Chinese/AmericanChinese/American Scientists:Scientists: AA TransnationalTransnational HistoryHistory Zuoyue Wang 王作跃 [email protected] Cal. State Polytechnic University, Pomona American Physical Society, Dallas, March 24, 2011 MainMain ArgumentArgument

„ TheThe historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists andand theirtheir migrationsmigrations illustratedillustrated both:both: „ thethe extentextent andand limitlimit ofof thethe ““AmericanizationAmericanization”” ofof internationalinternational sciencescience andand „ thethe ““transnationalizationtransnationalization”” ofof AmericanAmerican science,science, especiallyespecially inin thethe postpost--WWIIWWII period.period. BackgroundBackground onon ThisThis ProjectProject

„ InitiallyInitially asas partpart ofof studystudy onon USUS--ChinaChina scientificscientific relationsrelations „ DissertationDissertation onon USUS PresidentPresident’’ss ScienceScience AdvisoryAdvisory CommitteeCommittee „ BookBook inin 20082008 InIn SputnikSputnik’’ss ShadowShadow „ ObamaObama onon China:China: ““OurOur OwnOwn SputnikSputnik MomentMoment””?? „ PostPost--TiananmenTiananmen difficultiesdifficulties butbut nownow easiereasier accessaccess toto materialsmaterials inin ChinaChina „ MoreMore materialsmaterials onon ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists inin ChinaChina thanthan inin thethe USUS „ 20102010 NSFNSF grantgrant onon Chinese/AmericanChinese/American ScientistsScientists FourFour GenerationsGenerations ofof Chinese/AmericanChinese/American scientistsscientists (clockwise(clockwise fromfrom toptop left):left): QianQian XuesenXuesen (H.(H. S.S. Tsien),Tsien), Wu/Lee/Yang,Wu/Lee/Yang, WenWen HoHo Lee,Lee, XiaodongXiaodong WangWang ““NativeNative”” ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican Scientists:Scientists: StevenSteven ChuChu ChineseChinese Students/ScientistsStudents/Scientists inin thethe USUS beforebefore 19491949

„ 1850s:1850s: FirstFirst KnownKnown ChineseChinese StudentStudent GraduatingGraduating fromfrom YaleYale

„ 1870s:1870s: StateState--sponsoredsponsored studystudy abroadabroad inin thethe USUS byby thethe QingQing governmentgovernment

„ 1910s1910s--1940s:1940s: BoxerBoxer FellowshipFellowship StudentsStudents

„ MostMost StudentsStudents StudiedStudied ScienceScience andand EngineeringEngineering andand ReturnedReturned toto ChinaChina FollowingFollowing TheirTheir StudiesStudies 1870s1870s ChineseChinese StudentsStudents atat YaleYale 19101910 BoxerBoxer FellowsFellows 19141914 ScienceScience SocietySociety ofof ChinaChina ScienceScience SocietySociety AnnualAnnual Meeting,Meeting, ,, Beijing,Beijing, 19291929 1930s1930s QinghuaQinghua BoxerBoxer FellowsFellows TheThe MaoMao Years,Years, 19491949--19711971

„ DilemmaDilemma ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists——toto returnreturn oror toto staystay

„ AboutAbout 1,0001,000 returnedreturned andand aboutabout 44--5,0005,000 remainedremained inin USUS

„ ThoseThose whowho stayedstayed inin thethe USUS camecame toto professionalprofessional prominenceprominence inin thethe 1950s1950s andand 1960s1960s T.T. D.D. Lee,Lee, C.C. N.N. Yang,Yang, andand ZhuZhu GuangyaGuangya,, 19471947 TheThe YangsYangs andand DengDeng Jiaxian,1949Jiaxian,1949 USUS GovernmentGovernment AmbivalentAmbivalent

„ USUS StateState Department,Department, 10/1949:10/1949:

„ ““ThereThere seemsseems toto bebe somesome generalgeneral areaarea ofof agreementagreement thatthat itit willwill bebe desirabledesirable bothboth forfor thethe peoplespeoples ofof ChinaChina andand thethe peoplespeoples ofof UnitedUnited StatesStates thatthat asas manymany ofof thesethese studentsstudents asas possiblepossible willwill inin factfact returnreturn toto ChinaChina toto interpretinterpret thethe skillsskills thatthat theythey havehave learnedlearned whenwhen theythey havehave beenbeen inin thisthis country.country.”” ChineseChinese Students/ScientistsStudents/Scientists WhoWho WantWant toto ReturnReturn

„ Indeed,Indeed, severalseveral hundredshundreds ofof ChineseChinese studentsstudents andand scientistsscientists returnedreturned toto ChinaChina fromfrom latelate 19491949 toto fallfall 1951.1951.

„ WhyWhy return?return?

„ Chinese nationalism

„ Idealistic perception of Chinese Communists

„ Disaffection with corruptive Nationalist government

„ Disaffection with racial and immigration discriminations in the US

„ Family connections in China (parents, spouses, children) ChineseChinese StudentsStudents ChristianChristian Association,Association, 19491949 AssociationAssociation ofof ChineseChinese ScientificScientific Workers,Workers, 19501950 SatireSatire onon NationalistsNationalists LiangLiang SiliSili groupgroup ofof returnees,returnees, 9/19499/1949 HuaHua LuogengLuogeng ReturnReturn toto China,China, 19501950 TsienTsien BeingBeing InterrogatedInterrogated 1950s1950s ReturneesReturnees onon WilsonWilson,, 8/31/508/31/50 ShenShen ShanjongShanjong,, LuoLuo ShijunShijun,, ZhaoZhao ZhongyaoZhongyao,, 11/195011/1950 AmericanAmerican IronIron Curtain?Curtain?

„ SeptemberSeptember 20,20, 1951:1951: NineNine ChineseChinese students,students, includingincluding particleparticle physicistphysicist XieXie Jialin,Jialin, werewere forbiddenforbidden fromfrom rere--boardingboarding shipship atat HonoluluHonolulu onon theirtheir journeyjourney homehome

XieXie builtbuilt oneone ofof thethe earlyearly medicalmedical linearlinear acceleratorsaccelerators inin ChicagoChicago inin thethe 1950s1950s EllisEllis IslandIsland ChineseChinese StudentsStudents DraftingDrafting LetterLetter ChineseChinese StudentsStudents’’ AppealAppeal toto Ike,Ike, 19541954

„ ““WeWe wouldwould respectfullyrespectfully poinpointt outout thatthat thethe technicaltechnical trainingtraining wewe havehave receivedreceived herehere involvedinvolved nono codescodes ofof secrecy,secrecy,””

„ ““indeedindeed thethe spreadingspreading ofof scientificscientific knowledgeknowledge andand technicaltechnical knowknow--howhow hashas beenbeen thethe veryvery spiritspirit ofof aa greatgreat traditiontradition ofof thisthis countrycountry everever sincesince itsits establishment.establishment.””

„ ““WeWe sincerelysincerely appealappeal toto you,you, Mr.Mr. President,President, toto makemake itit possiblepossible forfor anyany ChineseChinese studentstudent toto leaveleave thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates wheneverwhenever hehe chooseschooses andand wewe petitionpetition youyou toto revokerevoke thisthis restrainingrestraining order.order.””

ForFor moremore onon thethe impactimpact ofof 19491949

„ ZuoyueZuoyue Wang,Wang, ““TransnationalTransnational ScienceScience duringduring thethe ColdCold War:War: TheThe CaseCase ofof Chinese/AmericanChinese/American Scientists,Scientists,”” IsisIsis 101,101, no.no. 22 (June(June 2010):2010): 367367--377377.. WhatWhat HappenedHappened toto ThoseThose WhoWho ReturnedReturned

„ HalfHalf ofof thethe leadersleaders ofof thethe ChineseChinese nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons projectsprojects werewere thosethose whowho returnedreturned fromfrom thethe USUS

