71-22,536
STUDER, Virginia Lee, 1943- AN EXPLORATION OF THE FUNCTION OF TIME AS A SOURCE OF VARIABILITY IN HUMAN MOVEMENT.
The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1971 Education, physical
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
(c)Copyright by
Virginia Lee Studer
1971 AN EXPLORATION OF THE FUNCTION OF TIME AS A SOURCE OF
VARIABILITY IN HUMAN MOVEMENT
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
by
Virginia Lee Studer, B.S., M.S
The Ohio State University
1971
Approved by
Adviser School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time.
T. S. Eliot, Little Giddlng
ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to acknowledge indebtedness to:
Professor Charles Mand whose patience, understanding and guidance through provocative questions brought the study from a possibility to a reality;
Professor Naomi Allenbaugh for her personal insight and critical suggestions of the concepts involved in the study;
Professor Margaret Mordy whose editorial assistance and personal encouragement made the task of preparing the manuscript infinitely easier;
Professor Dorothy Allen for her suggestions at crucial stages during the course of the investigation; and
Professors Marjorie Souder and Phyllis Hill whose adventures in ideas have continued to be a professional challenge and inspiration.
iii VITA
March 11, 1943 . . . Born— St. Charles, Illinois
1965 ...... B.S., University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
1965-1966 ..... Teaching Assistant, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
1966 ...... M.S., University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
1966-1968 ...... Instructor, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
1968-1971 ..... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Physical Education
Studies in Philosophy. Professors Charles Mand, Seymour Kleinman, Naomi Allenbaugh, Margaret Mordy, and Barbara Nelson
Studies in History. Professor Bruce Bennett
Studies in Perception. Professor Dorothy Allen
Studies in Research Design and Statistics. Professor Donald Matthews
Minor Field: Philosophy
Studies in History of Philosophy. Professors Paul Olscamp and Ivan Boh
Studies in Aesthetics and Existentialism. Professor Lee Brown
Studies in Logic and the Philosophy of Time. Professor Peter Machamer
Studies in Ethics. Professor Andrew Oldenquist
iv CONTENTS Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... iii
VITA ...... iv
CHAPTER
I THE PROBLEM ...... 1 Introduction 1 Rationale ...... 5 Statement of the problem ...... 9 Assumptions ...... 9 Definition of terms ...... 10 Procedures ...... 11 Limitations ...... 13
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 14 Introduction ..... 14 Systems of analyzing and recording human movement 15 Sys terns of reference for the temporality of human m o v e m e n t ...... 32 Man's orientation to time ...... 33 Man's perspective of time ...... 36 Measurement of t i m e ...... 44 Summary ...... 47 Function of time as a source of variability in human movement ...... 48 Temporal limits ...... 50 Temporal dimensions ...... 57 Temporal relations ...... 63 S u m m a r y ...... 72 Recent research studies related to time as a source of variability in human movement . . . 72 Reaction time ...... 74 R h y t h m ...... 79 Speed of movement ...... 83 Endurance ...... 87 Measurement ...... 89 Time estimation...... 90 Time allotments in games ...... 91 Experience of time ...... 92 M e m o r y ...... 92 Time allotments in practice ...... 95 Summary ...... 95 v CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER Page
II (continued) Summary and conclusions ...... 96
III THE CONSTRUCT ...... 98 Introduction ...... 98 Construct for the functions of temporal vari ability 103 Evaluation of the construct...... • * 105 Summary ...... 109
IV AN APPLICATION OF THE CONSTRUCT ...... 110 Introduction ...... 110 Application of the construct 113 Evaluation of the application...... 119 Summary ...... 121
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 123 Summary ...... 123 Conclusions ...... 126 Recommendations ...... 127
APPENDIX ...... 130
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 133
vi CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Time, which is everywhere yet nowhere, which Is intuitively obvious yet logically indefinable, which is as straightforward as a clock yet as paradoxical as relativity, has inevitably fascinated speculative minds in almost every age. Whereas analyses of time seem clear to some, to others time is irremediably obscure. Few ideas have engendered more philosophical argument than time. In addition to provoking opposite emotions from the poets, it seems to engage the philosophers in a dispute about its rationality. Men have become bewitched over statements which, on the slightest analysis, are found to express the most trivial truisms.
Although the Idea of time is traditionally linked with that of space and motion it seems to be a much more illusive concept.
Unlike space, which has generally seemed simple and obvious, time has been regarded as a dark subject of speculation, fundamentally enigmatic, even incomprehensible. For although man is rooted in space and motion, his memory and expectation enable him in a sense to en compass time, and thus save him from being merely rooted in it.
Time seems to give continuity and pattern to life, yet also brings disruption and death. Man not only reaches out to past and future, but also sometimes lifts himself above the whole of time by
conceiving the eternal and the immutable. Accepting the complexity
and difficulty of the concept of time, man is both curious and deeply
concerned about his relationship to time; for while it is unreal, it
has reality for him as an appearance owing to erroneous perception
from which he cannot seem to escape.
Our idea of time, even if epistemologically a priori in the sense that it is an essential presupposition of physical science, is a product of human evolution. On the other hand, our awareness of temporal phenomena would seem in the first instance to be based solely on fundamental and irreducible personal experience. Nevertheless, on further analysis it is clear that our perception of temporal phenomena like so much else that we are tempted to regard as irreducible, is a complex activity which we acquire by learning.^
An overview of expressed ideas concerning time reveals the possibility of four different orientations to related areas of inquiry.
The first and foundational area consists of questions concerning the
illusive nature of time, its reality or unreality, subjectivity or objectivity, its definition. The second area concerns the discussions of the various modes of existence which time assumes. Does time originate in the universe or in man? Is its form rectilinear or cyclical? What are past, present, and future? beginning and end?
The third area is concerned with man's understanding of and relation
ship to time; how man learns about time, his experience of duration,
the significance of his temporality. The fourth area consists of the various theories and ideas of the qualitative and quantitative measurement of time. These four areas when conceived in their inherent
^G. J. Whitrow, The Natural Philosophy of Time (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1961), p. 71. 3
breadth seem to be inclusive of the historical and diverse ideas of
time from Pythagoras through Einstein.
Usually emerging from a study of each area are at least two
views, sometimes conflicting and sometimes one as an extension of the
other. Most often the divergence is dependent on whether the per
spective has been physical or psychological time. These two perspectives
represent the nature of time, for example as either a logical construct
claiming objective validity (physical time) or as an immediate datum
of consciousness (psychological time). Much of the obscurity regarding
the nature of time has arisen from using without qualification the word
time to connote the two perspectives.
According to the outstanding analysis of time by Whitrow one
perspective is assumed by the idealistic philosophers and the modern 2 scientists who believe that time is neither ultimate nor irreducible.
The opposing view is prevalent both in the concepts of realistic philosophers and scientists as well as in common language usage.
Whitrow continues by rather uniquely identifying the central point of
the dispute between these rival views as the features of time for which there are no spatial analogies, including such concepts as 3 becoming or happening and past, present and future. However, this central focus of dispute has taken the form of many and varied views of time throughout history expressing man’s desire for permanence,
for the eternity of a ’now’ that stands still, or his restless weariness and his avidity for the novelties time holds in store.
2Ibid., 310.
3Ibid. 4
The problems of time, its own existence and process as well as
its relation to all other existence and change, its nature as an
aspect of experience and as an object of thought seem to belong to
many areas of study.
Few subjects have received more attention and advanced less than a study of the nature of time. It is a subject to which metaphysicians, psychologists, mathematicians, and physicists have approximately equal claims, and to it, at one time or another, all have devoted themselves. Approached from such different standpoints the subject ought to have been rapidly explored. Instead of this, the various investigators have hampered or ignored each other
In experimental or mathematical physics the theory of relativity as
diagrammed and applied by Einstein and Minkowski indicates that space
and time cannot be considered as independent variables but are super
seded by space-time. The two prevalent connotations attributed the 5 term time in the theory of relativity are motion and distance. Ac
cordingly, the study of the physical world is one involving a four
dimensional continuum, three of the dimensions being spatial and the
fourth temporal. The study of psychology, philosophy, theology, and
history, however, deal with time as distinguishable from space as
pure abstraction, recognizing its dependence, but also its distinc
tive characteristics. The various connotations attributed the term
time by these fields are according to Russell more often dealing with
the importance of time as "rather practical than theoretical, rather
in relation to our desires than in relation to truth."
^Mary Sturt, The Psychology of Time (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., Inc., 1925), p. 1. ^J. Walter Tomb, An Essay on Time (Princeton, New Jersey: Department of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1953), p. 9. ^B. Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1926), p. 181. Throughout the literature dealing with human movement as an
area of study, references are made to time and temporal relations in both the perspectives of physical time and psychological time, and
thus in some instances refer to space-time and in other instances refer
to time as an abstraction. Time limits as designated in the rules of various sports and games, rhythmic structures or sequential actions of particular movements, and the necessity for increased speed, re action and movement time appear to be examples of concerns for physical
time. An interest in psychological time is perhaps evidenced in references of human movement concerned with the change in the nature of the movement experience as for example, a result of duration and
fatigue. Thus it becomes readily apparent that time as distinguished from but also related to space is also a factor for consideration in
the area of study concerned with human movement.
Rationale
Every inquiry even when conducted in the most radical way is actually only an interim phase in the development of the investigation.
Consequently, its findings are always provisional, and its point of departure depends upon the theoretical situation to which it refers.
Hence although inquirers attempt to free themselves completely from historical influences and to be governed by purely objective con siderations in their discussions, they are nevertheless obliged, in the initial phase of the inquiry to relate it to some theoretical solution from the past, in order to group the problems for the moment in a provisional way. Thus the origin of the inquiry reported in the 6
following pages is both in reaction and relation to the numerous
attempts at theoretical solutions in physical education. It is one
phase of an attempt to identify and establish a provisional coherence
in order that clarity in aims and consistency in effort may be
achieved.
Throughout physical education literature there is evidence of
a yearning for a philosophy, a theory, or a structure that would give
the field direction, purpose, and dignity. There is a prevalence of
need, of insecurity and frustration which has led to the search for
some authoritative source of wisdom and guidance. For until the field
of physical education establishes a central core of purpose(s) around
which all lessor loyalties can be centered, its practices will be
frustrated, uncertain and perhaps disappointing.
. . . if a person who is professionally identified with a subject does not know clearly its nature, which includes not only what it is but also what it is not, then how can he know when he is a practitioner of his subject and when he is not? How can he know whether a question is relevant to this subject or not? How can he know what evidence is relevant to a problem? What kind of evidence is relevant in the demonstration of the truth of what kind of propositions and what kind of knowledge? If all this is not clear, a person may wander far afield from the subject he knows under the delusion that in some manner or other his special subject "proves" something in a subject about which he may know very little. The consequence is chaos in the order of knowledge, and a breakdown in the possibility of intelligent communication.?
One of the most recent possible trends in physical education
as evidenced by the literature seems to be a search for a means by which the substantive content of physical education can be expressed
Wm. Oliver Martin, The Order and Integration of Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1957), pp. 3-4. 7
with objectivity, with some degree of reliability, and with reference
to some coherent or comprehensive structure. The resultant research
reveals disagreement among physical educators concerning both the
content and the structure in which the content may be explored. Among
the most common sources of content are physical fitness, sport, the
social values of physical education activities and play, and human „ 8 movement.
With specific reference to human movement as the focus of
physical education various structures have been explored for the pre
sentation of the substantive content. Among the most prevalent are models, as graphic representations of relationships, theories, and varying types of philosophical analyses.
The attempt to subject the concepts involved in the study of human movement to language, where they can be analyzed and synthesized and where their precise meanings and mutual relations can be determined,
is an extremely difficult task; for the concepts underlying human movement are not easily or succinctly diagrammed or stated in serial order. Perhaps because they, like the concepts of art and music, are developed in a type of sensory experience, they are often better demonstrated than described or explained. However, non-verbal forms of communication are not always clearly understood, and it becomes necessary to clarify them in words.
As a result of the complexity of the task it is difficult at this initial exploratory stage to relate the ideas inherent in one
O Thomas J. Sheehan, "Sport: The Focal Point of Physical Education," Quest, X (May, 1968), pp. 59-67. structure of human movement to the ideas or concepts explored in the next; and what is significant in one may be meaningless in another.
Justifications of these differences are currently being discussed in conferences, meetings, and in many provocative articles, and will in
the end perhaps provide the additional ideas necessary for the identi
fication of the truths inherent in the area of inquiry that is human movement.
One of the few consistencies in the various attempted structures and discussions of human movement concerns the obvious and oftentimes assumed functions of space, time and force. Together they are often 9 referred to as elements of human movement, environmental variables influencing human movement,^ physical limits of human movement, ^ and 12 "inherent structures of human consciousness-body", to mention only a few. Although assumed by some and discussed in part by others ex ploring the dimensions of human movement, no logical analysis of any one of these factors has been attempted. If, as the literature indi cates, these factors are capable of describing or contributing to descriptions and explanations of human movement, then it would seem that further research into their individual and collective functions is indicated, and perhaps essential, if they are to be incorporated 9 Rudolph Laban and F. C. Lawrence, The Mastery of Movement, rev. Lisa Ullman (London: MacDonald and Evans, 1960), p. 110. ^Camille Brown and Rosalind Cassidy, Theory in Physical Education: A Guide to Program Change (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lea and Febiger, 1963), p. 74. ^*Ruth Abernathy and Maryann Waltz, "Toward a Discipline: First Steps First," Quest, II (April, 1964), p. 3. ^^Maxine Sheets, The Phenomenology of Dance (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 15. in a coherent structure for the study of human movement. As an initial
attempt in the exploration of the significance of one of these factors
in human movement, the following problem is submitted for study.
Statement of the problem
The problem of this study is the development of a construct
which elicits the temporal variables of human movement in order that
the function of time as a source of variability in human movement may
be explored. Consistent with this statement of the problem the study
seeks answers to the following questions.
1. What are the temporal variables of human movement as
evidenced in the literature concerning human movement?
2. Can human movement be analyzed exclusively in terms of
its temporal variables without losing its coherence as
a complete entity?
3. Can a construct of the temporal variables of human
movement elucidate the temporal components of a
specific organization of movements? In this study the
specific organization of movements is a written
description of a women's gymnastics floor exercise
routine.
Assumptions
The study is based on the following assumptions.
1. Time is a source of variability in human movement.
2. Human movement can be examined in the absence of its
occurrence; one means of examination is written description. 10
3. A written description of specific human movements can
be subjected to temporal analysis.
4. An examination of the literature concerning human move
ment suggests the components of temporal variability in
human movement.
5. A women*s floor exercise routine which has been written
for and executed in gymnastics competition is a
representative organization of human movement.
Definition of terms
The following terms are defined for clarification of their
use within the context of the study.
Time
A general, non-spatial order in which events occur or appear to occur in succession or simultaneously.
Function
The action for which a thing is specifically fitted, used or responsible; the activity appropriate to the nature or position of a thing.13
Variability 14 The quality or fact of being changeable or subject to change.
Construct
A meaningful arrangement of something by a process of mental synthesis, such as: an object of thought constituted by the ordering or systematic uniting of experiential elements and of terms and relations.15
Philip G. Gove and Others, (eds.) Webster*s Third New Inter national Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (Springfield* Mass.: G. and C. Merriam Company, 1961), p. 920. l4Ibid., p. 2533. 15Ibid., p. 489. 11
Heuristic Device
A tool serving to guide, discover, or reveal; valuable for stimulating or conducting empirical research but unproved or incapable of proof; often used of arguments, methods or constructs that assume or postulate what remains to be proven.10
Human Movement
Any voluntary purposeful act of man resulting in change of position or place.
Floor Exercise
A gymnastics routine performed on the floor combining continuous sequential tumbling and transitional moves set to music and completed within a specified time and space requirement.^
Procedures
The investigation includes an examination of the literature
concerning human movement. The criteria for the selection of the
literature is as follows:
1. Sources which are primarily associated with human move
ment as it may be distinguished from other areas of study
by subject matter,
2. Sources which deal with considerations of human movement
in the dimensions of daily tasks, play, games, sport,
and dance, and
3. Sources which include discussions of the general nature
of the above mentioned dimensions of human movement
rather than those sources primarily concerned with the
^ Ibid., p. 1064. 17 Dorothy MacLean (ed.), Gymnastics Guide (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1963), p. 35-36. 12
specific methodology, execution or direction of
particular dimensions of human movement.
While considerable freedom exists in the range of literature
reviewed, an attempt has been made to use that material which has
been published in the last twenty-five years. Older material has
been reviewed when it appears particularly relevant to the study. A
working bibliography has been developed from literature meeting the
criteria. Sources listed in the working bibliography have been re
viewed, and selected or eliminated as a reference dependent upon
relevance to the problem. From the literature reviewed a topical
framework has been developed for presentation of the selected sources.
A report of the review of selected literature appears in Chapter II.
Consistent with and evolving from the review of selected
literature a construct has been developed as an heuristic device for
the examination of the function of time as a source of variability
in human movement. The construct is stated in the form of questions
directed toward eliciting the temporal variables of human movement.
The development of the construct appears in Chapter III.
Chapter IV consists of one test of the developed construct
through an examination of a written description of a particular organization of humrn movement. The particular organization examined
is a women's floor exercise routine which has been written for and
executed In gymnastics competition. The complete description of the
selected floor exercise routine appears in the Appendix.
A summary and assessment of the function of time as a source of variability in human movement as elicited through the particular 13
construct developed appears in Chapter V. Implications for further use of the construct as well as recommendations for related study are also included in the chapter.
Limitations
The study is limited in comprehensiveness by the following:
1. The literature reviewed is that available from The Ohio
State University and its affiliates;
2. From the many patterns and organizations of human move
ment possible only one written description of a women's
gymnastic floor exercise routine is examined by the
construct in the study; and
3. The construct is limited in scope and design by the
literature reviewed. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
That man moves and organizes his movement is apparent. Human movement allows the life of man to become varied in content, replete with action as well as reason, with adventure as well as contemplation, with danger as well as responsibility. Through movement man is able to discover and express his keenest satisfactions, his creative powers and his most rewarding successes; he is able to discover and understand and thereby adapt and control his environment; and he is able to explore both self and other awareness. The process of attempting to understand human movement as a phenomenon presently requires a cross study of several areas of inquiry into the nature of man, including psychology, philosophy, physiology, and physical education.
The many and varied discussions of human movement in the literature necessitates the development of some logical frame of reference for the presentation of the knowledge concerning the temporal variability of human movement, other than the traditional subject matter areas mentioned above. A frame of reference divided into four parts, seems to lend clarity to the voluminous and oftentimes confusing discussions of human movement as a phenomena. The first part discusses the various formal and informal systems which have been developed and used for analyzing and recording human movement. The second part 14 15 describes man's systems of reference for the temporality of human movement as they are distinguishable in the literature. The third part delineates the function of time as a source of variability in human movement; and the fourth and last part describes studies related to the function of time as a source of variability in human movement.
Systems of analyzing and recording human movement
Some ideas are as inexpressible in human language as they are incapable of being fully grasped by human thought. Man's search for meaning in all that he is and does, however, has necessitated that he consciously study and master all forms of language. Movement is one of man's languages. Therefore, an attempt must be made to identify its real structure and order through which it becomes penetrable, meaningful and understandable.
Analyses of human movement are prevalent throughout the literature. Many, however, are restricted to a particular kind or style of movement, and relatively few reveal the uniquenesses inherent in all that is human movement. The analysis of human movement by
Rudolf Laban is one of the exceptions. Laban recognized human movement as a natural expression of the whole man and the result of responses which arise from an inner life. His analysis "comprehends all kinds of bodily, emotional and mental movements and their notation;"^ and his system "embraces the various applications of movement to work, education and art, as well as to regenerative processes in the widest sense."„2
^Rudolf Laban, Choreutics (London: Macdonald and Evans, 1966), p. 8. 2 Ibid. 16
Basic to an understanding of Laban's system of analyzing movement is his concept of effort as the inner impulse from "which all movement originates. Throughout his studies into the art of movement and meaning of movement expression, Laban accounted for both quanti tative and qualitative aspects of his four established effort-characters of movement: weight, space, time and flow. Where the concern is how the exertions of space-time-weight are spent the effort characters are viewed qualitatively. For example, time appears as a quality when movement contains the effort-elements of suddenness, quickness or I slowness. An effort element in weight may be firm or gentle. The firm element has a strong resistance to weight and a feeling of heaviness. Conversely, the gentle element consists of a lesser degree of resistance and a feeling of lightness. The quantitative aspect of the four effort characters is discussed as he wrote:
It is a mechanical fact that the weight of the body, or any of its parts, can be lifted and carried into a certain degree of space, and that this process takes a certain amount of time, depending on the ratio of speed. The same mechanical conditions can also be observed in any counter-pull which regulates the flow of movement.^
Laban thereby developed a system of movement analysis based on the effort characters of weight, space, time and flow, their combinations and sequences as well as their significance. For Laban these char acters are "the key to understanding what could be called the alphabet of the language of movement: and it is possible to observe and analyze movement in terms of this language."
3 Rudolf Laban, The Mastery of Movement, rev. Lisa Ullman (London: Macdonald and Evans, 1960), p. 23. 4Ibid., p. 110. 17
A system of recording pertinent facts from an analysis of a
movement or sequence of movements was further developed by Laban.
This system, known as Labanotation in America and Kinetography Laban
in Europe, allows for the recording of all forms of movement, ranging
from the simplest to the most complex through a conversion of the
effort characters of space-time-force and the parts of the body involved
into symbols which can be read on a graph and then reconverted into
movement. The standard Labanotation has been primarily a graphic
representation of the quantitative aspect of the effort-characters.
Thus movement description has been expressed in terms of:
the body— the specific parts that move; space— the specific direction, level, distance, or degree of motion; time— meter and duration, such as a whole note, a sixteenth; and dynamics— the quality or "texture" of the movement, whether it is strong, heavy, elastic, accented, emphasized, etc.-*
One of the most valuable aspects of Labanotation that has developed through its use is the vertical dimension of time on the graph. For any graph with a time scale can be written beside a kinetogram. To correlate the two graphs all that is necessary is to use the same time scale in each.
This is likely to be done in research work where information of different kinds about an action is compared or correlated. The most likely types of graph are: (a) those recording the aspects of the mechanics of the motion; (b) those recording the types of perception of the mover; Cc) those assessing the dynamics experienced by the mover; and Cd) those recording changes in the function of parts of the body's mechanism during movement.6
^Ann Hutchinson, Labanotation (New York: A Theatre Arts Book, 1970), p. 12. ^Valerie Preston-Dunlop, Practical Kinetography Laban (New York: Dance Horizon Incorporated, 1969), p. 204. 18
After Labanotation was established as an effective means of
analyzing and recording human movement, Laban did a study of "industrial
rhythm" in England during World War II as part of a new efficiency
concept in management. He found that the quality of movement was by
far more important in defining efficiency and gaining an understanding
of the specific talents and character of a worker than was the
structural design of movement. Varying compositions of dynamic
elements were found to be characteristic of an individual and could
be noted in his working movements, his gesturing, his gait, etc. Laban
struggled for many years to notate this quality of movement in a graphic
way. To identify the elements of dynamics he left the graphic symbols
and basic definitions of movement expressed in Labanotation and founded
a new system of notation, presently referred to as Effort-Shape.
The word "effort" referred to the way in which the energy of
the movement was modulated to produce the rhythmic or ebb and flow
quality in movement. "Shape" referred specifically to the adaptive
and expressive form of movement in relation to the space which sur
rounded it. Laban used Effort-Shape to make industrial Aptitude
Assessments, assessing and comparing particular job requirements and
samples of the individual worker's movement variations. Effort-Shape
has also been used by itself to describe the dynamic qualities of
particular dance movements, and is also presently used in conjunction with Labanotation in an attempt to record both the quantitative and
qualitative aspect of human movement.
Throughout his years of researching human movement, Laban had
several assistants and many students. As is inevitable and perhaps 19 desirable in a developing study the specific techniques of Laban became fluid, amenable to individual fluctuation and influenced by a general urge to explore. This has unavoidably led to difficulties both in identifying techniques which can be specifically attributed to Laban, and those that are not. Thus the original findings of Laban have contributed to several other systems of analyzing and recording human movement, and also have had a wide range of use in the many fields concerning movement behavior.
Warren Lamb was Laban's assistant during hip industrial rhythm study during World War II. Lamb continued to apply and vary Laban's effort-shape system toward the concerns of management behavior. In his first book, Posture and Gesture, Lamb explored the possibilities of answering the questions: "(l) What part or parts of the body are moving? and (2) What are they doing?"^ through an effort-shape analysis of posture and gesture. In his analysis shape variation is attributed three planes, horizontal, vertical and sagittal. These planes have corresponding effort variations.
Horizontal--the effort of direction Vertical— pressure increase or decrease g Sagittal— speed acceleration or deceleration
The underlying assumption of Lamb's system of analysis was that although it is more difficult to observe a process of variation as it happens, this is what is done intuitively as one observes and is influenced by other people's behavior.
^Warren Lamb, Posture and Gesture (London: Duckworth, 1965), p. 12. 8 Ibid., p. 21. 20
He further developed his system of observation with David
Turner in Management Behaviour. In this book the intent of the system
is stated clearly in the premises.
a. Non-verbal communication through physical movement behavior happens and might as well be acknowledged. b. Non-verbal communication has an influence over manager's actions and it ought to be questioned how effective this influence is relative to the objectives being pursued, and to what extent it can be controlled.
