Word Formation Analysis of Car Terminologies in Ford V Ferrari

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WORD FORMATION ANALYSIS OF CAR TERMINOLOGIES IN FORD V FERRARI

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By REYHAN DAFFA DIKA Student Number: 174214002

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2021 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

WORD FORMATION ANALYSIS OF CAR TERMINOLOGIES IN FORD V FERRARI

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By REYHAN DAFFA DIKA Student Number: 174214002

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2021

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“If in doubt, flat out” Colin McRae

“I can do all things” Stephen Curry

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For My Mother & My Father

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillahi rabbil ‘alamin. All praise be to Allah SWT, by whose

Grace and Blessings, I was able to write and finish this study.

On this page, I would like to express my gratitude to the people who have helped me during the process of writing this study. Firstly, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Simon Arsa Manggala, S.S., M.Hum., and co-advisor,

Scolastica Wedhowerti, S.Pd., M.Hum., who gave me a lot of advice and suggestions for my thesis. I would also like to thank my academic supervisor,

Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum., and all the lecturers and the staffs of the English

Letters Department who help me during my study.

I want to express my gratitude to both of my parents who always support me in my study. My gratitude also to Rona who always be at my side in every condition. I also do not forget all of my friends, Dendi, Devin, Seha, Yovan,

Zaim, and others. Thanks also to HMPSSING 2018/2019, UKF Basketball, and

String Movie Maniacs, that gave me priceless experiences.

Reyhan Daffa Dika

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... ii APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ...... vi MOTTO PAGE ...... vii DEDICATION PAGE ...... viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... x LIST OF ABBREVATIONS ...... xii LIST OF TABLES ...... xiii ABSTRACT ...... xiv ABSTRAK ...... xv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problem Formulation ...... 4 C. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 D. Definition of Terms ...... 5

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 6 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 6 B. Review of Related Theories ...... 10 1. Morphology ...... 10 2. Word Formation ...... 11 a. Derivation ...... 11 b. Reduplication ...... 12 c. Conversion ...... 13 d. Compounding...... 13 e. Blending ...... 15 f. Backformation ...... 15 g. Shortening ...... 15 i. Clipping ...... 16 ii. Acronyms and Initialisms ...... 16 h. Root Creations ...... 16 C. Theoretical Frameworks ...... 17

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ...... 19 A. Object of the Study ...... 19 B. Approach of the Study ...... 20

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C. Method of the Study ...... 20 1. Data Collection ...... 21 2. Data Analysis...... 22

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 24 A. Word Formation Processes of Car Terminologies from the Utterances in Ford v Ferrari ...... 24 1. Shortening...... 25 a. Clipping ...... 27 b. Initialism ...... 32 2. Compounding ...... 32 3. Root Creations ...... 44 a. Brand Name ...... 45 b. Foreign Word ...... 48 4. Conversion ...... 48 a. Verb to Noun ...... 49 b. Noun to Verb ...... 49 5. Derivation ...... 50 a. Suffix {-er} ...... 51 b. Suffix {-ing} ...... 52 c. Suffix {-ion} ...... 52 d. Prefix {under-} ...... 53 6. Backformation ...... 54 7. Blending ...... 54 8. Reduplication ...... 54 B. The Distribution of Word Formation Processes of Car Terminologies in Ford v Ferrari ...... 55 1. Shortening...... 59 2. Compounding ...... 60 3. Root creations ...... 62 4. Conversion ...... 63 5. Derivation ...... 64 6. Backformation ...... 65 7. Blending ...... 65 8. Reduplication ...... 66

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION ...... 67

REFERENCES ...... 69 APPENDIX ...... 71 Appendix: Car Terminologies in the Utterances of Ford v Ferrari ...... 71

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A : Argument AC : Auto Carrier CB : Car building CD : Car developing CR : Car review CT : Car testing FIAT : Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino HD : How to drive MG : Morris Garages N : Negotiation R : Racing RP : Racing preparation RPM : Revolutions per Minute V : Versus

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LIST OF TABLES

No. Table Page 1. Table 1. Word Formation Processes 25 2. Table 2. Shortening of Car Terminologies 26 3. Table 3. Compounding of Car Terminologies 33 4. Table 4. Root Creations of Car Terminologies 44 5. Table 5. Conversion of Car Terminologies 48 6. Table 6. Derivation of Car Terminologies 50 7. Table 7. Distribution of Word Formation 55 8. Table 8. Distribution of Shortening 59 9. Table 9. Distribution of Compounding 61 10. Table 10. Distribution of Root Creations 62 11. Table 11. Distribution of Conversion 63 12. Table 12. Distribution of Derivation 64

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ABSTRACT

DIKA, REYHAN DAFFA. (2021). Word Formation Analysis of Car Terminologies in Ford v Ferrari. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Language has produced some special terminologies following the existence of automotive technology. Those terminologies are used to describe things in the automotive world, whether in the real life or literary works like movies. One of the most recent and famous car movies is Ford v Ferrari. The movie tells the rivalry between two car manufacturers in an endurance racing competition. This research focuses on the word formation of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari since there are a lot of car terminologies in a car movie. There are two objectives in this research. The first objective is to identify the types of word formation processes of car terminologies found from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on how the terminologies are formed. The second objective is to know the distribution of those types of word formation processes based on their appearances in various scenes of the movie. This research uses words from Ford v Ferrari as the object of the study. The words are car terminologies from the utterances of all characters in the movie. The morphological approach is used to analyze the internal structures of those car terminologies to find the types of word formation processes. This research has two findings. The first finding is that there are eight types of word formation processes of sixty-one car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. The most dominant type is shortening with twenty- one car terminologies. For the second finding, there are nine scenes of Ford v Ferrari, and the scene of ‘racing’ produces the most of car terminologies in the movie. However, compounding is the only type of word formation process that appears in each scene of the movie. Keywords: word formation, car terminologies, Ford v Ferrari

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ABSTRAK

DIKA, REYHAN DAFFA. (2021). Word Formation Analysis of Car Terminologies in Ford v Ferrari. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma. Bahasa telah menghasilkan beberapa istilah khusus mengikuti keberadaan teknologi otomotif. Istilah-istilah tersebut digunakan untuk menjelaskan hal-hal dalam dunia otomotif, baik di kehidupan nyata maupun karya-karya sastra seperti film. Salah satu film otomotif terbaru dan terkenal adalah Ford v Ferrari. Film tersebut menceritakan persaingan antara dua produsen mobil dalam sebuah kompetisi balap ketahanan. Penelitian ini berfokus pada pembentukan kata istilah- istilah otomotif dari ungkapan di Ford v Ferrari, karena terdapat banyak istilah mobil di sebuah film otomotif. Terdapat dua tujuan pada penelitian ini. Tujuan pertama adalah untuk mengidentifikasi tipe-tipe proses pembentukan kata istilah-istilah otomotif dari ungkapan di Ford v Ferrari berdasarkan bagaimana istilah-istilah tersebut dibentuk. Tujuan kedua adalah untuk mengetahui distribusi jenis-jenis proses pembentukan kata tersebut berdasarkan kemunculan jenis-jenis tersebut di berbagai adegan di dalam film tersebut. Penelitian ini menggunakan kata-kata dari Ford v Ferrari sebagai objek penelitian. Kata-kata tersebut adalah istilah-istilah otomotif yang diungkapkan oleh semua karakter di dalam film tersebut. Pendekatan morfologis digunakan untuk menganalisis struktur internal istilah-istilah otomotif tersebut untuk menemukan jenis-jenis proses pembentukan kata. Penelitian ini memiliki dua temuan. Temuan pertama adalah terdapat delapan jenis proses pembentukan kata dari enam puluh satu istilah otomotif dari ungkapan di Ford v Ferrari. Jenis yang paling dominan adalah shortening dengan dua puluh satu istilah otomotif. Untuk rumusan masalah kedua, terdapat sembilan adegan pada Ford v Ferrari, dan adegan ‘racing’ menghasilkan paling banyak istilah otomotif di dalam film tersebut. Akan tetapi, compounding adalah satu- satunya tipe proses pembentukan kata yang muncul di setiap adegan pada film tersebut. Kata kunci: word formation, car terminologies, Ford v Ferrari

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Language is a way people communicate with other people to give information. In communication between people who know the same language, the person who has the information has to use some words to deliver the information to the recievers. As the basic units of language (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002), words are one of the smallest units in language which have meanings. They are very important in the study of language, especially in English. Even though words are small units, they still have internal structures to form them. The study of the internal structure of words is called morphology (Katamba, 1993).

One of the ways to know the internal structure of a word is by analyzing how the word is formed which can be called word formation. Word formation can be the process of adding, changing, or deleting small units of language to form new words, or forming new words from other words. The process can be classified into many types. The types of word formation are reduplication, conversion, blending, backformation, shortening, and root creation (Brinton &

Brinton, 2000). Word formation is chosen since there are a lot of varieties in the processes of forming car terminologies.

This research focuses on word formation processes in Ford v Ferrari.

Ford v Ferrari is a 2019 movie by 20th Century Fox that tells the story of an

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American car manufacturer, Ford Motor Company, intends to beat an Italian car brand, Ferrari, in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, which is one of the greatest endurance car racing competitions. The racing drivers take their racing cars round the race track and race each other for twenty-four hours, so it will be very tough for both the drivers and the car makers who develop and build the racing cars to race at the competition, let alone to win it. The story is based on a real life history sets in the 1960s. It is one of the greatest stories in the history of motorsport.

Ferrari was the most dominant racing car company in the competition at that time, while Ford had never built a racing car that can compete in the competition.

However, Ford was a very big car company, unlike Ferrari which was a small car company that was being haunted by bankruptcy. The movie focuses on Ford’s point of view in the delivery of the story.

The words that are used for this research are from utterances in Ford v

Ferrari. Most of the characters in the movie are automotive legends. Some of them even changed the history of the automotive world. Two of the most well- known automotive legends who are also the main characters of the movie are

Carroll Shelby and Ken Miles. Carroll Shelby was a racing driver and the founder of an American performance car brand, Shelby American. He had a big role in helping Ford Motor Company built racing cars to beat Ferrari in 24 Hour of Le

Mans. Ken Miles has also had parts in developing the racing cars with Shelby.

Not only developing the cars, but he also won the competition for Ford as the racing driver. The other automotive legends in the movie are Ford’s owner, Henry

Ford II, Ford’s executives Lee Iacocca and Leo Beebe, and Ferrari’s founder,

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Enzo Ferrari. The utterances by those characters deliver the story of the movie, which is also an automotive history.