„ NuclearNuclear weaponsweapons projectsprojects inin thethe endend probablyprobably contributedcontributed toto thethe SinoSino--SovietSoviet splitsplit andand arguablyarguably benefitedbenefited thethe USUS inin thethe ColdCold WarWar

„ PersecutionPersecution duringduring CulturalCultural RevolutionRevolution butbut forceforce forfor USUS--ChinaChina scientificscientific exchangeexchange afterafter NixonNixon

„ AmericanizationAmericanization ofof ChineseChinese sciencescience butbut alsoalso SovietSoviet influenceinfluence andand ChineseChinese locallocal conditionsconditions TopsTops SixSix ForeignForeign CountriesCountries WhereWhere LeadingLeading ChineseChinese ScientistsScientists Studied,Studied, ca.ca. 19001900--19851985

Source: Li Peishan, “The Role of Western-Trained…” Country\Number No. of Chinese Percentage of 622 Scientists Trained Who Studied Abroad USA 393 59.4%

Great Britain 91 13.7%

Germany 54 8.2%

France 35 5.3%

Japan 34 5.1%

Soviet Union 28 4.2% WhatWhat HappenedHappened toto ThoseThose WhoWho StayedStayed

„ AntiAnti--CommunismCommunism drovedrove themthem toto avoidavoid politicspolitics andand pursuepursue professionalprofessional developmentdevelopment

„ Lee,Lee, Yang,Yang, andand WuWu asas thethe firstfirst successsuccess storiesstories butbut alsoalso largelarge numbersnumbers ofof professionalsprofessionals

„ ModelModel MinorityMinority

„ AntiAnti--VietnamVietnam WarWar andand CivilCivil RightsRights movementsmovements

„ DefendingDefending DiaoyudaoDiaoyudao movementmovement inin thethe earlyearly 1970s1970s

„ NixonNixon visitvisit inin 19721972 markedmarked aa turningturning pointpoint

„ CommunityCommunity formationformation andand reconnectingreconnecting withwith ChinaChina Yang,Yang, Lee,Lee, andand OtherOther NobelNobel Laureates,Laureates, 19601960 TheThe NixonianNixonian Exchange,Exchange, 19711971--19781978

„ 19721972 ShanghaiShanghai CommuniquCommuniquéé highlightedhighlighted sciencescience andand technologytechnology „ ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists visitedvisited ChinaChina inin largelarge numbersnumbers inin groupsgroups andand individuallyindividually inin thethe 1970s.1970s. „ EmotionalEmotional tripstrips andand expressionexpression ofof ChineseChinese culturalcultural nationalismnationalism „ TheyThey receivedreceived extensive,extensive, positive,positive, butbut superficialsuperficial presspress coveragecoverage inin ChinaChina „ ThroughThrough privateprivate interactionsinteractions withwith MaoMao ZedongZedong andand ZhouZhou Enlai,Enlai, theythey helpedhelped improveimprove thethe politicalpolitical statusstatus ofof ChineseChinese scientistsscientists andand basicbasic researchresearch inin ChinaChina duringduring thethe latelate CulturalCultural RevolutionRevolution MaoMao andand Yang,Yang, 19721972 Mao, Zhou, and Yang, 1972 Yang and Chinese Scientists, 1971 Chi Kong Jen Delegation, 1973 The Wus and Zhou Enlai, 1973 1978:1978: TurningTurning PointPoint „ 1976:1976: MaoMao’’ss DeathDeath andand thethe endend ofof thethe CulturalCultural RevolutionRevolution rd „ 1978:1978: RiseRise ofof DengDeng XiaopingXiaoping andand thethe 33rd PlenumPlenum ofof thethe 1111th CongressCongress ofof thethe ChineseChinese CommunistCommunist PartyParty „ LaunchingLaunching ofof ReformReform andand OpeningOpening UpUp toto OutsideOutside WorldWorld „ 1978/19791978/1979 ChinaChina--USUS DiplomaticDiplomatic RelationsRelations andand DengDeng’’ss TripTrip toto thethe USUS „ StartStart ofof thethe SendingSending ofof ChineseChinese StudentsStudents toto thethe USUS „ ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistsScientists AdvocatedAdvocated DiplomaticDiplomatic Relations,Relations, FacilitatedFacilitated ScientificScientific Exchange,Exchange, andand SponsoredSponsored thethe ComingComing ofof StudentsStudents YangYang WelcomingWelcoming Deng,Deng, WashingtonWashington DC,DC, 19791979 DengDeng andand ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican Scientists,Scientists, 1980s1980s ChineseChinese studentsstudents inin thethe USUS