The advantages to the system outlined by Lamb, as opposed to
Labanotation or Effort-Shape, were that all the techniques described
could be "applied by normally intelligent and observant people without
any training.and that, if for no other reason, "such observation
was worthwhile for its own sake as it made life more interesting."^
Another system being developed in relation to Laban's Effort-
Shape is that of Choreometrics. Being developed by Alan Lomax,
Irmgard Bartenieff, and Forrestine Paulay, choreometrics differs from
other variations of the Laban system of analyzing and recording human movement, in that it seeks the comparative aspects of cultural move ment style rather than just personal movement style. The aim of
choreometrics is "to record and note regularities and contrasts in movement pattern sufficiently frequent and gross to produce units 12 universally applicable in cross-cultural studies." The system evolved from a film survey of movement style from many cultures. The
9 Warren Lamb and David Turner, Management Behaviour (New York: International Universities Press, 1969), p. 33. *^Lamb, Posture and Gesture, p. 122. 11Ibid., p. 26. 12 Alan Lomax, Folk Song Style and Culture (Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1968), p. 223. 21 authors believed that the dance in a particular culture communicated something about life in that culture; it focused on the favored move ment patterns which most successfully and frequently animated the everyday activity of most of the people in the culture.
The choreometric coding system is based on the Laban Effort-
Shape system, but because the detail of the Laban system seemed to obliterate the easily observable differences between the movement patterns of different cultures, the parameters of the Effort-Shape system were adjusted to the needs of cultural rather than personal style.
The coder records an impression of an overall or dominant behavioural style of movement that animates a whole scene or activity. He should not attempt to count or to break down actions or scenes into separate parts or small com ponents, but to record his careful judgment as to what ^ strong, clear patterns characterize the whole scene . . .
Although choreometrics has not yet been thoroughly tested for reliability, and does not yet have an agreed upon approach to "cohesive- 14 ness, synchrony, group form and group dynamics," results do indicate that there may be cultural models of movement style. If so, once they are identified they may be used both in the comparison of movement patterns cross-culturally and in the discovery of key movement patterns of behavior within one culture.
Motif description, sometimes attributed to Laban, and first 15 discussed by Valerie Preston-Dunlop, is another variation of the
l3Ibid., p. 264. l4Ibid., p. 261. ^Valerie Preston-Dunlop, Introduction to Kinetography Laban (London: Macdonald and Evans, 1966). 22
Laban systems. Motif description provides a general statement of the
theme or most salient feature of a movement. It attempts to pinpoint
the motivation of a movement, its idea, aim or intention. Written on
a simplified staff it gives only an outline of the performed movement.
In 1947 Rudolf Benesh began devising his own system of move ment notation. During the next seven years he worked intensively on
this system in collaboration with Joan Benesh (who became a soloist
in what was later called the Royal Ballet). Throughout the develop ment of the system the Beneshes held fast to certain basic principles which were all important if the notation was to become a really
practical and efficient tool.
Everything had to be kept simple and visual, with no prolif eration of symbols; everything had to be kept consistent, developing logically out of the basic signs; and redundancy had to be kept down to a low level, ensuring the greatest possible economy of time and paper.^
By 1955 the notation system was adopted for use in the Royal
Ballet and Royal Ballet School. Later other companies throughout the
United Kingdom and in other countries adopted this same system.
Although its initial use was limited to the formal aspects of ballet,
its significance has become clear in other fields such as neurology, physiotherapy, ethnology and physical education.
Among the advantages perceived in the Benesh movement notation are its correlation with music notation in recording time, and its use of movement lines which serve to summarize an infinite number of records of salient positions, thereby making it economical and efficient.
^Rudolf Benesh and Joan Benesh, Introduction to Benesh Dance Notation (London: Black, 1956), p. 76. 1?Ibid., pp. 80-83. 23
Another system of analyzing and recording human movement which
does not appear to be dependent on Laban is Movement Notation,
developed by Noa Eshkol and Abraham Wachmann.
The field of interest of this notation is the formal aspect of movement, and it is to be stressed that this is the formal aspect of the relations and change of relations between the parts of the body. Since the notation is used for dealing with the formal aspect of movement alone, it is therefore of no relevance for its construction and use to know why— from what cause and for what purpose a movement is performed.
One of the fundamental distinctions between Laban's quantitative
and qualitative systems and movement notation is that while Labanotation was concerned with the planes of orientation for movement, the Eshkol and Wachmann system is concerned with the structure of movement as it may be described by axial lines. That is, movement notation describes
the change in relationship of the long axis of the limb and the axis of the joint of the moving limb. This change in relationship is always divisible in terms of a circle since the two axes may function as radii. Thus, the system discussed in Movement Notation evidences
the need to identify just what it is that is meant by movement as a 19 "relation of body time."
The practical applications of the formal systems of analyzing and recording human movement are many and varied. Although initially used primarily in dance the value of notating has been acknowledged in
Noa Eshkol and Abraham Wachmann, Movement Notation (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1958), p. 5. 19 Ibid., p. 2. 24 20 21 22 physical therapy, industry, gymnastics, and various sports, such 23 as swimming. Presently, not very much has been published, for
example in the area of sports; however, professional notators would
seem to be making every attempt possible to explore the needs of the
various sport movements in order that either additional symbols could
be developed or combinations of present symbols accomplished.
A different kind of analyzing and recording of human movement
occurs in the study of kinesiology. Unlike the purely descriptive
analyses described above, kinesiological analyses describe and explain
how the movement or movements occur. As a result of the complexity of
the explanation it is usually only possible to analyze one movement
whole at a time, whereas in the analyses previously discussed it is
possible to consider more than one movement whole and more than one
mover.
Kinesiological analyses usually begin with the observation of
man’s movement behavior. Such observation includes details of joint
action as range, speed, and sequence. Attempting to understand these
actions necessitates an understanding of: physics for mechanical and
gravitational laws; anatomy for the structures of bone, muscle, and
nerve; and physiology and neurophysiology for the action of muscle and
nerve.
20 Irmgard Bartenieff, Effort Observation and Effort Assessment in Rehabilitation (New York: Dance Notation Bureau, 1962). 21 Preston-Dunlop, Practical Kinetography Laban, p. 200. 22Ibid., p. 197. 23 Ann Lee Lilly, "A Method of Notating Synchronized Swimming Based on Principles Adapted from the Labanotation System" (unpublished Master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1964). 25
The use of cinematography for kinesiological studies of athletes and industrial workers has become commonplace. An important recent development in the study of human movement is the use of cineradiographic and electromyographic techniques. In time, advances in technique may make it possible to record the complete sequence of musculoskeletal movements rather than only a fraction of them. A fascinating new parameter to kinesiological analysis was revealed with the invention of the electronic stroboscope. This instrument, which is capable of exposures as short as one millionth of a second, can record in a series of instantaneous photographs an entire sequence of movement. Although the potentialities of this apparatus for kinesiological analysis have not yet been determined, it seems particularly promising for analyzing the various sequences of skilled movement.
Kinesiological analysis has found its greatest practical ap plications in the fields of athletics, time and motion study, and the various services in physical medicine and rehabilitation. As the complexities of the analyses increase through the use of electro encephalography and cybernetics, it is possible however, to predict far more extensive use of such analyses in all phases of movement behavior.
One of the most recent possible trends in analyzing and re cording human movement as evidenced by the literature appears to encompass the concept of the significance of movement as a non-verbal symbolic form. Such a concept has required research into a new dimen sion, movement as it is experienced in organic context, with attention 26
being directed toward "lived" movement experience, kinetic phenomenon,
and the integrated individual in process of thinking, feeling and ex
pressing. A common practice of researchers of the concept has been a
turn (or return) to philosophy for the means by which the universal phenomenon of movement may be analyzed. These more recent analyses differ from the empirical analyses in that they refer to the experi encing itself and the meaning formed as it is experienced, and not to an abstraction of the experience or meaning from a particular situation to another situation. The value of such analyses lies in the success of the variables and the predictive operational hypothesis to which they lead with reference to the qualitative data of experiencing meaning, as opposed to possible quantitative data descriptive of the situation alone or man as object in the situation. With two exceptions, 24 25 Metheny and Weiss, philosophical analyses thus far have been in terms of experiential descriptions of particular movement experiences or analyses of various forms of movement experiences.
Eleanor Metheny, in conjunction with Lois Ellfeldt, based her analysis of the meaning of human movement on the philosophy of symbolic transformation.
A tentative general theory of the meaning of human movement- kinesthesia as a somatic-sensory experience which can be conceptualized by the human mind was developed within the context of the basic assumptions of the philosophy of symbolic transformation as they relate to the nature of the process which enables human beings to find meaning in their sensory perceptions.26
Lois Ellfeldt and Eleanor Metheny, "Movement and Meaning: Development of a General Theory," Research Quarterly, XXIX (October, 1958), pp. 264-273. 25 Paul Weiss, Sport, A Philosophic Inquiry (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969). 26 Ellfeldt and Metheny, p. 264. 27
The essential elements common to all forms of human movement were identified by the authors as: structural, perceptual and conceptual.
A movement vocabulary was then developed to refer to these elements in their most general form.
Kinestruct is the visually perceivable form of the movement experience. Kinecept is the kinesthetically perceivable form of the /movement experience. Both the Kinestruct and Kinecept are susceptible to meaningful interpretation by the mover which can be identified as a Kinesymbol. Thus the meaning of the ^ kinecept is expressed by the kinestruct in Kinesymbolic Form.
Thus it would appear that even the rudiments of this particular analysis have attributed an intellectual content to the movement ex perience demonstrating that "man's movements are intellectually- emotionally meaningful to him, and that he expresses those meanings . . „28 by moving."
Seymour Kleinman appears to have taken a most interesting approach to experiential descriptions of particular movement experi ences. He refers to his method of describing the nature of the con crete experience as phenomenology, which is a complex inquiry into consciousness. From the viewpoint of philosophy this method, outlined and explored by Husserl, Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty, involves extremely complicated psychological concepts involving the thesis of intentionality. On the other hand Kleinman*s descriptions of particu lar movements include merely what is going on as it is happening. The method for describing brackets out or treats as irrelevant all elements
Eleanor Metheny, Connotations of Movement in Sport and Dance (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, Publishers, 1965), pp. 59-61. ^Ibid., p. 62. 28 that are not fundamental to the experiential nature of the movement act. In other words there are no abstractions or explanations, "it 29 doesn’t deal with Inferences, hypotheses or theories." Whether or not these criteria qualify Kleinman's method as phenomenology is open to philosophic debate. However, the method of describing which he purports does reveal the nature of the concrete experience of moving in a way in which it has not been viewed before, and it is thus valuable and necessary to any system of analyzing and recording human movement which intends to be complete.
Of those studies which have used phenomenological or experi ential descriptions of particular movement experiences, Patricia
Thomson’s description of a golf game in which she was the participant and the investigator is presently the most thorough. Her phenomeno logical description of the movement experience is based entirely upon the theoretical construct of Merleau-Ponty which she interpreted as 30 applicable to all and every phenomenal experience. Whether or not it is legitimate to assume a relationship of correspondence between two coexistent phenomenal experiences (such as the processes of thinking and moving) is a matter for philosophic inquiry. However, it suffices to state here that the results of her investigation did reveal many of the qualitative, experienced data of the particular set of movements, and that the strict correspondence to Merleau-Ponty*s
Seymour Kleinman, "Phenomenology and the Dance," Journal of Aesthetic Education II (October, 1968), p. 127. 30 Patricia Thomson, "Ontological Truth in Sport: A Phenomenological Analysis," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967). 29
theoretical construct did provide a logical frame of reference for the
presentation of that data.
In her ’’Phenomenological Study of Movement Behavior" Sara
Houston proposed to investigate subjective reactions to experienced
movement both pre-reflectively and reflectively, and to observe move- 31 ment as a revelation of personality structure. The subjects in her
study performed individual movement improvisations before a video
camera. Various physical objects (rope, bench, volleyball, three
inflated balloons, etc.) were placed around the room to arouse move
ment response. The objects were spatially and sequentially ordered
but the improvisation was temporally unrestricted. When the subjects
had completed their improvisation they went to an adjacent room to
write "prereflectively," after which the subjects crossed the room
and wrote "reflectively." Two days later the subjects took the
Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Test and viewed and rated the movement improvisations in terms of what was done, how it was done
and their total impression. Although the results of the study indi
cate that persons reveal something of their inner attitude through movement and that an interpreter may receive a global impression of
the purpose of the inner person, it is highly unlikely from a philo
sophical view that the study could be considered phenomenological in nature, since by design it was necessary to quantify the data to
correlate it with the quantitative results of the personality test.
At least three of the major attempts to analyze various forms of movement experience must be acknowledged. Maxine Sheets attempted
31 Sara Houston, "A Phenomenological Study of Movement Behavior,” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1967). 30
a phenomenological description of the dance; Howard Slusher explored
the existential concern for man's involvement in sport; and Paul Weiss
explored sport as an area for general philosophic inquiry.
Maxine Sheets, in her book, Phenomenology of Dance, explains
the components of dance as force, rhythm, space and dynamic line.
Mrs. Sheets writes that her "account of the dance is actually an
elaboration of an original phenomenological description presented by 32 Susanne Langer in her book Feeling and Form." Attempting to apply
the aesthetic categories of Langer to the dance, Mrs. Sheets analyzes
the "illusion of force" and "virtual force." Thus it is evident that
Mrs. Sheets, in direct contrast to Kleinman, uses phenomenology as an
explanatory method. In addition she has attempted to superimpose the
aesthetic categories of Miss Langer on the dance, resulting in a theory or view of dance which appears quite contrived, but one that does contain some interesting speculations.
Howard Slusher, in Man, Sport and Existence: A Critical
Analysis, is primarily concerned with an analysis of the ontological dimension of sport. That is, he attempts to analyze the intricate meanings inherent to man within the sport process. Although
Dr. Slusher's analysis reveals many interesting observations about sport and man, the philosophic integrity of his analysis is insufficient. 33 As made apparent in the review by Jan Broekhoff, Slusher has also attempted to superimpose a philosophical framework, that of existen- .
^Staxine Sheets, Phenomenology of Dance (Madison: The Uni versity of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 32. 33 Jan Broekhoff, "Cues to Reading," Quest X (May, 1968), pp. 72-74. 31
tialism, on the nature of sport, and again as a result appears to be
caught in a web of confusing terminology which contributes little to
an in depth analysis of sport, but which does stimulate questions,
the answers to which may provide such an analysis.
Sport: A Philosophic Inquiry written by Paul Weiss evidences
the author*s concern as a metaphysician to relate sport through the
athlete to ideals of being. Weiss' definition of sport as "a
traditionalized set of rules to be exemplified by men who try to be 34 excellent in and through their bodies," demonstrates his application
of the term "sport" to only highly specialized athletic games and
contests, and his concern for the ideal of sport, as it ought to be,
as opposed to how it probably is. However, throughout the book his
analysis of the ideal in sport reveals many interesting and valuable relationships between for example, the elements of time and space in
sport, and the relationships among play, sport and athletics.
In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that there are in existence literally thousands of individualized systems of analyzing and recording human movement, most of which refer primarily to one particular organization of movement. Some of these systems relate directly either to the formal or informal systems described above while others are specific to the needs and demands of one particular activity in a given situation. For example, it is possible to conceive that the coach of each major sport has his own variation of a system for analyzing, recording and communicating the particular skills and strategies of the sport with which he is concerned. Further, it is
^Weiss, p. 143. 32
possible that these systems may be universalized to all human movement, however their use is not dependent upon their universality.
Systems of reference for the temporality of human movement
Time is the most immaterial thing there is, and without it the material does not matter. It is something, yet of itself nothing.
There are certain considerations that would make man suspect that it does not exist at all or at best in a rather obscure way. For part of it has gone and is no longer, and part is still to come and is not yet. A thing which is composed of non existent parts can hardly seem to deserve the name of existent. Yet man both has an experiential awareness of time and knows the correct use of temporal language.
However, he is mysteriously reduced to silence when he tries to verbalize this understanding, for any definition proposed suffers from circularity since it must employ some temporal expression in the definiens.
All discussions of time lead sooner or later to fundamental problems of a metaphysical kind. To ask what is the nature of time is, in effect, to ask what is reality, and on the subjective side . . . to investigate our awareness of time is to raise fundamental problems of the origin of experience. Neither psychology nor physics attempts to grasp the problem of the nature of time in its full significance; the one is merely concerned with our subjective awareness of time and the other confines itself largely to considerations of measurement. The problem of the nature of time remains therefore a metaphysical problem.
Of the many and varied discussions concerning the nature of time there appear to be three systems of reference to time which are implicit in a study of human movement. Man's orientation to time
35 J. Alexander Gunn, The Problem of Time (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1929), p. 371. forms one system which consists of a series of concepts concerning man's conception of time as one of the objective schemes of nature.
Man's perspective of time forms another system which refers to man's understanding of his own temporality within the temporal scheme of nature as he has conceived it, and how this understanding affects his perception of time throughout his daily living. The measurement of time is a third system of reference which seems to have two distinct but related aspects, one referring to objective and scientific measures and the other referring to the estimation of the experienced duration.
Man's orientation to time
Historically man's orientation to time has assumed that time is essentially unidimensional and that there is a unique time sequence associated with the universe as a whole. The former assumption seems to arise from man's awareness of a definite before and after sequence of events in his own immediate conscious experience. The latter seems to be an immense extrapolation from that experience to the universe as a whole.
Despite its general appeal, due to perhaps a deep-rooted natural tendency to correlate the microcosm (oneself) with the macrocosm (the universe), this idea of a single world wide time order is, nevertheless a highly sophisticated concept. It is an intellectual hypothesis which far transcends our perceptions of phenomena. For the order of succession of our perceptions cannot be regarded as identical with the order of succession of the external events which initiate the respective chains of phenomena resulting in these perceptions.36
Whitrow, p. 176. 34
Man is aware of certain amounts of duration and also of a succession of events. This knowledge is at the perceptual level of experience. Time is a percept. However, as man increases and organizes his knowledge, and brings to bear his powers of analysis, synthesis and abstraction, he arrives at a concept of time. Perceptual time and conceptual time are not always alike in their characteristics.
For example, time as perceived is always limited. Man never perceives the whole of time. It is also perceived as sensibly continuous, having a certain directional quality; it is transitive and related in its content to the subject at the moment of experience. However, time as conceived is unlimited in character, is regarded as infinitely divisible and mathematically continuous as an infinite series.
Further, it is conceived as involving an objective order of before- and-after, which is not to be equated with the past, present or future of man.
The correlation of the times of different private worlds so as to produce the one all-embracing time of traditional physics is only approximately possible, for the reasons which led to the theory of relativity.^'
Einstein's theory was based on the assumption that there are no instantaneous connections between external events and the observer.
First, in his Special Theory, Einstein demonstrated that the time of an event was not absolute but dependent on its position in space.
This idea was expressed in two forms: first, in the time-dilation effect he asserted that two observers, moving at a great velocity relative to one another will each see the other in slow motion, as if
^Russell, p. 130. 35 everything to do with the other were running "behind time;" and second, he stressed the fact that two observers at different distances from an event will see it at different times.
All our observations of distant events are associated with some time-lag. This means that the world as observed at a given instant of individual time cannot be identified with the world as it is at a definite instant of universal time, for more distant an object, the greater the time lag between it and the observer.38
Later in his General Theory Einstein demonstrated that time was also relative to mass, thereby completing his explanation, and removing man from a three-dimensional universe existing in "Absolute time" and placing him in a four-dimensional world and a space-time continuum.
Thus man's orientation to time, his determination of his position in the universe, is one-dimensional. By this is meant that one temporal coordinate measuring temporal interval suffices to identify uniquely any instant in the one-time. To identify any instant it is necessary only for man to identify how long it was in the one time after or before some specified instant. Time is of logical necessity, unbounded, for after every period of time which has some instant end, there must be another period of time, and after every instant another instant.
Yet man's orientation to time objectively valid as it is, seems to be quite estranged from his subjective perspective of the experience of time. What is logically clear and valid seems to be perceptually false and often meaningless. So wide is the gap between these two analyses of time that each seems to be quite irrelevant to
^Whitrow, p. 183. 36 the other, although man is both familiar and dependent on each system.
It is this dilemma, or apparent paradox between man's orientation to time and his perspective of time which sets the general frame of reference for any inquiry into the meaning of time. Nowhere, perhaps, is the dichotomy between the world of experience and the world of scientific concepts more striking than in the notions of time, pre cisely because time as experienced has such crucial significance for human life in general and the scientific analysis of time seems to disregard this significant connection.
Man's orientation to time is as an objective structure of the time relation in nature, and as such must serve to preserve his per spective of time, which originates with the unidimensional character of his own life. For man's concept of time, of moments before and after, continuum, etc. becomes a schematic relationship of units into which his experience can be specified. Experience apart from such specifi cation cannot be considered as temporal or as in a temporal system.
Man's perspective of time
The unidimensional character of time is of value to man because it defines his existence. He does not live apart from time, but within it, a plural identity of one essence. "It seals his mortality ending alike his troubles and joys. It Is the condition and limit of all he 39 has and his opportunities." Thus, man is a temporal being, not by reason of some vagary of the human make-up, but by virtue of an inner necessity. _ R. M. Maclver, The Challenge of the Passing Years (New York: Simon and Shuster, 1962), p. xxiii. All endurance or transience seems to be relative to man's temporality, and above all to his individual life span. For all things other than the primary infinitesimals are always changing, but since the change is fast or slow, obvious or hidden, drastic or minor, man identifies some as enduring and others as transient. He speaks of the everlasting hills, but of course they sink and rise. He speaks of the eternal stars, but though they last billions of years, they too are in process. They have their beginnings and their endings they expand and shrink; they are younger or older, intensely bright or descending toward darkness.
Man's perspective of time thus emanates from the immediate awareness he has of his own synthesized yet never achieved temporal totality.
Man does not have a past since he is his past in the mode of not being it; he is always already present. He does not have a present, but i_s_ his present in the mode of not fixed in the instant . . . Finally he does not have a future since he is his future in the mode of not being it; his future is not yet, but is outlined upon the present out of which he moves toward the future as to a goal. Man comprises tern- porality within himself, for he is such an ekstatic being.
As a temporal being man lives in the now, in each new emergent now. He has lived through the past, and expects to live into the future. He is aware of his duration from moment to moment, but it is only in the present that he can think and do, only in the present can things happen to him. He cannot feel past pains or enjoy future pleasures, although the memory of past pains may affect present feelings, and the anticipation of future pleasures may give some
^Sheets, p. 1 6 . 38 present enjoyment. The present is the time of living and the time of either remembering past living or preparing for future living. The present is his synthesized temporality.
Aside from his own temporality, man's actual perception of time as an aspect of his daily living is a complex process. Beneath the level of consciousness beat the innumerable clocks of cellular and physiological activity, culminating in the alpha rhythm of the cerebral cortex. "A major focus in the physiological correlates of the experience of time has involved efforts to specify an organic or 41 physiological locus for the time sense." On the basis of evidence available it has been concluded that physiological hypotheses are in- 42 adequate as an explanation of man's perception of time. However, it is acknowledged that man has a certain kind of internal, physio logic time which "defines the variegated rates occurring within the 43 individual's corporeal systems." Regardless, man's conscious aware ness of temporal phenomena is thought to involve psychological factors more than physiological factors. For temporal perception would seem to be "dominated by the tempo of attention and acquired by learning."
Further it is subject to variations due to for example, nostalgia, joy, hope, pain, and the working of memory. Thus man's perception of time would seem to arise from his experience.
4Hi. Wallace and A. I. Rabin, "Temporal Experience," Psychological Bulletin, LVII (i960), p. 226. 42 A. R. Gilliland, Jerry Hofeld, and Gordon Eckstrand, "Studies in Time Perception," Psychological Bulletin, XXXXIII (1946), pp. 162-176. 43 Ray H. Barsch, Achieving Perceptual Motor Efficiency (Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1967), p. 154. 44 Whitrow, p. 311. 39
"The most fundamental temporal experience is awareness of an event (a happening or the existence of an object). Apart from events 45 there could be no awareness of time, for there would be no time."
Duration is the unit of composition of man's perception of time. It is only as parts of this duration that simultaneous or successive relations between events can be established.
The earliest forms of man's temporal experience are not matters for direct experiment or observation. Rather, they belong to stages of development concerning which educated guesses and hypotheses can be formed.
The time experiences which appear to be primitive are: a) the apprehension of an event as having duration in time, and as being temporally extended in the same manner as a contact may be spatially extended; b) the apprehension that an event has occurred before, or that one event has occurred before, or will occur after, another. From this arises the concept of past and later of the future; c) the experience of two things occurring simultaneously. In its simplest form this experience occurs when the two events affect different sense organs.^
Piaget studied the development of the notion of time in the child and demonstrated in a quasi experimental manner that during the first five to seven years of life the notion of time is not yet in operation; it is at the perceptual stage of temporal organization, sensory and motor, with the impossibility of separating time from spatial structures. This constitutes at the beginning a time without speed, without possible simultaneity except in the rare case of co incidence or overtaking. In the second stage, the child around eight to ten years old becomes capable of retrospection: he has learned to liberate himself from the present, to return to the past, and to
^^Gunn, p. 376. ^Sturt, pp. 12-13. 40 reascend or redescend the course of time, beyond the real train of events. Later as an adolescent, he will become at last capable of introspection and will be able to appreciate time in the past or pro jected forward into the future, and to appreciate as well the inverse 47 relationship of time and of velocity.
