nouns with imagery (I) ratings of 6 or Linguistic and imaginal mnemonics greater on a scale of 7, together with very high Thorndike-Lorge frequency of occurrence ratings, were used. An in paired-associate recall* attempt was also made to keep their meaningfulness (m) and concreteness ( c ) ratings as nearly the same as EDWIN G. AlKEN possible. To provide data on any Naval Personnel and Training Research Laboratory, San Diego, Calif. 92152 interaction between associational confusion and type of mnemonic aid, A comparison was made between mental imagery and sentence memorization 16 of the 64 nouns were selected to as mnemonic aids to the recall of noun-noun paired associates. Data were make up eight meaningfully similar obtained to allow postexperimental selection of Ss who appeared to have been sets of 2 each, e.g., flower and most proficient at carrying out the instructional sets associated with each blossom, sea and ocean, college and mnemonic. Data from these Ss were analyzed within a design permitting a study university. The remaining 48 nouns, of noun similarity and associational direction. Mental imagery was superior to on the other hand, were selected so as sentence memorization, recall of nonsimilar nouns superior to similar, and to have no direct meaningful similarity forward recall superior to backward. Also, a significant interaction indicated that among themselves or with the noun similarity produced relatively greater difficulty for the image-mnemonic meaningfully similar nouns. Each of Ss. It is concluded that the use of mental imagery in recall cannot be reduced the meaningfully similar nouns was entirely to linguistic mechanisms. imbedded in a different sentence. Thus, 16 of the 32 sentences Considerable research interest has imaginal strategy was preferred and contained a noun which was recently centered on the utility of most effective with concrete nouns. meaningfully similar to one of the mental imagery as a theoretical Paivio & Foth (1970) had Ss nouns in ·another sentence, while the construct in verbal learning and recall instructed to mediate imaginally to remaining 16 sentences contained (Bower, 1969; Bugelski, 1970; Paivio, draw their images, and those nouns not meaningfully similar to any 1969). However, the private nature of instructed to mediate verbally to write of the nouns imbedded in any of the mental images makes it difficult not their sentences. Under these 32 sentences. only to define the mechanisms of their conditions, verbal mediation was Certain rules govemed the pairing of effects, but to have assurance that the superior with abstract nouns and no uns. First, pairings with very high Ss are even engaging in imaginal imaginal instructions were superior probability associations, e.g., activity. These problems, combined. with concrete nouns. baby-crib, were avoided. Second, one with certain epistomological biases, The goal of the research here of the nouns with a meaningfully have predisposed radical behaviorists to reported was to compare a linguistic similar counterpart appeared as the equate, or parallel, mentalistic and an imaginal mnemonic aid to PA first and the other as the second noun constructs such as images with some learning and recall within a design in their respective senten ces. Table 1 sort of linguistic activity. An important which provided independent evidence presents the 32 noun pairs. The first theoretical question, therefore, is on the extent to which Ss given eight pairs in each column have the whether or not such equating is clifferent instructions were, in fact, meaningfully similar nouns underIined. justified. Can mental images be shown doing something different, so that The order of the 32 sentences was to aid recall independent of the only Ss apparently most successful determined randomly. mnemonic value of any hypothetical with each strategy could be compared. Each sentence was constructed such linguistic correlates? SUBJECTS that the two nouns in each pair Bower (1969) reported a number of The Ss were Navy recruits divided occurred in the orders shown in studies which circumstantially equally into two groups of 22. Table 1. Sentences were written in implicate images as independent aids LEARNING which the imbedded nouns were in to recall. His research and that of The basic task involved memorizing some sort of interaction. The others (Paivio & Yuille, 1969; Paivio & 32 noun pairs, each of which had been sentences were presented to the Ss in Foth, 1970; Rimm, Alexander, & imbedded in a sentence. The nouns booklets, with one sentence per page. Eiles, 1969) has attempted to compare were selected from the list scaled by The nouns to be associated were mnemonic strategies through different Paivio, Yuille, & Madigan (1968). Only underlined and capitalized in each instructions given the Ss. A question always remains as to whether or to Table 1 what degree the Ss are, in fact, N ouo Pairs Irnbedded in Senteoces tor Mernorizatioo following the instructions. If, as is 1. Hall-Car* 2. Autornobile-Coffee likely, Ss vary in their ability to form 3. Bottle-Flower 4. Blossorn-Comer mental images, then those low in the 5. Winter-House 6. Horne-Arm ability might seek out a linguistic 7. Sea-Fire-- 8. Truck-Ocean mnemonic despite instructions. 9. Rallroad-University 10. College-Palace Similarly, Ss particularly adept at 11. Rock-Toy 12. Horse-Stone imagery might use this aid even if 13. Baby-Shore 14. Coin-Infant 15. Mother-Studeot 16. Pupil-Girl explicitly istructed to use another 17. Wine-Ju~ 18. Circle-Building mediator. 19. Mountaio-Cottage 20. Bird-Meat Paivio & Yuille (1969) asked Ss 21. Cell-Nail 22. Book-Frog ibout the strategy they employed 23. Cabin-Door 24. Church-Grass :luring leaming and found that an 25. Table-Engine 26. Grandmother-Chair 27. Policemao-Tower 28. Street-Queen *The opinions and assertions contained 29. Sugar-Ship 30. Furniture-Pipe lerein are those of the writer and are not to 31. Village-Camp 32. Cat-Window )e construed as officiaJ or as reOecting the riews of the Navy Department or naval *Each of the first eight pairs in the first co/umn contains a meaning(ully simi/ar noun ~ervice. directly opposite in the second co/umn. They are underlined.

