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Carl Jay Bajema is professor and Selection of at Grand Valley State College, Allendale, MI 49401. He teaches introducto- ry biology, , as a Cause of human , and human sexuality in the Department *- x *l of Biology, and a course on / the Darwinian revolution in Adaptive the History of program. Bajemaeamed a Ph.D. in zoolo- gy from Michigan State Univ. in 1963. Bajemahas served as Sen- ior Population Council Fellow in demography and population ge- netics at the Uiiiv. of Chicago (1966-1967);as researchassociate in population studies at HarvardUniv. (1967-1972);as researchasso- ciate in biology at the Univ. of California, Santa Barbara(1974); at Har- and most recently as visiting professor of Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 vard Univ. (1974-1975).His research interests have concentrated 1 837-1 859 on estimating the direction and intensity of naturalselection espe- cially in and on the history of ideas on evolution. He is coauthor of an introductory college biology textbook. Ba- CarlJay Bajema jema has edited four volumes of benchmarkpapers.

Charles Darwin triggered a in win (1958 p. 68) wrote that these two books "stirred 1859 when he contended that have under- up in me a burning zeal to add even the most hum- gone "descent with modification"-evolution, and ble contribution to the noble of science." that selection operating on heritable variations in in- Darwin's enthusiasm for science was cultivated by dividuals was the primary cause of adaptive evolu- Professor Henslow who made arrangements for Dar- tion. Valuable knowledge can be gained about the win to accompany the on processes of scientific discovery and the justification a 1831 field trip to . Sedgwick's views on sci- of scientific theories by studying the methodologies ence led Darwin (1958 p. 70) to conclude that "sci- employed by in his search for the ence consists in grouping facts so that general laws causes of evolution and in his subsequent advocacy or conclusions may be drawn from them." and defense of adaptive evolution by selection theo- ry. Charles Darwin's personal scientific diaries, The Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle notebooks, correspondence, and publications have enabled scholars to reconstruct much of the logic and the Impactof CharlesLyell Charles Darwin employed to solve scientific prob- Charles Darwin accepted an opportunity to serve lems. as a naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle and took the first volume of 's recently published Darwin'sFormal and InformalEducation Principlesof Geologyalong on the voyage. Lyell used Charles Darwin's interest in dates the uniformity of causes principle-the theory that back to his childhood passion for collecting spec- present causes now in operation are sufficient to ex- imens of rocks, insects, birds, and other species. plain past changes-to scientifically interpret the Darwin learned how to collect, preserve and de- geological history of the earth. Darwin concluded scribe species scientifically while he was a student that Lyell's naturalistic uniformity of causes princi- studying at . While Darwin ple rather than geological provided studied for the ministry at , he pursued the best theory for interpreting the geological obser- his interest in natural history with John Henslow, vations that Darwin was making on the voyage professor of . Darwin also read the works of (Darwin 1958 p. 77). The tremendous impact that Bishop Paley including NaturalTheology which cham- Lyell's uniformity of causes scientific problem solv- pioned the religious argument from design (adapta- ing method had on Darwin's thinking was empha- tion) in to the existence and attributes of sized by Darwin in an 1844 letter: God. ... the whole merit of the Principleswas that it al- During his last year at Cambridge, Charles Dar- tered the whole tone of one's mind and, therefore, win read 's 1830 book on the philoso- that when seeing a thing never seen by Lyell, one yet saw it partially though his eyes [and confessed that] I phy of science, A PreliminaryDiscourse on the Studyof always feel as if my books came half out of Sir Natural Philosophyand 's Charles Lyell's brain . .. (Darwin and Seward 1903, PersonalNarrative of Travels.In his AutobiographyDar- II, p. 117).

