Sharing the Message “with Courtesy and Respect” (I Peter 3:15) Producing and Using Meaningful Translations of the Taurat, Zabur and Injil by John Travis

ew things are as precious to a people as their Scriptures. In the case of the , people have attempted over the centuries to translate this F sacred book into as many languages as possible so that all peoples on earth might benefit from its eternal message.

A myriad of new translations of the Bible have appeared over this past century, often with one or more types produced within the same language group. In English, for example, there are now translations ranging from the very formal and traditional, to colloquial, easy-to-read translations for children. Some translations use terms found only in church settings; others use more general terms. Yet others are designed for English reading audiences of different reli- gious backgrounds, such as the “Jewish New Testament” (where is called Yeshua) and a translation of portions of the Bible for readers of Islamic back- ground, in which Jesus is glossed as Isa and the title of the book contains the word Injil.1 This brief article will address some of the unique linguistic factors involved in producing meaningful and respectful translations of Scripture for Muslim readers. Muslim Appreciation of the Taurat, Zabur and Injil For a translation of the Bible to be meaningful to a particular faith community, it needs to take seriously both its language and unique religious heritage. Today, due to globalization and new advances in technology and travel, and are increasingly interested in one another, and in studying each other’s Scriptures. Important in this connection is the very high regard, at least in theory, that Muslims have for the Scriptures that came c before the birth of . In fact, apart from Christianity, is the only other major world religion that officially accepts the Bible—theTaurat, John Travis has lived for twenty years 2 in Muslim communities and traveled Zabur and Injil —as -inspired Scriptures. extensively throughout the . While there is debate among Muslims as to whether the Bible as it exists today He has been heavily involved in two Bible translations for Muslims readers has been altered or “corrupted” over the years, at least theologically, Muslims and assisted in a number of others. consider the Taurat, Zabur and Injil to be sacred in their original form and International Journal of Frontier Missions 23:2 Summer 2006•73 74 Producing and Using Meaningful Translations of the Taurat, Zabur and Injil languages (i.e. Hebrew, Greek and is better to simply say “Matthew” or addition, I Cor 9:19-23 would suggest ).3 Thus, it is a service to perhaps “The Good News According that those who have the Scriptures at both God and our Muslim friends to Matthew” and so forth, reserv- their disposal should view themselves to translate the Taurat, Zabur, Injil ing the title Injil for the entire as “servants” of those yet outside of in ways that are most honoring, New Testament. Christ, being flexible concerning their comprehensible and relevant for the traditions, so that “as many as possible” Muslim heart and mind. 2. Names of Biblical Characters might come to know the . I The second key involves the names of have noticed that when translators Six Linguistic Keys Biblical characters, in particular Jesus. learn that the term Isa predates Islam The cultural, theological, and linguis- The majority of major religious figures and that it was derived from Christian tic similarities that exist between Islam mentioned in the Qur’an are also sources5, they are much more inclined and the Bible suggest ways to mean- mentioned in the Bible. Such figures to use it, allowing the context of ingfully translate it for Muslim audi- include (Adam), (Nuh), Scripture to give new or increased ences who, like and Christians, (Yakub), (Ibrahim), meaning where needed. trace their spiritual lineage through (Yusuf), (Dawud), For this reason and others, many Abraham. Several linguistic keys are (Sulaiman), Bible translations from ancient times described below. until the present have used the name 1. Parts of the Bible Isa for Jesus, one of the first being an The first key is the need for an appropri- early translation in , known 6 ate title for the name of the translation. today as the Elegant . Transla- Since Islamic literature and theology The greatest objection tions in Turkish, Farsi (i.e. “Persian,” already provide very adequate terms the language of Iran) and the first (Taurat, Zabur, Injil) for the various is to the use of the complete translation of the Bible 7 parts of the Bible, these words should name Isa al-Masih into Malay-Indonesian and be maintained. Sadly, translators have used Isa as well. In fact, in Southeast at times felt compelled to refer to for Jesus . . . Asia alone I have identified over the Bible as something like the “Old twenty translations that presently 8 Testament” or “New Testament”, use or