The researcher uses only car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari for this research. The researcher found a lot of car terminologies from the utterances in the movie. Car terminologies are one of the most important words in

Ford v Ferrari since the movie is about the rivalry between two car companies in a racing competition. There are a lot of car terminologies that experience word formation processes. An example from the data is the term ‘RPM’. The term experiences initialism which is formed from ‘Revolution per Minute’. Another example from the data is the term ‘Ford’ which is a brand name and experiences root creation based on its founder’s name, Henry Ford.

The researcher chooses the car terminologies in the Ford v Ferrari movie as the object of this research due to the rarety of analyses of car terminologies, especially in the processes of word formation. There are many previous studies about word formation, but the objects of those studies are various, like advertisements and other terminologies. From the movie, the researcher can find enough car terminologies as the data to be analyzed.

Automotive is one of the most important technologies for humans. Even common people need the technology for their daily activities. This research is important to show how the terminologies from the technology are formed to know their origins like if a term is from another word or if a term is formed by more than a word. This research also shows the distributions of the word formation processes in the movie to know if it is related to processes of word formation. The

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distribution is divided by various scenes in the movie. Scene is “one of the subdivisions of a play such as a motion-picture or television episode or sequence”

(Merriam-Webster, n.d., Definition 1).

Although the source of the data is a movie with an old story from the

1960s, the data are not out of date. The 1960s was the time when cars were mostly mechanical and less electronic like nowadays. Car terminologies that are used nowadays are not different from the terminologies from the movie. Compounding is possibly the most common way to form car terminologies, especially in this research. The simplest way to form a new word is by combining words that exist already. However, there are other ways to form car terminologies which this research shows.

B. Problem Formulation

The research questions for this research to be analyzed based on the background above can be identified as follows:

1. What are the types of word formation processes of car terminologies found

from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari?

2. How are the types of word formation processes of car terminologies in Ford v

Ferrari distributed in the scenes of the movie?

C. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this research are to answer the two problems mentioned in the previous part. The first objective is to identify the types of word formation

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processes of car terminologies found from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on how the terminologies are formed. The second objective is to know the distribution of the types of word formation processes of car terminologies found from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on their appearances in various scenes of the movie. The answers to the second objective can be used to see the relation between word formation processes and the scenes of the movie, which is to see if a scene could impact a process of word formation.

D. Definition of Terms

To avoid any misunderstandings in some terms that appear in this research, the researcher explains the definitions of those terms in this part. The terms are word formation and car terminologies. The first term is word formation. Word formation refers to “the ways in which new words are formed on the basis of other words or morphemes” (thoughtco.com, 2020). It has various types based on the characteristics. According to different experts, those types can have different names and classifications between one expert and others. This research uses the types of word formation by Brinton and Brinton (2000).

The second term is car terminologies. Car terminologies are complex words that are used to describe car or automotive technology (caranddriver.com,

2009). Car terminologies often experience word formation processes. In this research, the researcher uses all terminologies related to the car world like brands, measurements, parts, and activities.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There are three parts covering this chapter. The parts are the review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. The researcher reviews two undergraduate theses and two journal articles for the first part. The second part contains the theories based on the research questions. Those theories are morphology theory and word formation theory. The last part shows how the theories answer the problems of this research.

A. Review of Related Studies

The researcher presents two undergraduate theses and two journal articles which are written by previous researchers in this part. The two undergraduate theses were written by Anggrid (2019) and Adyaningtyas (2013). For the two journal articles, a journal article was written by Multazim and Nurdin (2019), and another journal article was written by Triwahyuni, Imranuddin, and Zahrida

(2018). Those four studies have a similar topic to this research. The uses of those studies are to compare their similarities and their differences with this present research, and also to find the lack of objects from those studies that are worth analyzing.

The first study is an undergraduate thesis by Anggrid (2019) entitled “The language Style of Line Webtoon Let’s Play Seen from the Word Formation of

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Technology Terms”. Anggrid’s study has two objectives, which are to analyze the word formation processes of technology terms found in Line Webtoon Let’s Play, and the language style of Line Webtoon Let’s Play. Five word formation processes were analyzed by the researcher using morphology as the approach. As the result of the first objective of the study, thirty-one words which experience the five word formation processes were found with twelve affixation processes, nine compounding processes, five abbreviation processes, three blending processes, and two clipping processes. The researcher used the stylistics approach for the second objective, and colloquial style is the language style of Line Webtoon Let’s

Play.

This present research has some similarities and differences compared to

Anggrid’s study. Both this present research and Anggrid’s study have a same objective, which is to analyze words that experience word formation processes.

The data for both studies are special terminologies that experience word formation processes, but the sources of data are different. This present research uses a movie, Ford v Ferrari, as the source of data. On the other hand, Line Webtoon

Let’s Play comic is the source of data for Anggrid’s study. Another difference is the second objective, which is language style in Anggrid’s study, and the distribution of word formation processes in this present study.

The second study is an undergraduate thesis by Adyaningtyas (2013) entitled “An Analysis on Word Formation used in Pepsi and Coca-Cola

Advertisements Published in the United States from 1950 until 2012”.

Adyaningtyas’ study has two objectives. The first objective is to identify the types

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of word formation used in the Coca-Cola and Pepsi advertisements, and the second objective is to know the most frequent word formation that is used in the advertisements. The morphological approach is used for the study. For the first objective, the study contains eight types of word formation. Those types are borrowing, cliticization, initialism, blending, clipping, conversion, derivation, and inflection. The result for the second objective is inflection, which is the most frequent word formation used in the data with 49.6%.

There is a similarity between this present research and Adyaningtyas’ study in the objective of the study. Both studies have the same objective to analyze the types of word formation processes. As the source of the data,

Adyaningtyas’ study uses Coca-Cola and Pepsi advertisements that were published in the United States from 1950 until 2012, whereas a movie, Ford v

Ferrari, is used for the source of the data in this present research.

The third study is a journal article by Multazim and Nurdin (2019) entitled

“Word Formation of Photography Terminologies”. Multazim and Nurdin’s study has three objectives. The first objective is to find the types of word formation of photography terminologies in the online magazine outdoorphotographer.com. The second objective is to find the most dominant type of word formation of the terms, and the third objective is to discuss the reason for the dominancy. The data were collected by reading, note-taking, and check-listing from articles published on the online magazine from January to August 2018. The study uses morphology as the approach. There are 198 photography terms with six types of word formation, namely acronym, borrowing, compounding, clipping, derivation, and eponym as

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the result of the first objective. For the second and third objectives, the most dominant type is compounding because combining two or more words to form a new word is very simple.

This present research has similarities and differences with Multazim and

Nurdin’s study. The topic of both studies is similar, with the types of word formation as the main focus of both studies. The data for both studies are special terminologies, but this present research uses car terminologies taken from the

Ford v Ferrari movie, whereas Multazim and Nurdin’s study uses photography terms taken from outdoorphotographer.com online magazine.

The fourth study is a journal article entitled “An Analysis of Word

Formation Encountered in Medical Terms in The Jakarta Post’s Articles written by Triwahyuni, Imranuddin, and Zahrida (2018). The study by Triwahyuni,

Imranuddin, and Zahrida has an objective to find the types of word formation of medical terminologies in health articles from The Jakarta Post. The data were taken from seven health articles in The Jakarta Post newspaper from June until

December 2016. Documentation is the main instrument for the study, and morphology is the approach. As the result, there are six types of word formation processes from 105 data found from health articles. Those types of word formation are derivation, compounding, borrowing, acronym, clipping, and backformation.

This present research also has differences and similarities with the study by Triwahyuni, Imranuddin, and Zahrida. Finding the types of word formation from special terms is the objective of both this research and Triwahyuni,

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Imranuddin, and Zahrida’s study. The difference is in the data. This research uses car terminologies from the Ford v Ferrari movie, while Triwahyuni, Imranuddin, and Zahrida’s study uses medical terminologies from The Jakarta Post newspaper articles.

All previous studies in this part have the same topic and approach as this present research. The topic is the analysis of word formation processes, and the approach is morphology. However, the data are various, like technology terminologies from a comic in Anggrid’s study, advertisements in Adyaningtyas’ study, photography terminologies from an online magazine in Multazim and

Nurdin’s study, and medical terminologies in newspaper articles in Triwahyuni,

Imranuddin, and Zahrida’s study. Car terminologies, especially in the Ford v

Ferrari movie, were not taken yet by previous researchers. Therefore, the researcher analyzes the word formation processes of car terminologies in Ford v

Ferrari in this present research.

B. Review of Related Theories

The researcher presents some theories that can help the researcher to analyze the word formation of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari. The presented theories are theories of morphology and word formation.

1. Morphology

Morphology is the basic forms of language (Yule, 2010). It also can be described as the study of the internal structure of words (Katamba, 1993). The purpose of morphology is to know how words are formed by their structures.

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Although words are small units in language, most words in English are formed by other smaller units. Those smaller units are morphemes.

Morphemes are the smallest units that are meaningful (Katamba, 1993). A morpheme can not be divided into smaller units that have meanings because units that are smaller than morphemes are not meaningful. Morphemes are categorized into free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand alone as words like ‘play’, while bound morphemes need to be attached to free morphemes. An example of a bound morpheme is {–er} which can be attached to a free morpheme ‘play’ to form a new word, ‘player’. The word ‘player’ is formed by two morphemes, ‘play’ and {–er}. That word experiences a word formation process. Word formation processes have many types based on how a word is formed.

2. Word Formation

The process of forming new words has various types. According to

Brinton and Brinton (2000), there are eight types of word formation processes.

Those types are derivation, reduplication, conversion, compounding, blending, backformation, shortening, and root creations. a. Derivation

The first type of word formation processes is derivation. Derivation is “the addition of a word-forming affix” (Brinton and Brinton, 2000, p. 94). It is the process of forming a new word by adding an affix, either a prefix or a suffix, to a root. The addition of those affixes can result in a change of function and meaning of a word. Affixes can be classified into prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. In English,

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prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes that can form new words, whereas infixes are not normally used.

Prefixes are affixes that are added to the beginning of words. For example, a prefix {un-} can be added to a root ‘like’ to form a new word ‘unlike’. The same case happens when a prefix {in-} as the addition of a root ‘correct’ to form a new word ‘incorrect’. On the other hand, suffixes are affixes that are added to the end of words. For example, suffixes {–ly} and {-er} as the additions of the words

‘quick’ and ‘lead’ to form new words ‘quickly’ and ‘leader’. b. Reduplication

The second type of word formation processes is reduplication.