In children the development of a conscious time sense comes at a later and more sophisticated stage than the development of a spatial sense presumably because it requires a greater degree of image representation. At first each temporal sequence in the child's experience is isolated and purely ego centric. Gradually temporal sequences begin to be recognized as applying to external events themselves and not merely to the child's own movements and actions although time still remains an extrapolation of subjective duration inherent in his activity.
Thus the growing child has, in general, a perceptual notion of time, the adult a conceptual notion, since he has been able to accept not only the irreversibility of events, but also, due to his memory, the reversibility of his thought in the course of time. Man is therefore capable of abstracting the particular events which occupy the different instants of time and conceive of an abstract entity,
Time, . . . which can be divided into present, past, and future.
The development of temporal-spatial relations must also be acknowledged; for man's conscious experience cannot be completely analyzed into independent sense-data for its various aspects are interrelated, and in particular the spatial and temporal components are interdependent.
Piaget believes that the young child initially confuses successions of events in time and the temporal intervals these successions engender with their analogues in space,
Jean Piaget, Le Developpement de la Notion de Temps Chez L 'enfant (Paris: Presse Universitaires de France, 1946). ^Whitrow, p. 75. 41
that is with the successions of points traversed in a move ment and the spatial distances between the points. ^
This kind of spatial-temporal interdependence would seem to be consistent with that of D. 0. Hebb.
The stability of a perception is not in a single persistent pattern of cerebral activity but in the tendency of the phases of an irregular cycle to recur at short intervals. Thus if we wish to understand the neural mechanism in volved in the visual perception of, say, a triangle we should picture the triangle as if it were being constructed in time out of dots and dashes passed successively to the brain so that the perception of the triangle as a whole comes gradually.50
Developmentally the temporal-spatial integration would appear to be a feature of the development of the concepts of time and space.
For example:
The translation of a simultaneous relationship in space into a serial relationship in time is a factor in many activities which we require of the child. The translation must proceed in both directions. In copying a square, we ask him to trans late from a simultaneous series into a temporal series. When presented with a visual form, there is a tendency to move the eyes around the figure, stopping successively on various parts of the contour. These visual fixations give successive im pressions of sections of the figure. In building up the con tour of a figure where more than one such ocular fixation is required, the child must translate the resultant temporal series of impressions into a spatial series. Many children have difficulty in learning how to make such translations, and their difficulties may occur in either direction. Some children will be able to organize impressions in space but cannot translate them into a temporal series, while other children will be able to organize series in time but will be unable to translate them into simultaneous series in space. In order to achieve in the activities which we set for him the child must be able to organize his impressions in both of these areas and to shift fluently from one to another as the situation demands.
49 John H. Flavell, The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1963), p. 316. *^D. 0. Hebb, Organization of Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949), p. 100. "^Newell C. Kephart, The Slow Learner in the Classroom (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1960), p. 30. 42
A survey of the research and literature concerning the most
opportune time to teach concepts of space and time reveals conflicting
opinions. Some investigators are convinced that time and space con
cepts are too difficult for children before the intermediate and 52 junior high school levels. However, the majority of research seems
to indicate that children may be able to understand time and chronology 53 54 55 concepts at an earlier age than previously predicted, ’ ’ and
that many children are receptive to planned instruction in these 56 relationships.
Man's perspective of time, developing from the most simple and
ego centric percept into a very complex abstraction unifying past,
present, and future into his very being, reveals several forms of
temporal experience. Memory, as one of the forms of temporal experi
ence, is the means by which the record of man's vanished past survives
within him, and this is the basis of his consciousness of self
identity. Memory is found to be essentially related to what Suzanne 57 Langer calls "man's symbolic transformation of experience."
52 Elaine L. Dobbs, "A Study of the Sequential Development of Time Sense and Chronology in the Elementary School," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1963). 53 C. L. John Legere, "An Investigation of Time Relationship Understandings in Grades Four Through Eight," (unpublished Ph.D. dis sertation, Boston University School of Education, 1962). 54 Clark Gill, "Interpretations of Indefinite Expressions of Time," Social Education XXVI (December, 1962), pp. 454-456. ^■*J. D. McAulay, "What Understandings do Second Grade Children Have of Time Relationships?" Journal of Educational Research LIV (April, 1961), pp. 312-314. 56 Lois E. Stephens, "What Concepts of Telling Time can be De veloped by Kindergarten Children," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1964). 57 Susanne Langer, Philosophy in a New Key (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), p. 124. 43
Memory provides another time dimension of consciousness, not as a mere record keeper or storehouse of information but as the integrator of the total personality, sustaining its essential oneness over time. But in doing so it is implicated in the struggle of this personality to assert itself, to justify itself, to satisfy its wants, and to fulfill its impulses.
Another form of temporal experience is man's conception of
the future. Coming after that of the past, man's perspective for
the future is at a later stage of development, involving imagination, expectation, and purpose. "The primary function of mental activity
is to face the future and anticipate the event which is about to 59 happen." Without a temporal perspective for the future, man's life would be meaningless, for he must hope, expect and anticipate. Im plicit in what he accomplishes today are plans for tomorrow, next week and even for years to come.
In addition to his perspective of past and future, man ex periences temporal forms of duration, how long an event or interval seems to last, and sequence, which includes the succession, simultaneity and recurrence of events.
Man's perceptual world is thus a temporal world, his reality is a temporal reality. All perceptions are immediately and automatically translated within the temporal context of succession and duration, and assigned a place in the diary of personal and social history.^0
It must be reiterated, however, that man's perspective of time alone does not always give him the same conception of time as he has
"*®MacIver, p. 31. "^Whitrow, p. 311. ^Aline Kidd and Jeanne L. Rivoire, Perceptual Development in Children (New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1966), p. 449. 44 conceived it in orienting himself in the universe; and often by itself man's perspective of time is illusory.
We cannot equate our experience of the duration and sequence of events with their duration and sequence as measured by a clock independently of our experience. But it is not enough merely to point to the discrepancy between physical and psychological time. Indeed, it would be misleading to speak only of discrepancy, because . . . there is also a concordance. Our lives would be chaotic if our experience of duration and sequence bore.no relation at all to physical duration and sequence. If this were the case, it would mean that the temporal structure of experience had evolved independently of the rhythms and periodicities of nature.61
Time as experienced exhibits the quality of subjective relativity, or is characterized by some sort of unequal distribution, irregularity, and non uniformity in the personal metric of time. This quality differs radically from the regular, uniform, quantitative units characteristic of an objective metric.
Han's nervous system is endowed with the capacity to resolve stimuli into the temporal properties of succession and duration, and man's perceptual capacities have permitted him to harness this basic attribute into conceptual and com municable experiences. The temporal properties of the world are viewed as realities, but, like blue light, they are per ceptual abstractions endowed to stimuli by the characteristics of man. The remarkable ability of people to behave as delicate, accurate, and precise timepieces and their capacity to adapt to and act upon the temporal properties of their environment represents one of the most fundamental gifts bestowed upon the human species.62
Measurement of time
As conceived by man the measurement of objective time is con fusing and paradoxical. It is confusing because according to
Einstein's theory "the measurement of time intervals varies from one
^John Cohen, Humanistic Psychology (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 114. CO Kidd and Rivoire, p. 446. 45 63 observer to another depending on their relative motion." It is a paradox because time is measured by motion in space, that is, the motion of the earth about its axis or about the sun, the measured vibrations of a tuning fork or quartz crystal, the rhythmic rotations of a cesium atom. However, motion itself is measured by time and
space, that is, to describe the motions of a planet or an atom means
to specify the changes in its position with respect to time. Finally,
space can be measured by time and motion, that is stellar distances
in light years, miles walked per hour, etc. Thus the measurement of objective time reveals an eternal physical triangle.
Out of practical necessity man has devised clocks and calendars to record and represent the passage of time in conventional units.
These conventions do have some natural basis in solar or sidereal astronomical time, even though the electronic clocks of today have proven to be better time keepers than the earth itself. Presently man measures in units of years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, seconds and fractions of a second. In addition to these conventional units which seem to have world-wide acceptance, man also makes dis tinctions between periods of time, such as prehistoric, ancient, medieval, etc., which seem to be rather purely a matter of social or cultural convention.
Even without exact measurements of time it is common experience that in two equal spaces of clock time the quantity of time appears to vary according to the nature of the events which occupy it or the state of mind of the man experiencing it. Man's perception of time and his
63 Whitrow, p. 209. 46 estimates of duration have been studied from a variety of viewpoints.
Among the most common factors usually mentioned as affecting the estimate of duration are the number of events occurring in the period to be estimated, the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the experience, the amount of attention devoted to time as such during the period, 64 and the length of the time interval to be estimated. The modifiers of time estimation have been identified as the developmental level of the individual,the general level of tension and motivation of the individual,^ and perhaps the cultural setting and climatic 70 71 72 conditions. * ’ In general, physiological factors do not seem
64 Michael Triesman, ''Temporal Discrimination and the Indiffer ence Interval: Implications for a Model of the Internal Clock," Psychological Monograph LXXVII (1963), p. 13, 576. ^ E . Smythe and S. Goldstone, "The Time Sense: A Normative Genetic Study of the Development of Time Perception," Perceptual and Motor Skills VII (1957), pp. 49-59. ^Benjamin B. Weybrew, "Accuracy of Time Estimation and Mus cular Tension," Perceptual and Motor Skills XVII (August, 1963), p. 118. 6 7 S. Rozenzweig, "A Dynamic Interpretation of Psychotherapy Oriented Towards Research," Contemporary Psychotherapy, ed. S. S. Tomkins (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943). 68 Arthur Berman, "The Relation of Time Estimation to Satiation," Journal of Experimental Psychology XXV (1939), pp. 281-293. 69 J. J. Harton, "The Influence of the Difficulty of Activity on the Estimation of Time," Journal of Experimental Psychology XXIII (1938), pp. 270-287. ^L. S. LeShan, "Time Orientation and Social Class," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology XXXXVII (1952), pp. 589-592. ^J. E. Greene and A. H. Roberts, "Time Orientation and Social Class, A Correction," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology LXII (1961), p. 141. 72 Abe J. Judson and Cynthia E. Tuttle, "Time Perspective and Social Class," Perceptual and Motor Skills XXIII (1966), p. 1074. 47 73 74 to influence the process of time estimation. ’ However, as might
be expected there does appear to be a close relationship between esti- 75 76 mations of time and space. ’ In addition it has been noted that
man’s perception of time is related to intelligence,^ personality, 78 79 temperament, and social status and competence; and further that m a n ’s capacity to perceive time directly is one of the first mental 80 functions to be impaired by psychopathology, intoxication and 81 metabolic disfunction.
Summary
There appear to be three systems of reference for time which
have applicability in human movement. As one system of reference man's orientation to time evidences his temporal description of the
73 H. Hoaglund, "The Physiological Control of Judgments of Duration: Evidence for a Chemical Clock," Journal of Genetic Psychology IX (1933), p. 267. 74 V. G. Schafer and A. R. Gilliland, "The Relationship of Time Estimations to Certain Physiological Changes," Journal of Experimental Psychology XXIII (1938), pp. 545-552. ^A. O. Weber, "Estimation of Time," Psychological Bulletin XXX (1933), pp. 233-252. 76 M. Abbe, "The Temporal Effect Upon the Perception of Time," Japanese Journal of Experimental Psychology IV (1937), pp. 83-93. 77 M. Oakden and M. Sturt, "Development of the Knowledge of Time in Children," British Journal of Psychology XX (April, 1922). 78 P. E. Baer, D. C. Waukasch, and S. Goldstone, "Time Judgment and Level of Aspiration," Perceptual and Motor Skills XVI (1963), p. 648. 79 S. Goldstone, W. K. Boardman, and W. T. Lhamon, "Kinesthetic Cues in the Development of Time Concepts," Journal of Genetic Psychology LXXXXIII (1958), pp. 185-190. 80 W. Bromberg, "The Meaning of Time for Children," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry VIII (1938), pp. 142-147. 81 Goldstone, Boardman, and Lhamon. 48
physical world. As man has conceptualized time it is unidirectional,
and as one of the four dimensions of the universe is unlimited.
Second, man's perspective of time gives recognition to memory,
sequence, duration and anticipation of the future as forms of temporal
experience. The third system of reference concerns the measurement of
time which evidences distinct and significant differences between the
clock time of an event or interval and its experienced duration.
The function of time as a source of variability in human movement
The fashionable philosophical charge against lay theorists dealing with concepts of time is that they confuse spatial and temporal variables, in that they imagine the latter to be of things rather than events. The argument is a highly technical one resulting in the con clusion that when time is spatialized, false conclusions about reality are drawn. However, it is extremely difficult to discuss concepts of time, even for the philosophers and scientists, without spatializing time to some extent or using spatial terms to describe temporal meanings. For man's encounter with the everyday physical world, his spatial and temporal experiences, simply refuse to be as widely separated as the scientific philosopher's space and time. As a result the temporal language which has developed is very spatially connoted.
The need to clarify and distinguish spatial and temporal con cepts is not a recent development. However, the need for such clari fication becomes extremely relevant when ordinary language rather than highly technical language is to be used for describing temporal con cepts. For example: 49
To say that a thing moves in space is only to say that, over an interval of time, it occupies different places, without filling them all throughout that interval. This latter qualification is absolutely needed because a perfectly im mobile thing, like a road, fulfills the description without it. But it now turns out that we describe the same kind of motion by saying that, over an interval of space, a thing occupies different times, without filling all of them at the same place— from which we see at once that "spatial" motion is in this general sense neither more nor less spatial than temporal. Moving in space involves moving in time no less than in space, and is, in fact, one and the same motion.
To consider the function of time as a source of variability in human movement separate from the spatial variables of human move ment, is not to suggest that the two actually exist apart from each other, or apart from the unified and continuous movement whole in which they inhere. Rather, it is to understand more fully the nature of a movement whole by identifying what components of its nature are temporal. It would seem obvious that "time is inseparable from move ment, even when one movement alone is conceived; since it contains the 83 idea of transition, it contains automatically the idea of time."
Yet from such an understanding the specific aspects of the movement which are temporal are still undefined.
An ordering of the literature concerning time and movement reveals three categories which may serve to delineate the function of time as a source of variability in human movement. As with all cate gorization the possibility of falsifying or losing the essence of the whole must be acknowledged. However, the justification for categorizing is to distinguish entities which are related and by so doing to simplify an understanding of the whole. The initial three categories elicited
R9 Richard Taylor, "Moving About in Time," Philosophical Quarterly IX (1959), p. 291. 83 Eshkol and Wachmann, p. 46. 50
from the literature concerning time and movement from which the
function of time as a source of variability in human movement may be
delineated are: (l) temporal limits, (2) temporal dimensions, and (3)
temporal relations. Temporal limits are defined as the restrictions which circumscribe or enclose portions of time; temporal dimensions
refer to the measurable extent of a portion of time within prescribed
temporal limits; and temporal relations designate the ways in which one event or occurrence stands to another or other events and occur rences. A review of the literature which deals with each of the
sources of temporal variability follows.
Temporal limits
Temporal limits have been defined above as the restrictions which circumscribe or enclose portions of time. A review of the literature evidences three different types of temporal limits. First, the moment defines a definite point in time designated as present or now, which describes the limits of behaving, thinking and moving. For the present is all that is available— this moment, now. The present moment, the now which is the link of time and the dividing point between past and future, is an end and a beginning of time, not of the same time, but the end of that which is past and the beginning of that which is to come. An analysis of the moment reveals that each moment has its own total character which is not identical with the total character of any other moment, being drawn from the entire sum of memories and expectancies, whether conscious or subconscious, which constitute the past and future just of that moment and no other. Time has but one 51 place— the moment, namely the position of the moving earth at one instant of clock time— the present moment; for that is where the gravitational energy is operating. Although man in the present moment can remember the past and anticipate the future, he can be "in" no other moment, he is temporally limited to the moment.
Literature identifying the temporal limit of the moment in human movement seems to have existential characteristics; that is, the literature appears to be concerned with giving the readers a sense of the individual's somewhat passionate awareness of personal con tingency and freedom in movement. For example,
The sport experience allows the future to be forgotten. There is no question of win or loss in the moments at present. That crisis does not present an immediate concern. Instead the participant feels a moment-to-moment, movement to movement awareness of his total body in relation to the environment, both of which he is trying to master.®^
In an attempt to explain how man's position in any vital situation is lived as an intentional arc or how the present intention points to an expected future as growing out of an immediate past,
Kaelin used examples of the temporal limits of the moment in physical activity.
Within temporality past and future are given in the present, in the moment of intending an object in existential space. The moment I step slightly out of my crouch and lean forward with my weight on my right foot for power, each of these movements recalls the patterns of those immediately preceding— the crouching itself and the intent gaze at the pitcher's stance— and each foreshadows those immediately to come. The hesitation to judge whether the pitch will break, slide, or jump and the swing from shoulders to biceps to wrists were a moment ago already intended as the living future of my crouch, which will have meaning only if I succeed in hitting
84 JoAnn Houts, "Feeling and Perception in the Sport Experience," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation XXXXI (October, 1970), p. 71. 52
the ball . . . . If this example is correct, past and future are given in intention in the moment that my task is c l e a r . ^5
Sheets expressed a similar concept when she wrote:
Past, present and future exist within the total phenomenon of the dance itself. There is not a succession of externally related movements, for from the beginning what will occur in the future is contained within what occurred in the past, and what occurred in the past is retained within that which occurs in the future. and
A dance, as it is formed and performed, is experienced by the dancer as a perpetually moving form, a unity of succession, whose moments cannot be measured: its past has been created, its present is being created, its future awaits creation.
Thus the existential characteristic of the moment in various forms of human movement would seem to be that for the moment there is complete involvement, a total immersion into the world of being. The significance of the moment as a temporal limit would then appear to be in the experiencing of the meaning of the particular moment of moving.
Second, an event defines the temporal limits of the happening of an occurrence by designating the beginning and ending. An event is an arrival, a conclusion, an end, the result of occurrences or their beginnings. An occurrence somehow leads to events, and they, con cluding the occurrence are then something entirely new in relation to it. An event does not extend beyond the span of a single instant. It takes place and thereby ceases to exist. Changes, becomings, beginnings,
85 Eugene F. Kaelin, "Being in the Body," National Association of Physical Education for College Women Report, Ruby Anniversary Work shop (June, 1964), p. 97. ^Sheets, p. 43. 8 7Ibld., p. 21. 53
endings are events; they have a determinate "place" not only in a
given present, but in addition, after their occurrence, within the
realm of all that which was "then" when they were taking place. Events
describe the temporal limits of occurrences.
Literature concerned with human movement is filled with refer
ences to events; for victories, the scoring of goals, the completion
of performances are all events of human movement. They are events to which a date may be given, but not a running commentary, for they happen and then they are over. In movement performances, particularly competitive movement performances, endings often seem to be more con
spicuous, more drastic, more historic than beginnings. Endings are the landmarks of the time schedule. Beginnings, even relative beginnings may have a far greater significance in that future movements are shaped by them; however, the record makes more note of endings; it learns of beginnings, if it ever does, belatedly. However, literature concerning human movement performance does afford significance to the beginning position of a movement occurrence. Beginning positions serve the purpose of either providing stability and resistance to external forces, allowing an optimal application of muscular force, or preparing generally for any one of several possible movements. Ending positions of movement performances also vary. There are those ending positions which are really irrelevant to the performance, those which are arbitrarily specified and reflect the quality of the preceding per formance, and those which are integrally related to the strategy or objective measurement of the performance. Often an ending position of a movement performance contributes to the beginning of the next movement 54 occurrence such as the forward momentum of the tennis serve carrying the server forward into a more strategic position on the court. Move ment events limit particular movement occurrences by designating their beginning or changing or ending. Once they have come into being, events do not endure, because other events dislodge them from being actual. However, once having taken place, events nevertheless belong in some way to the world in which they occurred.
The third type of temporal limitation is a period. A temporal period designates the limits of a portion of time determined by some recurring or similar occurrences or events. When occurrences and/or events coalesce on the basis of some similarity or felt congruity or recurrent unifying ritual they constitute a period. Periods describe the temporal limits of congruent occurrences.
Many temporal periods are distinguished in the literature referring to various forms of human movement experience. Perhaps one of the most general distinctions between temporal periods of human movement is between work and play. "In effect play is essentially a separate occupation, carefully isolated from the rest of life, and 88 generally engaged in with precise limits of time and place." Thus there would seem to be a temporal period of play as well as a temporal period of work. For within each period movement events and occur rences recur which seem to coalesce, and which are experienced as different from events or occurrences as distinguished by the other period of time.
88 Roger Caillois, Man, Play, Games, translated by Meyer Barash (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), p. 6. 55
Another kind of temporal period is distinguished when reference
is made to particular sport seasons. Football season thus becomes a
temporal period distinguishable from all other temporal periods by the
similarity of the occurrences and events inherent in football games,
from the first game of the year to the last game.
Even more specifically temporal periods often define the limits
of a particular athletic contest or parts of such a contest. Quarters,
halves, sets, innings, and rounds are all examples of temporal periods
used in movement performances and contests. These temporal periods
describe the temporal limits of congruent events such as striking out,
feinting, hitting, or making a goal without becoming divisible into a
sequence of these events. In turn, these periods are encompassed by
the still longer temporal period of the entire contest or game.
To further clarify the three types of temporal limitations of
human movement two examples will be explored. In order of complexity,
the first is a simple movement pattern, that of an isolated tennis
serve. The second example is that of a complex organization of move ments, an entire singles tennis match.
An overview of the temporal limits of an individual tennis
serve are as follows. The limitation of the moment confines the
existence of the particular tennis serve to one occurrence. It can
only occur once. Although the server can remember, and perhaps
kinesthetically recall previous serves as well as anticipate future
serves, he can only do this particular serve once, now. The particular
tennis serve is thus temporally limited by the moment of its occurrence.
The particular events which temporally limit the tennis serve are its 56
beginning, perhaps the initiation of the shift of weight or the initi
ation of the ball toss, and its ending, perhaps the contact of the
racket with the ball or more inclusively the contact of the ball with
the ground. Thus the occurrence of this particular tennis serve has
been further limited temporally by the events of its beginning and its
ending. As an isolated tennis serve occurring only once there is no
further temporal limitation of it. Since there has been no recurrence
or similar occurrence the particular tennis serve has not been limited
by a temporal period. Its only temporal limitations have been the moment and the events which distinguish it from all other movement.
The temporal limitations of a singles tennis match are as
follows. The limitation of the moment confines the existence of the
particular tennis match to one occurrence. There will never again be
a time when the two players are who they are during the moment of the particular match. This particular singles tennis match will never exist again. The tennis match will also be temporally limited by the events of its occurrence. The event of the first serve initiates the match. The winning or losing of each point, game and set are events which describe the ending of some temporal period of the match. With the event of the winning and losing of the last point of the last game in the last set the match ends, never to exist again. The temporal periods of the tennis match may be of varying duration but serve to describe the limits of similar occurrences. Points, games, sets and match are temporal limits of the singles tennis match which possess some similarity or felt congruity, and are therefore referred to as temporal periods. 57
Temporal dimensions
Temporal dimensions have been defined above as the measurable extent of a portion of time within prescribed temporal limits. A review of the literature evidences three different types of temporal dimensions. First, an instant is defined.as an infinitesimal portion of time; that is a point of time lacking duration. An instant is the measure of particular moments.
During a peak experience in sport, the sense of time is disoriented. A single play may seem like forever or an inning may seem like only a second. There is no conscious sense of past time or future time. The moment-to-moment passage of time is all that is relevant; in-the-moment perception is all that the player possesses.^9
An event is closely fused in two ways with the instant in which it occurs, and to a certain extent bears the stamp of that moment’s unity and specificity. This is because first, it is always connected with a certain system of contemporaneous events. For no events are strictly isolated. Second, it is because a given instant distinguishes itself by a peculiarity, a uniqueness, which can neither be more fully elucidated nor further reduced; it is unique of its kind, and this singularity permeates everything that in general exists "in" it.
Instant defines the temporal dimension of moments and events lacking duration or seeming to lack duration.
What precisely, for instance is the movement of the discus thrower which we have just admired in the stadium? No more than a single moment in time, a movement which had never been seen before and will never be seen again.90
Houts, p. 71. 90 Rene Maheu, "Sport and Culture," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation XXXIV (October, 1963), p. 53. 58
Second, an interval is defined as the measurable portion of
time between any two prescribed points, events or occurrences. An
extended time without these interval units would be a simple continuum
resulting in no means to distinguish temporal beginnings, endings or
changes. Intervals measure the magnitude of temporal units.
There are many differently sized units of present time. A swing at a ball occurs in one present moment. This is distinct from the present occupied by an entire ball game. Both the swing and the game are distinct, unit, present events; they have distinctive magnitudes which extend from their beginnings to their endings.91-
In attempting to clarify the temporal coordinate of movement
notation, Eshkol stated the following regarding temporal intervals.