have used Isa. Note too that terms which are normally meaning- with the increase in the number less to a Muslim. Where Muslim of translations being prepared for special audiences, there are some terms used to refer to the Bible have (Yahya) and Jesus the Messiah (Isa al- translations where, within the same been avoided, it is usually because Masih). Although the Qur’an contains language or dialect, both an Isa and the translator is unaware of these only portions of the accounts of their a non-Isa translation exist. Some terms or is concerned about offending lives, these Arabic names clearly refer examples in major world languages churches, either local or abroad, who to the same historical figures that are include Arabic, Urdu, Bengali, Eng- may not like these terms. described in the Bible. For the sake of lish, Indonesian and Sundanese. Two other factors to be considered recognition and religious acceptability, are the use of the term kitab (book) it is crucial that these names be used 3. Lord (Kurios) and the term Injil. Islam recognizes in translations of the Bible. Some, The third key is selecting an appropriate four major kitab—the Taurat, Zabur, however, object to this practice. word for Lord (kurios) in reference to Injil and Qur’an. The word used for The greatest objection is to the use Jesus. The Greek word kurios, which is normally glossed as ‘sir,’ ‘lord,’ ‘Lord’ each of the sixty-six “books” of the of the name Isa al-Masih for Jesus Bible, however, should not be kitab or ‘master’ in English translations of instead of a foreign name such as Yezu 9 but perhaps rather a term such as Kristo. The two objections generally the Bible, carries the meaning of pos- sessing authority and power. When sura, surah or surat depending on local mentioned are that the portrayal of Isa spelling and pronunciation (this term in the Qur’an is not the same as that of translating this term, it is crucial that corresponds to the one hundred and Jesus in the Bible or that churches in a word be selected that can be used for fourteen sections or chapters found a human (not just for God as has hap- the country have been using a different 10 in the Qur’an). Concerning the term name, such as Yezu.4 In response to pened in some translations ) since the Injil (), the first four books of these objections, however, many have Word of God, through the incarna- the New Testament are often called pointed out that merely changing tion, truly became human. Some good examples of languages that translate “The Gospel of Matthew”, “The Isa to another name (one that may Gospel of Mark” and so forth. The phonetically sound closer to the Greek kurios with a suitable term would be in English, in Spanish, term Injil however, should not be used Ieosous or the Hebrew Yeshua) will Lord Señor here in this context as it conveys the not change one’s misunderstandings Heer in Dutch, Herr in German, Gusti impression that there are four Injil. It regarding the person of Jesus. In in Javanese, and Ginoo, which is used

International Journal of Frontier Missions here has hardly been any translation work done in very small languages and . . . there is not not likely T to be much more.

John Travis 75 in parts of the Philippines. In each of these languages, the term chosen to ome have been reluctant to use it in Bible translate kurios in reference to Jesus, translation, fearing it will convey an incorrect is a term that can clearly be used for a respected person who has authority.11 S understanding of God. respectively) this other term is also a good term to use. It seems, how- 4. needed. This is due to the fact that ever, that few languages have such a The fourth key is the glossing of the generally throughout the Muslim “non-biological” term for son. If such Divine names, particularly the name world, the term Allah cannot be gram- a word does not exist, some translators Allah. Of all words known to Muslims, matically used in either a plural or a contend that the title is theologically the name Allah is certainly the most possessive sense (that is, grammati- too heavy to touch and that we need precious. The first phrase of the cally and culturally, one can not say to simply, woodenly, translate the Muslim creed states, “There is no god “my Allah”, “your Allah”, the allahs of words “Son of God” regardless of how but Allah.” Allah is etymologically the Egyptians, etc.). it offends the sensibilities of a Muslim linked to the Hebrew El or Elohim, reader. Others have attempted (again, which is generally translated as “God” 5. Word of God/Son of God where there is no suitable word for the in English. Some have been reluctant The fifth key is finding an appropri- concept of non-biological son), to coin to use it in Bible translation, fearing ate way to express the terms “Word of a term to help bring out the figura- it will convey an incorrect under- God” and “Son of God”. The expres- tive or metaphorical dimension of the standing of God. However, like