“Reduplication is a process in which the initial syllable or the entire word is doubled, exactly or with a slight phonological change” (Brinton and Brinton,

2000, p. 100). This type of word formation is not often found in English.

According to Brinton and Brinton (2000), there are three kinds of reduplication, which are exact reduplication, ablaut reduplication, and rhyme reduplication.

Exact reduplication is when the doubled syllables or words are the same like in the words ‘so-so’ and ‘hush-hush’, while the doubled syllables or words are different in ablaut reduplication and rhyme reduplication. Doubled syllables or words in ablaut reduplication have different vowels and the same consonants as in the words ‘zig-zag’ and ‘flip-flop’. On the other hand, rhyme reduplication is the opposite of ablaut reduplication, in which doubled syllables or words have the same vowels and different consonants like in the word ‘roly-poly’ and ‘hob-nob’.

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c. Conversion

The third type of word formation processes is conversion or functional shift. Conversion is the process of changing the function of a word, like when a noun becomes a verb or other function changes (Yule, 2010). It has a similarity with derivation which changes the function of a word. However, a functional change of conversion does not involve any additions of affixes. The only change in conversion is in the stress (Brinton and Brinton, 2000). An example of conversion is when a noun ‘skin’ in “a beautiful skin” becomes a verb in “they skin a deer”. Another example is when a verb ‘walk’ in “we walk together” becomes a noun in “I need a walk”. Either as nouns or verbs, the words ‘skin’ and

‘walk’ are still the same in the spelling and the pronunciation. d. Compounding

Compounding is the fourth type of word formation processes. It is the process of forming new words by combining roots (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002).

The combinations of roots to form compound words are not always written the same way. “Compounds may be written as a single word or as two words, hyphenated or not, e.g. icecream, ice cream, ice-cream” (Brinton and Brinton,

2000, p. 103). This process is often confused with a phrase. One of the ways to distinguish compounds and phrases is by knowing the meanings. The meaning of a compound is not always predicted by the combining roots. For example, a compound ‘greenhouse’ means a glass house to place plants, while the phrase

‘green house’ means a house that is green. The example ‘greenhouse’ is a

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compound noun, which is one of the types of compounding. The other types of compounding are compound verbs and compound adjectives.

The types of compounding are differentiated based on the parts of speech.

Like the names, compound nouns are nouns formed by compounding, compound verbs are verbs formed by compounding, and compound adjectives are adjectives formed by compounding. However, the combining roots do not necessarily have the same parts of speech as the compounds. There are the examples of each type of compounds by Carstairs-McCarthy (2002):

Compound Nouns:

Verb + Noun : swearword, drophammer, playtime

Noun + Noun : hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer

Adjective + Noun : blackboard, greenstone, faintheart

Preposition + Noun : in-group, outpost, overcoat

Compound Verbs:

Verb + Verb : stir-fry, freeze-dry

Noun + Verb : hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean

Adjective + Verb : dry-clean, whitewash

Preposition + Verb : underestimate, outrun, overcook

Compound Adjectives:

Noun + Adjective : sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich

Adjective + Adjective : grey-green, squeaky-clean, red-hot

Preposition + Adjective : underfull, overactive

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e. Blending

The fifth type of word formation processes is blending. Like compounding, blending involves a combination of roots. However, blending is “a kind of compound where at least one component is reproduced only partially”

(Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002, p. 65). The combining roots in blending are not always intact, for example in a blend ‘smog’, from the combination of two roots

‘smoke’ and ‘fog’. There are also blends with one of the roots that remain intact, one example is ‘filmography’, from the combination of ‘film’ and ‘biography’

(Brinton and Brinton, 2000). f. Backformation

The sixth type of word formation processes is backformation.

Backformation is the process of forming words by the reduction of affixes in other words to change the functions. “A word of one type is reduced to form a word of another type” (Yule, 2010, p. 56). It can be viewed as the opposite of derivation.

The examples of backformed verbs are ‘sightee’ from ‘sighteer’, ‘baby-sit’ from

‘babysitter’, and ‘typewrite’ from ‘typewriter’ (Brinton and Brinton, 2000). g. Shortening

The seventh type of word formation processes is shortening. Shortening has three types, namely clipping, acronyms, and initialism (Brinton and Brinton,

2000). Unlike acronyms and initialism which have a similar format, clipping is a type of shortening process which has a different format from other types.

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i. Clipping

Clipping is the process of deleting part of a word without changing its

meaning and word class (Brinton and Brinton, 2000). The deleted part of a word

can be the end, the beginning, or both parts. The examples of clipping with the

ends deletions are ‘fan’ from ‘fanatic’, ‘gym’ from ‘gymnasium’, and ‘prof’ from

‘professor’. The words ‘phone’ from ‘telephone’ and ‘burger’ from ‘hamburger’

are the examples of clipping with the beginnings deletions, and the examples of

clipping with both parts deletions are ‘flu’ from ‘influenza’, and ‘fridge’ from

‘refrigerator’. Clipped words from phrases or compound words are also

considered as clipping, like in the words ‘soap’ from ‘soap opera’, ‘high tech’

from ‘high technology’, and ‘movie’ from ‘moving picture’. ii. Acronyms and Initialisms

The other types of shortening are acronyms and initialisms. Both

acronyms and initialisms are formed by taking the initial letters of forming words.

The difference is in an acronym, the initial letters are pronounced as a word

(Brinton and Brinton, 2000) like in acronyms ‘laser’ from ‘light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation, and ‘AIDS’ from ‘Acquired Immune Deficiency

Syndrome’. On the other hand, the initial letters in an initialism are pronounced as

letters (Brinton and Brinton, 2000) like in initialisms ‘BCE’ from ‘Before

Common Era’, and ‘CD’ from ‘Compact Disc’.

h. Root Creations

The last type of word formation processes is root creation. Root creation is

the discovery of a new root and is considered the rarest type of word formation

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(Brinton and Brinton, 2000). Root means the base of a word, like ‘sit’ from the word ‘sitting’. The most common examples of root creations are brand names.

The discovery of those roots can be examined from existing words or names, like a brand ‘Levis’ discovered from the name of its founder, Levi Strauss (Brinton and Brinton, 2000). Since brand names are not always from existing words or names, root creations of brand names can also come from the other processes of word formation like a clipped word of ‘Coca-cola’, ‘Coke’, and ‘Cineplex’ from the blending of ‘cinema’ and ‘complex’ (Brinton and Brinton, 2000). English words from other languages and onomatopoeic words are also categorized as root creations. For examples, the word ‘thermos’ is taken from Greek which means

‘warm’, and the onomatopoeic word ‘meow’ from cats’ sound (Brinton and

Brinton, 2000).

C. Theoretical Frameworks

This part explains the contribution of the theories from the previous part for this research. The theories are used to help the researcher answers the two problems of this research. The theories of morphology and word formation by

Katamba (1993), Yule (2010), Brinton and Brinton (2000), and Carstairs-

McCarthy (2002) can help the researcher answer the first problem, which is to analyze the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on how the car terminologies are formed since morphology and word formation theories are the theories of words structure in how words are formed. The theory of word formation by Brinton and Brinton

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(2000) is used to determine the types of word formation processes which are derivation, reduplication, conversion, compounding, blending, backformation, shortening, and root creations. Some theories of word formation by Carstairs-

McCarthy (2002) and Yule (2010) are also used by the researcher to support the theory by Brinton and Brinton (2000).

To answer the second problem, which is to know how the types of word formation processes of car terminologies found in Ford v Ferrari are distributed in the scenes of the movie, the researcher used the result of the first problem. The scenes of the movie are decided by the researcher based on the movie itself without using any theories.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter consists of three parts which are the object of the study, the approach of the study, and the method of the study. The first part is the discussion of the object that is used as the data for the research. The second part explains the approach that is used by the researcher to analyze the data for the research. The third part is divided into data collection and data analysis to show the methods that are used by the researcher in the research.

A. Object of the Study

The object for this research are words that were taken from Ford v

Ferrari. Ford v Ferrari is a movie that is published in 2019 by 20th Century Fox.

The story of the movie is based on a real life event in the 1960s when an Italian car brand, Ferrari, was the most dominant racing team in 24 Hours of Le Mans, which is an endurance racing competition. The story is focused on the spirited effort in developing racing cars by Ford, an American car brand, who wanted to beat the most dominant Ferrari in the competition. The researcher uses car terminologies from the utterances of all characters from the movie for the object of this research.

Ford v Ferrari is more than two hours long telling one of the biggest histories in the car world. The movie also has some legendary names in the car

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world like Carroll Shelby, Ken Miles, Henry Ford II, Enzo Ferrari, and many others as the characters. The utterances from all characters in the movie contain many car terminologies that are used as the data for this research. The researcher focuses on the types of word formation processes of those terminologies based on how those terminologies are formed, and the distribution of those types in various scenes of the movie.

B. Approach of the Study

In this research, the researcher uses the morphological approach in order to analyze the car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. The approach, Morphology, which is “the study of the internal structure of words”

(Katamba, 1993, p. 3), and also known as “basic forms in language” (Yule, 2010, p. 67), is used to analyze how those car terminologies are formed. The approach is also used to identify the types of word formation processes that are experienced by the car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on the types of word formation processes by Brinton and Brinton (2000).

C. Method of the Study

This part is the explanation of how did the researcher collect and analyze the data. This part is divided into two smaller parts, which are data collection and data analysis.

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1. Data Collection

The data for this research were taken from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari, as mentioned in the previous part. Since Ford v Ferrari is a car movie, and the characters are legendary people in the car world, the utterances from all of the characters contain many car terminologies. The researcher uses the car terminologies from those utterances for the data of this research. As the data, the car terminologies experience various word formation processes.

The researcher did three steps in collecting the data. First, the researcher watched the movie carefully and focus on car terminologies in the utterances. The researcher used the video and the script of the movie. The researcher used the script of the movie since it would be easier for the researcher to list the words.

The video of the movie is used to know the scenes of the movie when the car terminologies that experience word formation processes appear in the utterances.

The researcher selected all scenes of the movie since all of them contain word formation processes of car terminologies. The video was taken from a local internet cafe, and the script was taken from the English subtitle of the movie. The researcher wrote the car terminologies found from those utterances with the help of the script of the movie. To know if the words are belonging to car terminologies, the words have to have meanings related to the car world. After collecting the car terminologies, the researcher sorted those terminologies in alphabetical order to be more organized.

