Chinese/AmericanChinese/American Scientists:Scientists: AA TransnationalTransnational HistoryHistory Zuoyue Wang 王作跃 [email protected] Cal. State Polytechnic University, Pomona American Physical Society, Dallas, March 24, 2011 MainMain ArgumentArgument TheThe historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists andand theirtheir migrationsmigrations illustratedillustrated both:both: thethe extentextent andand limitlimit ofof thethe ““AmericanizationAmericanization”” ofof internationalinternational sciencescience andand thethe ““transnationalizationtransnationalization”” ofof AmericanAmerican science,science, especiallyespecially inin thethe postpost--WWIIWWII period.period. BackgroundBackground onon ThisThis ProjectProject InitiallyInitially asas partpart ofof studystudy onon USUS--ChinaChina scientificscientific relationsrelations DissertationDissertation onon USUS PresidentPresident’’ss ScienceScience AdvisoryAdvisory CommitteeCommittee BookBook inin 20082008 InIn SputnikSputnik’’ss ShadowShadow ObamaObama onon China:China: ““OurOur OwnOwn SputnikSputnik MomentMoment””?? PostPost--TiananmenTiananmen difficultiesdifficulties butbut nownow easiereasier accessaccess toto materialsmaterials inin ChinaChina MoreMore materialsmaterials onon ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists inin ChinaChina thanthan inin thethe USUS 20102010 NSFNSF grantgrant onon Chinese/AmericanChinese/American ScientistsScientists FourFour GenerationsGenerations ofof Chinese/AmericanChinese/American scientistsscientists (clockwise(clockwise fromfrom toptop left):left): QianQian XuesenXuesen (H.(H. S.S. Tsien),Tsien), Wu/Lee/Yang,Wu/Lee/Yang, WenWen HoHo Lee,Lee, XiaodongXiaodong WangWang ““NativeNative”” ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican Scientists:Scientists: StevenSteven ChuChu ChineseChinese Students/ScientistsStudents/Scientists inin thethe USUS beforebefore 19491949 1850s:1850s: FirstFirst KnownKnown ChineseChinese StudentStudent GraduatingGraduating fromfrom YaleYale 1870s:1870s: StateState--sponsoredsponsored studystudy abroadabroad inin thethe USUS byby thethe QingQing governmentgovernment 1910s1910s--1940s:1940s: BoxerBoxer FellowshipFellowship StudentsStudents MostMost StudentsStudents StudiedStudied ScienceScience andand EngineeringEngineering andand ReturnedReturned toto ChinaChina FollowingFollowing TheirTheir StudiesStudies 1870s1870s ChineseChinese StudentsStudents atat YaleYale 19101910 BoxerBoxer FellowsFellows 19141914 ScienceScience SocietySociety ofof ChinaChina ScienceScience SocietySociety AnnualAnnual Meeting,Meeting, ,, Beijing,Beijing, 19291929 1930s1930s QinghuaQinghua BoxerBoxer FellowsFellows TheThe MaoMao Years,Years, 19491949--19711971 DilemmaDilemma ofof ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists——toto returnreturn oror toto staystay AboutAbout 1,0001,000 returnedreturned andand aboutabout 44--5,0005,000 remainedremained inin USUS ThoseThose whowho stayedstayed inin thethe USUS camecame toto professionalprofessional prominenceprominence inin thethe 1950s1950s andand 1960s1960s T.T. D.D. Lee,Lee, C.C. N.N. Yang,Yang, andand ZhuZhu GuangyaGuangya,, 19471947 TheThe YangsYangs andand DengDeng Jiaxian,1949Jiaxian,1949 USUS GovernmentGovernment AmbivalentAmbivalent USUS StateState Department,Department, 10/1949:10/1949: ““ThereThere seemsseems toto bebe somesome generalgeneral areaarea ofof agreementagreement thatthat itit willwill bebe desirabledesirable bothboth forfor thethe peoplespeoples ofof ChinaChina andand thethe peoplespeoples ofof UnitedUnited StatesStates thatthat asas manymany ofof thesethese studentsstudents asas possiblepossible willwill inin factfact returnreturn toto ChinaChina toto interpretinterpret thethe skillsskills thatthat theythey havehave learnedlearned whenwhen theythey havehave beenbeen inin thisthis country.country.”” ChineseChinese Students/ScientistsStudents/Scientists WhoWho WantWant toto ReturnReturn Indeed,Indeed, severalseveral hundredshundreds ofof ChineseChinese studentsstudents andand scientistsscientists returnedreturned toto ChinaChina fromfrom latelate 19491949 toto fallfall 1951.1951. WhyWhy return?return? Chinese nationalism Idealistic perception of Chinese Communists Disaffection with corruptive Nationalist government Disaffection with racial and immigration discriminations in the US Family connections in China (parents, spouses, children) ChineseChinese StudentsStudents ChristianChristian Association,Association, 19491949 AssociationAssociation ofof ChineseChinese ScientificScientific Workers,Workers, 19501950 SatireSatire onon NationalistsNationalists LiangLiang SiliSili groupgroup ofof returnees,returnees, 9/19499/1949 HuaHua LuogengLuogeng ReturnReturn toto China,China, 19501950 TsienTsien BeingBeing