„ T. D. Lee started China-US Physics Examination and Admission (CUSPEA) program that brought about 1000 physics graduate students to the US in 1979- 1989

„ Overall, more than 40,000 US S7E PhDs from mainland China in 1985- 2005 (see pdf) EditedEdited byby ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistScientist andand InfluentialInfluential inin ChinaChina inin thethe 1980s1980s HistoryHistory ofof JournalJournal

„ EditorialEditorial groupgroup foundedfounded inin 19801980 byby aboutabout 4040 ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican (and(and Canadian)Canadian) scientists,scientists, includingincluding ChenChen NingNing YangYang

„ FirstFirst issueissue inin 1980,1980, followedfollowed byby twotwo inin 19811981

„ 100,000100,000 copiescopies ofof eacheach issueissue

„ CoveringCovering economics,economics, management,management, engineering,engineering, science,science, andand educationeducation SampleSample ArticleArticle TitlesTitles inin FirstFirst IssueIssue

„ Economic Systems—A Comparative Overview (Japan, Yugoslavia, USSR) by Tzu-I Chiang of Georgia Tech „ From Scientific Management to Management Science by Gorden Chen of U Mass Amherst „ Introduction to Microprocessors by R. Hsiang, an electronic engineer „ The Frontier of Modern Physics by the editorial staff „ Sociology and Modernization of China by C. K. Yang of the University of Pittsburgh „ Research and Development System in [the] US by E. Huang, an oceanographer „ Graduate Admissions in American Universities by Y. K. Pan of Boston College ImpactImpact ofof TiananmenTiananmen

„ ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists divideddivided overover properproper responseresponse toto ChineseChinese governmentgovernment’’ss repressionrepression ofof studentstudent protestprotest inin JuneJune 19891989

„ JamesJames Wang:Wang: NeedNeed toto speakspeak outout toto effecteffect fundamentalfundamental positivepositive changeschanges inin thethe longlong runrun

„ T.T. D.D. Lee:Lee: OnlyOnly continuedcontinued contactcontact andand exchangeexchange willwill helphelp ChineseChinese colleaguescolleagues Fang Lizhi, 1980s Lee and Bush, 1989 PostPost--TiananmenTiananmen Development:Development: TheThe MakingMaking ofof aa TransnationalTransnational ChineseChinese ScientificScientific NetworkNetwork „ ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistsScientists TookTook LeadLead inin FormingForming SubnationalSubnational/Transnational/Transnational ScientificScientific CommunityCommunity influentialinfluential inin ChineseChinese sciencescience policypolicy „ NewNew studentsstudents andand scientistsscientists fromfrom ChinaChina infusedinfused newnew vitalityvitality toto thethe communitycommunity „ OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese PhysicsPhysics AssociationAssociation (1990)(1990) „ PerceivedPerceived politicalpolitical significance:significance: modelmodel andand precursorprecursor toto aa culturalcultural andand perhapsperhaps eventuallyeventually politicalpolitical unificationunification ofof thethe greatergreater ChinaChina (mainland,(mainland, Taiwan,Taiwan, andand HongHong Kong)Kong) Lee,Lee, Yang,Yang, andand ZhouZhou atat GuangzhouGuangzhou Conf,Conf, 19801980 XieXie JialinJialin andand PiefPief Panofsky,Panofsky, BEPC,BEPC, 19821982 LeeLee andand DengDeng atat ColliderCollider Site,Site, 1980s1980s Yang and Lee at All Chinese Physics Conference, 1996 ChangChang--LinLin Tien,Tien, 1990s1990s TienTien andand HongHong KongKong OfficialsOfficials RecentRecent DevelopmentsDevelopments