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2. Data Analysis

After the data were collected, the first step to analyze the data was to categorize the car terminologies based on the types of word formation process. To know which car term experiences which type of word formation process, the researcher analyzed the origins of those terminologies. The result of the first step is the list of car terminologies that are categorized based on the types of word formation process. The second step is to classify the car terminologies in each type of word formation process based on their similarities. As the result, there are some smaller groups of car terminologies in some types of word formation process. After that, the researcher discussed the formation of each term to know how the terminologies are formed. The researcher also added the meaning and origin of each term with the help of dictionaries and online sources. As the result, the form, meaning, and origin of each car term were identified. The result of the first three steps is the answer to the first problem, which is the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari.

The list of the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari can be used to analyze the second problem.

The second problem is how the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari are distributed in the scenes of the movie. The distribution means the moments when the car terminologies from each type of word formation process appear in the movie. The next step after finding the types of word formation process was to list the scenes of the movie with the frequencies of word formation processes that appear in each scene. The

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frequency table in each type of word formation process uses abbreviations of the scenes of the movie, which are ‘racing’ (R), ‘how to drive’ (HD), ‘car review’

(CR), ‘car building’ (CB), ‘racing preparation’ (RP), ‘car developing’ (CD),

‘negotiation’ (N), ‘car testing’ (CT), and ‘argument’ (A). After knowing the frequencies, the next step was to find the most dominant type of word formation process in each scene and to identify if the scenes have impacts on the processes of word formation.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter covers two parts of the discussions to answer the problems of this research. The first part is the discussion of the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari to answer the first problem of this research. The second part is used to answer the second problem of this research, which is the distribution of the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on the various scenes of the movie.

A. Word Formation Processes of Car Terminologies from the Utterances in

Ford v Ferrari

This part discusses the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. The researcher found sixty- two car terminologies from the utterances from all characters in the movie. Those car terminologies experience various types of word formation processes. Those word formation processes are derivation, reduplication, conversion, compounding, blending, backformation, shortening, and root creations. The summary of the classification of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari based on the types of word formation processes is shown in the table on the next page.

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Table 1. Word Formation Process No Word Formation Process Frequency 1 Shortening 21 2 Compounding 16 3 Root creations 13 4 Conversion 4 5 Derivation 4 6 Backformation 1 7 Blending 1 8 Reduplication 1 Total 61

The table above shows that the type of word formation processes that contains most of the car terminologies is shortening with twenty-one car terminologies. The car terminologies number of shortening is followed by compounding with sixteen car terminologies, then followed by root creations with thirteen car terminologies. The remaining car terminologies are contained in five different types of word formation processes. Each of conversion and derivation contains four car terminologies. Furthermore, the last three car terminologies are categorized as backformation, blending, and reduplication.

1. Shortening

The researcher found twenty-one car terminologies from the utterances in

Ford v Ferrari that experience shortening processes. The summary of the car terminologies and the types of derivation processes are shown in the table on the next page.

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Table 2. Shortening of Car Terminologies No Car Term Word Type 1 Arm Control arm Clipping 2 Block Engine block Clipping 3 Box Gearbox Clipping 4 Carb Carburetor Clipping 5 Disc Brake disc Clipping 6 Displacement Engine displacement Clipping 7 Engine Internal combustion engine Clipping 8 Gas Gas pedal Clipping 9 Gasket Head gasket Clipping 10 Pad Brake pad Clipping 11 Plug Spark plug Clipping 12 Power Horsepower Clipping 13 Rear diff Rear differential Clipping 14 Rev Revolution Clipping 15 Rod Connecting rod Clipping 16 Rotor Brake rotor Clipping 17 Shock Shock absorber Clipping 18 Shield Windshield Clipping 19 Tire Attire Clipping 20 Valve Inlet valve Clipping 21 RPM Revolutions per minute Initialism

The table above shows that almost all of the shortening processes are clippings, with only one initialism, and no acronyms. According to Brinton and

Brinton (2000), clipping is one of the types of shortening process when parts of a word are deleted, but the meaning and the word class of the word are still the same. On the other hand, initialism and acronym are other types of shortening when the only parts that remain are the initial letters of the forming words. initial letters in initialism are pronounced as letters, while initial letters in acronym are pronounced as a word.

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a. Clipping

There are twenty car terminologies that experience clipping type of shortening process. Those car terminologies are ‘arm’, ‘block’, ‘box’, ‘carb’,

‘disc’, ‘displacement’, ‘engine’, ‘gas’, ‘gasket’, ‘pad’, ‘plug’, ‘power’, ‘rear diff’,

‘rev’, ‘rod’, ‘rotor’, ‘shock’, ‘shield’, ‘tire’, and ‘valve’. All of those terminologies are categorized as nouns, and most of them are clipped forms of compound nouns.

The first car term is ‘arm’. ‘Arm’ in the car world is a part of the suspension system of a car. It is the part that connects the wheel with the body of a car. ‘Arm’ experiences a shortening process since the term is a clipped form of

‘control arm’, which is a compound word.

The second car term is ‘block’. ‘Block’ means “a solid, straight-sided piece of hard material” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

Edition). As a car term, ‘block’ experiences a shortening process, specifically clipping. ‘Block’ is a clipped form of ‘engine block’. ‘Block’ or ‘engine block’ in a car is a block or a piece of hard material that contains the components of an internal combustion engine.

The next four car terminologies are ‘box’, ‘gasket’, ‘power’, and ‘valve’.

All those four car terminologies are clipped forms of compound words which are explained in the compounding part. ‘Box’ is a clipped form of ‘gearbox’, ‘gasket’ is a clipped form of ‘head gasket’, ‘power’ is a clipped form of ‘horsepower’, and

‘valve’ is a clipped form of ‘inlet valve’. Although some parts of those compound words are deleted, ‘box’, ‘gasket’, ‘power’, and ‘valve’ are still categorized as

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free morphemes. The shortening processes do not change the meaning nor the function of the terminologies.

The next car term is ‘carb’. As a car term, ‘carb’ is a clipped form of

‘carburetor’. ‘Carburetor’ means “the part of an engine that mixes fuel and air, producing the gas that is burned to provide the power needed to operate the vehicle or machine” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

In modern vehicles, the carburetor system is replaced by the fuel injection system, which is more efficient in injecting the fuel for the engine.

The next car term is ‘disc’. ‘Disc’ in general means “a circular flat object”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). In the car world, however, ‘disc’ is formed by a clipping type of shortening process of a compound noun ‘brake disc’. ‘Brake disc’ is the circular flat solid object of one of the types of brake, disc brake. Disc brake is “a type of brake where two pieces of material are pressed against a metal disc that is fixed to a wheel” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

The next car term is ‘displacement’. ‘Displacement’ in the car world is a clipping process of a compound noun ‘engine displacement’. The morpheme

‘engine’ is removed since ‘displacement’ in the car world always refers to ‘engine displacement’. ‘Displacement’ is the total volume of an internal combustion engine that can be filled with air and fuel mixtures. It is often measured in litres, cubic centimetres, or cubic inches.

The next car term is ‘engine’. ‘Engine’ can refer to many things like jet engine, fire engine, search engine, or traction engine. However, ‘engine’ from the

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data is a clipped form of ‘internal combustion engine’, which is the most common type of engine used in a car. ‘Internal combustion engine’ means “an engine that produces energy by burning fuel within itself” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary – 4th Edition).

The next car term is ‘gas’. ‘Gas’ in general refers to “a substance in a form like air that is neither solid nor liquid” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary – 4th Edition). In the car world, ‘gas’ is a free morpheme that experiences clipping type of shortening process. ‘Gas’ can be formed by clipping processes of ‘gasoline’ or ‘gas pedal’. ‘Gasoline’ is a type of oil that is used to fuel internal combustion engines. However, ‘gas’ from the utterance in Ford v

Ferrari is a clipping process of a compound noun ‘gas pedal’. ‘Gas pedal’ is a part to be pushed to open the throttle so the engine can run.

The next car term is ‘pad’. ‘Pad’ in general refers to “a piece of soft, thick cloth or rubber, used to protect a part of the body” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). However, ‘pad’ as a car term is a clipped form of a compound noun ‘brake pad’ which means “pieces of rubber that press against the brake discs on a car wheels to reduce the speed when the brakes are used” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

The next car term is ‘plug’, which in general means “a small plastic or rubber object with metal pins fixed to the end of a wire” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). However, ‘plug’ as a car term means “a device in an engine that produces an electrical spark that lights the fuel and makes

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the engine start” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

‘Plug’ is a clipped form of a compound noun ‘spark plug’.

The next car term is ‘rear diff’. ‘Rear diff’ has two free morphemes, which are ‘rear’ and ‘diff’. ‘Rear diff’ is formed by a clipping process of ‘rear differential’. The addition of a free morpheme ‘rear’ to a root ‘differential’ makes the term also categorized as a compound noun. ‘Rear diff’ or also known as

‘differential gear’ means “a device fitted to the axle of a vehicle that allows the wheels to turn at different rates when going round a corner” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Rear’ is used since the differential gear is often placed in the rear axle of a car.

The next car term is ‘rev’. ‘Rev’ means “one complete turn of a part in an engine” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Rev’ is a clipped form of ‘revolution’. The clipped form is the one which is used commonly to be more simple and clearer to describe ‘revolution’ as a car term. In the car world, ‘rev’ can be a noun like the one in this section, or a verb as a result of a conversion process.

The next car term is ‘rod’. ‘Rod’ in general means “a long, thin pole made of wood or metal” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

However, in the car world, especially the term from the data, ‘rod’ is a clipped form of a compound noun ‘connecting rod’, which means “a rod that joins two particular moving parts in an engine, especially one joining the piston to the crankshaft in a motor vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

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Edition). Another clipped form of ‘connecting rod’ which is often used is ‘con rod’.

The next car term is ‘rotor’. ‘Rotor’ is “a part of a machine that spins”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). In the car world,

‘rotor’ often refers to the rotary engine, which is a type of engine used in some cars. However, ‘rotor’ from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari is a clipped form of a compound noun ‘brake rotor’. ‘Brake rotor’ can be called ‘brake disc’, which is the circular flat solid object of disc brake.