[>sychon. ScL, 1971, Vol. 24 (2) 91 sentence. Example sentences are: "The of paper with 32 nouns and asked to exactly the sentences. Because the HALL echoed from the sounds of the write the noun that went with each in delayed test for PA recall was little boy racing his tiny CAR," and the 32 sentences. Half of the nouns on considered to be a more stringent test "The angry MOTHER was yelling at the sheet had appeared as the first of the two mnemonic strategies than the demonstrating STUDENT." noun and half as the second in the the immediate test, the delayed LEARNING: sentences, Le., half required S to sentence modi ficatio n-correction INSTRUCTIONAL SETS produce a forward and half a scores were used for selecting Ss. Half the Ss were given instructions backward association. In the test, half For the mental imagery group, a to use a mental-imagery strategy to aid of the meaningfully similar nouns, i.e., rated image intensity score was associating the noun pairs, while the nouns meaningfully similar to nouns in obtained for each S by summing the other half were instructed to other sentences, required forward and ratings over the 32 sentences. For memorize the sentences as an aid. All half backward association. A subsequent analyses, the data on the Ss were given 10 sec to study each constraint was that the meaningfully highest and lowest scoring half of each sentence and told that the recall test at similar nouns were always to be instructional group was compared the end would require that they written in by S; they never appeared as separately (N = 11 in each group). respond with one of the the cueing nouns on the recall sheet. Obviously, this selection of Ss did underlined-capitalized words from Similarly, half of the nouns from not rule out the possibility that the each sentence when shown the other. sentences containing meaningfully instructional sets were still being Ss instructed in an imaginal mnemonic dissimilar nouns required forward and violated, but it did provide subsets of were told to create as vivid and active half back ward association. The order Ss for both groups who appeared to be a mental image as possible of the scene of the nouns was determined best at the particular mnemonic aid described in each sentence to be used randomly for the two testing assigned them. Some additional later as a context for recall of the occasions, with the constraint that at evidence on wh at the noun pairs. Ss instructed to learn the least three items intervene between imagery-instructed Ss were doing was sen tences were told to try to nouns requiring responses from the obtained fm the extent of their memorize exactly each sentence to be meaningfully similar noun set. For incidental sentence memorizing as used later as a context for associating example, the noun requiring the word compared with the intentional the noun pairs. "baby" as the correct response was at memorizing of the other group on the Both to increase the probability least three nouns separated from the delayed sentence modification­ that the instructional sets were being noun calling for "infant" as the correction task. This was examined, followed and to index roughly response. Ss were given 10 min to and aIthough some incidental individual differences in the ability to write down as many noun associates as memorization of the sentences was follow them, Ss in both instructional possible. shown, it was significantly less groups were required to carry out two Finally, a second form of the (t = 4.04, P < .005) than that shown different subsidiary tasks parallel to sentence modification-correction task by the Ss instructed to memorize. the primary learning. In the was administered to both instructional Also, within the imagery-instructed mental-imagery-instructed group, Ss groups. This was done to permit group, the correlation between tumed the pages in their booklets comparison of the memorization of incidental sentence memorization and following the 1 Q-sec study period on the group instructed to memorize with PA recall was .03, implying little, if each sentence and found two the incidental memorization of the any, reliance on verbal storage by questions asking for more detailed group instructed to form mental imagery-instructed Ss. Although no elaboration of their images. For images. Sllch data were to be related similar check on incidental imaginal example, to the sentence presented to the hypothesis that activity by the sentence-memorization above involving the noun pair, imagery-instructed Ss also store verbal Ss was obtained, if such had been Hall-Car, the questions were: "Is the codes (Bower & Winzenz, 1970) and taking place it would be an artifact hall carpeted?" and "What color is the to determine the degree to which their working against the experimental tiny car?" The two questions were recall scores could as weIl be hypothesis of an independent followed by a place to record, on a attributed