226 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 47, NO. 4, APRIL 1985 The impact of Charles Lyell on the biological ideas including those that led him to construct his theory Charles Darwin explored while on the voyage has of "descent with modification" by natural, sexual, been analyzed by Hodge (1983). and artificialselection. In his Autobiography,Charles Charles Darwin made field observations and col- Darwin (1958 p. 119) contended that when he was lected the remains of extinct species in trying to identify the natural processes which gener- addition to capturing and preserving specimens of ated evolution he "worked on true Baconian princi- numerous contemporary species during his many ples [inductive logic], and without any theory col- expeditions in and the Galapagos Is- lected facts on a wholesale scale, more especially lands. The geological and biogeographical observa- with respect to domesticated productions . . tions which Darwin made while on the voyage con- However, the scholars who have analyzed the con- cerning the distribution of species through time and tents of Darwin's four Notebookson Transmutation space ultimately led young Darwin to seriously have concluded that, contrary to his recollection, question the religious doctrine of separate creations Darwin employed and tested a number of theories and to begin testing the deductions of the theory in his search for the natural processes generating that contemporary species are the products of evolu- evolution (Gruber 1974; Schweber 1977; Kohn 1980). tion. However, Darwin did not begin thinking of Darwin even made an entry in his NotebookD stating species as the products of evolution while he ex- that he was employing deductive logic to test the Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 plored the Galapagos 150 years ago (Sept 16- theories of evolution he was considering: Oct 20, 1835) (Sulloway 1982a, 1982b; Mayr 1982; The line of argumentoften pursuedthroughout my Gould 1984). theoryis to establisha point as a probabilityby in- Soon after his return to , Darwin loaned duction,& to apply it as hypothesesto otherpoints, his collections of birds and to other scien- & see whetherit will solve them (Darwin[1838], p. tists to study, and concentrated on writing up the D117). of the voyage of the HMS Beagle. The com- Charles Lyell's comprehensive review of the argu- parative anatomist concluded that ments for and against the virtually all of Darwin's fossil mammals were extinct in the first and subsequent editions of ThePrinciples larger versions of the smaller mammals-llamas, of Geologywhich Darwin read for a second time dur- sloths, -that presently inhabit South ing the Spring of 1837 provided young Darwin with America. The ornithologist informed numerous theories to test. Darwin's notebooks are Darwin in March 1838 that virtually all the Ga- full of deductions from theories that he tested lapagos Islands land birds in Darwin's collection against observations made by others or by himself. were found only in the Galapagos; their closest rela- Ratherthan working solely by induction Darwin em- tives were found in South America. Gould also told ployed "multiple working hypotheses" in his search Darwin that the Galapagos Islands con- for the natural processes that cause adaptive evolu- stituted an unique which also included two tion. Darwin tested and rejected such theories as the species-a "" and an "oriole" that Darwin had production of by the "willing" of - mistakenly identified as representatives of species isms and the of a species being fixed and analo- they appeared to mimic (Sulloway 1984). gous to the life cycle of an individual . Lyell also made Darwin acutely aware of the Searchingfor the NaturalCauses of Evolution "" as a force in nature by championing its importance as a cause of the extinc- The expert judgments of Gould and Owen con- tion of many species. However, Lyell rejectedevolu- cerning the taxonomic relationships of Darwin's tion primarilybecause he was unable to identify any specimens triggered a revolution in Darwin's think- cause now acting that was powerful enough to have ing leading him to consider seriously the possibility brought about evolution. that species have undergone descent with modifica- tion from common ancestors. This led Darwin to re- Analogy Between ArtificialSelection cord a few ideas concerning in his Red and NaturalSelection Notebook(Darwin 1980), and to open a series of Note- bookson Transmutationof Species(Darwin 1960-67)in Nonetheless it was Charles Lyell who started which he recorded "any facts that might bear on the young Darwin on the pathway to scientific discovery question." of selection as a powerful cause of adaptive evolu- The entries that Charles Darwin made in his trans- tion. Lyell drew Darwin's attention to a possible notebooks between July 1837 and June analogy between the of domesti- 1839 have enabled scholars to reconstruct many of cated species and processes operating in nature: the intellectual ideas Darwin explored in his search The best authenticated examples of the extent to for the causes of and of species which species can be made to vary, may be looked