InterrogatedInterrogated 1950s1950s ReturneesReturnees onon WilsonWilson,, 8/31/508/31/50 ShenShen ShanjongShanjong,, LuoLuo ShijunShijun,, ZhaoZhao ZhongyaoZhongyao,, 11/195011/1950 AmericanAmerican IronIron Curtain?Curtain? SeptemberSeptember 20,20, 1951:1951: NineNine ChineseChinese students,students, includingincluding particleparticle physicistphysicist XieXie Jialin,Jialin, werewere forbiddenforbidden fromfrom rere--boardingboarding shipship atat HonoluluHonolulu onon theirtheir journeyjourney homehome XieXie builtbuilt oneone ofof thethe earlyearly medicalmedical linearlinear acceleratorsaccelerators inin ChicagoChicago inin thethe 1950s1950s EllisEllis IslandIsland ChineseChinese StudentsStudents DraftingDrafting LetterLetter ChineseChinese StudentsStudents’’ AppealAppeal toto Ike,Ike, 19541954 ““WeWe wouldwould respectfullyrespectfully poinpointt outout thatthat thethe technicaltechnical trainingtraining wewe havehave receivedreceived herehere involvedinvolved nono codescodes ofof secrecy,secrecy,”” ““indeedindeed thethe spreadingspreading ofof scientificscientific knowledgeknowledge andand technicaltechnical knowknow--howhow hashas beenbeen thethe veryvery spiritspirit ofof aa greatgreat traditiontradition ofof thisthis countrycountry everever sincesince itsits establishment.establishment.”” ““WeWe sincerelysincerely appealappeal toto you,you, Mr.Mr. President,President, toto makemake itit possiblepossible forfor anyany ChineseChinese studentstudent toto leaveleave thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates wheneverwhenever hehe chooseschooses andand wewe petitionpetition youyou toto revokerevoke thisthis restrainingrestraining order.order.”” ForFor moremore onon thethe impactimpact ofof 19491949 ZuoyueZuoyue Wang,Wang, ““TransnationalTransnational ScienceScience duringduring thethe ColdCold War:War: TheThe CaseCase ofof Chinese/AmericanChinese/American Scientists,Scientists,”” IsisIsis 101,101, no.no. 22 (June(June 2010):2010): 367367--377377.. WhatWhat HappenedHappened toto ThoseThose WhoWho ReturnedReturned HalfHalf ofof thethe leadersleaders ofof thethe ChineseChinese nuclearnuclear weaponsweapons projectsprojects werewere thosethose whowho returnedreturned fromfrom thethe USUS NuclearNuclear weaponsweapons projectsprojects inin thethe endend probablyprobably contributedcontributed toto thethe SinoSino--SovietSoviet splitsplit andand arguablyarguably benefitedbenefited thethe USUS inin thethe ColdCold WarWar PersecutionPersecution duringduring CulturalCultural RevolutionRevolution butbut forceforce forfor USUS--ChinaChina scientificscientific exchangeexchange afterafter NixonNixon AmericanizationAmericanization ofof ChineseChinese sciencescience butbut alsoalso SovietSoviet influenceinfluence andand ChineseChinese locallocal conditionsconditions TopsTops SixSix ForeignForeign CountriesCountries WhereWhere LeadingLeading ChineseChinese ScientistsScientists Studied,Studied, ca.ca. 19001900--19851985 Source: Li Peishan, “The Role of Western-Trained…” Country\Number No. of Chinese Percentage of 622 Scientists Trained Who Studied Abroad USA 393 59.4% Great Britain 91 13.7% Germany 54 8.2% France 35 5.3% Japan 34 5.1% Soviet Union 28 4.2% WhatWhat HappenedHappened toto ThoseThose WhoWho StayedStayed AntiAnti--CommunismCommunism drovedrove themthem toto avoidavoid politicspolitics andand pursuepursue professionalprofessional developmentdevelopment Lee,Lee, Yang,Yang, andand WuWu asas thethe firstfirst successsuccess storiesstories butbut alsoalso largelarge numbersnumbers ofof professionalsprofessionals ModelModel MinorityMinority AntiAnti--VietnamVietnam WarWar andand CivilCivil RightsRights movementsmovements DefendingDefending DiaoyudaoDiaoyudao movementmovement inin thethe earlyearly 1970s1970s NixonNixon visitvisit inin 19721972 markedmarked aa turningturning pointpoint CommunityCommunity formationformation andand reconnectingreconnecting withwith ChinaChina Yang,Yang, Lee,Lee, andand OtherOther NobelNobel Laureates,Laureates, 19601960 TheThe NixonianNixonian Exchange,Exchange, 19711971--19781978 19721972 ShanghaiShanghai CommuniquCommuniquéé highlightedhighlighted sciencescience andand technologytechnology ChineseChinese AmericanAmerican scientistsscientists visitedvisited ChinaChina inin largelarge numbersnumbers inin groupsgroups andand individuallyindividually inin thethe 1970s.1970s. EmotionalEmotional tripstrips andand expressionexpression ofof ChineseChinese culturalcultural nationalismnationalism TheyThey receivedreceived extensive,extensive, positive,positive, butbut superficialsuperficial presspress coveragecoverage inin ChinaChina ThroughThrough privateprivate interactionsinteractions withwith MaoMao ZedongZedong andand ZhouZhou Enlai,Enlai, theythey helpedhelped improveimprove