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Storia Delle Tecnologie Dell'informatica

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Storia Delle Tecnologie Dell'informatica 1 Storia delle tecnologie dell’informatica Il minicomputer Carlo Spinedi 31 marzo 2017 C.Spinedi 2 Che cosa è un minicomputer (midrange computer) ? • Generazione di computer introdotta partire all’inizio degli anni ’60 • Da una definizione del 1970: – computer a “basso costo < 25’000 $”(di allora) … ma poi sono stati costruiti minicomputer da 500’000 $ ! – computer interattivo: l’utente ha il controllo dell’avanzamento programma • Si contrappone al mainframe diffuso durante gli anni ’50 – costo dell’ ordine di milioni di dollari – esecuzione dei programmi in batch (a lotti) • Programmabile con linguaggi ad alto livello (Fortran, Basic, …) • Usato all’inizio sovente per il controllo di processi, switch di comunicazione, … • assemblati talvolta con componenti di produttori diversi, specialmente per quanto riguarda i dispositivi periferici. 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 3 Primi computer interattivi sperimentali • 1956 : TX-0 (Transistorized Experimental computer zero) – Sviluppato al Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – Processore a 16 bit, 3600 transistor – Core memory – Display 12” (oscilloscopio), 512 x 512 punti – Nessun sistema operativo Video 1: 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 4 Primi minicomputer commercializzati • 1959: DEC PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor) – derivato dal TX-2, [Ken Olsen (1926-2011) Digital Equipement Corporation] – nel 1961 fu programmato il primo gioco elettronico: le guerre stellari – costo del computer: 120’000$ (950’000 odierni). – venduti: 53 fino al 1969 negli USA. – 3 sono conservati presso il Computer Hystory Museum, Mountain View (CA) Video 1: 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 5 PDP-1: caratteristiche • completamente transistorizzato • processore a 18 bit, aritmetica binaria • core memory: 4096 parole di 18 bit • ciclo di clock: 5 microsecondi (ms) • add, subtract, deposit, load: durano 10 ms • 100’000 addizioni /secondo • moltiplicazioni (325 ms) e divisioni (440 ms) software • moltiplicazioni (25 ms) e divisioni (40 ms) «automatizzate» opzionali • Periferiche: – Telescrivente alfanumerica, – lettore/scrittore di nastri di carta – display grafico da 16”, 1024x1024 punti indirizzabili – penna ottica – nastro magnetico 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 6 PDP-1: BRPE teletype tape punch machine 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 7 PDP-1: periferiche 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 8 PDP-1: core memory 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 9 PDP-1: programmazione • Istruzioni (18 bit) a indirizzo singolo – 5 bit: codice istruzione (shift, rotate, skip, operate, add, subtract, deposit, load, …) – 1 bit: indirizzamento indiretto – 12 bit indirizzo memoria • Software di base: DECAL (compiler, assembler, linker, loader) 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 10 PDP-2 ... PDP-7 : un frenetico sviluppo dal 1960 al 1965 • PDP-2: 24 bit, progettato, ma non realizzato • PDP-3: 36 bit, progettato, realizzato prototipo, ma non prodotto • PDP-4: 18 bit, venduto con poco successo dal 1962 a 65’000 $ (54 unità) • PDP-5: 12 bit, 1963-1967, venduti 116 esemplari a 27’000 $ • PDP-6: 36 bit, dal 1964, venduti 23 esemplari a 300’000 $ – sistema operativo time sharing – sopranominato