The coordinate is divided equally, and the equal spaces resulting from the division represent equal time-units. These smallest units of time may be of any single value whatsoever, as measured by the metronome or clock; they have no meaning except as units of measurement of duration. These equal units can be built into larger or smaller groups. By means of this grouping a time pattern is created, and such a pattern may serve as a model by which events of any kind (including the change of relations of the limbs) may be organized and represented in their order of appearance and duration in time.92
Laban's analysis of temporal intervals is quite different from
Eshkol's. In Choreutics he wrote, "in comparing durations of movements we use a conventional unit of time, the second, which corresponds ap- 93 proximately to one heart beat."
Weiss discusses further the variability of temporal intervals
in human movement.
Moves, acts, contests, and games are dynamic wholes with a beat and a quality that must be lived through to be known.
^H/eiss, p. 116. ^Eshkol, p. 45. 93 Laban, Choreutics, p. 29. 59
But all of them can be dealt within terms of a single measure. Some one occurrence and its moment can be used to provide the unit in terms of which all other occurrences and moments can be described as shorter or longer. This is what is done when we record the time that is taken for the completion of various events. We then abstract from the concrete occurrences and their characteristic indivisible moments to attend to the results that can be obtained by using a watch or a clock.^
The third temporal dimension is duration. Duration is defined as the amount of time during which any thing or occurrence continues.
Duration measures the persistence of movement occurrences.
Duration, as part of movement, is how long it takes to move from one position to another, or the length of time required for a movement or an action sequence. We are seldom aware of single movements but rather of patterns and ordered sequences of actions. These arrangements are organized and structured in time as well as space. Time patterns are in terms of durations of consecutive movements. The pauses or rests or new impulses for succeeding movements are part of these temporal patterns of duration. If we think of certain actions as involving one sequence of movement components— and we think of this one complete action-- g^ this idea of a pattern of time durations will still apply.
Weiss made an important distinction between the duration of movement occurrence and the measure of duration which is assigned it by conventional time pieces.
The precise reports of the amount of time that elapses from the beginning to the end of certain events do not speak directly of those events, but instead measure them by units appropriate to a quite different type of occurrence, remote from human involvement. This is not surprising, for our watches and clocks are not constructed to accord with a sequence of vital acts. What matches the markings on a watch or clock is rarely something experienced, or even experienceable, by either spectators or participants in a sporting event. Calibrated to beat off some fraction of an astronomical transaction, our time pieces are only mechanical, repetitive agents, external and indifferent to
^Weiss, pp. 117-118. 95 Alice Gates, A New Look at Movement— A Dancer's View (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Co., 1968), p. 105. 60
the existence of human activities and their time. If we wish to compare the times appropriate to a number of events we must abstract from the concreteness of those events and indivisible present moments which characterize them.96
Duration is the measure of endurance as it is commonly used in human movement literature.
If endurance is made the object of a contest, we try to determine who can outlast the others and by how much . . . Endurance can be viewed as repetitive acts of strength exhibited for a length of time . . . Endurance offers one way of meeting the challenge of a relentless time.97
An Individual's experience of time is characterized not only by successive moments and multiple changes but also by something which endures within succession and change. This experience of the flow of time from the past through the present toward the future is the ex perience of duration.
Even without exact measurements it is common experience that time appears to vary in duration according to the nature of the events or the state of mind of the individual. Often in games or feats of skill the individual becomes so absorbed in the task that conscious reflection practically disappears. An oarsman in a race may hear the starting gun, and then find that he is rowing the second stroke. A child walking on a wall may balance desperately at a difficult part, and find herself safely over it. In neither case is there any definite consciousness of what happened during the short period of rowing the first stroke or regaining balance, but the interval of time does not drop out of existence. On the contrary it presents a peculiar quality of duration, quite divorced from the ordinary measure of time.
96Weiss, p. 118. 97Ibid., pp. 119, 124, 127. 61
To further explicate the three types of temporal dimension an analysis of a tennis serve and a singles tennis match may again be used as examples. The tennis serve is composed of several instants.
The contact point of the racket and the ball for instance, occurs in one instant. Although some timing mechanism may be devised to demonstrate how many fractions of a second the contact really exists, it occurs for all practical purposes of intent and performance in only one instant. In retrospect it is also possible to conceive of the entire serve as occurring in one instant depending on the size of the interval used for comparison. The tennis serve could be broken down into several phases which could be represented as temporal intervals.
These intervals might vary in duration. For example, one interval might be represented by the portion of time between the initiation of movement to the contact point, another from the contact point of ball and racket to the contact point of the ball with the ground. It is probably more customary, however, to use the conventional interval of seconds to interpret the temporal dimensions of a single tennis serve.
The duration of a tennis serve is the amount of time from the initiation of the movement to the prescribed completion of the serve, whether that is considered to be the follow through of the mover or the contact point of ball and ground, or some other prescribed end. Admittedly the experienced duration might be significantly longer or shorter than the duration as measured by a stop watch. From the point of view of the mover it may have taken "forever" for the ball to come down to the proper height for contact or as suggested above it may be perceived 62
that the entire serve lasted only an instant, "taking no time at all"
for execution.
A brief analysis of the temporal dimensions of a single tennis match might be as follows. Many isolated instants may be distinguished
in relation to the events of beginning the match, contacting the ball, winning the point, and so on. Since there are no predetermined
temporal limits to the periods which comprise a tennis match, each period may consist of a different sized interval. The playing of the first game from the beginning to the last point might be conceived of as one temporal interval. This temporal interval would probably be different from the size of the temporal interval of the second game.
Thus the tennis match might be conceived of as being composed of many varying temporal intervals, depending on the duration of the periods or occurrences within the periods of the match. However, the most often used temporal interval designating the temporal dimension of various portions of a tennis match is probably the minute. For the minute is a conventional measure providing for consistency and accuracy in comparison, whereas an interval of the first game used in comparison with other intervals represented by temporal periods would only indicate whether the period was longer or shorter than the interval of the first game. The duration of the entire singles match might conceivably have been one hour and thirteen minutes as measured conventionally by a clock. However, an estimate of the experienced duration might be considerably more or less than the actual clock time depending on, for example, the fatigue of the player, the experienced duration of particular rallies or the meaning of the match to the individual players. Temporal relations
Temporal relations have been defined above as the ways in
which one event or occurrence is thought of in connection with another
or other events and occurrences. A review of the literature evidences
three different ways in which temporal relations may vary. First,
the relationship may be described as a simultaneous one. If a simul
taneous relationship exists between two or more events or occurrences
then they are said to be "taking place" or operating at the same time;
they are coexistent. A simultaneous relationship designates that the particular way in which one event or occurrence stands to another or other events and occurrences is that they happen at the same time;
they are contemporary to each other.
We can observe the flow of movement in the body and note whether it is simultaneous or successive. In simultaneous movement the action occurs in all the joints and body parts at the same time.^®
Thus, any movement event or occurrence having a simultaneous temporal relationship with another or other movement events or occurrences may share the same temporal limits and dimensions as the other movement, but it is not a prerequisite. Such is the case when one movement is sustained over an interval with great duration during which time another movement occurs and is finished. The two movements may still be considered simultaneous although their temporal limits and dimensions differ greatly.
Second, temporal relations may also be described as sequential.
A sequential relationship orders the events or occurrences in time in
98 Joan Russell, Creative Dance in the Primary School (London: Macdonald and Evans, Ltd., 1965), p. 21. 64
terms of before and after. When one event or occurrence is succeeded
by another, the first is referred to as earlier or before and the
second later or after. A sequential relationship designates the
coming of one event or occurrence after another.
From man's perception of this moving body, now at this point,
now at that, comes the realization that movement is taking place.
However, in this very realization man has numbered the two nows and
recognized that time has passed. Just as movement is recognized from
perceiving the moving body at two different places, so time is recog nized from perceiving the two nows, or the same now entering into two different relations, one prior, one posterior,
A sequential temporal relationship orders a continuous manifold of phases, often according to number. Phase after phase from the
initial one to the final one, takes place in continuously new intervals of time. Each movement phase is a potential part or step in the con
tinuous whole of the movement. Throwing a ball, thrusting a sabre, hitting a golf gall, climbing a fence and so on may be analyzed in terms of discrete steps which follow one another in rapid sequence.
Each movement takes a certain time for its completion and we distinguish, in each movement, different phases of its pathway. One part of it vanishes into the past, a second part is momentarily present, and a third part will presumably follow, and complete the movement. After this third phase the move ment disappears. Its trace remains only in a memory or ex ternally in a change of the place of an object in space, or in a new position of the limbs of the b o d y . 99
Memory and expectation seem to introduce a primitive basis for distinguishing between events which are called "earlier" and events
99 Laban, p. 27. which are called "later,11 but these distinctions will not do for an objective ordering of the time-series. Memory and expectation are proverbially vague, ambiguous and fallible. They are vague in that
they often fuse and overlap even in the present; and they are fallible, or a constant source of error and deception because of a number of psychological mechanisms such as forgetting, repressing, distorting or projecting. However, they are used by movement performers and ob servers continuously, particularly to relate to others the sequence of events leading to the final event of winning or losing. The ob jective ordering of a time series is much more valuable particularly in attempting to understand or perform particular movement skills which involve sequences of action. The contributions of cinematography, instant replay, video recordings and notation have become most bene ficial in clarifying the order of movement sequences of various performances.
The third way in which a temporal relation can vary is to change the rate of speed at which one movement event, occurrence or sequence of occurrence follows another. Such a change is described as a change in tempo. Tempo is thus defined as the time structure of sequential temporal relations.
Tempo is the rate of speed characterizing the way a movement is done--how quickly one moves to accomplish a purpose, how rapidly the amount of time is used up! This factor, with respect to movement, has a direct relationship to shape in space and is dependent on energy components and impulses, as well as affecting quality and expression in movement. It is perceived visually as an aspect of shape. Extremely rapid movement takes on a blurred shape and sequences of several shapes may blend into lines. Slow movements may be perceived more clearly as defined shapes.*^0
100- . ... Gates, p. 10b. 66
The performance of a movement sequence can occur at a tempo which may
be uniformly quick or slow or may alternate with variations of speed
which can be attained gradually and lost gradually, attained gradually
and lost suddenly or attained suddenly and lost gradually or they may
occur with several changes of speed using combinations of any of the
above within the sequence.
The extreme degrees of tempo are sudden and sustained.
. . . suddenness and sustainment can be experienced through lightning quick movement which gives a sensation of sudden ness, and much slower movement which gives a sensation of lingering and prolonging the duration of time. Everyone has a different tempo and what is quick for one may be quite slow for another . .
There are many instances in movement performance when a sudden
movement means the difference between beating or being beaten by an
opponent on the take-off, reaching a ball that otherwise would have
been just out of reach, and regaining or losing one's balance. On
the other hand a movement can be performed too suddenly for the ef
ficient and economic occurrence of the action. One frequently re
searched measure of speed is reaction time.
An important behavioral characteristic in which individuals differ greatly is speed of reaction. This component seems strategic in distinguishing between outstanding, average and poor performers in many motor skills . . . Reaction time is the time required to get the overt response started, or the stimulus to response interval.102
In many movement activities it has often been assumed that the fastest movement is the best or most skillful movement. Quantitatively,
^^Ruth Morison, A Movement Approach to Educational Gymnastics (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1969), p. 110. 102 Joseph B. Oxendine, Psychology of Motor Learning (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1968), p. 317. 67 speed seems to interest most performers and observers more than endurance, accuracy or slow movement.
Speed is normally used to refer to the amount of time needed to traverse a definite spatial distance, or to the amount of space that can be traversed in a specified amount of time. In a race an effort is made either to reduce the amount of time that is used, or to increase the amount of space that is traversed— usually the first. Why? Is it not that time is felt to be in short supply, whereas space, despite its finitude, seems to go on and on?^®3
As one particular aspect of tempo, rhythm describes the periodic recurrence of a movement sequence of any number of long or short intervals.
When figure ground for form is encountered in the dimension of time, we know it is rhythm. Rhythm is important in kinesthetic and tactual problems since much of the infor mation which we obtain from the senses is probably aided and militated by ability to establish and maintain rhythm relationships.104
The rhythmical meaning of a movement sequence consists of the relation between fast and slow movement. This relation of fast and slow, relations of speed of movement, may be the result of different sizes of limbs producing the same amount of movement within the same time limits; or it may be produced by changing within the movement sequence of one limb, the amount and kind of the movements, while the time allocated to each single movement remains constant; or again by changing the amount of time allocated to the same movement. ^
Several comparisons of rhythm in music and rhythm in movement have appeared in the literature. Since music and movement both have temporal relations and both have rhythm as an essential component, the terminology of music with reference to rhythm is often carried over into that of movement. Comparisons have revealed, however, that often
103,, , ini Weiss, p. 101. ^^Kephart, p. 235. ^"*Eshkol, p. 46. 68
the terminology used in music is not always adequate to cover aspects 106 of movement which are not comparable to music.
There are two kinds of rhythm in movement, that derived from a regular pulse and that derived from action. The former is usually called metric rhythm and is based on a time unit which is constant throughout the movement and which can be divided into half units and quarter units, or multiplied into double units, etc. . . . the other kind of rhythm is usually called action rhythm, sometimes breath rhythm, but it is essentially rhythm which is not linked with a metric unit and is free of numerical divisions of time. This is the rhythm used in everyday actions, in speech, in sport or in most working action s e q u e n c e s . 107
Action rhythm as defined above by Valerie Preston-Dunlop seems to encompass the all important phenomenon of timing which is so often referred to in literature concerned with human movement performance.
For example,
A basketball is tossed into the air between two opposing players who compete in an attempt to tap the ball to a teammate when it is in its downward flight. The height of the jump is important, but the timing of the jump with the flight of the ball is the critical aspect of the sport skill.108
Jensen and Schultz state that "ideal timing is exhibited when each 109 force is applied at the crest acceleration of the previous force;" and Kaelin refers to timing as a synchronization of internal and ex ternal action where the latter is conceived in full or restricted dynamic terms, such as the synchronization of the pedestrians personal effort with the speed of an oncoming car.^^
^^Elizabeth Halsey and Lorena Porter, Physical Education for Children (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958), p. 369. ^^Preston-Dunlop, p. 12. 108 Ralph L. Wickstrom, Fundamental Motor Patterns (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1970), p. 64. 109 Clayne R. Jensen and Gordon W. Schultz, Applied Kinesiology (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970), p. 172. ^^Kaelin, p. 97. 69
It is apparent that the temporal relations of various forms of human movement as designated by tempo differ greatly; and that the
same movement sequence performed with different tempos becomes, in effect, a different movement. As an example, the skip is experienced, performed and observed as a different movement sequence from the step hop when each the step and the hop are performed in equal sized temporal intervals, although the sequential relation of each part of the sequence remains the same.
The significance of tempo in various movement activities becomes immediately apparent when an overview of various sports is made.
In such sports as the shot-put, the hurdles, the high jump, and the pole vault, a successful performance demands a series of moves and acts having not only a well-defined order, but a definite timing in relation to one another. Some but not a great deal of attention must be paid to the circumstances and the pulse beat of what goes on about. The individual will have to mesh with other items in the situation, but the dominant fact will be his rhythm. At the opposite extreme are such sports as lacrosse and football, where the rhythm of most players is made subordinate to that of the particular play that has been initiated. Most of the other sports fall somewhere between these two extremes. In some, such as crew, there is a well defined cadence to which all adhere; in others, such as boxing, sometimes the indi vidual and sometimes his opponent dictates the rhythm of the contest, although occasionally the two together make a single sequence with a distinctive tempo. But in all the sports each participant exhibits a rhythm all his own, hopefully in some consonance with what else occurs. m
The examples of a tennis serve and a singles tennis match can also be used to demonstrate the three types of temporal relations. An analysis of the movements performed in executing a tennis serve may reveal several simultaneous relations. Depending on how the particular
^^Weiss, p. 95. tennis serve is executed an analysis might reveal that the ball toss and backswing of the serving arm occur simultaneously or that the ball toss and shift of weight occur simultaneously or for that matter all three may occur simultaneously. Another relationship which may be simultaneous is that of the complete extension of the body and the contact of the racket and the ball. The sequential relations of the serve may be viewed from a variety of perspectives. Perhaps the most general sequence of phases in an analysis of the serve might be preparation, contact and follow through. More specifically, an ordering of the phases of the execution of the serve might be ac complished such that the shift of weight to the back foot simultaneous with the backward swing of the racket is followed by a shift of weight to the forward foot, the forward swing of the racket, contact of the ball, and so on. An analysis of the temporal relation designating the tempo of the serve might reveal a slow-quick-slow aspect of rhythm.
According to the definition, the serve by itself could be considered to occur with action rhythm. However, since there is no periodic recurrence of the sequence, it is happening only once, it is more often thought to be a movement having its own characterized timing. The timing of the sequence might be described as one in which when the initial phase reached its maximum force production, the next phase was begun, and when it reached its maximum in force production the next phase was begun, and so on. The experienced tempo again might vary from that which was measurable by a clock or metronome. The experienced tempo might simply have been fast, slow, or somehow sustained. 71
An analysis of the temporal relations of a singles tennis match might reveal that movements of each of the two players occur
simultaneously. As the one player serves the other assumes a position
in which to receive the serve. As one player is forced to the back of the court his opponent rushes the net. During the same instant that one player wins the game the opponent loses. The sequential relations of the tennis match are ordered by the rule structure.
During play for one point the ball is first hit by A, then hit by B, then by A, and missed by B. The phases of the game are determined by such occurrences as play for the first point, then the second point, etc., the first game followed by the second, third, etc. In an attempt to determine the tempo of the match it might be possible to compare intervals of various periods, revealing that the first set was slow to get started then went very quickly, the second set was slow throughout, and the third set went quickly at the beginning but gradually slowed to the end of the match. It Is also possible, although doubtful, that within the temporal period of each set the timing of events would be such that a periodic recurrence of movement sequences might be delineated thereby creating a rhythmic pattern for the match. Since a clever player is always trying to mislead an opponent into mis-timing, in the tennis match the length, force and speed, height and angle of the shots are usually purposefully varied to deceive the opponent. Summary
The sources of temporal variability as evidenced in the
literature concerning human movement were categorized according to
temporal limits, temporal dimensions and temporal relations. The
temporal limits of human movement were designated as the moment, the
event and the period. The temporal dimensions of human movement
were discussed in terms of the instant, the interval and the duration.
Temporal relations of human movement were defined in terms of simul
taneity, sequence and tempo. In Chapter III a construct is presented
according to the above categories as an heuristic device for the
examination of the temporal variables of human movement. Prior to
the presentation of the construct, however, the last section of this
chapter consists of a review of the recent research studies in the
literature which are related to the sources of temporal variability
as they have been delineated above.
Recent research studies related to time as a source of variability in human movement
The significance of time as a source of variability in human movement would seem to become evident when the number of recent
research studies concerning time and movement is acknowledged. A
collection of the assorted studies seems to defy any kind of continuity
in concept. However, for the purposes of this review the various
studies were categorized into two groups. The first group of studies
reviewed seemed to be directly related to time as a source of vari
ability in human movement as explicated in the previous section of this
chapter. Studies reviewed in this group are ones dealing with estimations of lapsed time, measures used to determine lapsed time, time allotments in various sports, speed of reaction and movement, and studies of the effect of time on performance to mention only a few.
The second group of studies reviewed appeared to be only indirectly related to time as a source of variability in human movement. Studies which dealt with the time patterns in motor learning, and the remi niscence and retention of motor skills are among those included in this group.
The review of research studies which follows is not a detailed accounting of purposes, procedures and conclusions of particular studies. For the intent of the review is not to examine what has been done with reference to a particular topic in contrast to what this investigator wishes to study. Rather the purpose of reviewing and reporting the studies is to recognize what aspects have been studied and what the trends in research seem to indicate with reference to an understanding of time as a source of variability in human move ment. The research in several areas reviewed is voluminous, often comprising entire books or chapters in books. In light of this fact, an attempt has been made to review and report representative examples of research studies in the area rather than to present a comprehensive review of the area of research. Topics included in the first group of studies to be reported are reaction time, rhythm, speed, endurance, measurement, time estimation, time allotments and the experience of time in movement activity. Reaction time
Speed of reaction time has had great appeal to investigators
in psychology and physical education perhaps because it is so eminently quantifiable. Within recent years there has been a proliferation of studies concerning the independence of reaction time and movement
time, the generality of reaction time to all body parts, differences
in reaction time between men and women, comparisons of reaction time and performance ability, the effects of practice on Increasing the speed of reaction time, differences in age and speed of reaction, racial comparisons of reaction time, the measurement of reaction time, and the effects of fatigue, stress, tension, temperature change, and stimulus change on reaction time.
A variety of definitions have been explored in the study of reaction time and its related aspects. Among the definitions which are deemed important to distinguish are:
a) Simple Reaction Time: the name assigned to the delay between the occurrence of a single fixed stimulus and the initiation of a response assigned to it.H2
b) Choice Reaction Time: the delay of response between either one or several stimuli and either one or several responses. In other words, there are alternatives for the subject to consider before responding.Il3
c) Reflex Time: a non volitional, automatic response interval which is predictable and not dependent upon the perception of the stimulus.
112 Paul M. Fitts and Michael T. Posner, Human Performance (Belmont, California: Brooks and Cole Publishing Co., 1967), p. 95. 11 3 Oxendine, p. 320. 114 Robert N. Singer, Motor Learning and Human Performance (New York: Macmillan Company, 1968), p. 67. 75
d) Movement Time: may include reflex or reaction time, and is usually viewed in the literature as the time a particular act takes to be completed after it has been initiated.
e) Response Time: the time it takes to complete the entire movement including the other times mentioned.
A brief overview of the many research studies concerning re action time follows• Although several investigators have found signi- H 7 118 ficant correlations between reaction time and movement time, ’
the majority of research demonstrates the specificity of these two 119 120 121 factors. ’ ’ Another aspect which has been investigated during recent years is the generality of reaction time among body parts. That is, do subjects who have short reaction times with the right hand also have short reaction times with the left hand, the feet, or other parts of the body? Evidence regarding this topic is very inconsistent.■ - , 122
Investigations of sex differences in reaction time generally reveal that men have faster reaction times than women, although the
115Ibid. 116Ibid. ^^Barry A. Kerr, "A Device for Measuring Reaction Time and Movement Time of a Knee-Extension Movement," Research Quarterly XXXVI (October, 1965), pp. 377-379. tig W. R. Pierson and Philip J. Rasch, "Determination of a Representative Score for Simple Reaction and Movement Time," Perceptual and Motor Skills IX (June, 1959), pp. 107-110. 119 Franklin Henry, "Reaction Time-Movement Time Correlations," Perceptual Motor Skills XII (1961), pp. 63-67. 120 Jean Hodgkins, "Reaction Time and Speed of Movement, in Males and Females of Various Ages," Research Quarterly XXXIV (October, 1963), pp. 335-343. 121 A. T. Slater-Hammel, "Reaction Time and Speed of Movement," Perceptual Motor Skills, Research Exchange, IV (1952), pp. 109-113. ^^Willard S. Lotter, "Interrelationships Among Reaction Times and Speeds of Movement in Different Limbs," Research Quarterly XXXI (May, 1960), pp. 147-155. 76 123, 124 differences are not great. Studies of the differences in
reaction time of varying age groups seem to indicate a decrease in
reaction time from childhood to the late teens, then a steady rate
until approximately twenty-five years old, followed by a gradual in
crease in reaction time through adulthood.^”*’ Practice of
the skill involving reaction time has revealed considerably shorter
reaction times for the subjects as individuals, but the differences 128 129 between subjects have remained fairly constant. ’ Racial com parisons have revealed insignificant differences in reaction 130 131 time. ’ Further a variety of tools for measuring speed of re- 132 133 action time have been devised and used, ’ although there have been few comparisons of such devices with other tools of the same kind.
^■^Hodgkins, pp. 335-343. 124 Gloria Jean Nottingham, "The Reaction Time and Speed of Movement of College Men and Women Who Participated in Selected Physical Education Activities," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Oregon, 1960). 125 Hodgkins. 126 Stephen Mendryk, "Reaction Time, Movement Time and Task Specificity'Relationships at Ages 12, 22, and 48 years," Research Quarterly, XXXI (May, 1960), pp. 156-162. 127 W. R. Pierson, "Relationship of Movement Time and Reaction Time from Childhood to Senility," Research Quarterly XXX (March, 1959), pp. 227-231. 1 2ft James E. Genasci, "A Study of the Effect of Participation in Physical Education and Athletics on Reaction and Movement Time," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, 1960). 129 P. H. Venables, "Periodicity in Reaction Time," British Journal of Psychology LI (February, 1960), pp. 37-43. 130 Don P. Ferguson, "Racial Comparisons and Relationships of Reaction Time, Body Movement Time and Sixty Yard Dash Performances," (unpublished Master's thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1967). 131 R. Meade Bache, "Reaction Time with Reference to Race," Psychological Review, II (September, 1895), pp. 475-486. ^■^Kerr, pp. 377-379. 133 Pierson and Rasch, pp. 107-110. 77
Since many activities in physical education require quick
responses to changing stimuli, it is perhaps natural that researchers
in physical education have analyzed the relationship between reaction
time and performance ability or athletic success. The literature
concerning this topic is voluminous with the majority of results
indicating that the athlete and the highly skilled performer do have
considerably faster reaction times than the non athlete and lowly
skilled performer. Representative examples of such studies are Cotten 134 and Denning, who studied the starting position from which the
quickest response can be made whether moving forward, backward, or 135 laterally, Westerlund and Tuttle who studied the relationship between
reaction time and running speed in the seventy-five yard dash, and 136 Miller and Shay who studied the relationship between reaction time
and the speed of the thrown softball.
