eyre F fanworms, 169 farm management, 135–136 169 feathergrass, finfish, 214 160 fire, fish employment: mining sector, 24, 33 mining sector, employment: production energy xiii assets, environmental 174 benefit offsets, environmental Index,6 Performance Environmental xiv measures, protection environmental 1993 Act Protection Environment 53 orders, protection environment 61 2010, Policy (Waste to Resources) Protection Environment 2003, 123–124 Policy (Water Quality) Protection Environment 1 of, environment, role 220–221 estuaries, 207–208, (SA), 55 energy production energy housing agriculture salinity see see see (SA), 92 Murray–Darling Basin, 141 Murray–Darling and greenhouse gas emissions, 90 and greenhouse summary of condition, 18 marine environment, 193, 225 marine parks network, 219 see also of humans, 84 171, 182 of plants and animals, 167–168, 2008 130–131 electronic products waste, 47, 48, 60, 62 48, 60, waste, 47, products electronic x El Niño, Oscillation, 81, 82 El Niño–Southern Electricity (Feed-in Scheme—Solar Systems) Amendment Act Amendment Act Scheme—Solar Systems) Electricity (Feed-in education: marine environment, 223 education: marine environment, electricity electricity emissions factors, 95–96 ecosystems, 3 ecosystem services, 2 economy, 7–9 economy, E ecological footprint, 7f 6, x economic growth, dwellings dryland salinity, xiii, 165–166, 167f, 181 167f, xiii, 165–166, dryland salinity, dunes, 208–209 dolphins, 220 change, x drivers of environmental 118 72,drought, 81, 117, dogs: noise pollution, 42 Development Act 1993 Development Act diseases Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Resources, and Natural Water Department of Environment, desalination, xii D 11 data collection, xv–xvi, 168, 182 feral, deer, cuttlefish, 221 cosmetic tanning units, 44,cosmetic tanning 60 157 crayfish, cropping contamination of groundwater, 43, 115, 43, 120–121 of groundwater, contamination 198, 202, 205 bioregion, Coorong contaminated sites, 43, 59–60 contaminated 234 Index harlequin fish, 209 Hadley Circulation, 81,82 H Gulf St Vincentbioregion, 206 198,201,205, groundwater, 114–116 xiii,105, greenhouse gases:atmosphericconcentrations, xii,76, 78 greenhouse gasemissions greenhouse 76 effect, Greater Adelaide,22 Great Australian Bight MarinePark, 219–220 Great Australian 83 Bight, Great ArtesianBasinSustainability Initiative,125 grazing pressures onsoil,163 Goyder InstituteforWater Research, 130 gorse, 170, 183 221 Goolwa cockle(pipi),214, goats, feral, 168,182 global warming,74, 75 giant cuttlefish,221 geothermal energy, 95 G Future Farming IndustriesCooperative Research Centre, 181 funding natural resources 173 management, Fuel QualityAct 2001 freshwater resources freight, 35–36 summary ofcondition,107 pressures on,120–122 Great ArtesianBasinSustainabilityInitiative,125 and drylandsalinity, 165–166, 167f Department ofEnvironment,Water andNatural contamination of, 120–121 43,115, transport sector, 35 summary ofcondition,70 sources inSouthAustralia, 88–89 residential emissions,89, 90t reducing, intransport sector, 56 55, 53,54, reducing, 91–96, 97–98 89,90t per capita, Intergovernmental Panel onClimateChangescenarios, global emissions,86, 87t Australian reduction targets, 91 anthropogenic emissions, 75 Resources research, 130–131 77 (Cwlth), 54 see waterresources impacts ofpressures, x I hydrofluorocarbons, 78 hydrochlorofluorocarbons, 78 hybrid electricvehicles,52–53 71,84 human health,55, housing, 22–23 household size,23 holiday homes,24 heritage, 33,34f, 62–63 96 84, heatwaves, xii,72, hazardous substances,48 land area, 3 land area, Lake Eyre BasinAgreement,127 Lake Eyre Basin,xviii–xix, 113 112 Lake Alexandrina, 118 xiii,112, Lake Albert, L King George whiting,214 kelp, 83 Kaurna people,6 Kati Thanda–LakeEyre, xviii–xix Kappawanta Basin,115f K ionising radiation, 44 invasive species Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform onBiodiversity Intergovernmental Panel onClimateChangescenarios,77 infrastructure: climatechange impacts,71,84–85 information availability, xv, 3,11 industry: airquality, 56 Indo–Pacific