Isa, sion “Word of God” (kalimat Allah) title, using phrases like “the Spiritual Christians were using the term Allah in reference to Jesus is found in the Son of God” or “the Beloved son who long before the birth of Muhammad, Qur’an (e.g. Sura Al Imran (3) 44/39; comes from God.” Still others have and it has a very long history of being An Nisa (4):169/171) and in the New employed the translation practice used for Bible translations throughout Testament (John 1:1 simply “the known as dynamic equivalence,15 the world in Muslim majority com- word”; Rev. 19:13). This expression attempting to convey the actual mean- munities. Major world languages that is very important in that for both ing of the expression “Son of God” have used Allah in all of their transla- Muslims and Christians, albeit in as the original audience may have tions are Arabic, Indonesian, Javanese somewhat different ways, this term understood it two thousand years ago. and Sundanese, and numerous other reflects some of the intimacy and the Such attempts, which are difficult to languages have at least one translation mystery of the relationship between 12 do, have sought to create terms that that uses Allah. Jesus and God. By using kalimat Allah focus on the Messianic sense of the When used in Bible translation, or an equivalent phrase used by the term.16 (Note: often in Scripture “Son Allah is normally chosen to trans- local Muslim population, an important of God” is clearly an alternate term late the Hebrew term elohim (and concept can be more readily grasped. that simply means the Messiah. See its associated terms) and the Greek The title “Son of God” is different Luke 1:32-33; 4:41; Mark 14:61; term theos. A few translations in altogether because the Qur’an states Matt 16:16, 20.) In short, there is no Southeast Asia and a recent Arabic a number of times that God has no easy answer as to how to translate the translation, however, translate both son. However, the Qur’anic term title “Son of God” and each transla- the Hebrew YHWH (Yahweh; the generally used for “son” is an Arabic tion team must wrestle over this easily Tetragrammaton) and elohim as term that can only mean a physical or misunderstood term. Allah. While some choose to restrict biological son and of course, on this 6. Church, Christian, Baptism the use of Allah to translating elohim point, Christians and Muslims agree: and theos, in my opinion the term God, who is Spirit, never physically The sixth key involves discovering the Allah works very well to translate fathered a child. (The phrase “God best way to translate the often socio- YHWH also from the perspective of never begat, nor was he begotten”, is politically religiously-loaded words 13 how Muslims use the term Allah. a phrase most Muslims have grown “church”, “Christian” and “baptism.” If however Allah is used for both up with.) In light of all this, how can These three terms often carry much unnecessary socio-political and terms, there are a few special consid- the Greek huios theou be translated so erations to keep in mind. The first that it conveys the original biblical religious baggage. All three terms is that when YHWH and elohim are intent and yet does not suggest to the have the potential of signaling to the found side by side in the text, another reader that God has a physical son, Muslim that this book (the Taurat, term is needed to differentiate the something which neither Muslims or Zabur, Injil) is not for him or his 14 two Hebrew terms from each other. Christians believe? A number of sug- people, something that is not true. If The second consideration is that in gestions have been put forth. translated without much field testing, cases where elohim is found in the text the term “Church” can be understood in a plural or possessive sense (e.g. If there is a word in the local lan- to be a building used for some kind “the ” or “my God”, “your God”, guage that means son in a figurative of foreign worship, likely from the or metaphorical sense, that might be West. The term “Christian” can be 23:2 Summer 2006 76 Producing and Using Meaningful Translations of the Taurat, Zabur and Injil synonymous with any person, prac- Endnotes 4 Two other lesser objections that arise are that local Muslim leaders may not like tice, or influence from the West and 1 The translation done for Jewish it or that is not etymologically derived can contain shades of imperialism, readers is produced by David H. Stern Isa from the Hebrew which means Western morality (or lack thereof) or (1989, Jewish New Testament Publications: Yeshua, to save. As to the former objection, what the Crusades. The term for “baptism”, Maryland) and is known as The Jewish power local leaders have is an issue each if translated without care, can be seen New Testament. Although it is in English it translation group must work out on the as a final communal rite separating consistently uses Jewish religious vocabu- ground. As to the