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Unveiling the Defect Structure of Lithium Niobate with Nuclear Methods

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Unveiling the Defect Structure of Lithium Niobate with Nuclear Methods crystals Review Unveiling the Defect Structure of Lithium Niobate with Nuclear Methods Andreas Kling * and José G. Marques Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, km 139.7, P-2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +351-219-946-154 Abstract: X-ray and neutron diffraction studies succeeded in the 1960s to determine the principal structural properties of congruent lithium niobate. However, the nature of the intrinsic defects related to the non-stoichiometry of this material remained an object of controversial discussion. In addition, the incorporation mechanism for dopants in the crystal lattice, showing a solubility range from about 0.1 mol% for rare earths to 9 mol% for some elements (e.g., Ti and Mg), stayed unresolved. Various different models for the formation of these defect structures were developed and required experimental verification. In this paper, we review the outstanding role of nuclear physics based methods in the process of unveiling the kind of intrinsic defects formed in congruent lithium niobate and the rules governing the incorporation of dopants. Complementary results in the isostructural compound lithium tantalate are reviewed for the case of the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition. We focus especially on the use of ion beam analysis under channeling conditions for the direct determination of dopant lattice sites and intrinsic defects and on Perturbed Angular Correlation measurements probing the local environment of dopants in the host lattice yielding independent and complementary information. Citation: Kling, A.; Marques, J.G. Unveiling the Defect Structure of Keywords: lithium niobate; intrinsic defects; extrinsic defects; lattice location; radiation damage; ion Lithium Niobate with Nuclear beam analysis; hyperfine interactions Methods. Crystals 2021, 11, 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/ cryst11050501 1. Introduction Academic Editors: Gábor Corradi and László Kovács Present opto-electronic and future quantum-process based communication technolo- gies rely strongly on optical materials with their inherent or artificially modified properties. Received: 31 March 2021 Lithium niobate (LiNbO3, henceforth abbreviated LN) is one of the materials that has Accepted: 21 April 2021 drawn most attention in this process. Its excellent linear and non-linear optical properties, Published: 2 May 2021 facility to form waveguide using a variety of methods, ability to incorporate optically active dopants and the applications based on periodically poled crystals make it a favorite target Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral for basic and applied research [1–4]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in In order to achieve the modification of its properties with a certain goal in mind, the published maps and institutional affil- basic properties of LN have to be understood. Among them, the intrinsic defect structure of iations. the congruent lithium-deficient crystals in comparison to stoichiometric ones, phenomena related with the phase ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition, incorporation of dopants and their interaction with the lattice and lattice damage production and removal are topics for fundamental research fostering future application directed research. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Methods based on nuclear techniques played and will play an important role in Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. materials research. Their application can clarify or—in combination with other methods— This article is an open access article assist to clarify the topics mentioned in the preceding paragraph. While ion beam analysis distributed under the terms and methods are ideal for research on composition as well as lattice defect concentration and conditions of the Creative Commons distribution, hyperfine interaction methods can yield complementary information on local Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// environments in the lattice and dopant charge states. As will be demonstrated in the course creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of this review the combination of several of these techniques can unveil the nature of 4.0/). Crystals 2021, 11, 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11050501 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 57 Crystals 2021, 11, 501 environments in the lattice and dopant charge states. As will be demonstrated in the2 of 55 course of this review the combination of several of these techniques can unveil the nature of defects in LN. For illustration, Figure 1 shows a “periodic table of elements” for which nucleardefects techniques in