Conservation in Malaysia: Landscape, Tourism and Culture
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CONSERVATION IN MALAYSIA: LANDSCAPE, TOURISM AND CULTURE Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Noorizan Mohamed Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies University of York 1995 ABSTRACT Conservation and development issues have been the focus of the global community in this decade; as a result of massive industrialisation and urbanisation which have led to the degradation of our environment, loss of ecosystems and biodiversity, and social disintegration. Whilst anxiety about the tourist industry increases, so does tourism's impact on the economy, social, cultural and resources of the host country: foreign exchange 'leakage'; social change and moral behaviour; acculturation and destruction of local cultural character; and destruction and pollution of pristine environment. Despite its impact, tourism has provided employment to millions, and given pleasure and variety of experiences to countless number of people. The purpose of this study is to establish an approach towards a reconciliation and a compromise between the two conflicting activities: conservation and tourism development, particularly in rural areas where agricultural or the notion of 'cultural landscape' is predominant. The study emphasises the need to build productive partnership between the tourist industry, the authorities and the communities. To meet this challenge: It is necessary for rural areas to have management plan and policies that strive to conserve the character and qualities of the area, and to take into consideration the social, economic and cultural needs of the local communities; that will ensure the endurance and continuation of culture and tradition. The approach is to present a general understanding on culture and society, the tourist industry, and development of rural areas, with particular reference to Malaysia, and to consider practical conservation strategies for the Islands of Langkawi within the context of economic development and improvement of the social well-being of the islanders. Finally this study attempts to: • understand the operation of the tourist industry on Langkawi and the implementation mechanism with respect to present policies or the lack of them, • identify and assess the impact of tourism on the landscape and the environment of the island, • examine the locals' attitude to and perceptions of their surrounding environment and the industry through survey and interviews, • propose a number of guidelines to better facilitate conservation measures and to assist the local authorities for future planning strategies. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Table of Contents iii List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Acknowledgements viii CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 2 1.1.1 Tourism: The Fastest Growing Industry, 15 1.1.2 The Important Aspects of Tourism, 16 1.1.3 Tourism and Conservation: Securing a Balance, 19 1.1.4 Cultural Landscape, 21 1.2 Defining the Problem 23 1.3 Scope of the Study 26 1.4 Research Aims and Objectives . 29 1.5 Research Design and Methodology 30 1.6 Limitations of the Study 34 1.7 Structure of the Study 35 CHAPTER TWO : MALAYSIAN SOCIETY 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Malaysian Society 41 2.2.1 The Malays, 42 2.2.2 The Chinese, 46 2.2.3 The Indians, 48 2.3 Cultural Background and Identity . 51 2.4 Social Values 58 2.4.1 Social Relations, 61 2.4.2 Social Manners and Etiquette, 65 2.4.3 Beliefs and Taboos, 67 2.5 National Integration 70 2.6 Conclusion 75 CHAPTER THREE : TOURISM AND CONSERVATION OF RURAL RESOURCES 3.1 Introduction 78 iii 3.2 Tourism and Conservation . 79 3.2.1 Definition of Tourism, 79 3.2.2 Definition of Conservation, 81 3.2.3 The Interdependence of Tourism and Conservation, 82 3.3 The Challenge of Tourism 83 3.3.1 Costs and Benefits of Tourism, 85 3.3.2 Limitations of Tourism, 90 3.4 Conservation of Rural Resources . 96 3.5 Cultural Landscapes 98 3.5.1 The Concept of Cultural Landscapes,99 3.5.2 The importance and the need for Conservation, 103 3.5.3 Biodiversity and Cultural Diversity,104 3.5.4 Malaysian Experience, 110 3.6 Conclusion 114 CHAPTER FOUR: RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA 4.1 Introduction 117 4.2 Agriculture in the Economy 123 4.3 Agricultural and Land Development 126 4.3.1 Regional Development, 129 4.4 Impacts of Rural Development 134 4.5 Trends and Issues of Development 138 4.6 Conclusion 141 CHAPTER FIVE : TOURISM INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA 5.1 Introduction 145 5.2 Tourism in the Economy 146 5.3 Tourism Development Strategy 149 5.3.1 Tourism Development Organisation, 153 5.3.2 Tourism Policy, 157 5.3.3 Tourist Arrivals and Types, 163 5.4 Tourism and the Environment . 