„ ChinaChina’’ss EconomicEconomic RiseRise „ PoliticalPolitical StabilityStability andand ImprovedImproved FundingFunding forfor ScienceScience „ ReturnReturn ofof ProminentProminent 1940s1940s GenerationGeneration ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistsScientists toto ChinaChina „ ReturnReturn ofof PostPost--19781978 ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistsScientists asas LeadersLeaders ofof ChineseChinese ScienceScience andand EducationEducation „ FromFrom BrainBrain DrainDrain toto BrainBrain CirculationCirculation ResurgentResurgent ChineseChinese NationalismNationalism

„ ChineseChinese culturalcultural nationalismnationalism moremore stronglystrongly feltfelt byby 1940s1940s generationgeneration thanthan postpost--19781978 generationgeneration untiluntil recentlyrecently

„ Changes:Changes: growinggrowing pridepride inin ChineseChinese economiceconomic andand socialsocial progressprogress ((““ThisThis isis thethe bestbest timetime inin thethe fivefive thousandthousand yearsyears ofof ChineseChinese history!history!””))

„ Olympics,Olympics, Earthquake,Earthquake, andand GlobalGlobal FinancialFinancial CrisisCrisis maymay havehave increasedincreased attractionattraction ofof researchresearch positionspositions inin ChinaChina ChineseChinese leaderleader JiaJia QinglinQinglin withwith CharlesCharles WangWang ofof ComputerComputer Associates,Associates, OctoberOctober 20082008 ToTo BuildBuild aa NationNation ofof InnovationInnovation SteveSteve ChuChu and US-China collaboration on global warming RecentRecent ResearchResearch ActivitiesActivities

„ Interviews with Chinese/American scientists „ 1949 generation: Several in their 80s and 90s in both the US and China „ Taiwan generation: Several in their 70s who were born in mainland China, fled to Taiwan, and came to the US in the 1950s and 1960s „ American Men (and Women) of Science „ Biographies in Chinese „ Archives of the Chinese Foreign Ministry and Chinese Academy of Sciences „ National Archives „ Archives of the Committee on Scholarly Communication with China „ Files of the Overseas Chinese Physics Association „ Will be grateful for donation of relevant historical, biographical, or autobiographical materials of APS members InfluenceInfluence andand LimitationsLimitations inin ChinaChina

„ GrowingGrowing influenceinfluence butbut alsoalso limitationlimitation ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists inin ChinaChina „ AgentsAgents ofof changechange oror accommodationaccommodation „ CulturalCultural nationalismnationalism vs.vs. scientificscientific professionalismprofessionalism andand globalglobal outlookoutlook „ InherentInherent tensionstensions withinwithin modernitymodernity andand scientificscientific nationalismnationalism „ HardHard powerpower vs.vs. softsoft power;power; naturalnatural sciencessciences andand socialsocial sciencessciences „ AA NationNation ofof innovationinnovation hashas toto bebe builtbuilt onon thethe foundationfoundation ofof notnot justjust nationalism,nationalism, butbut democracy,democracy, freedomfreedom (including(including academicacademic andand press),press), andand rulerule ofof lawlaw ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican ScientistsScientists inin USUS

„ ProminentProminent partpart ofof thethe diversitydiversity andand ““transnationalizationtransnationalization”” ofof AmericanAmerican scientificscientific communitycommunity „ FluidityFluidity andand mobilitymobility „ AgentsAgents ofof AmericanizationAmericanization ofof sciencescience inin ChinaChina andand elsewhereelsewhere „ RecurringRecurring suspicionsuspicion andand questioningquestioning ofof loyaltyloyalty andand allegiance,allegiance, asas exemplifiedexemplified byby thethe 19991999 WenWen HoHo LeeLee casecase andand CoxCox reportreport „ ButBut alsoalso increasingincreasing importanceimportance inin USUS--ChinaChina scientificscientific exchangeexchange andand inin solvingsolving commoncommon problemsproblems suchsuch asas climateclimate changechange andand alternativealternative energyenergy technologies.technologies.