to verbal memorization as contribution of mental imagery to 5-point scale, a rating of the intensity to imagery mediation. recall. of the image aroused by the sentence. RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION Having selected the subsets of Ss Before proceeding to the next The first step in the analysis from each mnemonic condition, an sentence, 230 sec were allowed for involved examining the data from the analysis of variance was next answering the two questions and tasks designed to select those Ss who performed on the delayed PA recall making the rating. For the Ss were best carrying out the mnemonic scores of the subsets of Ss assumed to instructed to memorize the sentences, strategy given them in their be most closely following the the subsidiary task following each instructions. These were the sentence instructions given them. In addition to 10-sec study period involved modification-correction task for the the between-S variable of instructional correcting a modified version of the sentence memorization group and the set, the analysis contained two sentence they had just studied until it rates image intensity for the mental factorially arranged within-S sources read exactIy like the original. The imagery group. of variance, i.e., whether a modifications involved adding, For the sentence memorization meaningfully similar or dissimilar noun deleting, or substituting words. To group, a random sampIe of eight of the was to be recalled and whether recall avoid possible unlearning, none of the modified sentences was chosen and was back ward or forward. The results sentence modifications involved the scored for each S. A point was given indicated superior recall for the group noun pairs to be associated, and they for each modification detected and instructed to employ amental imagery were again underlined. Thirty seconds correctly changed and a point mnemonic (F = 8.19, p< .01), for the was also allowed for this task. subtracted for each modification recall of meaningfully dissimilar nouns RECALL missed or incorrectly changed. The (F = 15.27, p< .001), and for forward Immediately following study of the total points over the eight sentences recall (F = 5.61, p < .05). In addition, 32 sentences and again 2% h later, a was taken to represent the accuracy the Instructional Set by Meaningfully test for recall of the noun pairs was with which S had been able to carry Similar-Dissimilar Noun interaction carried out. Each S was given a sheet out the instructions to memorize was significant (F = 25.39, p< .001).

92 Psychon. Sei., 1971. Vol. 24 (2] Table 2 Ss' retrieving from both a pictorial and Proportion of Correctly Recalled Paired Associates a verbal memory store, while Imaginal Instructions Memorization Instructions sentence-reading, -generating, or -memorizing Ss are retrieving only Forward Backward Forward Backward from a verbal store. It is not clear to Recall Recall Recall Recall the writer why instructions to image M eaningfully Similar result in incidental verbal storage, Noun Recall .59 .51 .48 .32 while instructions to verbalize do not lead to incidental storage of images. Meaningfully Dissimilar Noun Recall .77 .76 .49 .52 Certainly, the absence of a relationship between the degree of incidental senten ce memorization and PA recall Regarding the latter finding, for the imagery Ss is higher, it is not by mental-imagery-instructed Ss in the examination of the proportion of reliably so. Clearly, there is no present study does not lend support to correct responses (see Table 2) foolproof way at present to determine the hypothesis. However, the limited indicates that it arose from the if instructions are being followed in sampie size for the correlation absolute superiority of the study of any private mental event. (N = 11) makes relating this to the imagery-mnemonic Ss over Nonetheless, these data suggest the Bower hypothesis only suggestive. sentence-memorization Ss in the recall importance of obtaining whatever It might be argued that the of meaningfully dissimilar, as circumstantial evidence is available on superiority of imagery was due to the compared to meaningfully similar, what and how weil Ss given different fact that the tasks designed to measure nouns. Or, put another way, the instructions are actually doing. On the individual differences in the degree to relatively greater detrimental effect of other hand, Bower & Winzenz (1970) which the instructions were being meaningful similarity on Ss instructed reported a study on PA recall, with followed were differentially to use an imaginal mnemonic is unselected Ss showing a difference reinforcing to the recall of the paired indicated_ between S-generated sentences and associates. That is, sentence correction When the above analysis was images, favoring images. A number of may have been a distraction and image repeated on the scores of the half of procedural differences exist