The next car term is ‘shock’. ‘Shock’ in general means “the emotional or physical reaction to a sudden, unexpected, and usually unpleasant event or experience” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). However,

‘shock’ as a car term is a clipped form of a compound noun ‘shock absorber’.

‘Shock’ means “a device on a car which reduces the effects of travelling over rough ground” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

‘Shock’ is a part of a car that takes sudden and unexpected punishments from the road.

The next car term is ‘shield’. ‘Shield’ in general means a piece of solid material to be used as a protection. ‘Shield’ in the car world experiences a clipping type of shortening process. ‘Shield’ is a clipped form of ‘windshield’.

‘Shield’ is used to name the front window of a car, which has a function to protect people or things inside a car from wind or other things when the car is moving forward. ‘Shield’ or ‘windshield’ is used by people in the United States, while people in the United Kingdom use the term ‘windscreen’.

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The last car term of this section is ‘tire’. ‘Tire’ in the car world means “a thick rubber ring, often filled with air, that is fitted around the outer edge of the wheel of a vehicle, allowing the vehicle to stick to the road surface and to travel over the ground more easily” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

Edition). ‘Tire’ is a clipped form of ‘attire’, which means clothes. The reason

‘attire’ is used as the reference of a car term is because a tire is the dress of a wheel. b. Initialism

There is only one car term from the data which experiences an initialism type of shortening process. That car term is ‘rpm’. ‘rpm’ is formed by taking the initial letters of three free morphemes, ‘revolutions’, ‘per’, and ‘minute’. The process is categorized as an initialism because the initial letters are spelled as letters, not as a word. The abbreviation ‘rpm’ is “used when stating the number of times something goes round during a minute” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary – 4th Edition). As a car term, ‘rpm’ or ‘revolutions per minute’ is the measurement of how many times the rotations or revolutions in an engine happen in a minute.

2. Compounding

The researcher found sixteen car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari that experience compounding processes. The summary of the car terminologies and the compounding processes are shown in the table on the next page.

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Table 3. Compounding of Car Terminologies No Car Term Type Combined Words 1 Brake caliper Compound noun Brake + caliper 2 Brake fade Compound noun Brake + fade 3 Brake line Compound noun Brake + line 4 Cylinder head Compound noun Cylinder + head 5 Drag racing Compound noun Drag + racing 6 Engine bed Compound noun Engine + bed 7 Gearbox Compound noun Gear + box 8 Ground clearance Compound noun Ground + clearance 9 Head gasket Compound noun Head + gasket 10 Horsepower Compound noun Horse + power 11 Inlet valve Compound noun Inlet + valve 12 Rearview mirror Compound noun Rear + view + mirror 13 Steering wheel Compound noun Steering + wheel 14 Tailpipe Compound noun Tail + pipe 15 Water pump Compound noun Water + pump 16 Wheelbase Compound noun Wheel + base

The table above shows that the only type of compounding process is compound noun. According to Brinton and Brinton (2000), compounding is the process of forming new words by combining two or more free morphemes.

Compound words can have different meanings and functions with the words forming them. There are sixteen car terminologies that are categorized as compound nouns. Compound noun is a noun that experiences a compounding process. Those car terminologies are ‘brake caliper’, ‘brake fade’, ‘brake line’,

‘cylinder head’, ‘drag racing’, ‘engine bed’, ‘gearbox’, ‘ground clearance’, ‘head gasket’, ‘horsepower’, ‘inlet valve’, ‘rearview mirror’, ‘steering wheel, ‘tailpipe’,

‘water pump’, and ‘wheelbase’.

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The first car term is ‘brake caliper’. ‘Brake caliper’ is a car term that experiences a compounding process since it is formed by the combination of two free morphemes. Those two free morphemes are ‘brake’ and ‘caliper’. ‘Brake caliper’ is categorized as a compound noun. A brake is a part used to stop or slow a car down, while a caliper is a tool used to measure dimensions, which is used similarly with a brake caliper. However, the meaning of ‘brake caliper’ is the house of brake pads and brake pistons, which are parts of a braking system. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘brake caliper’.

Noun

Noun Noun

brake caliper

The next car term is ‘brake fade’. ‘Brake’, which the meaning is explained above, is one of the two free morphemes that form ‘brake fade’. The other free morpheme is ‘fade’, which means “to lose colour, brightness, or strength gradually” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Brake fade’ itself refers to the condition when the brake of a car loses its strength usually due to overheating because it is used too much in a short time. The diagram on the next page shows the compounding process of ‘brake fade’.

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Noun

Noun Verb

brake fade

The next car term is ‘brake line’. ‘Brake line’ means the part which delivers the brake fluid to be used when braking. The part is used to connect the brakes with the brake pedal in a car. ‘Brake line’ is a compound noun formed by combining two free morphemes, ‘brake’ and ‘line’. The word ‘line’ is used to refer to the part, which is a cable. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘brake line’.

Noun

Noun Noun

brake line

The next car term is ‘cylinder head’. ‘Cylinder’ in the car world means

“the tube-shaped device, found especially in an engine, inside which the part of the engine that causes the fuel to produce power moves up and down” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). To form ‘cylinder head’, the free morpheme ‘cylinder’ is followed by another free morpheme, ‘head’, which means

“the top part of something” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

Edition). ‘Cylinder head’ refers to a part of an engine, which is used to cover the

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cylinders of an internal combustion engine below it. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘cylinder head’.

Noun

Noun Noun

cylinder head

The next car term is ‘drag racing’. ‘Drag racing’ is a compound noun from the combination of two free morphemes, ‘drag’ and ‘racing’. If the word stands alone, ‘drag’ means “to move something by pulling it along a surface, usually the ground” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Drag racing’ itself means “a car race over a very short distance” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The reason for using ‘drag’ for this type of racing is because the racers have to launch their vehicles or pull them from the grip of the ground to go to the finish line. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘drag racing’.

Noun

Verb Noun

drag racing

The next car term is ‘engine bed’. ‘Engine bed’ is formed by the combination of two free morphemes, ‘engine’ and ‘bed’. ‘Engine’ means “a

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machine that uses the energy from liquid fuel or steam to produce movement”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition), while ‘bed’ means

“the bottom of something or something that serves as a base” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Engine bed’ itself refers to the foundation or the base of an engine. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘engine bed’.

Noun

Noun Noun

engine bed

The next car term is ‘gearbox’. ‘Gearbox’ means “a metal box containing the gears in a vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

‘Gearbox’ is categorized as a compound noun which is formed by the combination of two nouns. Those two nouns are free morphemes, ‘gear’ and

‘box’. ‘Gear’ means “a device, often consisting of connecting sets of wheels with teeth around the edge, that controls how much power from an engine goes to the moving parts of a machine” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

Edition), while ‘box’ means container. The diagram on the next page shows the compounding process of ‘gearbox’.

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Noun

Noun Noun

gear box

The next car term is ‘ground clearance’. ‘Ground clearance’ is also known as ‘ride height’, which means the distance from the bottom of a car’s body to the ground. ‘Ground clearance’ is formed by combining ‘ground’ with ‘clearance’.

‘Ground’ means “the surface of the Earth” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary – 4th Edition), while ‘clearance’ means “the distance or space that is needed for one thing to avoid touching another thing” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘ground clearance’.

Noun

Noun Noun

ground clearance

The next car term is ‘head gasket’. Two free morphemes ‘head’ and

‘gasket’ are combined to form ‘head gasket’. The meaning of ‘head’ is already explained in a previous section in this part, while the meaning of ‘gasket’ is “a flat piece of soft material or rubber that is put between two joined metal surfaces to prevent gas, oil, or steam from escaping” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

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Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Head gasket’ refers to the gasket placed between the cylinder head and the cylinder block in an internal combustion engine. The gasket is used to seal the combustion process inside an internal combustion engine. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘head gasket’.

Noun

Noun Noun

head gasket

The next term is ‘horsepower’. ‘Horsepower’ is formed by combining two free morphemes, ‘horse’ and ‘power’. ‘Horse’ refers to a kind of four-legged animal which is known for its quickness and toughness. On the other hand, the morpheme ‘power’ means strength. In the car world, ‘horsepower’ refers to “a unit for measuring the power of an engine” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary – 4th Edition). However, ‘horsepower’, especially the one from the data, can also refer to the power of an engine itself. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘horsepower’.

Noun

Noun Noun

horse power

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The next car term is ‘inlet valve’. ‘Inlet valve’ refers to the valve of the inlet. Two free morphemes that form ‘inlet valve’ are ‘inlet’ and ‘valve’ without any deletions, so ‘inlet valve’ experiences a compounding process. ‘Inlet’ in the car world means “the part of a machine through which liquid or gas enters”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). On the other hand,

‘valve’ means “a device that opens and closes to control the flow of liquids or gases” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘inlet valve’.

Noun

Noun Noun

inlet valve

The next car term is ‘rearview mirror’. ‘Rearview mirror’ means “a mirror that allows a driver to see what is happening behind their car” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Rearview mirror’ is formed by three free morphemes, which are ‘rear’, ‘view’, and ‘mirror’. ‘Rear’ and ‘view’ are combined to form ‘rearview’ as the modifier of ‘mirror’. ‘Mirror’ means “a piece of glass with a shiny, metal-covered back that reflects light, producing an image of whatever is in front of it” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary –

4th Edition). The diagram on the next page shows the compounding process of

‘rearview mirror’.

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Noun

Noun Noun

Adjective Noun mirror

rear view

The next car term is ‘steering wheel’. ‘Steering wheel’ refers to “a wheel in a vehicle that the driver turns in order to make the vehicle go in a particular direction” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Steering wheel’ is formed by adding ‘steering’ before the noun ‘wheel’. ‘Steering’ is a noun from the verb ‘steer’, which means “to control the direction of a vehicle”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). On the other hand,

‘wheel’ is a circular object connected at the centre to a bar, used for making vehicles or parts of machines move” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

– 4th Edition). The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘steering wheel’.

Noun

Noun Noun

steering wheel

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The next car term is ‘tailpipe’. ‘Tailpipe’, or often known as ‘exhaust pipe’, means “the pipe at the back of a vehicle through which waste gas escapes from the engine” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

‘Tailpipe’ is formed by adding a free morpheme, ‘tail’, before another free morpheme, ‘pipe’. ‘Tail’ is a noun used to describe a part which is placed on the back, while ‘pipe’ means “a tube inside which liquid or gas flows from one place to another” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘tailpipe’.

Noun

Noun Noun

tail pipe

The next car term is ‘water pump’. ‘Water pump’ is formed by combining two free morphemes, ‘water’ and ‘pump’. ‘Water’ from ‘water pump’ in the car world refers to ‘coolant water’, which means “a specially prepared liquid that is used to stop a machine from getting too hot while it is operating” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). On the other hand, ‘pump’ means

“a piece of equipment that is used to cause liquid, air, or gas to move from one place to another” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). As a car term, “water pump” means a device to deliver coolant water to the cooling system of an internal combustion car. The diagram on the next page shows the compounding process of ‘water pump’.

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Noun

Noun Noun

water pump

The last car term in this compounding part is ‘wheelbase’. ‘Wheelbase’ means “the distance between the front and the back wheels of a motor vehicle”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Wheelbase’ is formed by the combination of two free morphemes without any deletions. Those morphemes are ‘wheel’ and ‘base’. ‘Wheel’ is used to refer to the wheels of a car, which are the parts to be measured. On the other hand, ‘base’ means “the bottom part of an object, or the lowest part of something” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition), since the wheels are placed on the lowest part of a car. The diagram below shows the compounding process of ‘wheelbase’.

Noun

Noun Noun

wheel base

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3. Root Creations

The researcher found thirteen car terminologies from the utterances in

Ford v Ferrari that experience root creations. The summary of the car terminologies and the origins which create new roots are shown in the table below.

Table 4. Root Creations of Car Terminologies No Car Term Origin Type 1 Abarth (Carlo) Abarth Brand 2 AC Auto Carrier Brand 3 Aston Martin Aston (Hillclimb), (Lionel) Martin Brand 4 Chevy Chevrolet Brand 5 Ferrari (Enzo) Ferrari Brand 6 Fiat Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino Brand 7 Ford (Henry) Ford Brand 8 MG Morris Garages Brand 9 Plymouth Plymouth (Binder Twine) Brand 10 Porsche (Ferdinand) Porsche Brand 11 Shelby (Carroll) Shelby Brand 12 Studebaker Studebaker (Brothers) Brand 13 Chassis Frame in French Foreign word

The table above shows that almost all car terminologies that experience root creations are brand names. There are brand names that are created from existing words or names, and also from other processes of word formation of existing words or names. The only term which is not a brand name is an English word from another language. According to Brinton and Brinton (2000), words that are included in root creations are brand names that can be examined from existing words or from other processes of word formation, English words from other languages, and onomatopoeic words from natural sounds.

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a. Brand Name

Brand names can be created from existing words like names of places, or names of the founders. There are seven car terminologies that are taken from existing words, and all of those terminologies are the names of car brands. Those car brands are ‘Abarth’, ‘Ferrari’, ‘Ford’, ‘Plymouth’, ‘Porsche’, ‘Shelby’, and

‘Studebaker’. The existing words used to name those six brands are their founders’ names.

The first car brand is ‘Abarth’. ‘Abarth’ is the brand of an Italian car maker. The car maker focuses on making racing cars and small performance cars.

It was founded in 1949 by Carlo Abarth and Guido Scagliarini. The last name of

Carlo Abarth is used to name the car brand, ‘Abarth’.

The second car brand is ‘Ferrari’. ‘Ferrari’ is the brand of an Italian car maker based in Maranello. From the beginning, the car maker only builds racing cars and fast road cars until nowadays. It is one of the biggest names in car racing.

‘Ferrari’ was named after its founder’s last name, Enzo Ferrari.

The third car brand is ‘Ford’. ‘Ford’ is the brand of a car maker from

Detroit, Michigan. It was founded in 1903 and is one of the most well-known car makers from the United States which mainly focuses on making mass production affordable cars. The name ‘Ford’ is taken from its founder’s last name, Henry

Ford.

The next car brand is ‘Plymouth’. ‘Plymouth’ is a brand that sells cheaper cars from an American car manufacturer, Chrysler. The name ‘Plymouth’ is taken

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from the Plymouth Binder Twine, which is very popular among farmers. Farmers are the people who are targeted to buy cheap cars.

The next car brand is ‘Porsche’. ‘Porsche’ is the brand of a car maker from

Stuttgart, Germany. The car maker was founded in 1931 by Ferdinand Porsche.

The majority of cars built by ‘Porsche’ are sports cars. The name ‘Porsche’ is taken from Ferdinand Porsche’s last name.

The next car brand is ‘Shelby’. ‘Shelby’ is the brand name of an American car maker. The car maker is focused on making fast cars and racing cars. It was founded in 1962. The name ‘Shelby’ is taken from its founder’s last name, Carroll

Shelby. Carroll Shelby was also often working with other car makers to make fast cars with the ‘Shelby’ name included.

The last car brand created from an existing word is ‘Studebaker’. Similar to ‘Ford’ and ‘Shelby’, ‘Studebaker’ is the brand of a car maker from the United

States. It was founded in 1852. The name ‘Studebaker’ is from its founders, the

Studebaker brothers.

Brand names can also be created from other processes of word formation of existing words or names. There are five brand names that are created from other processes of word formation. Those five brand names are ‘AC’, ‘Aston

Martin’, ‘Chevy’, ‘Fiat’, and ‘MG’. Those brands are created from processes of shortening, compounding, and blending of existing words.

The first brand is ‘AC’. ‘AC’ that mentioned in Ford v Ferrari is not a shortening process of ‘Air Conditioner’, as often referred to. ‘AC’ is the brand of

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a British car maker, so it experiences a root creation process. The name ‘AC’ is a shortening form of the name of the company, ‘Auto Carriers’.

The second brand is ‘Aston Martin’. ‘Aston Martin’ is the brand of a

British car maker which is famous for making performance cars and luxury cars.

The name ‘Aston Martin’ is a combination of two existing words, which are

‘Aston’ and ‘Martin’. ‘Aston’ is taken from a British racing competition called

Aston Hillclimb, while Martin is taken from the brand founder’s last name, Lionel

Martin.

The next brand is ‘Chevy’. ‘Chevy’ is a clipped version of a car brand name, ‘Chevrolet’. The brand was founded in 1911, then it became a part of

General Motor car manufacturer from the United States. The name ‘Chevrolet’ is from its founder, Louis Chevrolet.

The next brand is the brand of an Italian car maker, ‘Fiat’. ‘Fiat’ experiences an acronym of shortening process since it is a combination of four initial letters that is pronounced as a word. ‘Fiat’ also experiences a root creation process since it is a new root for a car brand. ‘Fiat’ is named after an acronym process of Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino which means Italian automobiles built in Turin.

The last car brand is ‘MG’. ‘MG’ is the brand of a British car maker which experiences an initialism of shortening process and a root creation process.

Because the letters are pronounced one by one, ‘MG’ is an initialism of ‘Morris

Garages’, which is founded by William Morris. The last name of William Morris is used to create a new root, ‘MG’ or ‘Morris Garages’.

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b. Foreign Word

Another way to discover new roots is by borrowing words from other languages. The new English words have to be exactly the same as the words from other languages which are borrowed to be categorized as root creations. There is only one car term that is borrowed from another language. The car term is

‘chassis’ which is a French word for ‘frame’. ‘Chassis’ means “the frame of a vehicle, usually including the wheels and engine, onto which the metal covering is fixed” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Chassis’ is the only non-brand car term from the data which experiences root creations process.

4. Conversion

The researcher found four car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari that experience conversion processes. The summary of the car terminologies and the conversion processes are shown in the table below.

Table 5. Conversion of Car Terminologies No Car Term Part of Speech Conversion 1 Drag Noun Verb to Noun 2 Torque Noun Verb to Noun 3 Rev Verb Noun to Verb 4 Speed Verb Noun to Verb

It can be seen from the table above that the four car terminologies experience two different conversions. Conversion is the process of changing the function of a word (Yule, 2010). Two car terminologies are converted from verbs into nouns, while the other two car terminologies are converted from nouns into verbs.

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a. Verb to Noun

There are two car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari that experience conversion processes by being converted from verbs into nouns. The conversions do not change the spellings and the pronunciations, but they change the functions of the words. Those two car terminologies that are being converted from verbs into nouns are ‘drag’, and ‘torque’.

The first car term is ‘drag’. ‘Drag’ is “the force that acts against the forward movement of something that is passing through a gas or a liquid”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). It is the wind resistance when a car moves since the car’s body is passing through the wind.

‘Drag’ as a car term from the utterances of the movie is a noun converted from a verb ‘drag’, which means “to move something by pulling it along a surface”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

The other car term is ‘torque’. ‘Tourqe’ is “a force that causes something to rotate” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). It is the measurement to know the force to rotate the components inside an internal combustion engine. A noun ‘torque’ is converted from a verb ‘torque’, which means to apply the force. b. Noun to Verb

There are two car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari that experience conversion processes by being converted from nouns into verbs.

Similar to the previous conversions from verbs into nouns, these conversions from nouns into verbs also change the functions of the words but do not change their

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spellings and pronunciations. Those two car terminologies that are being converted from nouns into verbs are ‘rev’ and ‘speed’.

The first car term is ‘rev’. ‘Rev’ as a verb means “to increase the operating speed of an engine while the vehicle is not moving, usually to warm it to the correct temperature” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition).

‘Rev’ is a verb that is converted from a noun ‘rev’, which is a clipped form of

‘revolution’ as explained in the shortening part.

The second car term is ‘speed’. In general, ‘speed’ as a noun means “how fast something moves” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th

Edition). In the car world, ‘speed’ can be used to tell the quickness of a car.

However, ‘speed’ as a verb means “to move, go, or happen fast” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Speed’ in this section is the conversion from the noun ‘speed’. The verb ‘speed’ is often used to tell a car driver to go faster.

5. Derivation

The researcher found four car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari that experience derivation processes. The summary of the car terminologies and the derivation processes is shown in the table below.

Table 6. Derivation of Car Terminologies No Car Term (part of speech) Affix Root (part of speech) 1 Driver (noun) -er Drive (verb) 2 Handling (noun) -ing Handle (verb) 3 Transmission (noun) -ion Transmit (verb) 4 Understeer (verb) under- Steer (verb)

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The table on the previous page shows that the derivation processes are involving the additions of suffixes and a prefix to the roots to form the car terminologies. Brinton and Brinton (2000) stated that derivation is “the addition of a word-forming affix”. A derivation process can change the meaning or the part of speech of a word. The affixes used to form the car terminologies from the data are three suffixes {-er}, {-ing}, and {-ion}, and one prefix {under-}. a. Suffix {-er}

There is a car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari which experiences a derivation process by the addition of suffix {-er}. The car term is

‘driver’. ‘Driver’ is “someone who drives a vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The addition of suffix {-er} changes the part of speech of the root ‘drive’ from a verb into a noun in ‘driver’. ‘Drive’ itself means “to move or travel on land in a motor vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The addition of suffix {-er} to the root ‘drive’ changes the meanings and the functions of the root. The diagram below shows the derivation process of ‘driver’.