134 Doyice J. Cotten and Donald Denning, "Comparison of Reaction- Movement Times from Four Variations of the Upright Stance," Research Quarterly XXXXI (May, 1970), p. 196. 135 W. W. Tuttle and J. H. Westerlund, "Relation Between Running Events and Reaction Time," Research Quarterly II (October, 1931), pp. 95-100. 136 Robert G. Miller and Clayton T. Shay, "Relationship of Reaction Time to the Speed of a Softball," Research Quarterly XXXV (October, 1964), pp. 433-437. 78
Various stimuli such as light, sound, and touch have been used
j j * 137, 138, 139, 140 T . to induce measures of reaction time. Intensity, distinctivencss, and in the case of sound, audibility have been identified as factors which can alter reaction time. Other factors which have been researched and have been found to affect reaction time are 141 . „ 142, 143 , temperature, tension or stress of the subject, and fatigue.144' 1 4 5 - 146• 147
137 Margot E. Hurst, "The Effects of Intensity Frequency, and Direction of Auditory Stimuli on Reaction Time, Movement Time and Completion Time," (unpublished Master's thesis, Smith College, 1967). 138 A. T. Slater-Hammel, "Comparison of Reaction-Time Measures to a Visual Stimulus and Arm Movement," Research Quarterly XXVI (December, 1955), pp. 470-479. 139 George J. Suci, "Reaction Time as a Function of Stimulus Information and Age," Journal of Experimental Psychology LX (October, 1960), pp. 242-244. ^^Don J. Wilson, "Quickness of Reaction and Movement Related to Rhythmicity or Nonrhythmicity of Signal Presentation," Research Quarterly XXX (March, 1959), pp. 101-109. W 1 W. H. Feichner, "Reaction Time in the Cold," Journal of Applied Psychology XXXXII (February, 1958), pp. 54-59. 142 Donald N. Elliott and Jerome Lukaszewski, "Reaction Time as a Function of Induced Muscular Tension," Perceptual and Motor Skills XIII (October, 1961), pp. 183-189. ^^Maxwell L. Howell, "Influence of Emotional Tension on Speed of Reaction and Movement," Research Quarterly, XXIV (March, 1953), pp. 22-32. 144 R. A. Berger and Don L. Mathus, "Movement Time with Various Resistance Loads as a Function of Pretensed and Pre-Relaxed Muscular Contractions,11 Research Quarterly XL (October, 1969), p. 456. 145 Arthur B. Parker, "A Study of the Relationship Between Reaction Time and Progressive Resistive Exercise," (unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1960). 146 B. R. Philips, "Studies in High Speed Continuous Work: II Decrement," Journal of Experimental Psychology XXV (September, 1939), pp. 307-378. 147 Robert W. Sarge, "The Effects of Levels of Intense Activity on Total Body Reaction Time," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, 1960). 79
From the overview of studies mentioned above, reaction time
would seem to be an important consideration in an individual's per
formance in movement activity, not only in physical education and
sports, but also in daily living. For although reaction time is but
one of a number of determinants of the caliber of performance in
movement activity, in many cases it may be the distinguishing factor
between success and failure or even between life and death in
emergency situations.
Rhythm
That a relationship exists between a performer's sense of
rhythm and/or timing and the success of his movement performance has
been suspected for many years. Many research studies have been at
tempted to discover the value of the supposition. However, a review
of the literature dealing with rhythm in relation to movement per
formance reveals that a substantial relationship has not been dis
covered. It is conceivable that a partial explanation for the lack
of accomplishment in the area resides in the problem of semantics
which encompasses studies of rhythm. The terms rhythm, rhythm ability,
sense of rhythm, rhythmic accuracy, rhythmic discrimination, and motor
rhythm have many diverse interpretations, and there do not appear to
be any agreed upon definitions. Such inconsistency makes delineating
any known understandings of the topic very difficult.
Generally most research studies have either attempted to relate
the performance of a definite rhythmically structured movement to the performer's sense of rhythm as measured by accuracy of response to some auditory rhythmic stimuli or attempted to develop a means for measuring 80 148 149 motor response to rhythmic stimuli. ’ Relatively few tests exist which measure one's sense of rhythm. Carl Seashore's test of rhythm^^ has most often been used. Several researchers have used the
Seashore rhythm test to ascertain the relationship between motor ability, capacity or educability and rhythmic ability.1 3, 1
Most studies have found no correlation or a very low correlation. More recently Raleigh Drake developed a test to forecast rhythmic 155 ability. The Drake Musical Aptitude Tests have begun to appear in research concerned with the relationship between rhythmic ability and 156 movement performance ability, however, the results of such studies continue to indicate no relationship between the two factors.
148 Dudley Ashton, "A Gross Motor Rhythm Test," Research Quarterly XXIV (October, 1953), pp. 253-260. 149 S. E. Simpson, "Development and Validation of an Objective Measure of Locomotor Response to Auditory Rhythmic Stimuli," Research Quarterly XXIX (October, 1958), pp. 342-348. 150 Carl Seashore, The Psychology of Musical Talent. New York: Silver, Burdett, and Co., 1919. ^"^Rachael J. Benton, "The Measurement of Capacities for Learning Dance Movement Techniques," Research Quarterly XV (March, 1944), pp. 137-144. ^^Marjorie H. Bond, "Rhythmic Perception and Gross Motor Performance," Research Quarterly XXX (October, 1959), pp. 259-265. 153 Eugene Wettstone, "Tests for Predicting Ability in Gym nastics and Tumbling," Research Quarterly IX (December, 1938), pp. 115-147. 154 Mary A. Brennan, "A Comparative Study of Skilled Gymnasts and Dancers on Thirteen Selected Characteristics," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1967). ^~^Manual for the Drake Musical Aptitude Tests, Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1954. ^^Nancy A. Schwanda, "A Study of Rhythmic Ability and Movement Performance," Research Quarterly XL (October, 1969), p. 567. 81
The existence of personal rhythm is another aspect of research relating rhythm and performance. The findings by Lewis*-"^ and 158 Harding are, however, inconclusive concerning the existence of a general factor of personal rhythm. Such studies usually involve analyzing the tempo at which an individual taps when given the directions to tap rhythmically. In general there does seem to be consistency between measures obtained when the same limb or part of a limb is engaged in tapping in several trials. At the same time, con trasting total body rhythm, foot tapping and finger tapping with various physiological measures including heart rate, respiration rate, and so on usually reveal low relationships. It has been found, how ever, that personal rhythm, if indeed there is such a factor, would seem to be related to other kinds of sensory experiences, perhaps particularly estimations of duration. When an individual was asked to tap faster than he preferred it led to an apparent shortening of an objective time period by the subject, and when he was asked to tap slower than he would choose, it led to an apparent lengthening of his 159 160 perception of a time interval. A study by Rimoldi went one step further demonstrating that a rhythm imposed upon an individual's personal way of performing the task may even prove detrimental.
^*^F. H. Lewis, "Affective Characteristics of Rhythm," Psy chological Bulletin XXX (1933), pp. 679-680. 158 D. W. Harding, "Rhythmization and Speed of Work," British Journal of Psychology XXIII (1932), pp. 262-278. 159 Bruce Dinner, S. Wapner, J. McFarland, and H. Werner, "Rhythmic Activity and the Perception of Time," American Journal of Psychology LXXVI (1963), p. 287. 160 H. J. A. Rimoldi, "Personal Tempo," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology XXXXVI (1951), pp. 283-303. 82
"Rhythm in sports and games may be more related to the ability to create one's own rhythm according to the task to be done."^^ The 162 results of Conrad indicate a significantly better quality of re sponse when the subject was allowed to perform at his own rhythm as opposed to when a rhythm was imposed upon the subject.
Regardless of the sometimes confusing and inconclusive findings concerning the relationship between rhythm and movement performance, there would still seem to be a pervasive feeling among physical edu cators that there is evidence of rhythm in skillful movement perform ances. However, it must be admitted in light of the current research that other than definitely rhythmically structured activities, the rhythm which is recognized in skillful movement performances does not appear to be the same kind of rhythm used in the musical sense of the word. Perhaps what is being referred to as "rhythmic movement" instead of being directly related to rhythm is a reference to the smoothness of the generation of energy in the movement which makes it aesthetically pleasing to the observer as well as to the performer.
Although the timing of movements has been identified as an essential aspect of skillful movement performance, objective measurement of the exact time an event occurs in a movement sequence has proven difficult. Electromyographic and cinematographic studies have, however,
161. Joel E. Grose, "Relationship of the Pattern of Movements, Including Rhythm and Terminal Success," Research Quarterly XL (March, 1969), p. 55. 162 R. Conrad, "The Timing of Signals in Skill," Journal of Experimental Psychology LI (June, 1956), pp. 365-370. 83 i, • , , v 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 attempted to define such precise instants.
Another aspect of timing which has also been studied is that of determining an individual's timing ability and correlating it with movement performance scores.^^’ In general an individual who has a high level of timing ability also has a high level of per formance. However, there is insufficient evidence to make such a statement conclusive.
Speed of movement
Probably one of the most researched aspects of study in the entire area of human movement relates to rate, velocity, acceleration or speed of movement. In addition to fast reactions, the speed of the body or limb within a given space is very often required for success in various physical activities. The many and varied studies concerning
163 Paul Burdan, "A Cinematographical Analysis of Three Basic Kicks Used in Soccer," (unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1955). 164 William Lyon, "A Cinematographical Analysis of the Overhand Baseball Throw," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1961). 165 Levon E. Garrison, "Electromyographic Cinematographic Study of Muscular Activity During the Golf Swing," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1963). *^Eric Kitzman, "Baseball: Electromyographic Study of Batting Swing." Research Quarterly XXXV (1964), pp. 166-178. 167 William H. Smith, "A Cinematographic Analysis of Football Punting," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Illinois, 1949). 168 Frank Wrigglesworth, "A Cinematographic Analysis of the Short Chip Shot in Golf," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1964). ^^Samuel Winograd, "The Relationship of Timing and Vision to Baseball Performance," Research Quarterly XIII (December, 1942), p. 484. 170 Joel E. Grose, "Timing Control and Finger, Arm and Whole Body Movements," Research Quarterly XXXVIII (March, 1967), pp. 10-21. '"Mary Lou Norrie, "Timing of Two Simultaneous Movements of Arms and Legs," Research Quarterly XXXV (December, 1964), p. 511. 84
speed of movement seem to deal with either personal tempo, the
specificity or generality of the speed of body parts, the determination
of the quickest way of performing a particular skill or speed as a
factor of success in movement performance.
In relation to the research concerning personal tempo, Cratty
states the following.
The available evidence supports the existence of a general factor indicative of preferred speed which is common to a number of motor tasks and relatively consistent over a time period. Although the correlations between preferred speed of movement, and maximum movement speed, and other physio logical measures are low, it would seem that each individual has a characteristic and efficient movement speed which he prefers when performing a number of tasks.
In support of the existence of a personal tempo, Karl Smith and 173 others identified the temporal components of human gait and con cluded that not only does the individual have a preferred tempo but also that it is difficult to modify this tempo. That is, the temporal components of the human gait were found to show remarkable constancy with age and were found to remain relatively constant with and without shoes or with artificial loading of up to twenty-five pounds. Time and motion studies would also seem to support an individual's pre ference for performing at a particular speed, to the extent that 174 alterations of this preferred speed may affect efficiency. Research does confirm, however, that high speed continuous movement is affected
172 Bryant J. Cratty, Movement Behavior and Motor Learning (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967). 173 Karl U. Smith, Charles D. McDermid, and Frederick Shideman, "Analysis of the Temporal Components of Motion in Human Gait," American Journal of Physical Medicine XXXIX (August, 1960), pp. 142-151. 174 R. Conrad, "Adaptation to Time In a Sensorimotor Skill," Journal of Experimental Psychology IL (February, 1955), pp. 115-121. 85 by chronological age,^"*’ in that there is usually a slowing trend with increased age.
The speed of movement of various body parts, particularly limbs has been studied very critically by a number of investigators. The majority of research, done in relation to reaction time, has demon strated that the speed of movement of various limbs is specific to the limb and to the task as opposed to there being a general speed of limb movement.
Numerous research studies have also been conducted to determine the quickest way of performing particular skills. Exemplary of these studies are H a y , ^ 8 King and Scharf,^^ and King^8^ in relation to l8l» 132 swimming, Smith and Beran in relation to baseball running skill,
1 75 * Philips, pp. 307-378. 176 James Albert Williams, III, "Speed of Movement and Chrono logical Age," (unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1958). 177 F. M. Henry, "Stimulus Complexity, Movement Complexity, Age and Sex in Relation to Reaction Latency and Speed in Limb Movements," Research Quarterly XXXII (October, 1961), pp. 353-366. 178 James G. Hay, "Experiments in the Mechanics of Physical Activities," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation XL (January, 1969), pp. 89-90. 179 William H. King, Jr., and Raphael J. Scharf, "Time and Motion Analysis of Competitive Freestyle Swimming Turns," Research Quarterly XXXV (March, 1964), pp. 37-44. 1 80 William H. King, Jr., and Leslie Irwin, "A Time and Motion Study of Competitive Backstroke Swimming Turns," Research Quarterly XXVIII (October, 1957), pp. 257-268. 181 Jerry D. Smith, "A Study to Determine the Fastest Pivot a Second Baseman Could Use in Completing a Double Play," (unpublished Master's thesis, Eastern Illinois University, 1967). 182Robert L. Beran, "Speed of Base Running at Selected Distances from Second Base," (unpublished Master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1959. 86 183 184 and Bender and Bischoff in relation to running and diving. The
effects of fatigue and warm-up on speed of performance have also been
studied by Lotter^"* and Blank.The effects of speed on perform
ance and results of exercise has also been studied.
Speed has been identified as an essential factor in studies
attempting to identify a general gross coordination factor involving
integration of arm and leg movements, and also in those attempting to define motor ability factors. The results of such studies indicates, however, that speed of movement is specific to the task rather than 188 being a general factor testable by one or a series of speed tests.
In an attempt to determine whether an instructor should concentrate on the speed components of an activity when teaching beginners, 189 Solley concluded that if speed of movement is the main component of the skill then it should be emphasized. However, if both speed and accuracy are components they should receive equal emphasis at the
183 Eileen K. Bender, "The Relationship Between Rate of Learning and Retention of Certain Sensorimotor Skills," (unpublished Master’s thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 196l). 184 David Canby Bischoff, "Speeds of Running and Running and Diving Movements to Short Distance Targets," (unpublished Ph.D. dis sertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1958). 185 Willard S. Lotter, "Effects of Fatigue and Warm Up on Speed of Arm Movements," Research Quarterly XXX (March, 1959), pp. 56-65. 186 Lane B. Blank, "Effects of Warm-up on Speed," Athletic Journal XXXV (February, 1955), p. 10. 187 John Archer, "Rate as a Variable in Resistance Exercise," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1966). 188 Willard S. Lotter, "Specificity or Generality of Speed of Systematically Related Movements," Research Quarterly XXXII (March, 1961), p. 55. 189 William H. Solley, "The Effects of Verbal Instruction of Speed and Accuracy upon the Learning of a Motor Skill," Research Quarterly XXIII (1952), pp. 231-240. 87 initial stages of learning. Studies have also been attempted to determine the relationship between speed of movement and success in movement activity.
Most teachers and coaches assume that there is a positive correlation between quickness and success in athletics and are often influenced in the selection of persons for teams by observation of their quickness as they participate in activities.
There is, however, relatively little objective evidence for such con clusions. In fact it would seem again that speed of movement is specific to the task, and because most sport activities involve the accomplishment of a variety of tasks the speed with which some tasks are accomplished is not particularly indicative of a successful all round performance.
Endurance
Research studies concerned with endurance or the ability to hold off against fatigue and thereby extend the period of effective work have revealed that endurance appears to be almost entirely a matter of oxygen and food supply, and waste removal. Further, endurance research like research in speed reveals endurance to be highly specific to the body part and to the task whether the reference is to strength endurance or cardiovascular endurance. The research in endurance is thus also very specific, often involving only one body part and many physiological measures. Among the research conducted concerning
190 L. F. Keller, "The Relation of 'Quickness of Bodily Move ment' to Success in Athletics," Research Quarterly XIII (May, 1942), pp. 146-155. 88 191 192 strength endurance are studies by Moudgil and Karpovich, Tuttle, 193 194 195 Royce, Hettinger, and Cotten. All of these investigators have analyzed the duration of a maximal isometric muscular contraction; each has investigated a different body part. Maximum oxygen intake has become a widely accepted measure of the efficiency or capacity of cardiorespiratory endurance. Many studies have directly and indirectly investigated the relationship between Max VO^ and aspects of endurance.
For example, the establishment of and the changes within the many and varied training and/or physical conditioning programs have been in some ways dependent on research findings of the many studies in this area are ones by Cureton,^^ Fall and others,and Wilmore,^^
191 Ranvir Moudgil and Peter Karpovich, "Duration of a Maximal Isometric Muscular Contraction," Research Quarterly XL (October, 1969), p. 536. 192 W. W. Tuttle, "Relation of Maximum Back and Leg Strength Endurance," Research Quarterly XXVI (March, 1955), pp. 96-106. 193 J. Royce, "Isometric Fatigue Curves in Human Muscle with Normal and Occluded Circulation," Research Quarterly XXIX (May, 1958), pp. 204-212. 194 T. Hettinger, Physiology of Strength (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Co., 1961). 195 D. Cotten, "Relationship of the Duration of Sustained Voluntary Isometric Contraction to Changes in Endurance and Strength," Research Quarterly XXXVIII (1967), pp. 366-374. 196 T. K. Cureton, Jr., Physical Fitness of Champion Athletes (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1951). 197 Harold B. Falls, A. H. Ismail, and D. F. MacLeod, "Esti mations of Maximum Oxygen Uptake in Adults from AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Items," Research Quarterly XXXVII (1966), p. 192. 198 Jack H. Wilmore, "Maximal Oxygen Intake and its Relation ship to Endurance Capacity on a Bicycle Ergometer," Research Quarterly XL (March, 1969), p. 203. 89
Measurement
From the number of kinds of studies concerned with time as a source of variability in human movement it becomes obvious that the precise timing of movement performance is essential. As a consequence studies concerned with the measurement of time in relation to many different aspects of movement performance have appeared in the 199 literature. Lockhart studied the methods for measuring short-time intervals and found that various instruments are used to measure fine intervals of time. From a review of the literature she grouped the instruments into the following general classifications:
(l) Clocks, watches and chronometers; (2) pendulums and metronomes; (3) electric current devices; (4) falling objects; (5) photographic and stroboscopic records; (6) 2 qq tuning forks; and (7) various combinations of the above.
The research concerning the measurement of time in relation to movement performance seems to fall into one of two categories. The first category includes the research which has been mainly concerned with the accuracy of the timing device used. Among the studies included in 201 the category are Cureton and Coe's analysis of errors in stop watch 202 timing, Fetter's concern for the accuracy of electric timers, and 203 Reimberger's analysis of how to attain accuracy of timing with a
199 Aileene Lockhart, "A Survey of Devices Used in Measuring Short-Time Intervals," Research Quarterly XII (December, 1941), pp. 757-764. 200Ibid., p. 757. 201 T. K. Cureton, Jr., and David E. Coe, "An Analysis of Errors in Stop Watch Timing," Research Quarterly IV (May, 1933), pp. 94-109. 202 C. H. Fetter and H. M. Stoller, "Precise Timing of Sporting Events," Transaction of American Institute of Electrical Engineering (June, 1933), pp. 386-391. 203 E. D. Reimberger, "The Accuracy of Timing with a Stop Watch," Journal of Experimental Psychology X (1927), p. 60. 90
stop watch. The second category includes the formulation or creation
of particular kinds of timing devices for specific purposes. The 204 device by Tuttle for measuring starting time of races and the device 205 by Walton for recording small consecutive units of time on film are among the many different devices which have been invented.
Time estimation
There have been relatively few studies conducted concerning estimates of time lapsed that relate to movement performance. As a consequence, although some general statements can be made based on the results of the studies conducted, the results are admittedly inconclusive at the present time. From the results of a study by 206 Weybrew it appears plausible that muscle tension states affect the accuracy of short time intervals largely in the direction of reducing the perceived duration of the time span. These results were supported 207 by Gary who studied time estimations among competitive swimmers. 208 Cratty and Brown reported on another study in which
204 W. W. Tuttle and George J. Bresnoban, "An Apparatus for Measuring Starting Time in Foot Races," Research Quarterly IV (May, 1933), p. 110. 205 James S. Walton, "A High Speed Timing Unit for Cinematography," Research Quarterly XXXXI (May, 1970), p. 213. 206 Benjamin Weybrew, "Accuracy of Time Estimation and Muscular Tension," Perceptual and Motor Skills XVII (August, 1963), p. 118. 207 Robert Harris Gary, "An Investigation of Time Estimation Among Competitive Swimmers at the University of California at Santa Barbara," (unpublished Master’s thesis, University of California, 1967). 208 Bryant J. Cratty and Roscoe C. Brown (eds.), New Per spectives of Man in Action (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1969). 91
it was hypothesized that groups participating in contact sports would possess the perceptual pattern of the reducer and thus reduce most in their estimation of kinesthetically perceived size, have faster reaction times, faster movement times, judge time as passing more slowly and would tolerate most pain.209
Other studies which have been conducted concerning time estimation 210 include the effects of level of aspiration and the difficulty level 211 of the activity. As might be anticipated from the research cited
earlier in the chapter concerning general time estimation, motivation
and interest in the task had the effect of making time appear to pass 212 more quickly.
Time allotments in games
Often various time allotments in games are studied in order to
obtain evidence for the need of a new rule or the need to revise an
existing rule. As an example several studies have been done in 213 relation to men's basketball. Douglas studied the amount of time
lost or wasted in a game while the clock continued to run after a violation had been called. As a result of his study, the National
Basketball Committee of the United States and Canada proposed and adopted the rule which would stop the clock after each violation, thus
209T, , Q1 Ibid., p. 91. 210 P. E. Baer, D. C. Waukasch, and S. Goldstone, "Time Judgment and Level of Aspiration," Perceptual and Motor Skills XVI (1963), p. 648, 211 J. J. Harton, "The Influence of the Difficulty of Activity on the Estimation of Time," Journal of Experimental Psychology XXIII (1938), pp. 270-287. 212 Ibid. 213 Robert A. Douglas, "A Study to Determine Time Loss After Violations in Basketball," (unpublished Master’s thesis, Springfield College, 1958). 92 214 decreasing the wasted time during the basketball game. Blish
similarly studied the time lost due to player violations. Januszew- 215 ski studied the continuance of ball control from the time the of
fensive team gained possession to the time a shot was taken. His
study contributed data in negating a rule change requiring a twenty- 216 four second limit for the offensive team. Davis conducted a study
to determine if the five seconds allotted to the "thrower-in" was of
sufficient duration to place the ball in play against the modern
pressure defenses of basketball. His study revealed that there was
no necessity to extend the throw in time limitation on either the high
school or college levels.
Experience of time 217 A study conducted by Patricia Thomson is one of the very
few research studies which in any way deals with a description of
experienced time during a movement activity. Her study is described more generally on page 28 of this chapter. Although several studies
in the literature do describe the experience of a movement sequence within a given time interval, Thomson is one of the few investigators
^^Russell R. Blish, "An Investigation of Basketball Fouls and Violations, Delay in Player Substitutions and Time Lost Due to Player Violations," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1960). 215 Frank A. Januszewski, "The Duration of Ball Control in Basketball," (unpublished Master1s thesis, Springfield College, 1955). ^^Benjamin H. Davis, III, "A Study of the Time Involved in the Basketball Throw In," (unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1967). 217 Patricia Thomson, "Ontological Truth in Sport: A Phenomeno logical Analysis," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967). 93 who attended to and described her experiential reactions to time sequences which occurred in the movement experience. The movement experience investigated was a game of golf. Some of her comments concerning the experience of time within the game follow.
The primary importance of the relationship of self to the horizon time and space of the phenomenal world, appeared to be the potential availability of the self to exist in 2 ^g this particular lived period of described space and time.
Essentially, all objects were "caught” within the horizon of space and time and therefore depended upon these qualities of boundary for their relational existence.
There seems to be little relationship evident between time and objects other than the fact that time provided the self with sequential appearance of objects. This relationship can be best described as one of varied rhythm.220
The following represent reactions to time sequences which appeared in the experience: 1. special, 2. good, 3. lengthy in its totality, 4. slow and heavy at times, 5. enjoyed variation in felt time, 6. irritated with vacil lation between feeling rushed and held back during the experience.
From Thomson's study alone it becomes apparent that one’s awareness of the experience of time while performing might contribute something unique to an understanding of the movement experience as a whole.
Memory
The first group of studies which were identified as being only indirectly related to a study of the function of time as a source of
218 Ibid., p. 110. 219 Ibid., p. 105. 220 Ibid., p. 104. 221Ibid., p. 90. 94 variability in human movement deal with the phenomenon of memory.
Studies which are concerned with the retention and reminiscence of motor skills are included in this group. Discussions of specific examples of research studies concerned with retention and reminiscence and the various parameters which may affect them may be found in motor 222 learning texts such as Cratty's Movement Behavior and Motor Learning 223 and Singer’s Motor Learning and Human Performance.