CHARLES DARWIN & SELECTION 227 for in the historyof domesticatedanimals and culti- marized Comte's contention that scientists possess a vated .... [and] that, in perfecting the arts of powerful instrument of investigation, the: domesticatedanimals and cultivatedplants, mankind havefirst selected those specieswhich have the most . . . experiment, by means of which we observe flexibleframes and constitutions,and have then been bodies out of their naturalstate; by placingthem in engaged for ages in conducting a series of experi- artificialaspects and conditionscontrived for the pur- ments . . . to ascertainwhat may be the greatest pos- pose of exhibitingto us, under the most favourable sible deviation from a common type . . . (Lyell 1832, circumstances,their phenomena and theirproperties II,p. 26;1837, II, pp. 392-393). (Anonymous1838, p. 303). Lyell's views on the value of studying the selec- This passage helped Darwin to refocus his thinking tive breeding of domesticated species led Darwin to on the analogy between the selective breeding of do- begin collecting: mesticated species (experiment) and processes oc- curring in the rest of nature. Second, the reviewer ... factson a wholesale scale, moreespecially with stressed that Comte attached great importance to respectto domesticatedproductions, by printeden- "numerical verification" which was "an quiries,by conversationwith skillful breedersand indispens- gardeners,and by extensivereading ... I soon per- able criterion . . . of every hypothesis" in the most ceivedthat selectionwas the keystoneof man'ssuc- positive (scientific) of all the , cess in makinguseful races of animalsand plants. (Anonymous 1838, p. 299). In an effort to make the Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 Buthow selectioncould be appliedto organismsliv- transmutation theory he was trying to construct as ing in a stateof natureremained for sometimea mys- scientific as the in teryto me. (Darwin1958, pp. 119-120) theories and astronomy, Darwin adopted this criterion which had been advo- and animal breeders helped focus Darwin's at- cated previously by the philosopher of science tention on the importance and extent of variation Herschel (1830) and began searching for "numerical among individual . Darwin came to the verificiation." conclusion that while habits, use and disuse, and the direct effect of the environment (food, climate) Selection a PowerfulForce in Nature produced variation that was adaptive, such variation Darwin's search for quantitative statements led was extremely rare compared to undirected variation him to read a review of the statistical work of Ad- which appears at birth or soon afterward. Particular olphe Quetelet which drew Darwin's attention to undirected individual variations were selectively the quantitative statements that Thomas Malthus multiplied by breeders to produce new races of do- had published on population. Darwin then began mesticated organisms. Darwin had his emerging be- reading the sixth edition (1826) of Malthus' Essayon lief in undirected and thus unlimited variation rein- the Principleof Population,not merely for forced one week before he had his Malthusian as he recalled 40 years later in his Autobiography(p. insight when he visited Loddiges gardens where 120) but as part of his scientific search for the causes 1,279 varieties of roses were growing. of transmutation. Charles Darwin was finally able to One pamphlet on selective breeding that Darwin conceive of selection in nature as a force powerful read during the first part of 1838 briefly drew an enough to produce adaptive evolution when he read analogy between the selective breeding of domesti- the first chapter. There he read Malthus' summary cated and selection operating in the rest of of BenjaminFranklin's views on "the constant tend- nature, giving examples of what Darwin was later to ency of all animated life to increase beyond nourish- classify as and ment," and on the amount of time it took for the (Ruse 1975; Bajema 1982). Darwin responded by North American British colonial population to dou- making the following entry in his NotebookC: ble in numbers in the absence of immigration. In re- . . . excellentobservations of sickly offspringbeing sponse to reading one sentence of Malthus' summa- cut off so that not propagated by nature . .. and that ry of Franklin's quantitative statement that ". . . the whole art of makingvarieties may be inferredfrom [human] population, when unchecked, goes on dou- the factsstated (Darwin [1838], p. C133). bling itself every twenty-five years, or increases in a geometric ratio" (Malthus 1826, p. 6, reprinted in Importanceof MathematicalThinking Bajema 1983), Darwin wrote the following entry in The final intellectual steps that Charles Darwin his NotebookD on September 28, 1838: took in constructing his theory of adaptive evolution We ought to be far from wondering of changes in by selection operating on heritable variations appear numbersof species, from smallchanges in natureof to have been greatly influenced in two crucial ways locality. Even the energetic of Decandolle by the French social philosopher August Comte as does not convey the warring of the species as in- ference from Maithus-increase of brutes must be the result of a book review Darwin read in August preventedsolely by positive checks, exceptingthat 1838 (Schweber 1977, 1979). First, the reviewer sum- famine may stop desire.-in nature production does