internamente «big iron» – vinceva sempre i test contro i sistemi IBM 360 e 370 orientati al batch – Introduce un nuovo set di istruzioni usato più tardi nei DECSYSTEM-10/20 • PDP-7:18 bit, dal 1965, venduto a 72’000 $ – Utilizzato per lo sviluppo di MUMPS (M-database) • Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System – Ritenuto affidabile a sufficienza per il controllo di reattori nucleari – Ken Thomson nel 1969 realizza la prima versione di Unix 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 11 PDP-8: • Introdotto nel 1965 • Prezzo base 18’500 $ • Venduti: più di 50’000 unità • Diversi modelli che si differenziano per le tecnologie usate (PDP-8, PDP-8/S, PDP-8/L, PDP-8/e, PDP-8/A, …) • Molta informazione disponibile: www.pdp8.net • Simulatori: http://vandermark.ch/pdp8/index.php?n=PDP8.Emulator 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 12 PDP-8/e: Video Video 31/03/2017 Video C.Spinedi 13 PDP-8: backplane 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 14 PDP-8: moduli 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 15 PDP-8: • Processore a 12 bit • Diverse versioni – PDP/8 (Straight-8) a transistor, dal1965: venduti 1450 esemplari a 18000 $ – PDP-8/s a transistor, dal 1966 al 1970: venduti 1024 a 10’000 $ • clock: 10 ms – PDP-8/I TTL, dal 1968 al 1971: venduti 3698 a 12’800 $ – PDP-8/L TTL, dal 1968 al 1971: venduti 3901 a 8’500 $ – PDP-8/e TTL, dal 1971 al 1978: venduti >10000 a 6’500 $ • MSI (Medium Scale Integration), Omnibus – PDP-8/f MSI, Omnibus, 1972-1978: venduti >10000 a <5’000 $ – PDP-8/m come /f , versione OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) – PDP-8/a : LSI, Omnibus, 1974-~1984: venduti >10’000 a 1’317 $ • clock: 1.2 ms 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 16 Computer “personali”derivati dal PDP-8 • VT78: 1978-1980, venduti a 7’995 $ – Contiene mpr. Intersil 6100 che emula PDP-8 • DECmate I 1980-1984 – Contiene mpr. Harris 6120 a 12 bit, che riconosce le istruzioni del PDP-8 • DECmate II 1982-1986 – Contiene mpr. Harris 6120, venduto a 1’435 $ • DECmate III 1984-1990 – Contiene mpr. Harris 6120, venduto a 2’695 $ • DECmate III+ 1985-1990 – Contiene mpr. Harris 6120 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 17 Computer “personali”derivati dal PDP-8 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 18 Il software del PDP-8 • I primi PDP-8 non avevano nessun sistema operativo • Il primo e talvolta l’unico dispositivo periferico era una teletype • Opzionalmente era disponibile un sistema save/restore su DECtape • Si aveva a disposizione: – l’ editore di testo – Il compilatore per macro assembler • La sequenza più semplice per produrre un programma era: 1. Editare il sorgente 2. Salvare il sorgente su nastro di carta perforato 3. Caricare il compilatore da nastro perforato 4. Caricare il sorgente da nastro perforato 5. Compilare 6. Salvare il file binario su nastro perforato 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 19 I sistemi operativi del PDP-8 • 196X: 4K DMS Disk Monitor System • 1966: MS/8 Monitor System • 1971: PS/8 Programming System • 1971: OS/8 Operating System – OS/8 è in verità PS/8 rinominato per ragioni commerciali Altri sistemi operativi: • TSS-8 Time Sharing System – Contiene diversi monitor • RMON (Resident ), DMON (Disk), KMON (Keyboard) • ETOS Educomp Timesharing OS – È una vera macchina virtuale. Fino a 16 utenti possono usare un PDP-8 come se fosse tutto a loro disposizione • OMNI-8 • MULTI-8 • RTS/8 Real-time System • COS-310 Sistema