It suffices to state here that retention, as a function of memory, is a term used in the fields concerned with movement behavior to refer to that which is remembered from the initial learning of a task to a test of the task after a period of time. It is usually determined by measuring the difference between the amount learned initially and the amount forgotten. The general trend in research concerning the retention of motor skills suggests that motor skills, once learned, are not readily forgotten. A number of parameters have been explored which may contribute to or hinder the retention of motor skills. Among the parameters studied have been the nature of the task, the degree of original learning, the nature of the activities between initial learning and tests of retention, the meaningfulness of the task to the learner, the time lapse between the initial learning and the test of retention, and the practice conditions under which the task was learned.
Reminiscence is usually defined by investigators concerned with movement behavior as the phenomenon in which the performance
222 Cratty. 223.. Singer. 95 increases after a period of rest. A number of theories have been developed to explain the phenomenon, however, the research has been so diverse that no one theory has more support than the others. The research concerning reminiscence has been further complicated by the 224 fact that often a number of variables are not controlled. However, the majority of studies dealing with reminiscence are conducted in relation to varying time patterns in the learning of the task.
Time allotments in practice
Whether or not practice sessions should be massed or distributed and the various time allotments a particular activity should receive for the most efficient learning, retention, and reminiscence are topics which have received a great deal of attention in research concerning physical activity. Again, these topics are reviewed in motor learning texts, and are viewed as being only indirectly related to the function of time as a source of variability in human movement, since they are topics which are concerned not with the temporal aspects of movement but rather with the effects of time on learning or remembering particular movements.
Summary
The function of time as a source of variability in human move ment has been researched from a variety of viewpoints and for a variety of purposes. Recent research studies of time as a source of variability seem to be primarily concerned with improving specific movement per formances, perhaps with the underlying concern for understanding more
224 Cratty, p. 247. 96
fully the nature of the movement task to be performed. The areas of research summarized above which relate to time as a source of vari ability in human movement are reaction time, rhythm, speed of movement, endurance, measurement, time estimation, time allotments in games, the experience of time in movement activity, and memory and time allotments
in practice as related to the learning of a movement task.
Summary and conclusion
The various systems of analyzing and recording human movement summarized in the first section of this chapter each accord temporal variability some significance in their scheme. In several systems time is viewed as one of the major elements of human movement, and in others time is viewed as part of the analysis of movement yet not one of its formal properties. The three systems of reference for the temporality of human movement discussed in the second section of the chapter designate the different ways in which time as a variable in human movement may be viewed. That is, there are considerations of man's orientation to time as an objective conceptualization descriptive of the physical world, man's perspective of time as the various forms of temporal experience, and the various ways in which man has conceived of the measurement of time. In the third section of the chapter the literature concerning time as a source of variability in human move ment is categorized according to the temporal functions of limitation, dimension and relation. The temporal limits of human movement are categorized as the moment, the event and the period. The temporal dimensions are identified as the instant, the interval and the duration; and the temporal relations identified are simultaneity, succession and 97
tempo. The fourth and last section of the chapter summarizes the
recent research studies concerning aspects of time as a source of
variability in human movement.
From the review of the literature concerning human movement
it appears that the function of time as a source of variability in
human movement has been discussed and researched from a variety of viewpoints. It has become apparent from a review of the literature,
however, that while many aspects of the function of time as a source
of variability in human movement have been discussed and researched with reference to specific movement tasks, there has been no attempt
to delineate all of the temporal variables of a movement sequence or organization of movement sequences. It is the purpose of this study
to develop a construct which does elicit all of the temporal variables of human movement, and thereby include and organize the temporal variables which have been researched and discussed in the literature.
The construct which follows in Chapter III has been developed from the many and varied discussions of time and movement which are reviewed and reported in this chapter. CHAPTER III
THE CONSTRUCT
Introduction
As delineated in Chapter I, the problem of this study is the development of a construct which elicits the temporal variables of human movement in order that the function of time as a source of vari ability in human movement may be explored. The term "construct" has been defined in Chapter I as "a meaningful arrangement of something by a process of mental synthesis . . Thus, the construct presented in this chapter consists of an arrangement of the temporal variables of human movement as evidenced in the review of literature concerning human movement which has been reported in Chapter II. Whereas the review of literature includes not only the temporal variables of human movement but also topics related to the variables, such as various existing systems of analyzing movement, ways movement has been notated, and concerns relative to the development of temporal concepts, to mention a few, the construct of this chapter consists specifically and only with ideas directly concerned with the temporal variables of human movement. For the purpose of the construct is to act as an heuristic device for the temporal variables of human movement, and not to further arrange information related to or about such variables.
^Philip G. Gove and others (eds.), Webster*s Third New Inter national Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (Springfield, Mass.: G.and CU Merriam Company, 1961), p. 920. 98 The review of literature concerning human movement reported in
Chapter II reveals that while many aspects of temporal variability in human movement have been discussed and researched there has been no structure for a complete delineation of all of the temporal variables of movement. As discussed in the third section of Chapter II, however, the literature did reveal that as a source of variability time appears to have three functions. That is, time serves to describe the temporal limits, dimensions and relations of human movement. Within each of the three functions of time as a source of variability in human movement three temporal variables have been described as operative. A brief review of the definitions of the three functions and nine variables of time as discussed in Chapter II follows.
Temporal Limits: the restrictions which circumscribe or enclose portions of time.
Moment: a definite point in time designated as present or now, and reflectively as past or then which describes the limits of behaving thinking and moving.
Event: the temporal limits of the happening of an occurrence, designating the beginning and ending.
Period: the temporal limits of a portion of time determined by some recurring similar, or congruent occurrences or events.
Temporal Dimensions: the measurable extent of a portion of time within prescribed temporal limits.
Instant: an infinitesimal portion of time.
Interval: the portion of time between any two prescribed points, events or occurrences.
Duration: the portion of time during which any thing or occurrence continues.
Temporal Relations: the ways in which an event or occurrence stands to another or other events and occurrences. 100
Simultaneity: an event or occurrence happens at the same time as another or other events and occurrences.
Sequence: the coming of an event or occurrence before or after another or other events or occurrences.
Tempo: the time structure of sequential temporal relations.
A diagrammatic representation of the three functions and nine vari ables of time as a source of variability in human movement appears as
Table 1.
TABLE 1 FUNCTIONS OF TIME AS A SOURCE OF VARIABILITY IN HUMAN MOVEMENT
Functions: Limits Dimensions Relations V a Moment Instant Simultaneity r i a Event Interval Sequence b 1 e Period Duration Tempo s
Since the purpose of the construct is to act as an heuristic device for the temporal variables of human movement, the organization of the construct corresponds directly with Table 1. In an attempt to elicit the temporal variables of movement the construct has been developed as a set of ordered questions. Just as it is possible to examine time from several different perspectives and orientations to determine variability so it is possible to examine movement from dif ferent viewpoints and differentiated levels of complexity. The questions in the construct may be directed to individuals of three different viewpoints, the mover— the person or persons performing the movement, 101
the observer of the movement or the reader of a description of the
movement whether the description is written in words or recorded in
other symbols. The construct may also be applied to any level of
complexity of movement from the most simple form to the most complex
organization of movements. Many different levels of complexity of
movement may be described. One such delineation from simple to com
plex with examples is as follows.
Level I: a simultaneous or sequential articulation of two or more effort units. (Examples: arm swing, leg swing)
Level II: the configuration of particular sequential articu lations of effort units. (Examples: push, walk)
Level III: a combination of sequential articulations in particular sequences and relationships. (Examples: throw, step hop)
Level IV: combinations of Level III given stylistic or technical changes which make them perceptible as single units of movements which are sometimes called techniques. (Examples: waltz, lay up shot)
Level V : selected combinations of techniques in various sequential relationships. (Examples: figures, plays)
Level VI: combinations of specified techniques into particular wholes. (Examples: Black Hawk waltz, basketball g a m e ) 2
Thus, the questions of the construct may be applied, for example, by an individual performing the lay up shot, an individual observing an arm swing, an individual reading the kinetogram of the Black Hawk waltz or any other possible combination of the three different view points with the six levels of complexity of movement.
2 G. Studer and H. Williams, "Substantive Units of Movement," (unpublished notes for a Curriculum Revision Meeting, University of Washington, Seattle, November 19, 1967), p. 1. 102
The questions in the construct have been developed so that
they are general in nature. For too specific a question may eliminate potential applications of the construct for various and different purposes. The questions are also somewhat open-ended in order that all the possible responses may be given, thereby attempting to decrease
the potential biasing of the responses through established and pre conceived ideas. Further, the questions have been stated in the past
tense, since the questions must be asked and responded to reflectively, or after the movement or idea of the movement has occurred. For until
the movement is begun or thought to be begun it has no temporal existence, and to ask of its temporality prior to its occurrence is absurd.
In an attempt to further increase the comprehensiveness of the construct each temporal variable is attributed three questions. The first question is concerned with eliciting the temporal variable of a movement as a concept. The second question is concerned with eliciting the temporal variable of a movement as it has been experienced; and the third question attempts to elicit the temporal variable of a move ment as a particular or specific. The inclusion of the three types of questions allows for an application of the construct to, for example, the game of basketball (concept), John's experience as a forward in the basketball game (as experienced), and the specific basketball game of one school against another which resulted in a specific score and occurred in a specific place at a specific time
(particular). 103
In its totality the construct represents an attempt to com
prehensively delineate the temporal variables of human movement in order that the function of time as a source of variability in human movement may be explored. The construct may be applied by an observer, mover or reader to any level of complexity of movement as it may be conceived, experienced or specified.
Construct for the functions of temporal variability
Temporal Limits
What were the temporal limits of the movement?
Moment
When did the movement occur?
When did the movement seem to occur?
When did that movement occur?
Event
When did the movement begin and end?
When did the movement seem to begin and end?
When did that movement begin and end?
Period
In what portion of time did the movement occur?
In what portion of time did the movement seem to occur?
In what portion of time did that movement occur?
Temporal Dimensions
What were the temporal dimensions of the movement?
Instant
What time did the movement occur? What time did the movement seem to occur?
What time did that movement occur?
Interval
What kind of temporal units did the movement expend?
What kind of temporal units did the movement seem to expend?
What kind of temporal units did that movement expend?
Duration
How long did the movement continue?
How long did the movement seem to continue?
How long did that movement continue?
Temporal Relations
What were the temporal relations of the movement?
Simultaneity
What parts of the movement occurred at the same time?
What parts of the movement seemed to occur at the same time?
What parts of that movement occurred at the same time?
Sequence
What temporal order occurred in the movement?
What temporal order seemed to occur in the movement?
What temporal order occurred in that movement?
Tempo
What temporal structure occurred in the movement?
What temporal structure seemed to occur in the movement?
What temporal structure occurred in that movement? Evaluation of the construct
In order to effectively evaluate the construct as a tool for
eliciting the temporal variables of movement, a series of evaluations
are necessary. If the construct is effective and therefore compre
hensive, it must reveal upon application by an observer, mover or
reader the temporal variables of any movement particular, concept or
experience, regardless of level of complexity. That is, for example,
the construct must delineate the temporal variables of the most simple movement such as a single joint action, a more complex sequence of move ments such as the high jump, as well as a most complex movement
organization such as a football game. In addition the construct must
be applicable to the above movement examples as they are experienced
by the person or persons performing them, and as they may be con
ceptualized by an individual. Further the construct must be applicable
to the performance of the above mentioned examples, to video tapes or
other such recordings of the performances as well as to written or
symbolized descriptions of such performances.
Since the purpose of the construct is to elicit the temporal variables of human movement an application of the construct may reveal
that not all temporal variables are inherent in a particular movement or movement concept. That is, not every question may have a response
in relation to that movement. However, the construct must delineate all the temporal variables of the movement. The construct is inef
fective if it does not elicit each and every temporal variable of the movement. 106
Four basic types of evaluation are necessary to determine the
effectiveness of the construct as a tool serving to delineate the
temporal variables of movement. These four evaluations have no particular order of significance since if the construct fails to
elicit the temporal variables in any one of the evaluations it fails as a comprehensive tool for such a purpose, and its applicability is
seriously jeopardized. Each of the four evaluations involves a series of tests. The number of tests necessary to complete the particular evaluation is dependent upon the number of levels of complexity of movement that are delineated. Thus if an individual uses the levels of complexity of movement delineated in the introduction of this chapter, since six levels of complexity are listed, there will be six tests in each of the four evaluations, resulting in a minimum of twenty-four tests for a complete evaluation of the construct. However, many different delineations of levels of complexity of movement are possible, and as long as each level of complexity, whether formally or informally delineated, is tested the requirement is satisfied.
Thus it is possible to conceive of as few as four evaluations and as many tests as there are possible differentiations in complexity of movement.
In one of the evaluations the construct is applied by a reader to a movement concept. The movement concept may be of a single move ment, a sequence of movements, or a complex organization of movements.
In order to comprehensively evaluate the construct as a tool serving to elicit the temporal variables of a movement concept, a test must be made of a concept exemplary of the lowest level of complexity through 107
the most complex level of movement. This type of evaluation is an
application of the first questions listed under each of the temporal
variables since those questions intend, to elicit the temporal vari
ables of movement concepts. Examples of movement concepts which may
be used to test the construct are concepts of the front crawl, the
jump shot in basketball, or the game of tennis.
A second necessary evaluation of the construct is an appli
cation of the construct by a reader to a movement particular. The
particular movement may be at any designated level of complexity of movement. The reader may apply the construct to a particular move ment, for example, which has been notated, such as a particular stunt
in synchronized swimming, or to a description of a particular movement
such as the pole vault. One of the series of tests necessary to completing this evaluation at all levels of movement complexity follows
in Chapter IV. The test in Chapter IV is an application of the construct by a reader to a written description of a particular women's gymnastic floor exercise routine. The series of tests essential to completing the second evaluation will all include applications of the construct through responses to the third set of questions listed under each temporal variable. For that set of questions is concerned specifically with particularized or specific movements as opposed to a concept of the movement.
A third type of evaluation of the construct is an application of the construct by a mover to the particular movement performed.
After the particular movement has been performed, regardless of level of complexity, the mover may apply the construct to that particular 108 movement by responding to the second series of questions listed under
each temporal variable. The temporal variables revealed in the re
sponses to the questions are concerned with the subjective or experi
ential variables of time, whereas the responses to the questions in
the first and second evaluations are concerned with the objective temporal variables.
The fourth type of evaluation necessary to determine the effectiveness of the construct is an application of the construct by an observer to a movement particular at any level of complexity. The observer may elect to apply the construct after observing a live performance or may elect to apply the construct to a video tape or other reproduction of the performance. For example, the observer may apply the construct after observing an individual perform the golf swing or may apply the construct after several observations of the performance on video tape. Again a series of tests, one for each level of movement complexity, are necessary for the completion of the fourth type of evaluation. The observer, as the reader, applying the construct to a particular movement responds to the third set of questions listed under each temporal variable.
Thus, the four basic types of evaluation necessary to determine the effectiveness of the construct as a tool serving to elicit the temporal variables of movement are the applications of the construct by: 1) a reader to a concept, 2' a reader to a movement particular,
3) a mover to the particular movement performed, and A) an observer to a movement particular. Within each type of evaluation it is necessary that the construct be applied to each level of movement complexity. 109
The resulting evaluation of the construct and its comprehensiveness
will determine its effectiveness, and thus its use as an heuristic
device for the temporal variables of human movement.
Summary
A construct has been developed and presented as an heuristic
device for the temporal variables of human movement in order that the
function of time as a source of variability in human movement may be
explored. The construct consists of a series of ordered questions
which attempt to elicit the temporal variables of movement concepts,
movement experiences, and movement particulars. The construct may be
applied by an observer, a mover or a reader to any movement at any
level of complexity. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the
construct four different types of evaluations are necessary. Each type
of evaluation consists of a series of tests of movements at each level
of complexity. The first type of evaluation consists of an application
of the construct by a reader to a movement concept. The second type of
evaluation consists of an application of the construct by a reader to
a movement particular. The third type of evaluation consists of an
application of the construct by a mover to the particular movement
performed. The fourth and last type of evaluation consists of an
application of the construct by an observer to a movement particular.
At the completion of the four types of evaluation the comprehensiveness
and effectiveness of the construct may be confirmed or denied. CHAPTER IV
AN APPLICATION OF THE CONSTRUCT
Introduction
It is indicated in Chapter III that four different types of evaluation of the construct are necessary in order to determine its effectiveness at eliciting the temporal variables of human movement.
The four types of evaluation necessary include the application of the construct by a reader to a movement concept, by a reader to a movement particular, by a mover to the particular movement performance, and by an observer to a movement particular. Further, it is indicated that within each of the four types of evaluation a series of tests in volving the application of the construct to movements of varying levels of complexity is necessary. The application of the construct which follows is one test in the series of tests necessary to complete the evaluation of the construct by a reader to a movement particular. In this test the reader, the investigator of this study, applies the construct to a specific written description of a women’s gymnastics floor exercise routine. With reference to level of movement complexity, a floor exercise routine, according to the six levels described in
Chapter III, is a most complex organization of movements since a floor exercise routine is a combination of specified techniques into a particular whole. The routine examined is that one which is described
110 Ill
as the "Beginner Level Floor Exercise"^ published by the Division of
Girls and Women's Sports in the June 1969-June 1971 Gymnastics Guide.
A complete written description of the "Beginner Level Floor Exercise"
done to the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz appears in the Appendix,
A form of sport has been chosen from the many possible choices
of complex organizations of human movement because a written description
of the movement has been published thereby allowing for further tests
for reliability, and because the reader is more familiar with sport
forms than, for example, industrial forms of complex movements. A women's gymnastics floor exercise routine has been selected as the particular sport form for several reasons. First, it does represent one of the highest levels of movement complexity, and thus may serve
in a small way to test the comprehensiveness of the construct. Second, as an instance of the sport of gymnastics, floor exercise routines are commonly given the form of written description, whereas other examples of particular movements at the high level of complexity, such as particular games, dances and sports, are not usually described in written form. Third, the floor exercise routine involves total body movement, as opposed to partial movements, and this again, may serve in a small way to test the comprehensiveness of the construct. Fourth and last, women's gymnastics floor exercise routines possess common alities with other forms of both sport and dance. As in some forms of sport, floor exercise has a rule structure which designates among other items the spatial and temporal limits of the activity; floor exercise is performed in competition with points being awarded various
^Carolyn 0. Bowers (ed.), Gymnastics Guide (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1969), pp. 82-87. 112 aspects of the performance resulting in a winner and loser; floor exercise involves a display of skill and corresponds to other indi vidual sports or solo dance. As in some forms of dance, floor exercise has a predetermined sequence of movements between beginning and ending; its outcome is based on subjective ratings of judges; and it is done to musical accompaniment.
Since the following test is an application of the construct to a particular movement it is necessary to respond to only the third set of questions listed under each temporal variable. The third set of questions as presented in the construct of Chapter III appears below with the substitution of "the floor exercise routine" for "that movement", specifying that the particular movement being examined is a floor exercise routine. Appearing in conjunction with the questions are the answers resulting from the application of the questions to the floor exercise routine being examined.
It must be remembered that the effectiveness of the construct is not based on whether or not each question is answered, for not all forms of human movement include all forms of temporal variability.
Rather the effectiveness of the construct is determined by whether or not all of the temporal variables of the movement are elicited upon application of the construct. Further it must be acknowledged that while the purpose of the following examination is to test the effective ness of the construct, the function of the examination of the floor exercise routine is to delineate the temporal variables as they appear in the written description. Therefore, the question which guides the following application of the construct is not: Is the construct 113
effective: but rather: What are the temporal variables of the
"Beginner Level Floor Exercise" as described in the Gymnastics Guide?
Application of the construct
The following application of the construct for the functions
of temporal variability has been applied by a reader to the written
description of the "Beginner Level Floor Exercise" which appears in 2 the Gymnastics Guide June 1969-June 1971. As designated in Chapter X
of this study the floor exercise routine selected has been written for
and executed in gymnastics competition. The routine has been prepared
as a compulsory routine by a joint committee from the DGWS and the
United States Gymnastics Federation. The AAU women's committee has voted to utilize the routine for lower level meets; and the committee 3 for Junior Olympics has also officially adopted the compulsory routine.
The necessary conditions for the identification of the move ment sequence as a competitive women's gymnastics compulsory floor
exercise routine have been met. That is, according to the rule
structure the floor exercise routine must include the following moves:
tumbling and aerobatic difficulties, leaps, hops and jumps, pivots
(on feet or hands), balances, movements with great amplitude, movements in the prone position, running steps, walking steps with trunk move ments and dance steps. Further the floor exercise routine must occur on a 12 M by 12 M area marked by white lines in an area no less than
14 M by 14 M. It must occur to appropriate music which complements the movement performance and choreography; and must be completed between
2 Ibid. 3Ibid., p. 74. 114 4 one minute and one minute thirty seconds from the time it is begun.
One of the stipulations for the examination of a movement through the use of the construct is that the movement has occurred; for if the movement has not occurred it is absurd to ask of its temporality. Thus, inherent in the examination of the written description of the floor exercise routine are the necessary conditions for its occurrence. That is, in order for this floor exercise routine to have occurred it must be assumed that there has been a performer and the time and space to perform the routine as specified in the rule structure.
The following is the application of the construct to the floor exercise routine being examined. The application corresponds directly with the structural format of the construct itself.
Temporal Limits
What are the temporal limits of the floor exercise routine?
The temporal limits of the floor exercise routine are identified by the three variables moment, event and period.
Moment
When does the floor exercise routine occur?
The written description of the floor exercise routine does not designate the moment of its occurrence. The routine may have occurred at any given moment in the past and may occur at any given moment in the future provided that the conditions for the occurrence of the routine have been met. Although the written description of the floor exercise routine allows the routine to occur whenever the conditions for its occurrence have been met, each performance of the routine is limited to its own moment of occurrence, since the past and future which are brought to the moment of occurrence are dif ferent for each performer and performance.
4Ibid., pp. 153, 160, 161. 115
Event
When does the floor exercise routine begin and end?
The floor exercise routine begins with the first note of the introduction of the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz. The written description designates that during the musical introduction the performer stands in the initial position. The floor exercise routine ends at the completion of the accompaniment with the performer assuming the ending position during the last note of the music. Throughout the floor exercise routine there are four other ending positions assumed which serve to divide the routine into five separate parts. Each part is designated as a run, and each run has its own beginning and ending. The beginning of the first run which is the initiation of the first movement of the routine occurs after four and one-third measures of the musical introduction. The ending of the first run occurs tei) measures after the beginning of the first run. The second run begins on the first note after the ending of the first run and ends six measures after its beginning. The third run begins on the first note after the ending of the second run and ends seven measures after its beginning. The fourth run begins on the first note after the ending of the third run and ends five measures after its beginning. The fifth and last run begins on the first note after the ending of the fourth run and ends four measures after its beginning, at the completion of the musical accompaniment.
Period
In what portion of time does the floor exercise routine occur?
The floor exercise routine occurs in the portion of time consumed by the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz. As de fined by the rule structure of floor exercise routines the period of time consumed by the routine must be between one minute and one minute thirty seconds. The five parts of the floor exercise routine each occur in portions of time less than the total portion of time consumed by the whole floor exercise routine. The runs may be viewed as periods of time during the floor exercise routine even though the duration of each run may vary, for the runs individually are constructed of movements which dynamically form coalescing wholes. Since one of the conditions necessary for the examination of the temporal variables of the routine is that the routine has occurred, another temporal period in which the floor exercise routine occurred could be a gymnastics 116
meet or a practice session. This temporal period, however, is not stipulated by the written description. Thus the temporal periods in which the floor exercise routine occurs may be described as the portion of time consumed by the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz, the sum of the periods or runs of the floor exercise, and a portion of time from one minute to one minute thirty seconds.
In summary, the temporal limits of the floor exercise routine as identified by the three variables moment, event and period indicate that the floor exercise routine is temporally limited to the moment of its occurrence; it begins and ends with the accompaniment, and may be viewed as having five separate parts, each part having its own beginning and ending; and further the floor exercise is limited to a portion of time designated by the rule structure as between one minute and one minute thirty seconds which is specified by the portion of time consumed by the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz for this particular floor exercise routine.
Temporal Dimensions
What are the temporal dimensions of the floor exercise routine?
The temporal dimensions of the floor exercise routine are identified by the three variables instant, interval and duration.
Instant
What time does the floor exercise routine occur?
The time during which the floor exercise routine occurs is not designated by the written description.
Interval
What kind of temporal units does the floor exercise routine expend?
The floor exercise routine expends several different sized temporal units. It expends beats and measures of music which are in 3/4 meter, as well as runs which, as the designated parts of the floor exercise routine, may be considered temporal units. Further the temporal units of the floor exercise routine may be expressed metronomically in seconds or minutes, although these are not designated in the written description. 117
Duration
How long does the floor exercise routine continue?
The floor exercise routine continues from its beginning for thirty-six and one-third measures of 3/4 meter music played at a moderate speed as designated by the written description. The five runs as temporal periods of the floor exercise routine are each intervals of different duration in terms of the number of measures consumed. The first run consists of ten measures, the second consists of six, the third seven, the fourth five, and the fifth four measures which makes a total of thirty-two measures plus the introduction of four and one-third measures prior to the first run which makes a grand total of thirty-six and one-third measures. The total amount of time consumed by the floor exercise routine is undesignated by the written description but is assumed to be between one minute and one minute thirty seconds in length as required by the rules for floor exercise routines.