Noun

Verb -er

drive

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b. Suffix {-ing}

There is only one car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari which experiences a derivation process by the additions of suffix {-ing}. That car term is

‘handling’, which means “how easy a vehicle is to control” (Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Handling’ is a noun that is formed by the addition of suffix {-ing} to the verb ‘handle’, which means “to operate or control something” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The addition of suffix {-ing} changes the meaning and the part of speech of the word.

The diagram below shows the derivation process of ‘handling’.

Noun

Verb -ing

handle

c. Suffix {-ion}

There is one car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari which experiences a derivation process by the additions of suffix {-ion}. The car term is

‘transmission’. The part of speech and the meaning of the car term are different from the root because of the addition of suffix {-ion}. As a car term,

‘transmission’ means “the machinery that brings the power produced by the engine to the wheels of a vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary –

4th Edition). ‘Transmission’ is a noun that is derived from the verb ‘transmit’.

‘Transmit’ means “to pass something from one person or place to another”

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(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition), as the function of

‘transmission’ is to pass the power from the engine to the wheels of a car. The diagram below shows the derivation process of ‘transmission’.

Noun

Verb -ion

transmit

d. Prefix {under-}

The researcher found one car term which experiences a derivation process with the addition of a prefix. The car term is ‘understeer’, which is formed by adding the prefix {under-} before the verb ‘steer’. {Under-} as a prefix can be described as “not enough or not done as well or as much as is necessary”

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition), while ‘steer’ means

“to control the direction of a vehicle” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

– 4th Edition). Therefore, ‘understeer’ means when a car turns not as well as the amount of steering by the driver. The addition of prefix {under-} changes the meaning of ‘steer’, but it does not change the part of speech of the verb. The diagram below shows the derivation process of ‘understeer’.

Noun

under- Verb

steer

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6. Backformation

The researcher found only one car term from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari that experiences a backformation process. That car term is ‘accelerate’, which is a backformed verb from the noun ‘acceleration’. The suffix {-ion} in

‘acceleration’ is deleted to form ‘accelerate’. The meaning of ‘acceleration’ is

“the increase in something’s speed, or its ability to go faster” (Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). The backformed verb of that noun,

‘accelerate’, means to increase the speed of the vehicle, or to do the acceleration.

7. Blending

The researcher found one car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari that experiences a blending process. The car term is ‘automobile’. ‘Automobile’ is a term used as a synonym for ‘car’. The term is formed by combining two words, which are ‘automotive’ and ‘mobile’. According to Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition, ‘Automotive’ is “relating to road vehicles”, while ‘mobile’ means “able to move freely or be easily moved”. The word

‘mobile’ is not clipped, but the word ‘automotive’ is clipped into ‘auto’ to form

‘automobile’. Therefore, ‘automobile’ is categorized as a blend word rather than a compound word.

8. Reduplication

The researcher found only one car term from the utterances in Ford v

Ferrari that experience a reduplication process. The car term is ‘hot-rod’, which is a slang word used in the United States. The meaning of ‘hot-rod’ is “a car that is specially built or changed so that it will go very fast” (Cambridge Advanced

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Learner’s Dictionary – 4th Edition). ‘Hot-rod’ is categorized as a rhyme reduplication word since the consonants of ‘hot’ and ‘rod’ are different while the vowels are still the same.

B. The Distribution of Word Formation Processes of Car Terminologies in

Ford v Ferrari

This part discusses the distribution of the types of word formation processes of car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. The result of the first problem is used to classify the types of word formation processes, while the distribution is based on various scenes of the movie. Scene is something that is happened in parts or sections of the movie. The scenes in Ford v Ferrari are

‘racing’, ‘how to drive’, ‘car review’, ‘car building’, ‘racing preparation’, ‘car developing’, ‘negotiation’, ‘car testing’, and ‘argument’. The table below shows the summary of the distribution.

Table 7. Distribution of Word Formation No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Shortening 15 6 2 3 4 2 6 2 4 2 Compounding 6 1 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 Root creations 70 4 3 3 15 25 11 4 Conversion 4 1 2 5 Derivation 7 1 1 2 3 3 2 6 Backformation 3 7 Blending 1 2 8 Reduplication 1 Total 98 13 8 9 10 24 37 10 19

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In a racing movie, the scene of ‘racing’ is a necessity. The race that becomes the main part of Ford v Ferrari is the 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance car racing competition. The competition, especially in the 1960s, made the story of the movie possible. All of the races in the movie are included in the scene of

‘racing’. The other races are car racing competitions in Willow Springs and

Daytona.

Another scene is ‘how to drive’. Ford v Ferrari is a car movie, so there are some conversations between one character to another about the correct way to drive certain cars. As a professional racing driver and one of the main characters of the movie, Ken Miles is the one who usually teaches other characters how to drive certain cars. However, any utterances from all characters that tell or teach the way to drive are included in the scene of ‘how to drive’.

‘Car review’ is another scene of Ford v Ferrari. There are a lot of cars with different characteristics in a car movie. Those characteristics need to be explained, so the cars can be known from their advantages and disadvantages. The scene is about the opinions of some characters for certain cars. The reviews can be direct to certain cars that are reviewed like when Ken Miles criticizes a new car from Ford in front of the car, or just some conversation between two or more characters in reviewing cars.

The next scene of Ford v Ferrari is ‘car building’. One of the stories in the movie is that Ford wants to build racing cars to beat Ferrari at 24 Hours of Le

Mans. However, the scene is not only about car buildings by Ford. The movie also shows car buildings by Ferrari and Carroll Shelby with Ken Miles and their

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colleagues. Everything from the movie that involves the building of certain cars is included in the scene of ‘car building’.

The next scene is connected with the ‘racing’ scene on the previous page.

The scene is ‘racing preparation’. Before a racing competition begins, a whole racing team has to be ready for everything that could happen in a race. Therefore, preparations like checking cars' condition, track condition, drivers condition, and racing strategies are needed. All of those preparations are included in the ‘racing preparation’ scene of Ford v Ferrari.

Another scene of Ford v Ferrari is ‘car developing’. Before starting to build racing cars, which is included in the scene of ‘car building’ above, car builders have to develop the cars first. The car development that is shown in the movie is the development of the Ford GT. As the main car of the movie, the Ford

GT is used by Ford to beat Ferrari in the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Even though the

Ford GT is owned by Ford, it is mainly developed by Carroll Shelby with the help of Ken Miles and some other people.

The next scene of Ford v Ferrari is ‘negotiation’. There are a lot of negotiations happen between two or more characters in the movie. One of the most important negotiations in the story of the movie is when a Ford’s representative, Lee Iacoca, tries to persuade Carroll Shelby to work together with

Ford to build racing cars. The negotiation is very important since Carroll Shelby is one of the characters who have a very important role in developing and building the racing cars. Other negotiations which are included in the scene are

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negotiations between racing teams with racing drivers, employers with employees, sellers with buyers, and between colleagues.

‘Car testing’ is another scene of Ford v Ferrari. After a racing car is built, the car has to be tested to know if there are some flaws in the car. The scene is close to the ‘car review’ scene. The difference is that testing cars is done by driving the cars on racetracks, rather than just talking about the cars. The purpose of car testing is to make the car ready to race, which makes the scene also close with the ‘racing preparation’ scene. However, testing cars happen after building cars, and not right before a racing competition. One of the car testings in the movie is when the Ford GT is tested to see how the car works aerodynamically on a racetrack.

The last scene of Ford v Ferrari is ‘argument’. The scene is when two or more characters in the movie have different opinions about certain things. The arguments in the movie happen to many characters, one of which is an argument between Ken Miles with his customer because he does not happy when Ken Miles criticizes his driving style. The argument can be simple things or complicated things which could impact some events in the story of the movie.

As the result of the first problem, there are eight types of word formation processes. Those types are compounding, shortening, root creations, conversion, derivation, backformation, blending, and reduplication. The sections on the next seven pages are the distribution of the car terminologies that experience those word formation processes based on the nine scenes of Ford v Ferrari.

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1. Shortening

The table below shows the distribution of car terminologies that experience shortening processes in Ford v Ferrari. The numbers show the number of appearances of the car terminologies. The car terminologies in this section appear in every scene of the movie.

Table 8. Distribution of Shortening No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Arm 2 2 Block 1 3 Box 1 4 Carb 1 5 Diff 1 6 Disc 1 7 Displacement 1 8 Engine 3 2 1 1 1 1 9 Gas 1 10 Gasket 1 11 Pad 1 12 Plug 1 13 Power 1 14 Rev 1 15 Rod 1 16 Rotor 1 1 17 RPM 2 4 1 18 Shock 1 19 Shield 1 20 Tire 6 1 1 21 Valve 1 Total 15 6 2 3 4 2 6 2 4

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Although there are twenty-one different words, some of those words appear more than once in the same scene or different scenes. Based on the table on the previous page, the car terminologies mostly appear in the ‘racing’ scene with fifteen appearances. The possible reason why ‘racing’ contains the most shortening appearances is that in racing environments, shorter words are needed to adapt to the rush of racing, so the ‘racing’ scene can cause processes of word formation, specifically shortening processes. Furthermore, six terminologies appear in both ‘how to drive’ and ‘negotiation’ scenes, four terminologies appear in both ‘racing preparation’ and ‘argument’ scenes, and three terminologies appear in the scene of ‘car building’. The least appearances of the car terminologies are in the scene of ‘car review’, ‘car developing’, and ‘car testing’, with two appearances in each scene.

2. Compounding

The table on the next page shows the distribution of car terminologies that experience compounding processes in Ford v Ferrari. The numbers show the number of appearances of the car terminologies. The car terminologies in this section appear in every scene of the movie but the ‘how to drive’ scene.