228 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 47, NO. 4, APRIL 1985 not increase,whilst no checkprevail, but the positive life (Bajema 1983). We think of Carolus Linnaeus checkof famine& consequentlydeath. I do not doubt when we think of binomial and Charles every one till he thinks deeply has assumedthat in- Darwin when we think of selection theory because creaseof animalsexactly proportionate to the number that can live.-Population is increasedat geometricratio "we give credit for an idea not to the first man to in FAR SHORTERtime than 25 years-yet until the one have it, but to the first one who takes it seriously" sentenceof Malthusno one clearlyperceived the great check (Whitehead n.d.). amongstmen. [italicsadded] Take Europe on an aver- age everyspecies must have samenumber killed year The Logic of Scientific with yearby hawks,by cold &c.-even one speciesof Justification hawk decreasingin numbermust affectinstantane- Philosophers of science continued to influence ously all the rest. One may say thereis a forcelike a Charles Darwin's thinking as he thousand wedges trying [to] force every kind of began exploring the adapted structureinto the gaps in the oeceomony implications of his theory (Ruse 1979; Hull 1973). [economy] of nature, or rather forming gaps by Herschel's 1830 contention that a true cause ("vera thrustingout weakerones (Darwin[1838], pp. D134- causa") could be identified via an empiricist, analo- D135). gical argument from a known cause helped convince Darwin to continue in his efforts to exploit the anal- Darwin added between the lines that "The final

ogy between the selective breeding of domesticated Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 cause [outcome] of all this wedging, must be to sort organisms and the rest of nature. The contention by out proper structure & adapt it to change." (1837) that a rationalist true cause Darwin finally achieved his goal-he had identi- unifies many disparate phenomena encouraged Dar- fied a cause powerful enough to be the primary win to deduce and test the predictions of adaptive cause of adaptive evolution. The power of selection evolution by selection theory against observations ("wedging") was generated by the overproduction made in such diverse fields of biology as , of offspring that greatly intensified the "struggle for behavior, , , , existence." The contribution that Malthus made to and (Fig. 1). the development of Darwin's ideas concerning the The following three examples of Darwin's use of importance of natural selection as an ecological force selectionist logic were chosen because they demon- bringing about "descent with modification" was not strate that: (1) Darwin deduced how selection could the idea of the struggle for existence but rather just bring about the evolution of adaptations that benefit how powerful a force the "struggle for existence" could be in generating selection. The ideas that Charles Darwin explored and re- THELOGIC OF CHARLESDARWIN'S THEORY OF NATURALSELECTION corded in his Notebooks on Transmutation refute the Man s Selective Breeding Overproduction of Offspring Brings About but contention of a number of Marxian historians Descent with Modification Populations are Finite in Size in Domesticated Species