165 5.5 Future Trends 167 5.6 Conclusion 170 iv CHAPTER SIX : CASE STUDY - LANGKAWI ISLANDS 6.1 Introduction 173 6.2 Tourism Development 177 6.2.1 Small scale Developments, 179 6.2.2 Large scale Developments, 181 6.2.3 Other Developments, 186 6.3 Impact of Tourism 187 6.3.1 Economy, 188 6.3.2 Society and Culture, 194 6.3.3 Environment, 198 6.3.4 Cultural Landscapes, 202 6.4 A Survey of Villagers' Perceptions of the Notion of Cultural Landscapes and the Reality of Tourism 208 6.5 Conclusion: the Future of Langkawi 212 CHAPTER SEVEN : FUTURE DIRECTION AND CONCLUSIONS 7.1 Introduction 217 7.2 Approaches to Conservation of Rural Cultural Landscapes and Tourism Development 224 7.3 Key Contributors and Their Roles 232 7.4 Langkawi Islands: Development Approaches 236 7.4.1 Education and Information, 238 Conclusions 242 APPENDIX I The Langkawi Declaration on the Environment 248 APPENDIX II List of Policies in Langkawi Structure Plan 251 APPENDIX III Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures in Malaysia 253 APPENDIX 1V Questionnaire Survey Form 255 APPENDIX V Statistical Analysis 262 BIBLIOGRAPHY 269 V LIST OF TABLES Chapter Two - Malaysian Society Table 2-1 Registered professionals by ethnic group, 1990 50 Table 2-2 Elements of shifts in traditional and modern society . 61 Chapter Three - Tourism and Conservation of Rural Resources Table 3-1 Meanings of the word landscape 100 Chapter Four - Rural Development in Malaysia Table 4-1 Rural development policy in pre-and-post Independence Malaysia 121 Table 4-2 Rural-based development agencies 122 Table 4-3 Production of agricultural commodities, 1986-90 124 Table 4-4 Regional development programmes in Malaysia 131 Chapter Five - Tourism Industry in Malaysia Table 5-1 Major foreign exchange earners in Malaysia (ranking in 1989-1992) 147 Table 5-2 Purpose of visits by tourists from the UK and Germany 164 Chapter Six - Case study: Langkawi Islands Table 6-1 Land transfer/transaction (1990-1994) 204 v i LIST OF FIGURES Chapter One - Introduction Fig.1-1 Examples of buildings that have been preserved 10 Fig.1-2 Map of Malaysia 27 Fig.1-3 The research framework 32 Chapter Two - Malaysian Society Fig.2-1 Places of worship 56 Fig.2-2 A Hindu man carrying a kavadi 57 Chapter Three - Tourism and Conservation of Rural Resources Fig.3-1 Percentage of foreign exchange earnings from tourism of selected countries 86 Fig.3-2 Tourism 'cycle concept' 95 Fig.3-3 Division of the concept of landscape into cultural landscape, natural landscape and landscape impressions in a hypothetical area 102 Fig.3-4 Agricultural ecosystems 113 Chapter Four - Rural Development in Malaysia Fig.4-1 Location of regional programmes in Malaysia 132 Fig.4-2 Land development options in Malaysia 134 Chapter Five - Tourism Industry in Malaysia Fig.5-1 Principal tourism planning regions in Malaysia 151 Fig.5-2 Regional stocks of hotel room by class 152 Fig.5-3 Organisation structure of Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism 155 Fig.5-4 Organisation chart of MTPB, Malaysia 156 Chapter Six - Case Study: Langkawi Islands Fig.6-1 Existing transportation system 174 Fig.6-2 Existing land use 175 Fig.6-3 Mutiara Tanjung Rhu Resort 180 Fig.6-4 Part of the site that has been abandoned 180 Fig.6-5 Existing tourism resources and attractions 184 Fig.6-6 The cross-section of the Datai 185 Fig.6-7 Pollution in Langkawi waters 200 Fig.6-8 Distribution of padi 206 Fig.6-9 Distribution of rubber 206 Fig.6-10 Distribution of coconut 207 Fig.6-11 Distribution of sundry tree and non-tree cultivation 207 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The experience that I went through for the past three years in York was the most remarkable and memorable event of my life. I met many wonderful people during this period and received a great amount of encouragement which increased my motivation to pursue my study. This study would not have been possible without the generous assistance and support of many individuals and institutions in the UK and Malaysia. However, had it not been for the persistent guidance of Charles Cockburn, my supervisor, such assistance and support would not have materialised. To him I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks. The privilege of being closely and excellently supervised is highly appreciated. I also wish to express thanks and appreciation to the Malaysian Government, for granting me a scholarship to enable me to do my post- graduate work at the University of York. Appreciation is also extended to Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, for granting me leave of absence from my official responsibilities in the Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture. Gratitude and thanks are also extended to Mr Adrian Leaman and Peter Goodchild for their constructive comments at the earlier stages of this study. For the shortcomings that remain in spite of the generous assistance that I received from various quarters, I alone am responsible.