latter, nearly all scholars one from his family and people. The lary such as Mashiach for Messiah, Ruach agree today that Isa is nothing more than HaKodesh for and Adonai for term used to translate the Greek term a transliteration of the original Hebrew Lord. Likewise, the English Bible portions ekklesia should simply denote a group name for Jesus, that underwent further lin- for those of Islamic heritage use Masih for of people who gather together (not guistic transformation as it passed through Messiah, Allah for God, and Yahya, Ibrahim a foreign institution or a building); the Aramaic-speaking eastern Church (see and for John, Abraham and Mary. footnote five). the term “Christian” should mean This translation uses the New International 5 Professor Philip Hitti of Princeton simply “one who follows Christ (or Reader’s Version Bible as its base text. 17 in his seminal work, History of the Messiah)”; and the term for “bap- 2 Technically the terms Taurat, (1951, Macmillan Company) states on page tism” should communicate an act Zabur, and Injil refer to the (Penta- that is an outward sign of an inward 106 that Syrianized Arabs had introduced spiritual change, rather than a rite of the name Isa for Jesus to the pre-Islamic world. Other scholars who would concur rejection of family and community.18 that Isa is a transliteration from Syrian Christian forms of the name are Geoffrey Closing Thoughts Parrinder (1995, Jesus in the Qur’an, Most of this paper deals with linguis- Oneworld press, p. 16) and Arthur Jeffrey tic matters, yet there are several other Muslims greatly (1938 The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an, factors to consider as well. The first is appreciate beautiful Baroda: Oriental Institute). A number the presentation of the book. Muslims of Muslim scholars also agree with this greatly appreciate beautiful holy holy books. understanding of the origin of the name books, where artistic borders, bright Isa, as do two Western scholar/translators colors and high quality paper and who are very familiar with both Arabic and cover materials are used. Secondly, ancient Syriac, Dr. Jonathan Culver and Dr. the use of Greek or Hebrew may be Rick Brown. 6 Copies of this ancient translation into important due to the Islamic empha- Arabic may be found in the Vatican Library sis on the importance of the original teuch) of , of David and the and in the Leiden University Library. language. A number of translations Gospel of Jesus. As these words are used 7 This translation, printed in 1733, now have Greek either along the edge in the Qur’an, however, it is clear that was carried out by a Dutch clergyman, of the page or shown interlinearly. In they refer to the whole of the Hebrew and Dr. Melchior Leijdecker. His translation one country, a version of the Zabur is Christian Scriptures. principle was to use words already known 3 soon to be published in which the first Several verses in the Qur’an refer by the Muslims of the Malay-Indonesian line of each psalm is accompanied by to corruption occurring in the Bible. The archipelago and to use terms from the the original Hebrew. The third help is debate focuses on whether the written text Arabic Bible for words or names not found itself was altered (Arabic: ) to include maps, glossaries, footnotes al-lafaz in Islamic tradition, such as the names for or whether those who taught it orally to Peter or Matthew. When Henry Martyn and introductions to explain terms others did not pronounce it clearly, teach it or give background information that translated the New Testament into Urdu, he accurately or share the meaning completely used the names as they are known in that may be helpful. (Arabic: tahrif al-ma’na). Most Muslim language, including Îsa, but the Bible Society scholars today, though certainly not all, Finally, if possible, it is good to later changed the names to sound more like involve Muslims in the translation contend that the words themselves have Greek, resulting in Yisû. 8 team. Once they have understood changed. Yet a number of historically These translations are found in South prominent Muslim scholars including Thailand, the Southern Philippines, Malay- the concepts being communicated, al-Tabari, al-Bukhari, Ibn Khaldun and they are the ones who will best know sia and the islands of Indonesia. Sayyid Khan, have held to the 9 The translation entitled The Message how to communicate this message to alternative opinion, namely that the text is by Eugene Peterson has not used Lord in their own communities. While some sound but misunderstood. The most recent reference to Jesus but rather the “Master”, Muslim friends and neighbors may Muslim scholar to state that the Bible in presumably feeling that this term reflects feel it is actually wrong or polluting to its present form is uncorrupted is Abdul- well in modern English the meaning of the read the Taurat, Zabur, Injil, there are lah Saeed of the University of Melbourne Greek kurios. many