bottlenosedolphins,220 indicator species,xiii,152t indicators ofnatural resource condition,3,150–151t Indian OceanDipole,81,82 imports, 7–9 and EcosystemServices,12 see also insulating tomitigatenoise,41,59 increasing densityof, 49–50, 51 improving energy efficiency, 93,96 pressures on,48 urbanplanning see pestspecies;weeds Index 235 , 60 (SA), 123, 174 , 144, 174 biodiversity State Natural Resources Management Plan, 144 Management Plan, Resources Natural State see also condition, xiii, 142, 146–149 zone, 150–151 condition in agricultural extent, 144–146 174–177 policies and programs, on, 160–161 pressures 159t, 178, 180 species, 153–154, 157, threatened coastal and offshore exploration, 217–218 exploration, offshore coastal and employment, 24, 33 exports, 7 121 abstraction, groundwater 224 on marine environments, pressures 137f in South Australia, projects water use, 136 225 marine environment, Large Coal Mining Development, Coal 136 Large Native Vegetation Act 1991 Act Native Vegetation gas, 53 natural 2004 Management Act Resources Natural 172–173 management programs, resources natural Murat bioregion, 197, 200, 204 200, 197, bioregion, Murat 125 Basin, 105, 118, 119–120, Murray–Darling 130 120, Basin Plan, Murray–Darling mussels, 214 N xiv national and international cooperation, 183 Strategy, Fish Pest National Freshwater National Heritage List sites, 62 on Coal Seam Gas and Agreement National Partnership 54 for Clean Air, National Plan 39 Inventory, National Pollutant 62 Scheme, 60, and Computer Recycling National Television resources less waste, more Policy: National Waste native vegetation mining sector, xii, 33, 98 xii, 33, mining sector, xv–xvi monitoring and evaluation, xii, 72,mortality and heatwaves, 84 mosquito-borne diseases, 84 37 motorcycles, 41 Mount Gambier: air quality, 127 Program, Control Ranges Waste Mount Lofty mud cockles, 221 mudflats, 203–205 221 mulloway, agriculture; urbanisation agriculture; factor in population growth, 20 factor in population growth, to coastal towns, 24, 27 retirement, threatened species, 192, 209–210, 215 species, 192, 209–210, threatened urban water impacts, 128 importance of, 191, 193 importance of, outlook, 224–225 pest species, 168–169, 192, 216–217 219–223 policies and programs, 211–218 on, xiii–xiv, pressures summary of condition, 192 bioregional assessments, 194–209 bioregional 71, 83, 224 climate change impacts, xiv, protected areas, 174, 175f 174, areas, protected see also pastoral leases, 148–149 leases, pastoral 180–181 programs, policies and millennium drought, 81, 117 millennium drought, migration mega-trends, x mega-trends, 78 methane, 76, 169 Mexican feathergrass, measuring sustainability, 11–12 measuring sustainability, biome, 3 mediterranean marine parks network, 219 49 Vale, McLaren marine debris, 216, 222–223 marine debris, 216, marine environment mammals: threatened species, 155–156, 157, 159t, 178 157, species, 155–156, mammals: threatened 121–122 managed aquifer recharge, marine biome, 3 M lot sizes (for housing), 49, 50f 105, 112, Lakes and Coorong, 118, 119, 120 Lower Irrigation Area, 118 Reclaimed Murray Lower liveability of Adelaide, 27 liveability of Adelaide, 221 lobsters, 214–215, local government, 55–56 leafy sea dragon, 83 leafy sea dragon, 164–165 systems, lime in agricultural La Niña, x, 82 58f lead, 54, 56, land use, x, 118, 120 land management, 142, 161–167 land clearing, xiii, 144, 146f, 147t, 148t, 160 xiii, 144,land clearing, 146f, 236 Index Phytophthora cinnamomi pest species,xiii,143,167–170 perceptions ofenvironmental health,6–7, 8f peer review ofreport, 9 pastoral leases,148–149 particulate matter, 39–41, 54 Pacific oysters, 214 P ozone, 54 oysters, 214 overseas students,20 xiv–xvioutlook, Outer AdelaideStatistical Division,22 Otway bioregion, 205 199,202, oriental weatherloach,169 organic carbon,166 Olympic Dam,98 offshore exploration, 217–218 ocean temperatures, 79 oceans: climatechangeimpacts,70, 83 O Nyrstar leadsmelter, 56 nutrients: pollutingcoastalwaters,206, 211,221 nutrient andsedimentretention, 135–136 no-till sowing,163–164 North