( Young, Marvin Harris, etc.) that Darwin's Deduction scientific discovery involved nothing more than the transfer of the Malthusian social theory about hu- Struggle for Existence Occurs Among man competition to biology (Mayr 1982, pp. Individuals 491-492). Regardless, the of a theory in sci- ence should not depend on whether the theory was Individuals Vary

constructed to solve in the social Deduction originally problems Argument by Analogy to the Rest of W or physical or biological sciences or on who advo- Nature from Those Individuals Having cated the theory. The success of a theory should de- Artificial Selection Favorable Variations are Most Successful in the pend on how well the logical deductions from the Struggle for Existence theory survive tests against observations made in Only the course of experiments or of comparative studies the Successful Individuals Produce Offspring (Popper 1963;Kitcher 1982). and These Offspring The importance of Malthus as a crucial intellectual Inherit Favorable Variations catalyst in generating selectionist thinking should from Their Parents not be underestimated as the ideas of Malthus influ- Induction Deduction enced at least three other scientists-Matthew, Blyth "DESCENTWITH MODIFICATION" and Wallace, each of whom used Malthusian lan- BY NATURALSELECTION guage when they wrote about selection as a force in Deductions nature. While other scientists (Matthew, Blyth, etc.) had Fossil | D eographical | |Comparative I Comparative | Behayior discussed the operation of selection in nature before Record of1 DlsSpectiesn Embryology | Anatomy l oraim Darwin, they did not explore the logical deductions of adaptation by selection theory for the evolution of FIGURE1.

CHARLES DARWIN & SELECTION 229 individuals at the expense of the group/species as for adaptations which were advantageous to the in- well as the evolution of individual adaptations that dividuals possessing them but harmful to certain benefit the of genetic kin; (2) Darwin other members of the species into a separate selec- contended that organisms were relatively rather tive system-sexual selection (Fig. 2) (Bajema 1984). than perfectly adapted to their environments; and In The Descentof Man and Selectionin Relationto Sex, (3) Darwin contrasted the success of selection theory Darwin (1871), I, p. 256) stated that sexual selection in explaining observations with the failure of other "depends on the advantage which certain individu- theories to do so. als have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction" and SexualSelection Theory contends: It is highly probable that Darwin used both induc- The advantages which favoured males have derived tive and hypothetico-deductive-testing logic in con- from conquering other males in battle or courtship, structing his sexual selection theory just as he had and thus leaving a more numerous progeny, have been in the run done earlier with respect to natural selection theory long greater than those derived from rather more perfect adaptation to the external condi- (Ruse 1979, p. 179; Bajema 1984). Sometime before tions of life (Darwin 1871, I, p. 279). 1842, Darwin concluded that some of the causes and Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 consequences of selection were different enough to Success of Selection Theory warrant dividing selection operating in nature into Contrastedwith Failure natural selection (Fig. 1) and sexual selection (Fig. 2). By dividing selection into artificialselection, nat- of AlternativeTheories ural selection, and sexual selection in his 1842 and Darwin also used the argument by analogy from 1844 essays, unpublished during his lifetime (Dar- artificial selection to help solve the problem that win 1909), his 1858 Linnaean Society paper, all six sterile castes of social insects posed for-his theory. editions of TheOrigin of Species,and in both editions Darwin (1859, pp. 237-238) pointed to the success of TheDescent of Man, Darwin was able, first to argue breeders had in using relatives of individuals pos- by analogy from artificial selection-a process al- sessing desirable traits when he contended that se- ready widely known to bring about descent with leciton may be applied to the as well as the modification in domesticated species-to both natu- individual because the hereditary characteristicsof ral and sexual selection. Second, the division of se- the nonreproductive females are carriedby the rela- lection into these three categories enabled Darwin to tives that reproduce. Darwin (1859, p. 242) then partitionthose intraspecific interactions that selected drew attention to the fact that Lamarckiantheories

THE LOGICOF CHARLESDARWIN'S THEORY OF SEXUAL SELECTION

Man's Selective Breeding [ Struggle Among Males Female Choice of Mate for the for Best Fighting Cocks Possession of Females andL Most Beautiful Roosters IL Males Vary wi'thRespect to Males Vary ArgumentArumn by Analogynaog , with "Power to Charm Females" byr with Respect to AtfromaSlcin"Power to Conquer Artificial Selection | Other Males in Battle"

Induction Deduction Deduction

"DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION" BY SEXUAL SELECTION

Deductions

Adaptations Beneficial to the Individual in But Behavior Harmful to Other Members of the and Same Species

FIGURE 2.