who long to read the inspired in Australia (see his article “The Charge 10 One of the most blatant examples words of Moses, David, Jesus and of Distortion of Jewish and Christian of this is the standard Indonesian church other servants of the Lord. IJFM Scriptures” in The Muslim World, volume Bible, which uses the word Tuhan as the 92, Fall edition, 2002). primary term for kurios in reference to Jesus. Although the term is etymologically International Journal of Frontier Missions John Travis 77 related to the word tuan (which means lord, to coin a term or phrase that will evoke in master or sir) the word Tuhan refers only the mind of the present day reader a message to God. Generally what an Indonesian or meaning similar to what a listener in the Muslim hears when one says Tuhan Yesus original audience would likely have heard in is “God Jesus.” Some pre-1733 Scripture ancient times in the original language. portions in Malay-Indonesian did however 16 Rick Brown has written extensively use tuan as the primary term for kurios in on this topic. See his recent two part article reference to Jesus. entitled “Translating the Biblical Term 11 If a term is found, like Lord in ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts”, English, it is preferable. Some languages International Journal of Frontier Missions, have terms that can be equally used for all 22/3 and 22/4 (2005). males as well as for God (such as the Span- 17 In all Muslim lands there is a word ish señor); other languages have a term used used for the Greek christianos. The word is only for kings or great leaders as well as normally some form of the terms Nasrani, for God (such as the Javanese Gusti). The Masehi, Isawi, or Kristen. In all cases, the Arabic term Rabb is problematic. Techni- term carries much misunderstanding and cally it can be (or historically could have negative connotation. In the Greek, the been) used for both human lords and the term simply means “Christ follower.” Along Lord (in the divine sense), but functionally these lines, the 2005 edition of the Easy-to- today it really only carries the divine sense. Read Holy Bible (World Bible Translation 12 In addition to the four languages Center, Inc., Fort Worth, Texas) trans- mentioned in the text, translations I lates the term christianos (e.g. Acts 11:26) know of personally that have at least one as simply “Christ followers” rather than translation using Allah are Turkish, Urdu, “Christians” for this very reason (personal Malay, and virtually every Bible transla- communication with the publisher). tion in the many islands and people groups 18 A term like “washing for the of Indonesia. In addition, Ken Thomas of forgiveness of sins” or “washing as a sign UBS (2001 Allah in the Translation of the of repentance” or “immersion as symbol of Bible, The Bible Translator 52(3):301-306) unity with Isa” or just “immersion” might reports that Bambara, Fulfulde Hausa, and be appropriate. There may also be a local Mankinka in Africa and Azarbaijani in the term for a symbolic cleansing with water Middle East also use Allah. that would be appropriate. The problem 13 First, the Semitic Hebrew concept with using a transliteration of the Greek of YHWH and the Semitic Arabic concept baptizo (such as the English “baptize”), or of Allah in terms of creative power, divine even the local word used by the minority essence and attributes are strikingly parallel. Christian population, is that it likely does Second, neither Allah nor YHWH can be not convey the simple sense of repentance expressed in a plural or a possessive sense. and forgiveness that the word did to the Third, both Allah and YHWH, by Mus- original audience (e.g. Acts 2: 40-41; lims and Jews respectively, are functionally 16:33). Rather the term used by the local viewed as names. In the words of H.A.R. church is likely to have a social/communal Gibbs, the Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam connotation, associated with rejection or (1961, E.J. Brill: Leiden, The Netherlands, separation from one’s family and com- page 34) states: munity. While baptism may cause such a Allah, therefore, is the proper name of reaction, it is prudent to find a more neutral God among Muslims. It corresponds term that does not automatically evoke to Yahweh among the Hebrews. No negative feelings. plural can be formed from it. To express “gods”, the Muslim must fall back upon the plural of ilah, the common noun from which [the name] Allah is probably derived. 14 When the terms YHWH and Elohim stand alone in the text, they can be differen- tiated by using capital letters if the transla- tors feel it is important to be able to indicate the actual Hebrew words. 15 “Dynamic equivalence” in Bible translation is an attempt to communicate a difficult term or expression through the communication of the meaning of the term, not necessarily the actual words, word for word (i.e. a literal translation). The hope is 23:2 Summer 2006