LN. For have illustration, been applied Figure in the1 shows case of a LN. “periodic table of elements” for which nuclear techniques have been applied in the case of LN. Figure 1. “Periodic table of elements” in LN for which one or several nuclear techniques have Figurebeen 1. applied“Periodic in table the investigationof elements” ofin LN their for properties. which one IBA—Ionor several Beamnuclear Analysis, techniques PAC—Perturbed have been appliedAngular in the Correlation, investigation NMR—Nuclear of their properties Magnetic. IBA—Ion Resonance, Beam NQR—NuclearAnalysis, PAC—Perturbed Quadrupole Angular Resonance, Correlation,ME—Mössbauer NMR—Nuclear Effect. Magnetic Resonance, NQR—Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance, ME— Mössbauer Effect. 2. Short Overview on Nuclear Methods for Materials Research 2. Short TheOverview nuclear on techniques Nuclear Methods addressed for in Materials this review Research are characterized shortly indicating someThe nuclear peculiarities techniques with regard addressed to their in this application review are in characterized research on LN. shortly References indicating to gen- someeral peculiarities introductory with books regard and reviewsto their forapplication further in in depth research study on are LN. supplied References for each to of generalthe methods. introductory books and reviews for further in depth study are supplied for each of the methods. 2.1. Ion Beam Analysis 2.1. Ion BeamIon beam Analysis analysis is a group of nuclear methods that are based on the interaction of energetic ion beams (typically few keV to tens of MeV) with materials [5–8]. Its main Ion beam analysis is a group of nuclear methods that are based on the interaction of applications are: energetic ion beams (typically few keV to tens of MeV) with materials [5–8]. Its main • applicationsComposition are: determination in bulk materials, surface layers and multilayer systems. Some of the methods attain a depth resolution down to sub-monolayer range; • • CompositionDetection anddetermination quantitation in ofbulk lattice materials, damage surface in monocrystalline layers and multilayer materials systems. with high Somedepth of the resolution methods up attain to a fewa depthµm fromresolution the surface; down to sub-monolayer range; • • DetectionCharacterization and quantitation of intrinsic of lattice and extrinsicdamage in defects monocrystalline in terms of latticematerials site with location high and depthdefect resolution type. up to a few μm from the surface; • Characterization of intrinsic and extrinsic defects in terms of lattice site location and The basic ion beam analysis methods applied in LN are Rutherford Backscattering defect type. Spectrometry (RBS) and Resonant Elastic Scattering (RES) [9], Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA)The basic [10], Particleion beam Induced analysis X-ray methods Emission applied (PIXE) in [LN11], are Channeling Rutherford (C) [Backscattering12,13], Secondary SpectrometryIon Mass Spectroscopy (RBS) and Resonant (SIMS) [Elastic14], Elastic Scattering Recoil (RES) Detection [9], Nuclear (ERD) and Reaction Heavy Analysis Ion Elastic (NRA)Recoil [10], Detection Particle (HIERD) Induced [15 ,X-ray16]. Emission (PIXE) [11], Channeling (C) [12,13], SecondaryRBS Ion relies Mass on Spectroscopy elastic backscattering (SIMS) [14] of the, Elastic incoming Recoil ions Detection by the target (ERD) atoms. and Heavy Its origins Ioncan Elastic be traced Recoilback Detect toion the (HIERD) 1909 experiments [15,16]. performed by Geiger and Marsden [17] which ledRBS to therelies first on modern elastic modelbackscattering of the atom. of th Thee incoming energy spectra ions by of the backscattered target atoms. light Its ions origins(protons, can be He traced+ and back He++ to) inthe the 1909 MeV experiments range provide performed information by Geiger on the and composition Marsden [17] of the whichmaterial led to and the itsfirst depth modern dependence model of up the to at severalom. Theµ menergy into the spectra bulk. of Since backscattered the backscattering light ionsyield (protons, is proportional He+ and He to++) the in the square MeV of range the target provide atomic information number, on this the method composition works of best the formaterial targets and composed its depth of heavy dependence elements. up Therefore, to several lighter μm elements into the in bulk. heavy Since matrices the are often difficult or only indirectly determinable while the method excels in the detection of small quantities of heavy elements in light targets. Further, the difference in the maximum Crystals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 57 backscattering yield is proportional to the square of the target atomic number, this method works best for targets composed of heavy elements. Therefore, lighter elements in heavy Crystals 2021, 11, 501 matrices are often difficult
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