230 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 47, NO. 4, APRIL 1985 of evolution cannot explain the evolution of neuter structing and scientifically testing selection as an ec- insects by pointing out that "no amount of exercise, ological process that causes adaptive genetic evolu- or habit or volition, in the utterly sterile members of tion. The hypothetico-deductive-testing strategy that a could possibly have affected the struc- Darwin so consistently used when he applied selec- ture or of the fertile members which alone tionist logic in an attempt to scientificallysolve prob- leave descendants." lems is now championed by many leading practi- Natural selection, according to Darwin (1859, pp. tioners and philosophers of science. Successful 184-186, 471-472), "would occasionally give rise to scientific theories have three very important charac- new species having . . . habits and structure not at teristics-(1) they are testable against empirical evi- all in agreement" because selection is always ready dence; (2) they unify many diverse problems by to adapt a species "to any unoccupied or ill-occupied solving them with the same problem solving strat- place in nature." Darwin gave several examples of egy; and (3) they are fruitful in opening up new di- such species and then pointed out that the existence mensions of scientific investigation. Those three of these species is inexplicable on the basis of each characteristicshave made Charles Darwin's adaptive species being independently designed and sepa- evolution by selection theory a very successful sci- rately created for the place it occupies in nature. ence! Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 The Problemof Variation References When Darwin (1859) advocated and defended Anonymous. (1838). Review of Comte's Coursde philoso- adaptive evolution by selection theory in On the Ori- phiepositive. Edinburgh Review, 67, 271-308. gin of Specieshe employed both inductive arguments Bajema, C. (Ed.). (1982). Artificialselection and thedevelop- mentof evolutionarytheory. Benchmark Papers in System- by analogy to natural and sexual selection from ar- atic and EvolutionaryBiology. Vol. 4. Stroudsburg,Pa.: tificial selection and deductive arguments predicting Hutchinson Ross. consequences from selection theory, which he then Bajema, C.J. (Ed.). (1983). Natural SelectionTheory From tested against empirical evidence (Ruse 1979; GreekSpeculations to the QuantitativeMeasurements of the Ghiselin 1968). Unable to construct an adequate the- Biometricians.Benchmark Papers in Systematic and Evo- lutionary Biology. Vol. 5. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Hutchinson ory of the causes and inheritance of individual varia- Ross. tion to completely eliminate such alternativetheories Bajema, C. (1984). Evolutionby SexualTheory Prior to 1900. of adaptive evolution as the direct effect of the en- BenchmarkPapers in Systematic and EvolutionaryBiol- vironment or use and disuse, Darwin (1859, p. 6) ogy. Vol. 6. New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold. could only conclude that natural selection has been Darwin C. (1859). On the originof speciesby mneansof natural selectionor the preservationof favouredraces in the struggle the most important but not the exclusive means of for life (1st ed.). London: Murray. (Facsimile edition by adaptive evolution. Convinced that evolution pro- HarvardUniversity Press, 1966). ceeded so slowly that it could not be observed di- Darwin, C. (1871). Thedescent of manand selectionin relation rectly and thus proved, and lacking modern statis- to sex, 2 vols. London: Murray. (Facsimile edition, tical methods for quantitatively measuring the PrincetonUniversity Press, 1981). Darwin, C. (1909). Thefoundations of the origin of species: ecological causes and genetic outcomes of selection, Two essays written in 1842 and 1844 (F. Darwin, Ed.). Darwin (1859, pp. 90-95) presented only scien- Cambridge:University Press. tificallybased "imaginaryillustrations" of natural se- Darwin, C. (1958). The autobiographyof CharlesDarwin (N. lection in action. Darwin's ideas concerning varia- Barlow, Ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. tion and the rate at which evolution occurs led him (Original omissions restored, and notes add- ed). to contend that the only fair and legitimate way of Darwin, C. (1960-1967).Darwin's notebooks on transmutation scientifically testing the principle of selection is by of species. (G. de Beer, Ed.). Parts I-V, BritishMuseum trying to ascertain "whether it explains several large (NaturalHistory) Bulletin Historical Series, 2: 23-200; 3: classes of facts: such as the geological succession of 129-176. organic beings, their distribution in past and present Darwin, C. (1980). The red notebookof CharlesDarwin (S. Herbert, Ed.). Ithaca:Cornell University Press. times, and their mutual affinities and homologies" Darwin, F., & Seward, A. (Eds.). (1903). More letters of (Darwin 1868, p. 9). CharlesDarwin. 2 Vols. New York:Appleton. de Beer, G., (Ed.). (1959). Darwin's Journal.Br. Mus (Nat- Evolutionby Selection Theory: uralHistory) Bulletin Historical Series. 2(1): 1-21. A SuccessfulScience Ghiselin, M. (1969). The triumphof the Darwinianmethod. Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress. Adaptive evolution is the outcome of two proc- Gould, S. (1983, September). Darwin at . NaturalHisto- esses--the production of heritable individual varia- ry, 14-20. Gruber, H. (1974). Darwin on man:A psychologicalstudy of tions and the subsequent selective multiplication of scientificcreativity together with Darwin'searly and unpub- those individual variations that are beneficial in the lishednotebooks transcribed and annotatedby PaulH. Barrett. struggle for existence. Darwin succeeded in con- New York:Dutton.