between elaborat ion an aid to the primary task each group scoring lowest on the their study and the one here reported, of PA recall. What is needed are selection measures, only the main any one of which might ac count for agreed-upon indices of the effects for similar-dissimilar noun their obtaining superiority for imagery predisposition and proficiency of Ss recall and backward-forward recall without selection of Ss. From some toward particular mnemonic strategies were significant, Le., instructional set preliminary observations, the writer being studied so that Ss can be did not differentiate reliably. suspects that the study times may have preexperimentally assigned to various These data support the contention made the difference, Le., 5 sec in the conditions. that mental imagery as a mnemonic Bower and Winzenz study and 10 sec These data lend strong support to aid in recall cannot be reduced or in the present research. Five seconds the belief that mental imagery is a equated to the recall of linguistic may weil have been an adequate time useful construct in the theoretical chains. Not only is the overall to generate active images but analysis of memory and of potential perfonnance of Ss instructed to fonn insuffieient time to generate sentences. practical import to those concemed images superior, but it is superior in Having sentences supplied by E for with the technology of education. the face of that group's poorer both groups, as opposed to sentence memorization. In addition, S·generated mnemonics, may also have REFERENCES the differential effect of meaningful been critical. In any event, in many BOWER, G. H. Mental imagery and similarity implies that some sort of comparisons of learning strategies, it associative learning. Fifth annual symposium on cognition. Carnegie-Mellon difference exists in the mediation al may be necessary to employ University, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1969. mechanisms being employed. nonrandom assignement of Ss if BOWER, G. H., & W1NZENZ, D. From the stand point of future d i f f eren ces among mnemonic Comparison of associative learning strategies. Psychonomic Science, 1970, research on the efficacy of mental strategies are to be detected. In fact, 20, 119-120. image mediation, it is important to Paivio & Foth (1970) indicate that the BUGELSKI, B. R. Words and things and note the very different outcomes usual outcome of comparisons of images. American Psychologist, 1970, 25, shown in analyses of the data from the imaginal and verbal mediation sets has 1002-1012. subgroups selected for high and low generally shown them to be equally P AIVIO, A. Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychological scores on the measures of the extent effective and assign this to a failure of Review, 1969, 76, 241·263. to which they were following the the instructions to arouse persistent PAIVIO, A., & FOTH, D. Imaginal and instructed strategies. Low-scoring Ss mediation strategies. verbal media tors and noun concreteness appear equivalent in PA recall, while Although these data strongly in paired-associate learning: The elusive interaction. Journal of Verbal Learning & high-scoring Ss reveal a clear suggest that visual imagery makes a Verbal Behavior, 1970, 9, 384-390. superiority for image mediation. It mnemonic contribution to recall PAIVIO, A., & YUILLE, J. Changes in migh t be argued that the two tasks which cannot be equated simply to associative strategies and paired-associate used to sel~ct Ss were differentially learning over trials as a function of word retrieving verbal chains, a question imagery and type of Iearning set. Journal related to the recall task such that remains as to whether or not imaging of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 79, those selected for intense image ratings is a superior mnemonic aid. Certainly, 458-463. were also good recallers, while those PAIVIO, A., YUILLE, J., & MADIGAN, S. the particular i nstructions and Concreteness, imagery, and selected for good sentence S'selection procedures employed in meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. memorization were not. To check on the present experiment resulted in Journal of Experimental Psychology this possibility, correlations between superior PA recall for Ss assumed to be Monograph Supplements, 1968, 76(1, the two selector variables and the Part 2), 1-25. employing an imaginal mnemonic. RIMM, D. C., ALEXANDER, R. A., & recall scores were obtained. The Bower (1969) argues that superiority EILES, R. R. Effects of different correlations were .28 and .43 for the of an imaginal over a linguistic mediational instructions and sex of memorization and imagery groups, subject on paired-associate leaming of mnemonic, when it is shown, may be concrete nouns. Psychological Reports, respectively. Though the correlation due to the mental-imagey-instructed 1969,25,935-940.

Psychon. Sei., 1971, Vol. 24 (2) 93