In summary, the temporal dimensions of the floor exercise routine as identified by the three variables instant, interval and duration indicate that the floor exercise routine has the following dimensions: the temporal units expended by the floor exercise are of varying sizes including beats and measures of 3/4 meter music, seconds, minutes and runs; each of the five runs is a different size temporal interval; and the duration of the floor exercise routine is thirty-six and one-third measures of 3/4 meter music at a moderate speed. This duration is assumed to be between one minute and one minute thirty seconds.
Temporal Relations
What are the temporal relations of the floor exercise routine?
The temporal relations of the floor exercise routine are identified by the three variables, simultaneity, sequence and tempo.
Simultaneity
What parts of the floor exercise routine occur at the same time?
Since the floor exercise routine is a predetermined sequence of movements, events, and occurrences, the only parts of the floor exercise routine which occur at the same time are the ending of the fifth run and the ending of the routine. 118
Sequence
What temporal order occurs in the floor exercise routine?
The written description of the floor exercise routine designates the order of the routine as a continuous manifold of phases designated by number. Each phase is a step in the continuous whole of the floor exercise routine. The first run consists of five phases which are designated by the numbers one through five with phase one preceding phase two and so forth. The first run is followed by the second run which consists of four phases designated by the numbers six through nine. The third run follows the second with its phases being designated by the numbers ten through thirteen. The fourth run follows the third and its phases are desig nated by the numbers fourteen and fifteen. The fifth run occurs last and is designated by the number sixteen.
Tempo
What temporal structure occurs in the floor exercise routine?.
The temporal structure that occurs in the floor exercise routine is rhythmical. The particular rhythmical organization is that of the Gravy Waltz which is in 3/4 meter and which is to be played at a moderate speed. As designated in the written de scription there are many variations in rate of speed. In the first run speed is attained gradually and lost gradually. In the second run speed is attained gradually and lost suddenly. In the third run speed is attained gradually and lost gradually. The fourth run begins very slowly with speed being attained very gradually and then lost suddenly. The fifth run begins very fast with the speed being lost very suddenly at the end of the routine.
In summary, the temporal relations of the floor exercise routine as identified by the three variables simultaneity, sequence and tempo, include a simultaneous relationship of the end of the fifth run and the end of the floor exercise routine, and a sequential relationship of all other phases of the routine designated by numbers one through sixteen. The sequential relationship is further designated as rhythmical according to the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz, and while maintaining rhythmic continuity the routine evidences variations in rate of speed from very slow to very fast in the phases of the routine. Evaluation of the application of the construct
An evaluation of the application of the construct may be divided into two parts: l) an evaluation of the process of applying the construct, and 2) an evaluation of the results of the application of the construct. First, an evaluation of the process of applying the construct reveals that the questions of the construct must be read and responded to consistently from the same perspective and the same level of complexity. For example, when the concern is for an application of the construct at the highest level of complexity such as the floor exercise routine it is of primary importance that each question of the construct be applied to the floor exercise routine as a movement whole.
For confusion results when in one instance the reader conceives the floor exercise routine as a whole and in the next instance conceives of the individual movements of the routine as wholes comprising and yet equal to the whole of the floor exercise routine. Thus it is sug gested that the reader carefully clarify prior to beginning the appli cation of the construct just which movement whole is being examined, and then apply the construct consistently throughout the examination.
Once involved in the application of the construct to the movement whole the responses or the steps necessary to respond to the questions of temporal variability seem obvious, for the response is either inherent in the written description of the floor exercise routine, a part of the assumed rule structure for the floor exercise routine or it is not designated by the written description.
Second, an evaluation of the results of the application of the construct reveals that to the best of the reader’s knowledge the construct did elicit the temporal variables of the floor exercise routine as designated in the written description. A careful rereading
along with deductive reasoning were used as checks to determine if any
other temporal variables were inherent in the written description which were not elicited by the construct. Since there were no temporal variables in the written description which were not elicited by the construct, the construct is believed to have met the requirements for
this first and necessary test of the application of the construct by a reader to a complex level of movement. Thus for this test the construct has been evaluated as effective. The temporal variables of
the floor exercise routine elicited by the construct seem to be infor mative to some degree since upon reading the written description carefully the temporal variables are still not commonly identified and they do represent that which is temporal in the routine. However, it does not appear that a movement can be analyzed exclusively in terms of its temporal variables without losing its coherence as a complete entity.
Having experienced the process of applying the construct to a written description of a complex level of movement, the writer believes that more exacting or specific variables will result when the construct is applied by a mover or an observer to a particular movement perform ance. The reason for this speculation is apparent since all of the conditions necessary for the occurrence of the movement performance will be aspects of the performance whereas in the written description certain conditions for occurrence, as specified, had to be assumed. Summary
The construct for the functions of temporal variability is applied to a written description of the "Beginner Level Floor Exercise."
The application serves as a test of the construct by a reader of a movement particular at a high level of movement complexity. The application of the construct to the written description of the floor exercise routine reveals that the temporal limits of the routine as identified by the three variables moment, event and period are that the routine is limited to the moment of its occurrence; that it begins and ends with the accompaniment and may be viewed as having five separate parts, each part having its own beginning and ending; and further the floor exercise is temporally limited to a portion of time designated by the rule structure as between one minute and one minute thirty seconds which is specified by the portion of time consumed by the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz for this particular floor exercise routine. The temporal dimensions of the floor exercise routine as identified by the three variables instant, interval and duration are that the temporal units expended by the floor exercise routine are of varying sizes including beats and measures of 3/4 meter music, seconds or minutes and runs; each of the five runs is a different size temporal interval; and the duration of the floor exercise routine is thirty-six and one-third measures of 3/4 meter music at a moderate speed. This duration is assumed to be between one minute and one minute thirty seconds. The temporal relations of the floor exercise routine as identified by the three variables simultaneity, sequence and tempo, include a simultaneous relationship of the end of the fifth run and 122
the end of the floor exercise routine, and a sequential relationship
of all other phases of the routine designated by numbers one through
sixteen. The sequential relationship is further designated as
rhythmical according to the accompaniment of Gravy Waltz; and while maintaining rhythmic continuity the routine evidences variations in rate of speed from very slow to very fast among the phases of the
routine.
An evaluation of the application of the construct reveals that
throughout the process of applying the construct it is of primary
importance that the level of complexity of the movement whole to be
examined be clarified, and that the questions be responded to con
sistent with that clarification. The evaluation of the results of
the application of the construct to the written description of the
floor exercise routine examined reveals that all of the temporal variables are elicited by the construct. Therefore, the construct is
evaluated as effective for this one test. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The present study explores the function of time as a source of variability in human movement. As an exploratory study its findings
are provisional and represent only one phase in an attempt to identify and establish coherence in the study of human movement.
An overview of the literature concerning human movement reveals that time as an element in human movement is often assumed by some and not discussed, and discussed only in part by others exploring the nature of human movement. If, as the literature indicates, time is one of the variables contributing to descriptions and explanations of human movement, an examination of its specific function in this capacity seems necessary. Thus, the problem of this study as outlined and discussed in Chapter I is the development of a construct which elicits the temporal variables of human movement in order that the function of time as a source of variability in human movement may be explored.
Consistent with this statement of the problem the study seeks answers to the following questions.
1. What are the temporal variables of human>movement as evidenced
in the literature concerning human movement?
2. Can human movement be analyzed exclusively in terms of its
123 124
temporal variables without losing its coherence as a complete
entity?
3. Can a construct of the temporal variables of human movement
elucidate the temporal components of a specific organization
of movements?
The study proceeds from an examination of the human movement literature. An examination of the literature evidences that the function of time as a source of variability in human movement has been discussed and researched from a variety of viewpoints and for a variety of purposes. The literature reviewed in Chapter II is divided into four parts in an attempt to clarify the voluminous and oftentimes confusing discussions of human movement as a phenomena. The first part is a discussion of the various formal and informal systems which have been developed and used for analyzing and recording human move ment. The second part describes man's systems of reference for the temporality of human movement as they are distinguishable in the literature. The third part delineates the function of time as a source of variability in human movement; and the fourth and last part describes studies related to the function of time as a source of vari ability in human movement.
Consistent with and evolving from the review of selected literature a construct is developed in Chapter III as an heuristic device for the examination of the function of time as a source of variability in human movement. The review of literature reveals that as a source of variability time appears to have three functions. Time serves to describe the temporal limits, dimensions, and relations of 125 human movement. Within each of the three functions of time as a
source of variability in human movement three temporal variables are described as operative. The three variables which define the temporal limits of human movement are the moment, the event and the period.
The three variables which define temporal dimensions are the instant, the interval and the duration. Temporal relations are defined by simultaneity, sequence and tempo. Since the purpose of the construct is to act as an heuristic device for the temporal variables of human movement, the organization of the construct corresponds directly with the three functions and nine variables of time. In an attempt to elicit the temporal variables of movement, the construct is developed as a set of ordered questions. The questions in the construct may be directed to individuals of three different viewpoints, the mover, the observer, or the reader. The construct may be applied to any level of complexity of movement as it may be conceived, experienced or specified.
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the construct four different types of evaluation are necessary. Each type of evaluation consists of a series of tests of movements at each level of complexity.
The first type of evaluation consists of an application of the con struct by a reader to a movement concept. The second type of evalu ation consists of an application of the construct by a reader to a movement particular. The third type of evaluation consists of an ap plication of the construct by a mover to a particular movement per formed. The fourth and last type of evaluation consists of an appli cation of the construct by an observer to a movement particular. At 126
the completion of the four types of evaluation the comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the construct may be confirmed or denied.
The application of the construct which appears in Chapter IV is one test in the series of tests necessary to complete the evaluation of the construct by a reader to a movement particular. The construct for the functions of temporal variability is applied by the writer to a written description of a women's gymnastics floor exercise routine.
An evaluation of the application of the construct reveals that through out the process of applying the construct it is of primary importance that the level of complexity of the movement whole be clarified, in order that the questions may be responded to consistently. The evaluation of the results of the application of the construct to the written description of the floor exercise routine reveals that all of the temporal variables are elicited by the construct. Therefore the construct is evaluated as effective for this one test.
Conclusions
The conclusions of an exploratory study are rarely extensive and always provisional. The conclusions of this study are no exception.
On the basis of the findings of the study the conclusions are as follows.
1. As indicated by the literature concerning human movement, time
has three functions. The functions are to describe the temporal
limits, dimensions, and relations of human movement.
2. Each of the functions of time is described by three temporal
variables. The variables of temporal limits are the moment,
the event and the period. The variables of temporal dimensions are the instant, the interval and the duration. The variables
of temporal relations are simultaneity, sequence, and tempo.
Thus there are nine temporal variables of human movement.
3. The construct for the functions of temporal variability as
designed in the study can elucidate the temporal variables of
a specific organization of movements. The construct applied
to a written description of a women's gymnastics floor exercise
routine does elicit the temporal variables.
4. A complex movement examined from a written description cannot
be analyzed exclusively in terms of its temporal variables
without losing its coherence as a complete entity.
Recommendations
The exploration of the function of time as a source of vari ability in human movement is but one phase in an attempt to identify and establish a coherence in the study of human movement. Many other studies are necessary to the completion of such a task. Among the many studies necessary, the following suggestions are offered as ex tensions of the present study or its goals.
It is recommended that:
1. Since the construct has elicited the temporal variables of
human movement in one test, the evaluations of the construct
be completed in order that the construct may be considered as
a research tool.
2. Assuming that the construct becomes an acceptable research tool,
it be used to analyze all types of human movement to determine temporal variability which can be used as a basis for com
parison between and among various organizations of human movement.
After temporal variability has been established for groups of various kinds of movement, an order be established among them
according to the nature of their temporal variability. This kind of ordering may provide one frame of reference for levels of complexity of human movement based on temporal variability.
The levels of complexity established by the comparisons be used as one basis for selection of activity in terms of cur ricular progression in physical education programs, and as a basis for evaluation of the temporal variability of movements
created by individuals.
Various research studies be undertaken which attempt to
establish possible relationships between the temporal vari
ability of particular kinds of movements and the selection of
those activities by participants. This may answer the question
Does temporal variability influence the selection of movement activity by voluntary participants?
The question, "What are the characteristics of participants who select types of movement having a particular complexity
in terms of temporal variability?" be explored. Perhaps this would provide a basis for establishing appropriate curricular offerings on an individualized basis. This presumes an ex
tensive assessment of such factors as psychological and phy
siological characteristics, developmental level, socio-economic status, and movement experience.
The temporal and spatial variables be examined in relation to each other in order to analyze movement^ variability more comprehensively. (A construct for eliciting spatial vari ability has been developed by Hilda Lee Williams, "An Explor ation of the Function of Space as a Source of Variability in
Human Movement," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio
State University, 1971).
A similar construct be developed which will provide a structure for the examination of the function of force as a source of variability in human movement.
Human movement be examined according to its time, space and force variability and that the results of this examination serve as a basis for a classification of human movement according to its inherent complexity. APPENDIX
BEGINNER LEVEL, FLOOR EXERCISE*
Music: Gravy Waltz by Ray Brown.
Position: Stand with feet in closed position, arms curved at sides.
First Run (2.5)
1. Step forward L, kick R leg forward. Raise arms laterally (second position) to the horizontal. 2. Step forward R into a lunge on the R foot. Reach forward with arms and placing the hands on the floor, execute a forward roll coming up in a squat position. 3. Jump from both feet into an arabesque leap, R foot downward, L foot backward, arms stretched obliquely over head. A. Take two or three runs and hop to a cartwheel (no side is designated because of the beginner level). 5. Backward roll to the knees. (For continuity between the cartwheel and roll, keep the first leg of the cartwheel straight, and as the last leg of the cartwheel reaches the floor, bend it to sit down.) Bring the arms obliquely backward, body bent forward over the knees. Turn the head to look up and backward to the R side.
Second Run (2.3)
6. Making a one-eighth turn to the R, rise, stepping forward on the R foot to a Ath position pose, R foot supporting weight, L foot stretched backward, point of toe on the floor. Arms come forward to a curved position over the head (5th position) and open side ward to the lateral position with palms down and head held high. 7. Three running steps: L-R-L to a scissor leap (hitch kick). 8. Step L to a cat leap, arms circle over the head and back to the sideward position, step L and hop on the L foot. 9. Four running steps forward R-L-R-L in a curved pattern around the corner of the floor 90 degrees. Step forward R on ball of foot and close L behind it on ball of foot, to a pose with the R arm stretched obliquely backward downward, head looking up over the R wrist.
Carolyn 0. Bowers (ed.), Gymnastics Guide (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1969), pp. 82-85. 130 131
Third Run (2.2)
10. Step forward R bringing L arm forward and upward to the R arm. Place hands on floor and kick up to a handstand forward roll coming in a squat position. 11. Immediately execute another forward roll to a back lying position on the floor, arms stretched over head. Roll sideward to the L over the stomach and continue to the back. 12. Rise to a tuck sitting position with the hands in support on the floor obliquely behind the body. Kick the R leg forward and upward, then switch legs, kicking the L leg upward while tucking the R leg to the side under the L leg. (This should be executed quickly.) 13. Rise on the R knee standing on the L to a 4th position pose, arms stretched obliquely over head.
Fourth Run (Curve Pattern Around the Corner) (1.5)
14. Making a quarter-turn to the R with the body, change the weight to the R leg, step sideward L to the L and execute a sideward slide, arms sideward. Step L sideward around the corner and hop on L, R leg bent with toe placed at L knee, making a half-turn to the L. Arms remain in the sideward position. 15. Step R sideward to the R and execute a sideward slide. With a quarter-turn R, step forward R, place L foot in front of R. Rise on toes and execute a half-turn to the R and immediately reverse the turn, making a half-turn to the L. Remain on toes and place hands on hips during the turn.
Fifth Run (1.5)
16. Run in a curved pattern (three-eighths turn) to a cartwheel, cartwheel to a lunge, quarter-turn inward for lunge, arms obliquely side upward, head back. 132
Pose on Pose 2nd Run knees on Toes
X End Lunge
-3rd Run 5th Run 1st Run
Pose
Turn
4th Run
X Start BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Achinstein, Peter. Concepts of Science: A Philosophical Analysis. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, 1968.
Ainsworth, Dorothy. Individual Sports for Women. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1943.
Allen, Chalinder. The Tyranny of Time. New York: Philosophical Library, 1947.
Allport, Floyd II. Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955.
Andrews, Gladys, Sourborn, Jeannette, and Schneider, Elsa. Physical Education for Today's Boys and Girls. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1960.
Ashton, Dudley. Rhythmic Activities Grades K-6. Washington, D. C.: American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1964.
Barratt, Marcia et al. Foundations for Movement. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Co., 1968.
Barsch, Ray H. Achieving Perceptual Motor Efficiency. Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1967.
Bartenieff, Irmgard. Effort Observation and Effort Assessment in Rehabilitation. New York: Dance Notation Bureau, 1962.
Beardslee, David C. and Wertheimer, Michael. Readings in Perception. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1958.
Benesh, Rudolf and Benesh, Joan. Introduction to Benesh Dance Notation. London: Black, 1956.
Bunn, John W. Scientific Principles of Coaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
Bilbrough, A. and Jones, P. Physical Education in the Primary School. London: University of London Press Ltd., 1964.
133 134
Board of Education of the City of New York. Let's Look at First Graders. New York: Board of Education, 1964.
Boorman, Joyce. Creative Dance in the First Three Grades. Don Hills, Ontario: Longmans Canada Limited, 1969.
Bowers, Carolyn 0. Ced.). Gymnastics Guide. Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1969.
Broer, Marion R. Efficiency of Human Movement. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1960.
Brown, Camille and Cassidy, Rosalind. Theory in Physical Education: A Guide to Program Change. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1963.
Brown, Margaret C. and Sommer, Betty K. Movement Education: Its Evolution and a Modern Approach. Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, 1969.
Bucher, Charles A. Foundations of Physical Education. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1964.
Caillois, Roger. Man, Play, Games. Translated by Meyer Barash. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961.
Cameron, W. McD. and Pleasance, Peggy. Education in Movement. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967.
Causley, Marguerite. Benesh Movement Notation: Its General Principles and Its Use in Physical Education. London: Max Parrish, 196 7.
Cohen, John. Humanistic Psychology. New York: Collier Books, 1962.
Cratty, Bryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967.
______and Brown, Roscoe C. (eds.). New Perspectives of Man in Action. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969.
Cureton, T. K., Jr. Physical Fitness of Champion Athletes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1951.
Dyson, Geoffrey H. C. The Mechanics of Athletics. London: University of London Press, Ltd., 1962.
Eshkol, Noa and Wachmann, Abraham. Movement Notation. London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1958. 135
Fitts, Paul M. and Posner, Michael T. Human Performance. Belmont, California: Brooks and Cole Publishing Company, 1967.
Flavell, John H. The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1963,
Gale, Richard M. The Language of Time. New York: Humanities Press, 1968.
Gates, Alice A. A New Look at Movement— A Dancer's View. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Co., 1968.
Gendlin, Eugene T. Experiencing and the Creation of Meaning. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962.
Gilbreth, Frank B. Applied Motion Study. New York: Macmillan and Co., 1919.
Godfrey, Barbara B. and Kephart, Newell C. Movement Patterns and Motor Education. New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1969.
Gove, Philip G. et al. (eds.). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Springfield, Mass.: G. and C. Merriam Company, 1961.
Grunbaum, Adolf. Philosophical Problems of Space and Time. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1964.
Gunn, J. Alexander. The Problem of Time. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1929.
Halsey, Elizabeth and Porter, Lorena. Physical Education for Children. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958.
H'Doubler, Margaret. The Dance. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1925.
______. Dance: A Creative Art Experience. New York: F. S. Crofts and Company, 1940.
. Movement and Its Rhythmic Structures. Madison: Kramer Business Service, 1946.
Heath, Louise Robinson. The Concept of Time. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1936.
Hebb, D. 0. Organization of Behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949.
Hettinger, T. Physiology of Strength. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1961. 136
Hutchinson, Ann. Labanotation. New York: A Theatre Arts Book, 1970.
Ingarden, Roman. Time and Modes of Being. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1964.
Inner London Education Authority. Educational Gymnastics. London: W. F. Houghton, 1965.
Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile. The Jaques-Dalcrose Method of Eurhythmies. New York: H. W. Gray Company, 1920.
. Eurhythmies, Art and Education. London: Chatto and Windus, 1930.
______. Rhythm, Music and Education. London: Dalcroze Society, 1967.
Jensen, Clayne R. and Schultz, Gordon W. Applied Kinesiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
Kephart, Newell C. The Slow Learner in the Classroom. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1960.
Kidd, Aline H. and Rivoire, Jeanne L. Perceptual Development in Children. New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1966.
Kirchner, Glenn, Cunningham, Jean, and Warrell, Eileen. Introduction to Movement Education. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1970.
Laban, Rudolf. Choreutics. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1966.
______. The Mastery of Movement. Revised by Lisa Ullman. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1960.
______• The Mastery of Movement of the Stage. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1950.
. Modern Educational Dance. Revised by Lisa Ullman. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1963.
______. Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1956.
______and Lawrence, F. C. Effort. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1947.
Lamb, Warren. Posture and Gesture. London: Duckworth, 1965.
______and Turner, David. Management Behavior. New York: Inter national Universities Press, 1969. 137
Langer, Susanne. Philosophy in a Now Key. 3rd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951.
Lomax, Alan. Folk Song. Style and Culture. Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1968.
London City Council. Educational Gymnastics. London: London City Council, 1964.
______. Movement Education for Infants. London: London City Council.
Maclver, R. M. The Challenge of the Passing Years. New York: Simon and Shuster, 1962.
MacLean, Dorothy (ed.). Gymnastics Guide. Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1963.
Manual for the Drake Musical Aptitude Tests. Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1954.
Martin, Wm. Oliver. The Order and Integration of Knowledge. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1957.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. New York: The Humanities Press, 1962.
Metheny, Eleanor. Connotations of Movement in Sport and Dance. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1965.
______. Movement and Meaning. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1968.
Morison, Ruth. A Movement Approach to Educational Gymnastics. London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1969.
Mosston, Muska. Developmental Movement. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1965.
. Teaching Physical Education from Command to Discovery. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1966.
Mott, Jane A. Conditioning and Basic Movement Concepts. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Company, 1968.
Murray, Ruth Lovell. Dance in Elementary Education. New York: Harper and Row, 1963.
Oxendine, Joseph B. Psychology of Motor Learning. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1968.
Pallett, Doreen G. Modern Educational Gymnastics. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1965. 138
Pennington, Jo. The Importance of Being Rhythmic. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1925.
Phenxx, Philip H. Realms of Meaning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.
Piaget, Jean. The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1954.
______. Le Developpement de la Notion de Temps Chez L*enfant. Paris: Presse Universitaires de France, 1946.
and Inhelder, Barbel. The Child's Conception of Space. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1948.
Poulet, G. Studies in Human Time. New York: Harper and Row, 1959.
Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. Handbook for Modern Educational Dance. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1963.
______. Introduction to Kinetography Laban. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1966.
______• Practical Kinetography Laban. New York: Dance Horizon Incorporated, 1969.
Prior, A. N. Time and Modality. London: Oxford University Press, 1957.
Radir, Ruth Anderson. Modern Dance for the Youth of America. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1944.
Radler, Don H. and Kephart, N. Success Through Play. New York: Harper, 1959.
Rahner, Hugo. Man at Play. Translated by Brian Bradshaw and Edward Quinn. New York: Herder and Herder, 1967.
Randall, Marjorie. Basic Movement. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1963.
Redfern, Betty. Introducing Laban Art of Movement. London: Macdonald and Evans, Ltd., 1965.
Reichenbach, H. The Direction of Time. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1956.
______. The Philosophy of Space and Time. New York: Citadel Press, 1958.
Reitmaster, L. A. A Philosophy of Time. New York: The Citadel Press, 1962. 139
Richards, I. A. Speculative Instruments. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1955.
Russell, B. Our Knowledge of the External World. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1926.
Russell, Joan. Modern Dance in Education. London: Macdonald and Evans, Ltd., 1958.
______. Creative Dance in the Primary School. London: Macdonald and Evans, Ltd., 1965.
Sachs, Curt. Rhythm and Tempo. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1953.
Sampter, Herbert. Motion Study. New York: Pitman, 1941.
Schurr, Evelyn. Movement Experiences for Children. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1967.
Seashore, Carl. The Psychology of Musical Talent. New York: Silver, Burdett, and Co., 1919.
Sheets, Maxine. Phenomenology of Dance. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1966.
Shipley, Ferne. Freedom to Move. Washington: National Education Association, 1962.
Singer, Robert N. Motor Learning and Human Performance. New York: Macmillan Company, 1968.
Slusher, Howard. Man Sport and Existence. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967.
Smart, J. J. C. (ed.). Problems of Space and Time. New York: Macmillan Company, 1964.
Smith, Hope M. Introduction to Human Movement. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1968.
Sturt, Mary. The Psychology of Time. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., Inc., 1925.
Taylor, Richard. Action and Purpose. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
Tomb, J. Walter. An Essay on Time. Princeton, New Jersey: Depart ment of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1953.
Wallis, Robert. Time: Fourth Dimension of the M ind. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1966. 140
Waterman, Elizabeth. The Rhythm Book. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1936.
Weiss, Paul. Sport, A Philosophic Inquiry. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969.
Wessel, Janet A. Movement Fundamentals. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1957.