CHARLES DARWIN & SELECTION 231 Herschel,J. (1830).Preliminary discourse on thestudy of natu- 2 Vols. London: Murray. (Excerptsreprinted in Bajema ral philosophy.London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown 1983). and Green. Mayr, E. (1982). Thegrowth of biologicalthought. Cambridge: Hodge, M. (1983). Darwin and the laws of the animate HarvardUniversity Press. part.of the terrestrial system (1835-1837): On the Popper, K. (1963). Conjecturesand refutations:The growth of Lyellianorigins of his zoonomical explanatoryprogram. scientificknowledge. New York:Basic Books. Studiesin Historyof Biology,6, 1-106. Ruse, M. (1979). The Darwinian revolution:Science red in Hull, D., (Ed.). (1973). Darwinand his critics:The reception of toothand claw. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Darwin's theoryof evolution by the scientific community. Schweber, S. (1977). The origin of the Origin revisited. Cambridge:Harvard University Press. Journalof theHistory of Biology,10, 220-316. Kitcher, P. (1982). Abusing science: The case against crea- Schweber, S. (1979). The genesis of natural selection- tionism.Cambridge: MIT Press. 1838:Some further insights. BioScience,28, 321-326. Kohn, D. (1980). Theories to work by: Rejected theories, Sulloway, F. (1982a). Darwin and his finches: The evolu- reproduction, and Darwin's path to natural selection. tion of a legend. Journalof the Historyof Biology,15, 1-53. Studiesin Historyof Biology,4, 67-170. Sulloway, F. (1982b). Darwin's conversion: The Beagle Lyell, C. (1830-1833)., beingan attempt Voyage and its aftermath.Journal of the Historyof Biology, to explainthe former changes of theearth's surface by reference 15, 325-396. to causesnow in operation.3 Vols. London: Murray. Whewell, W. (1837). Historyof the inductivesciences. 3 Vols. Malthus, T. (1826).An essayon theprinciple of population;or, London: Parker.

A view of its past and presenteffects on humanhappiness; Whitehead, A. (no date). Quoted in Hardin, G., (Ed.). Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/47/4/226/86148/4448024.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 Withan inquiryinto our prospectsrespecting the future re- (1969), Population,evolution, and birthcontrol. San Fran- movalor mitigationof the evils whichit occasions,(6th ed.). cisco: W. H. Freeman.

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232 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 47, NO. 4, APRIL 1985