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Table 9. Distribution of Compounding No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Brake caliper 1 2 Brake fade 1 3 Brake line 2 4 Cylinder head 1 5 Drag racing 1 6 Engine bed 1 7 Gearbox 2 1 1 8 Ground clearance 1 9 Head gasket 1 10 Horsepower 1 11 Inlet valve 1 12 Rearview mirror 1 13 Steering wheel 1 14 Tailpipe 1 16 Water pump 1 17 Wheelbase 1 Total 6 0 1 1 2 3 2 3 2

Based on the table above, the compound words of car terminologies in the movie appear six times in the ‘racing’ scene, three times in the scene of ‘car testing’, three times in the scene of ‘car developing’, twice in the scene of ‘racing preparation’, ‘negotiation’, and ‘argument’, and once in both ‘car review’ and ‘car building’ scenes. Similar to shortening, compounding also mostly appears in the

‘racing’ scenes. However, some car terminologies that are categorized as compound words can not be shortened, so they are not affected by the rush of the racing environment like the car terminologies in the shortening processes. The compounding process is also not affected by any scene of Ford v Ferrari.

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3. Root creations

The table below shows the distribution of car terminologies that experience root creations processes in Ford v Ferrari. The numbers show the number of appearances of the car terminologies. The car terminologies in this section appear in every scene of the movie but the ‘how to drive’ scene and the

‘car testing’ scene.

Table 10. Distribution of Root Creations No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Abarth 1 2 AC 1 3 Aston Martin 2 4 Chassis 1 5 Chevy 1 1 6 Ferrari 14 1 8 7 7 Fiat 1 8 Ford 45 1 2 2 7 13 7 9 MG 1 1 1 10 Plymouth 1 11 Porsche 2 1 12 Shelby 7 1 13 Studebaker 1 Total 70 0 4 3 3 15 25 0 11

Car terminologies that experience root creations processes have the most appearances in the movie. However, the car terminologies do not appear in the scenes of ‘how to drive’ and ‘car testing’. The car terminologies, which are mostly names of car brands, have the most appearances in the ‘racing’ scene since there are announcers in racing competitions who have to mention certain car brands. However, the root creations process is not affected by any scene of Ford v

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Ferrari. The total of seventy appearances of the car terminologies in the ‘racing’ scene is followed by the appearances in the scene of ‘negotiation’ with twenty- five appearances. The remaining appearances are fifteen appearances in the ‘car developing’ scene, eleven appearances in the ‘argument’ scene, four appearances in the ‘car review’ scene, and three appearances in each of the ‘car building’ scene and the ‘racing preparation’ scene.

4. Conversion

The table below shows the distribution of car terminologies that experience conversion processes in Ford v Ferrari. The numbers show the number of appearances of the car terminologies. The car terminologies in this section appear in three scenes of the movie, which are the scene of ‘how to drive’,

‘negotiation’, and ‘car testing’.

Table 11. Distribution of Conversion No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Drag 1 2 Rev 3 3 Speed 1 4 Torque 1 1 Total 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 2 0

Although there are four words, the converted car terminologies from the utterances of the movie appear seven times and are distributed in three different scenes. The car terminologies are mostly distributed in the ‘how to drive’ scene.

The possible reason is that most of the verbs that describe the way to drive are converted words. The ‘how to drive’ scene can cause conversion processes, which

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are some changes of nouns into verbs. The remaining car terminologies appear twice in the ‘car testing’ scene, and once in the ‘negotiation’ scene.

5. Derivation

The table below shows the distribution of car terminologies that experience derivation processes in Ford v Ferrari. The numbers show the number of appearances of the car terminologies. The car terminologies in this section appear in every scene of the movie but the ‘how to drive’ scene and the ‘car review’ scene.

Table 12. Distribution of Derivation No Car Term R HD CR CB RP CD N CT A 1 Driver 7 1 2 2 1 2 2 Handling 1 3 Transmission 1 1 4 Understeer 1 Total 7 0 0 1 1 2 3 3 2

The car terminologies that experience derivation processes are mostly distributed in the scene of ‘racing’, with seven appearances. ‘Driver’ is the only word in the ‘racing’ scene even though there are seven appearances of it. It is because ‘driver’ is often mentioned by racing announcers to refer to the people who are involved in racing activities. The second most appearance is three appearances in the scenes of ‘negotiation’ and ‘car testing’. The scenes of ‘car developing’ and ‘argument’ have the same amount of appearances, with two appearances in each scene. Each of the ‘car building’ and ‘racing preparation’ scenes has one appearance, while there are no appearances of the car

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terminologies in both the ‘how to drive’ scene and the ‘car review’ scene. The derivation process is not affected by any scene of Ford v Ferrari.

6. Backformation

As the result of the first problem of this research, only one car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. The car term is a backformed verb, ‘accelerate’.

‘Accelerate’ appears three times in the same scene in the movie. Those appearances are when Ken Miles tells his son how to drive a lap of Le Mans race track. Therefore, the backformation processes appear in the ‘how to drive’ scene.

Similar to the conversion process, telling the way to drive forces the creation of new verbs from other functions, specifically with the backformation process.

7. Blending

‘Automobile’ is the only car term from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari that experiences a blending process. From the movie, ‘automobile’ appears three times in two different scenes. The first appearance is in Ford’s car factory when

Henry Ford II tells some errors to his employees. This appearance is in the scene of ‘car building’. The second and third appearances are in the scene of ‘car developing’. However, the characters who have those utterances are two different people. The second appearance is in an utterance by Carroll Shelby when he does his speech to the public about his plan with Ford Motor Company to race at 24

Hours of Le Mans. On the other hand, the third appearance is when Henry Ford II wants to try the racing car which is developed by Carroll Shelby and his colleagues. The blend word ‘automobile’ is said on formal occasions since it is a formal form of ‘car’, but it is not affected by any scene of the movie.

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8. Reduplication

As the only car term that experiences a reduplication process, ‘hot-rod’ appears only once in the utterances of Ford v Ferrari. The appearance is in the

‘car review’ scene. The term is said by one of the main characters of the movie,

Ken Miles, when he hyperbolically describes his car as “a real hot-rod” to his wife. ‘Hot-rod’ is a slang word, so it is said on an informal occasion. The scene of

‘car review’ or other scenes of the movie do not affect the process of reduplication.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Car terminologies are special terminologies used in the car world. Those terminologies can be formed in various ways following the development of automotive technology. In modern society, a lot of special terminologies, that are not understood by some people, appear in common media like movies. This research specifically analyzes the word formation of car terminologies in the Ford v Ferrari movie. It helps people understand more of the car terminologies.

Based on the findings, there are eight types of word formation processes of sixty-one car terminologies from the utterances in Ford v Ferrari. With a total of twenty-one car terminologies, shortening is the most common type of word formation processes in this research. The second most common type is compounding with sixteen car terminologies, followed by root creations with thirteen car terminologies. Furthermore, both conversion and derivation have four car terminologies, while each of backformation, blending, and reduplication has one car term. It can be concluded that shortening is the way that most car terminologies in Ford v Ferrari are formed. However, most of those clipped car terminologies were originally categorized as compound words, so compounding can also be considered as a common way to form car terminologies.

This research also shows that there are nine scenes in Ford v Ferrari, namely ‘racing’, ‘how to drive’, ‘car review’, ‘car building’, ‘racing preparation’,

‘car developing’, ‘negotiation’, ‘car testing’, and ‘argument’. Car terminologies

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that experience shortening, compounding, root creations, and derivation mostly appear in the ‘racing’ scene. Furthermore, conversion and backformation mostly appear in the ‘how to drive’ scene, blending mostly appears in the ‘car developing’ scene, and reduplication only appears in the ‘car review’ scene. The conclusion of this result is that shortening, conversion, and backformation processes can be affected by their appearances in certain scenes. The scene of

‘racing’ makes some car terminologies being clipped to follow the rush of racing atmospheres, so those terminologies experience shortening processes. On the other hand, the ‘how to drive’ scene forces some car terminologies, which are categorized as nouns, to be converted into verbs to describe the ways to drive, so those car terminologies experience conversion and backformation.

The researcher found some difficulties to find the origins of some car terminologies during this research, so the researcher used many sources from the internet and dictionaries. For future researchers, the researcher suggests doing a similar topic of this research, but with different sources of data, which can be movies, television series, car magazines, or Youtube videos. There are a lot of various terminologies used in the car world, which makes car terminologies can be analyzed further, especially using the morphological approach.

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REFERENCES

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APPENDIX

Appendix: Car Terminologies in the Utterances of Ford v Ferrari

No. Car Term Part of Speech Word Formation 1. Abarth Noun Root creations 2. AC Noun Root creations 3. Accelerate Verb Backformation 4. Arm Noun Shortening 5. Aston Martin Noun Root creations 6. Automobile Noun Blending 7. Block Noun Shortening 8. Box Noun Shortening 9. Brake caliper Noun Compounding 10. Brake fade Noun Compounding 11. Brake line Noun Compounding 12. Carb Noun Shortening 13. Chassis Noun Root creations 14. Chevy Noun Root creations 15. Cylinder head Noun Compounding 16. Disc Noun Shortening 17. Displacement Noun Shortening 18. Drag Noun Conversion 19. Drag racing Noun Compounding 20. Diver Noun Derivation 21. Engine Noun Shortening 22. Engine bed Noun Compounding 23. Ferrari Noun Root creations 24. Fiat Noun Root creations 25. Ford Noun Root creations 26. Gas Noun Shortening 27. Gasket Noun Shortening 28. Gearbox Noun Compounding 29. Ground clearance Noun Compounding 30. Handling Noun Derivation 31. Head gasket Noun Compounding

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No. Car Term Part of Speech Word Formation 32. Horsepower Noun Compounding 33. Hot-rod Noun Reduplication 34. Inlet valve Noun Compounding 35. MG Noun Root creations 36. Pad Noun Shortening 37. Plug Noun Shortening 38. Plymouth Noun Root creations 39. Porsche Noun Root creations 40. Power Noun Shortening 41. Rear diff Noun Shortening 42. Rearview mirror Noun Compounding 43. Rev Noun Shortening 44. Rev Verb Conversion 45. Rod Noun Shortening 46. Rotor Noun Shortening 47. RPM Noun Shortening 48. Shelby Noun Root creations 49. Shock Noun Shortening 50. Shield Noun Shortening 51. Speed Verb Conversion 52. Steering wheel Noun Compounding 53. Studebaker Noun Root creations 54. Tailpipe Noun Compounding 55. Tire Noun Shortening 56. Torque Noun Conversion 57. Transmission Noun Derivation 58. Valve Noun Shortening 59. Understeer Verb Derivation 60. Water pump Noun Compounding 61. Wheelbase Noun Compounding