SpencerGulfbioregion, 197, 200, 204 non-ionising radiation, 44 noise pollution,38,41–42, 59 nitrous oxide, 78 nitrogen dioxide, 54 natural resources managementregions, 3,4f see also policies andprograms, 182–183 216–217marine environment,168–169, 192, water resources, 135–136 people andplaces,64 marine environment,224–225 climate change,97–98 biodiversity, 185 125 water management, prescribed waterresources, 132–134t illegal landclearing,148t coastal plans,220–221 aquatic ecosystemhealth,113,114t diseases (water mould),171 policies andprograms, xiv Polda 115f Basin,114, plastic wastes plants plantation forests Planning Strategy forSouthAustralia, 51 pipi (Goolwa 221 cockle),214, population growth population distribution,193 population density, 49 pollution transport, 51–53 threatened speciesandcommunities, 177–180 population growth, 49–51 pollution, 53–62 pests anddiseases,182–183 native vegetation,174–177 marine environment,219–223 180–181 land management, heritage, 62–63 emissions reductions, 91–96 biodiversity, 172–184 adapting toclimatechange,96 see also urban centres, 26f 24, trends, 20, 29f summary ofcondition,18 pressures ontransport, 35–37 pressures onheritage, 48 pressures oncoasts,211 pressures of, 6, x, 17 and pollutiongeneration, 37–48 policies andprograms, 49–51 64 outlook, changes, regional, 27, 30 changes, 2006–2011, 31f, 32f changes, 1976–2011, 28t Adelaide Statistical27 Division,22, 51,60–62 waste management, waste generation, 47–48 46t, xii,19,44, summary ofcondition,19 site contamination,43,59–60 radiation, 60 44, noise pollution,38,41–42, 59 monitoring andcontrol, 37–38, 53 206,marine environment,192, 211,216, 221,222–223 investigations andprosecutions, 53 air pollution,xii,38–41, 54–59 123–134 water management, see nativevegetation urbanisation see pollution see forestry Index 237 urbanisation ), 169 see (SA), 123 mining sector see dryland salinity Caulerpa taxifolia groundwater, 114, 116t groundwater, Lake Albert, xiii 125 Basin, 119, Murray–Darling xiii River Murray, 118 surface water, see also approach to, ix, to, 9 approach 10f framework, 11 effectiveness, improving 11–12 sustainability, measuring outlook, xv–xvi 13 progress, serrated tussock, 169 serrated shellfish, 214 224 shipping, 216–217, 62, 63 shipwrecks, 183 silverleaf nightshade, 170, site contamination, 43, 59–60 road freight, 35–36 freight, road S salinity sandflats, 203–205 mange, 171 sarcoptic 215 sardines, 124–125 SA Water, 193 seafood production, 193, 196–199, 221, 222 seagrasses, 72, 85,sea level rise, 70, 218 223 sea lions, 83, 179, 220, 79 sea surface temperatures, seaweed ( seed saving, 178, 180 seismic surveys, 218 reporting 219–220 Areas, of Marine Protected System Representative 159t, 178 157, species, 156, threatened reptiles: institutions, 130–131 research development residential Scheme, 93, 96 Efficiency Energy Residential sector resources 176t 51, 174, programs, revegetation population change, 24 Riverland region: xiii, 105, 112, 118, 119–120 River Murray, 2003 Act River Murray 136 rivers, 113, 118, 120, , 96 (SA), 60 agriculture see wheel cacti see marine environment, 226–229 people and places, 65–67 xvii summary, 138–139 water resources, biodiversity, 186–189 biodiversity, climate change, 100–103 14–15 introduction, 1–2 Importance, 105, 119 adaptation framework for South Australia adaptation framework Renewable Energy Target, 91 Target, Energy Renewable relationships between people and natural environment, ix, environment, between people and natural relationships 98, 99f xii, 51, 92, 94–95, energy, renewable regional demand and supply statements (for water), 124 demand and supply statements (for water), regional development,regional 33 REFLOWS project, 126 project, REFLOWS references red-tailed black cockatoos, 179 red-tailed 200–202 193, reefs, 223 Reefwatch, recreational fishing, 221 recreational 60–62 waste, xii, 46t, recycling 47–48, rainfall, xii, 3, 70, 72, 80–82 xii, 3, 70, rainfall, of International on Wetlands radiation, 44, 60 radiation, 1982 Act and Control Radiation Protection for freight, 36 rail, R 168, 182 rabbits, public health, 