Operativo commerciale 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 20 Il software del PDP-8 Linguaggi di programmazione: • Assembler – MACRO-8, PAL III e PAL 8, MACREL, SABR, RALF, FLAP • FORTRAN • FOCAL (simile a BASIC) • BASIC • DIBOL (concorrente di COBOL) • LISP • SNOBOL (StriNg Oriented SymBOlic Language) Editori di testo • TECO (Tape Editor and Corrector) – Emacs nasce nasce come insieme di macro di TECO 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 21 PDP-9 … PDP-11 • PDP-9 : 18 bit, dal 1966, upgrade del PDP-7, 445 esemplari (35’000 $) – Primo computer microprogrammabile – Read Only Programmable Memory (ROP) • PDP-10: 36 bit, dal 1967, upgrade del PDP-6, ~700 esemplari (110’000 $) – Sistema operativo time-sharing TOPS-10 (Total Operating System-10) – Piattaforma di sviluppo di • ARPANET (precursore di Internet) • EMACS • Tex • Ispell • PDP-11: 16 bit, dal 1970 fino al 1990, > 600’000 esemplari 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 22 PDP-11 • Architettura e set di istruzioni invariati durante 20 anni • Può lavorare in user mode, kernel mode o supervisor mode • Alcune opzioni: – Extended Instruction Set (EIS) (opzione per /03, /35, /40, poi standard) – Floating Instruction Set (FIS) (opzione /03, /35, /40, poi standard) – Floating Point Processor (FPP) (opzione per diversi modelli) – Commercial Instruction Set (CIS) (opzione per /23, /24, /44, /74) • Implementazione con diverse tecnologie: TTl, LSI, VLSI • Diversi BUS (UNIBUS, MASSBUS, QBUS) – Documentazione esaustiva per la realizzazione di controllori di periferici • Memory management fino a 4 MB • Ha ispirato successive architetture – VAX – Motorola 6800 • Copiosa documentazione, gruppi d’interesse a livello nazionale/internazionale 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 23 PDP-11/ • 1970: /15, /20 U* 16 TTL switch register (sr) • 1972: /40, /45, /05, /10 U 18 TTL sr • 1973: /35 U, TTL sr • 1975: /70 U 22, M**, TTL KB11-B sr /03 Q*** 16, LSI LSI-11 serial console interface (sli) • 1976: /50, /55, /34, /04 U, TTL KB-11,KB-11-D sr / keypad panel /2 Q16, LSI KD11-H sli • 1977: /60, /34A U 22 TTL keypad panel • 1979: /44 U, TTL sli /23 Q18/22, LSI KDF11-A sli • 1980: /24 U VLSI sli • 1981: /23+ Q 22, VLSI, KDF11-B sli integrata • 1984: /73 Q 22, VLSI KDJ11-A, o B 15 MHz nel B sli integrata • 1987: /53 Q 22 VLSI KDJ11-D, 15 MHz sli • 1988: /84 U VLSI KDJ11-B, 18 MHz sli /83 Q 22 VLSI KDJ11-B, 18 MHz sli • 1990: /94 U VLSI KDJ11-E, 18 MHz sli, UNIBUS Adapter /93 Q 22 VLSI KDJ11-E, 18 MHz sli *UNIBUS, **MASSBUS,***QBUS 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 24 PDP-11: Sistemi operativi • DOS-11 (1970) • RT-11 (1973) – monoutente, alcuni monitor (Single Job, Foreground/Background) • RSTS-11 (Resource Sharing Time Sharing O.S.) (1973) • RSX-11 (Resource Sharing eXecutive O.S) (1972) – Diverse varianti /D, /M (multiuser), /M+ – La variante /M è stata progettata da David Cutler – Predecessore di VMS, a sua volta predecessore di Windows NT, progettati pure entrambi da D.Cutler • Unix – La prima versione di Unix uscita dai Bell Lab’s nel 1975 (V6) fu scritta su un PDP-11/20 – Anche Unix V7, rilasciato nel 1979, fu scritto su un PDP-11 31/03/2017 C.Spinedi 25 PDP-11: Sistema operativo (s.o.) RSX11/M RSX11/M+ • s.o. real-time • scheduler dei processi basato su priorità e quanto di tempo • s.o. multitasking / multiuser • File system con gestione permessi • Per i programmi l’indirizzamento è limitato a 64 KB (16 bit).
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