55, 71, 84 50–51, 52, 53 36–37, public transport, Prospering in a changing climate—a climate change climate climate—a in a changing Prospering 175f 174, areas, protected primary production primary production private vehicles, 35, 37 prescribed water resources, 132–134t water resources, prescribed x change, of environmental pressures prickly pear prawns, 215, 221 prawns, 136 Our Clean Environment, and Wine from Food Premium population targets, 50 targets, population 238 Index tillage, 163–164 threshold forglobalwarming,75 threatened speciesandcommunities,xiii,3,149,152–159 Threat abatementplanfortheimpactsofmarinedebrison temperature television waste,47, 48,60, 62 technological change,x Tackling climatechange—SouthAustralia’s Greenhouse T Sustainable DrylandAgriculture Initiative,180 surface water, 107, 113, 118,120 sulfur dioxide, 56, 54, 58f, 59t Streets forPeople, 51–52 streams, 113,118,120, 136 Stormwater ManagementAuthority, 127–128 stormwater, xiv, 127–128, 136 State Natural Resources ManagementPlan, 144 Spencer Gulfbioregion, 197, 200, 206 204, speckled livebearer, 169 southern rock lobsters,214–215 southern rightwhales,220, 223 81,82 Southern Oscillation,x, Southern Ocean,83 southern garfish,221 213 southern bluefintuna, Southern AnnularMode,80–81,82 South EastCooperative CoastalConservationInitiative,223 South Australia’s Strategic Plan, 50–51,95–96 South Australian Public HealthAct 2011 soil erosion, 180–181 xiii,161–164, soil condition,142 soil carbon,166, 181 soil acidity, 164–165, 181 snapper, 214 vertebrate marinelife Strategy 2007–2020 summary ofcondition,142 policies andprograms, 177–180 209–210,marine environment,192, 215 South Australia, 3,70, 74, 72, 79,80t global warming,75–76 global average, xii,74 effects from risein,97 species conservation,149,174 marine environment,219 , 92 , 222 , 55 tuna, 213 tuna, transport, xii trams trains traffic trade, 7–9 WaterConnect, 131 132–134t water allocationplans,123,124, xiv,wastewater management, 127–128, 129 51,60–62 waste management, waste generation, 47–48 46t, xii,19,44, Walker Circulation, 81 W vertebrate pests vehicles, 35–37, 52–53 V urban planning,49–51 25f urbanisation, xii,18,24, urban infill,27 uranium andmineral 45f sands,44, Upper SouthEastDrylandSalinityandFloodManagement unconventional gas,136 U Program, 126 trends, 36f 35, summary ofcondition,18 road freight,35–36 reducing environmental 51–53 impact, 56 reducing 55, emissions,53,54, public transport, 36–37, 53 50–51,52, 37 private vehicles,35, noise pollution,41 greenhouse gasemissions,88–89 bicycles, xii,37, 53 see also freight, 36 see also 50,water management, 127–130 177 native vegetationmanagement, managing sustainably, 64 63 heritage management, Development Act 1993 26f outside Adelaide,24, Adelaide Statistical27 Division,22, see see publictransport transport publictransport housing see pestspecies (SA),55 Index 239 ), 171 (SA), 124 Phytophthora cinnamomi Phytophthora (

electricity generation, xii, 94 electricity generation, noise pollution, 42, 59 95, 98 proposals, urban management, 50, 127–130 urban management, 50, importance of, 105 importance of, 120 land-use effects, 118, outlook, 135–136 123–134 planning and management,110, 82, 96, on, 117–122 pressures summary of condition, 106–108 coasts, 128, 129, 206, 211, 222 coasts, 128, 129, 206, 131, 135 85,climate change impacts, 117, 131 110–116, health assessments, Z SA, Waste 61–62 Zero Y yellowtail kingfish, 214 X 60 apparatus, X-ray wombat diseases, 171 whiting, 214 41, 42f Whyalla: air quality, wind farms western king prawns, 215 western king prawns, 223 whales, 219–220, 183 wheel cacti, 170, Weeds of National Significance, 170 of National Significance, Weeds 183 170, Cape bridal creeper, Western water vapour, 76 water vapour, xii, 3, 79–82 weather variability, 183 weeds, xiii, 143, 169–170, water-repellent soils, 164 soils, water-repellent xiii, 109 water resources, water mould x water quality, Water for Good, 124, 127, 128f, 129 128f, 124, for Good, 127, Water 2012 Industry Act Water water consumption, xiii, 109, 110, 112f xiii, 109, 110, water consumption,