Wickstrom, Ralph 1. Fundamental Motor Patterns. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
Whitrow, G. J. The Natural Philosophy of Time. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1961.
Articles and Periodicals
Abbe, M. "The Temporal Effect Upon the Perception of Time," Japanese Journal of Experimental Psychology, IV (1937), 83-93.
Aberg, U. "Force-Time Relationships with Some Types of Manual Work," Ergonomics, V (January, 1962), 71-73.
Abernathy, Ruth. "Implications for Physical Education in the Current Re-examination of American Education," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXII (January, 1961), 19-20.
______. "The Search for Significant Persistent Themes in Physical Education," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVI (March, 1965), 26-28.
______and Waltz, Maryann. "Toward a Discipline: First Steps First," Quest, II (April, 1964), 1-7.
Alley, Louis E, "Utilization of Mechanics in Physical Education and Athletics," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVII (March, 1966), 67-70.
Ames, Louise Bates. "The Development of the Sense of Time in the Young Child," Journal of Genetic Psychology, LXVIII (1946), 97-125.
Annett, Thomas. "A Study of Rhythmical Capacity and Performance in Motor Rhythm in Physical Education Majors," Research Quarterly. Ill (May, 1932), 183-191.
Ashton, Dudley. "A Gross Motor Rhythm Test," Research Quarterly, XXIV (October, 1953), 253-260. 141
Atwell, William 0. and Elbel, Edwin R. "Reaction Time of Male High School Students in 14-17 Year Age Groups," Research Quarterly, XIX (March, 1948), 22-30.
Axel, R. "Estimation of Time," Archives of Psychology. LXXIV (1924), 1-77.
Babbitts, C. "Rhythm in Time and Motion Study," Advanced Management, VIII (1943), 6-16.
Bache, R. Meade. "Reaction Time with Reference to Race," Psychological Review, II (September, 1895), 475-486.
Baer, P. E., Waukasch, D. C., and Goldstone, S. "Time Judgment and Level of Aspiration," Perceptual and Motor Skills. XVI (1963), 648.
Baker, Gertrude. "Fundamentals in Dance and Sport," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XII (June, 1941), 363.
Barer, A. S., Golov, G. A., and others. "Physiological Reactions of the Human Body to Transverse Acceleration and Some Means of Increasing the Organism's Resistance to the Effects," Aerospace Medicine, XXXVII (February, 1966), 127-133.
Barham, Jerry. "Organizational Structure of Kinesiology," Physical Educator, XX (October, 1963), 120-121.
______. "Toward a Science and Discipline of Human Movement," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVII (October, 1966), 65-68.
Barr, Gertrude and Maney, Ruth. "Rhythm and the Child," School Arts, XXXXIV (February, 1945), 192-195.
Beise, Dorothy and Peasley, Virginia. "The Relation of Reaction Time, Speed, and Agility of Big Muscle Groups to Certain Sport Skills," Research Quarterly, VIII (March, 1937), 133-142.
Beisman, Gladys Lang. "Effect of Rhythmic Accompaniment Upon Learning of Fundamental Motor Skills," Research Quarterly, XXXVIII (May, 1967), 172.
Bender, W. R. C. "Factors Contributing to Speed in the Start of a Race and the Characteristics of Trained Sprinters," Research Quarterly, Supplement to Vol. V (March, 1934), 72-78.
Benton, Rachael J. "The Measurement of Capacities for Learning Dance Movement Techniques," Research Quarterly, XV (May, 1944), 137-144. 142
Berger, R. A. and Mathus, Don L. "Movement Time with Various Re sistance Loads as a Function of Pretensed and Pre-relaxed Muscular Contractions," Research Quarterly, XL (October, 1969), 456.
Berman, Arthur. "The Relation of Time Estimation to Satiation," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXV (1939), 281-293.
Bindra, D. and Waksberg, H. "Methods and Terminology in Studies of Time Estimation," Psychological Bulletin, LIII (1956), 155-159.
Bink, B. "The Physical "Working Capacity in Relation to Working Time and Age," Ergonomics, V (January, 1962), 25-28.
Balke, Patricia A. "Relationship Between Audio-Perceptual Rhythm and Skill in Square Dance," Research Quarterly, XXXI (May, 1960), 229-231.
Blank, Lane B. "Effects of Warm-up on Speed," Athletic Journal, XXXV (February, 1955), 10.
Bolton, T. L. "Rhythm," American Journal of Psychology, VI (1894), 145-238.
Bond, Marjorie H. "Rhythmic Perception and Gross Motor Performance," Research Quarterly, XXX (October, 1959), 259-265.
Broekhoff, Jan. "Cues to Reading," Quest, X (May, 1968), 72-74.
Broer, Marion R. "Movement Education: Wherein the Disagreement?" Quest, II (April, 1964), 19.
Bromberg, W. "The Meaning of Time for Children," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, VIII (1938), 142-147.
Brown, Camille. "The Structure of Knowledge of Physical Education," Quest, IX (December, 1967), 53.
Buck, Nadine. "A Comparison of Two Methods of Testing Response to Auditory Rhythms," Research Quarterly, VII (March, 1936), 36-45.
Burley, Lloyd R. "A Study of the Reaction Time of Physically Trained Men," Research Quarterly, XV (October, 1944), 232-239.
Burpee, Royal H. and Stroll, Wellington. "Measuring Reaction Time of Athletes," Research Quarterly, VII (March, 1936), 110-118.
Charnikoff, R. and Taylor, F. "Reaction Time to Kinesthetic Stimu lation Resulting from Sudden Arm Displacement," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXXXIII (January, 1952), 1-8. 143
Ching, J. "The Physiology of Rapid Movement," Journal of Physiology, • LXXXIII (1935), 40-42.
Clarke, David. "Force-Time Curves of Voluntary Muscular Contraction at Varying Tensions," Research Quarterly, XXXIX (December, 1968), 900.
Clausen, J. "An Evaluation of Experimental Methods of Time Judgment," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXXX (1950), 756-761.
Cohen, John. "The Experience of Time," Acta Psychologica, X (1954), 207-219.
______. "Subjective Time," Discovery (1957), 151-154.
______, Hansel, C. E. M., and Sylvester, J. D. "Interdependence in Judgments of Space, Time and Movement," Acta Psychologica, XI (1955), 360-372.
Conrad, R. "Adaptation to Time in a Sensorimotor Skill," Journal of Experimental Psychology, IL (February, 1955), 115-121.
_. "The Timing of Signals in Skill," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LI (June, 1956), 365-370.
Coppock, Doris E. "Development of an Objective Measure of Rhythmic Motor Response," Research Quarterly, XXXIX (December, 1968), 915.
Cotten, D. "Relationship of the Duration of Sustained Voluntary Isometric Contraction to Changes in Endurance and Strength," Research Quarterly, XXXVIII (October, 1967), 366-374.
______and Denning, Donald. "Comparison of Reaction-Movement Times from Four Variations of the Upright Stance," Research Quarterly, XXXXI (May, 1970), 196.
Cureton, T. K. and Coe, David E. "An Analysis of Errors in Stop Watch Timing," Research Quarterly, IV (May, 1933), 94-109.
Davis, R. "Choice Reaction Times and the Theory of Intermitency in Human Performance," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psy chology, XIV (August, 1962), 157-166.
Deach, Dorothy F. "The Challenge of Movement Education," The Physical Educator, XVIII (October, 1961), 92.
DeLorme, T. L., Ferris, B. G., and Gallagher, J. R. "Effect of Pro gressive Resistance Exercise on Muscle Contraction Time," Archives of Physical Medicine, XXXIII (1952), 86-92. 144
Dimond, Stuart J. "Storage of Information About Time," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XXI (August, 1965), 261-262.
Dinner, Bruce, Wapner, S., McFarland, J., and Werner, Heinz. "Rhythmic Activity and the Perception of Time," American Journal of Psychology, LXXVI (1963), 287, 292.
Donskoi, D. D. "The So-Called Components of Movement in Physical Education," Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, XXI (December, 1958), 932-935.
Dunwoody, Katherine M. "Time and Motion in Physical Education," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, X (April, 1939), 219.
Ellfeldt, Lois and Metheny, Eleanor. "Movement and Meaning: Develop ment of a General Theory," Research Quarterly, XXIX (October, 1958), 264-273.
Elliott, Donald N. and Lukaszewski, Jerome. "Reaction Time as a Function of Induced Muscular Tension," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XIII (October, 1961), 183-189.
Engels, Virgil. "Patterned Movements: A New Justification for Physical Education," The Physical Educator, XXV (December, 1968), 170.
Falls, Harold B., Ismail, A. H., and MacLeod, D. F. "Estimations of Maximum Oxygen Uptake in Adults from AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Items," Research Quarterly, XXXVII (May, 1966), 192.
Feichner, W. H. "Reaction Time in the Cold," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXXII (February, 1958), 54-59.
Felshin, Jan. "Sport and Modes of Meaning," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXX (May, 1969), 43-44.
Fetter, C. H. and Stoller, H. M. "Precise Timing of Sporting Events," Transactions of American Institute of Electrical Engineering (June, 1933), 386-391.
Findlay, Elsa. "Rhythm and Creative Expression," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation, XXXIII (September, 1962), 37-38, 70.
Fox, Margaret G. and Young, Vera P. "Effect of Reminiscence on Learning Selected Badminton Skills," Research Quarterly. XXXIII (October, 1962), 386-394.
Fraleigh, Warren P. "A Prologue to the Study of Theory Building in Physical Education," Quest, XII (May, 1969), 26. 145
Gill, Clark. "Interpretations of Indefinite Expressions of Time," Social Education, XXVI (December, 1962), 454-456.
Gilliland, A. R., Hofeld, Jerry, and Eckstrand, Gordon. "Studies in Time Perception," Psychological Bulletin, XXXXIII (1946), 162-176.
Goldstone, S., Boardman, W. K., and Lhamon, W. T. "Kinesthetic Cues in the Development of Time Concepts," Journal of Genetic Psychology, LXXXXIII (1958), 185-190.
Grass, Elmer A. and Thompson, Hugh L. "Relationship of Dynamic Balance to Speed and to Ability in Swimming," Research Quarterly, XXVIII (December, 1957), 342-346.
Gray, Miriam et al. "Theories of Movement, Summary," Focus on Dance II. Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1962.
Gray, R. K. Start and Walsh, A. "Relationship Between Leg Speed and Leg Power," Research Quarterly, XXXIII (October, 1962), 395-399.
Greene, J. E. and Roberts, A. H. "Time Orientation and Social Class, A Correction," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, LXII (1961), 141.
Griew, S. "Complexity of Response and Time of Initiating Responses in Relation to Age," The American Journal of Psychology, CXXII (March, 1959), 83-88.
Grose, Joel E. "Timing Control and Finger, Arm and Whole Body Move ments ," Research_2uarteri£, XXXVIII (March, 1967), 10-21.
______. "Relationship of the Pattern of Movements, Including Rhythm and Terminal Success," Research Quarterly, XL (March, 1969), 55.
Hackensmith, C. W. "International Development of Movement Education," The Physical Educator, XIX (May, 1962), 55.
Haight, Edith C., Dable, Robert R., and Schoenduke, Robert. "Indi vidual Differences in Motor Adaptations to Rhythmic Stimuli," Research Quarterly, XV (March, 1944), 38-43.
Halsey, Elizabeth. "England's Children Invent Activities," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXVI (December, 1955), 33.
Harding, D. W. "Rhythmization and Speed of Work," British Journal of Psychology, XXIII (1932), 262-278.
Harmon, John L. and Miller, Arthur G. "Time Patterns in Motor Learning." Research Quarterly, XXI (October, 1950), 182-187. 146
Harton, J. J. "The Influence of the Difficulty of Activity on the Estimation of Time," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXIII (1938), 270-287.
Hay, James G. "Experiments in the Mechanics of Physical Activities," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XL (January, 1969), 89-90.
H'Doubler, Margaret. "An Interpretation of Rhythm," Journal of Health and Physical Education, III (September, 1932), 16.
Hellebrandt, Beatrice. "Rhythmics in Music and Dance," Research Quarterly, XI (March, 1940), 34-39.
Henry, F. M. "Factoral Structure of Speed and Static Strength in a Lateral Arm Movement," Research Quarterly, XXXI (October, 1960), 440-447.
______. "Independence of Reaction and Movement Times and Equivalents of Sensory Motivators of Response," Research Quarterly, XXIII (March, 1952), 43-53.
_. "Influence of Motor and Sensory Sets on Reaction Latency and Speed of Discrete Movements," Research Quarterly, XXXI (October, 1960), 459-468.
"Physical Education: An Academic Discipline," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXV (September, 1964), 32-33.
"Precision and Operation of the Hundredth-Second Electric Timer," Research Quarterly, XXX (March, 1959), 117-121.
"Reaction Time-Movement Time Correlations," Perceptual Motor Skills, XII (1961), 63-67.
. "Stimulus Complexity, Movement Complexity, Age, and Sex in Relation to Reaction Latency and Speed in Limb Movements," Research Quarterly, XXXII (October, 1961), 353-366.
______and Whitley, J. D. "Relationships Between Individual Dif ferences in Strength, Speed and Mass in an Arm Movement," Research Quarterly, XXXI (March, 1960), 24-33.
Hoaglund, H. "The Physiological Control of Judgments of Duration: Evidence for a Chemical Clock," Journal of Genetic Psychology. IX (1933), 267-287.
Hodgkins, Jean. "Influence of Age on the Speed of Reaction and Move ment in Females," Journal of Gerontology, XVII (October, 1962), 385-389. 147
Hodgkins, Jean. "Reaction Time and Speed of Movement in Males and Females of Various Ages," Research Quarterly, XXXIV (October, 1963), 335-343.
Houts, JoAnn. "Feeling and Perception in the Sport Experience," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXXI (October, 1970), 71-72.
Howard, Shirley. "The Movement Education Approach to Teaching in English Elementary Schools," Journal of Health, Physical Edu cation and Recreation, XXXVIII (January, 1967), 30.
Howell, Maxwell L. "Influence of Emotional Tension on Speed of Re action and Movement," Research Quarterly, XXIV (March, 1953), 22-32.
Hunt, Valerie. ''Movement Behavior: A Model for Action," Quest, II (April, 1964), 69.
James, H. E. O. "Regularity and Rhythmicalness," British Journal of Psychology, XVII (1926), 1-9.
Jonath, Ulrich. "The Theory of Movement," Report of the Fourth Summer Session of the International Olympic Academy, Athens, Greece: M. Pechlivanidis and Company, Ltd., 1964, 230-231.
Jones, Betty Meredith. "Understanding Movement," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXVI (May-June, 1955), 14.
Jones, Frank P. "Posture as a Function of Time," Journal of Psychology, XXXXVI (October, 1958), 287-294.
and Hanson, John A. "Time-Space Patterns in a Gross Body Movement," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XII (February, 1961), 35-41.
______and O'Connell, D. N. "Applications of Multiple-Image Photography in the Time-Motion Analysis of Human Movement," Photographic Science and Technology, Series II, III (1956), 11-14.
Judson, Abe J. and Tuttle, Cynthia E. "Time Perspective and Social Class," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XXIII (1966), 1074.
Karlan, Lawrence. "Reaction Time as a Function of Foreperiod Duration and Variability," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LVIII (August, 1959), 185-191.
Keller, L. F. "The Relation of 'Quickness of Bodily Movement1 to Success in Athletics," Research Quarterly, XIII (May, 1942), 146-155. . 148
Kerr, Barry A. "A Device for Measuring Reaction Time and Movement Time of a Knee-Extension Movement," Research Quarterly, XXXVI (October, 1965), 377-379.
King, William H., Jr. and Irwin, Leslie. "A Time and Motion Study of Competitive Backstroke Swimming Turns," Research Quarterly, XXVIII (October, 1957), 257-268.
______and Scharf, Raphael J. "Time and Motion Analysis of Com petitive Freestyle Swimming Turns," Research Quarterly, XXXV (March, 1964), 37-44.
Kirchner, H. "Analysis of 'Simple* and *Complex' Rhythm Efficiency of Muscular Work," Acta Physiologica Polomia, XIV (1963), 182-195.
Kitzman, Eric. "Baseball: Electromyographic Study of Batting Swing," Research Quarterly, XXXV (May, 1964), 166-178.
Klemmer, E. T. "Rate of Force Application in a Simple Reaction Time Test," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXXI (October, 1957), 329-332.
Lauer, A. R. "Personal Tempo of Rhythm," Proceedings of Iowa Academy of Science, XL (1933), 192-193.
Lautenbach, Ruth and Tuttle, W. W. "The Relationship Between Reflex Time and Running Events in Track," Research Quarterly, III (October, 1932), 138-143.
LeShan, L. S. "Time Orientation and Social Class," Journal of Ab normal Social Psychology, XXXXVII (1952), 589-592.
Lewis, F. II. "Affective Characteristics of Rhythm," Psychological Bulletin, XXX (1933), 679-680.
Lockhart, Aileene. "A Survey of Devices Used in Measuring Short-Time Intervals," Research Quarterly, XII (December, 1941), 757-764.
Lotter, Willard S. "Effects of Fatigue and Warm Up on Speed of Arm Movements," Research Quarterly, XXX (March, 1959),56-65.
. "Interrelationships Among Reaction Times and Speeds of Movement in Different Limbs," Research Quarterly, XXXI (May, 1960), 147-155.
______• "Specificity or Generality of Speed of Systematically Re lated Movements," Research Quarterly, XXXII (March, 1961), 55.
Lourie, Reginald S. "The Role of Rhythmic Patterns in Childhood," American Journal of Psychiatry, CV (1949), 653-660. 149
Ludwig, Elizabeth A, "Basic Movement Education in England," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXII (December, 1961), 18.
McAulay, J. D. "What Understandings do Second Grade Children Have of Time Relationships?", Journal of Educational Research, LIV (April, 1961), 312-314.
McCloy, Charles H. "The Measurement of Speed in Motor Performance," Psychometrika, V (September, 1940), 173-182.
McCormack, P. D., Binding, F. R. S., and Chylinskii, Joanne. "Effects on Reaction Time of Knowledge of Results of Performance," Perceptual Motor Skills. XIV (June, 1962), 367-372.
Mabbott, J. D. "Our Direct Experience of Time," Mind, LX (1951), 153-167.
MacEwan, Charlotte. "Rhythm Activities in High Schools," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, IX (March, 1938), 140.
Maheu, Rene. "Sport and Culture," Journal of Health, Physical Edu cation and Recreation. XXXIV (October, 1963), 30-32, 49-54.
Mains, Margaret S. "Qualities of Dance Movement," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XVIII (February, 1947), 72.
______. "Time Factors as Aids in Dance Compositions," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XX (March, 1949), 162.
Manolis, G. G. "Relation of Charging Time to Blocking Performance in Football," Research Quarterly, XXVI (May, 1955), 170-178.
Masley, John et al. "Weight Training in Relation to Strength, Speed and Coordination," Research Quarterly, XXIV (October, 1953), 308-315.
Massey, M. Dorothy. "The Significance of Interpolated Time Intervals on Motor Learning," Research Quarterly, XXX (May, 1959), 180-189.
Mendryk, Stephen. "Reaction Time, Movement Time and Task Specificity Relationships at Ages 12, 22, and 48 Years," Research Quarterly, XXXI (May, 1960), 156-162.
Metheny, Eleanor. "This Thing Called Sport," Journal of Health, Phy sical Education and Recreation, XL (March, 1969), 59-60.
Mettler, Barbara. "Principles of a Rhythmic Body Training," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XIV (May, 1943), 256. 150
Meyers, Carlton R., Zimmerli, William, Farr, David, and Baschnagel, Norbert A. "Effect of Strenuous Physical Activity Upon Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, XL (May, 1969), 332.
Mikol, Bernard and Denny, M. Ray. "The Effect of Music and Rhythm on Rotary Pursuit Performance," Perceptual and Motor Skills, V (1955), 3-6.
Miles, Dwight W. "Preferred Rates in Rhythmic Response," Journal of General Psychology, XVI (1937), 427-469.
Miller, Robert G. and Shay, Clayton T. "Relationship of Reaction Time to the Speed of a Softball," Research Quarterly, XXXV (October, 1964), 433-437.
Moudgil, Ranvir and Karpovich, Peter V. "Duration of a Maximal Iso metric Muscular Contraction," Research Quarterly, XL (October, 1969), 536.
Mowbray, G. H. "Choice Reaction Times for Skilled Responses," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, XII (November, 1960), 193-202.
and Rhodes, M. V. "On the Reduction of Choice Reaction Time with Practice," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, XI (February, 1959),16-23.
Mundle, C. W. K. "How Specious is the Specious Present?", Mind, LXIII (1954), 26-48.
Nakazura, H. "An Experimental Study of Reaction Time of the Start in Running a Race," Research Quarterly Supplement V (March, 1934), 33-45.
Nelson, Dale 0. "Effect of Selected Rhythms and Sound Intensity on Human Performance as Measured by the Bicycle Ergometer," Research Quarterly, XXXIV (December, 1963), 484-488.
Nielsen, J. T. "A Study in the Seashore Motor Rhythm Test," Psy chological Monographs, XL (1930), 74-84.
Norrie, Mary Lou. "Timing of Two Simultaneous Movements of Arms and Legs," Research Quarterly, XXXV (December, 1964), 511.
Oakden, M. and Sturt, M. "Development of the Knowledge of Time in Children," British Journal of Psychology, XX (April, 1922),
Owens, Jack A. "Effect of Variations in Hand and Foot Spacing on Movement Time and on Force of Charge," Research Quarterly, XXXI (March, 1960), 66-76. 151
Pape, Larry. "Analysis of the Golf Swing," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXVIII (January, 1957), 42.
Peters, Joan P. and Snyder, Elizabeth A. "Books from England on Move ment Education," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVIII (January, 1967), 33.
Peters, W.and Wenborne, A. A. "The Time Pattern of Voluntary Move ments," British Journal of Psychology, XXVI (April, 1936), 388-406.
Phenix, Philip H. "The Architectonics of Knowledge," Quest, IX (December, 1967), 28.
Philbrick, Barbara. "Selected Readings on Perceptual-Motor Learning," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXIX (February, 1968), 34-36.
Philips, B. R. "Studies in High Speed Continuous Work: I Periodicity," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXIV (May, 1939), 499-509.
. "Studies in High Speed Continuous Work: II Decrement," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXV (September, 1939), 307-315.
______. "Studies in High Speed Continuous Work: III Initial Spurt and Warming Up," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXV (October, 1939), 402-413.
Phillips, William H. "Influence of Fatiguing Warm-Up Exercises on Speed of Movement and Reaction Latency," Research Quarterly, XXXIV (October, 1963), 370-378.
Piaget, J. "The Development of Time Concepts in the Child," in Hoch, P. H. and Zubin, J. (eds.). Psychopathology of Childhood. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1955.
Pierson, W. R. "Relationship of Movement Time and Reaction Time from Childhood to Senility," Research Quarterly, XXX (March, 1959), 227-231.
______. "Body Size and Speed," Research Quarterly, XXXII (May, 1961), 197.
Pierson, W. R. and Rasch, Philip J. "Determination of a Representa tive Score for Simple Reaction and Movement Time," Perceptual and Motor Skills, IX (June, 1959), 107-110.
______. "The Generality of a Speed Factor in Simple Reaction and Movement Time," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XI (October, 1960), 123-128. 152
Plscopo, John. "Free Exercise," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXX (December, 1959), 39-43.
Pubols, Benjamin H. "Reminiscence in Motor Learning as a Function of Present Distribution of Practice," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LX (September, 1960), 155-161.
Purdy, Bonnie J. and Lockhart, Aileene. "Retention and Relearning of Gross Motor Skills after Long Periods of No Practice," Research Quarterly (May, 1962), 265.
Rarick, Lawrence. "An Analysis of the Speed Factor in Simple Athletic Activities," Research Quarterly, VIII (December, 1937), 89-105.
Rath, Emil. "Polyrhythmic Gymnastics," Research Quarterly, I (March, 1930), 9.
Reimberger, E. D. "The Accuracy of Timing with a Stop Watch," Journal of Experimental Psychology, X (1927), 60-61.
Ridinger, William H. "The Inner Space Age," Journal of Health, Phy sical Education and Recreation, XXXVII (February, 1966), 34.
Rimoldi, H. J. A. "Personal Tempo," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXXXVI (1951), 283-303.
Rogers, Martin H. "Basic Body Mechanics: An Interpretation," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXII (December, 1961), 20-22.
Ronnholsm, Nils. "Physiological Studies on the Optimum Rhythm of Lifting Work," Ergonomics, V (January, 1962), 51-52.
Rozenzweig, S. "A Dynamic Interpretation of Psychotherapy Oriented Towards Research," in S. S. Tomkins (ed.), Contemporary Psychotherapy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943.
Royce, Joseph. "Force-time Characteristics of the Erection and Re lease of Hand Grip Strength Under Normal and Fatigued Con ditions," Research Quarterly. XXXIII (October, 1962), 444-450.
______• "Isometric Fatigue Curves in Human Muscle with Normal and Occluded Circulation," Research Quarterly, XXIX (May, 1958), 204-212.
Ruckmick, Christian. "Role of Kinesthesis in Perception of Rhythm," American Journal of Psychology, XXIV (1913), 305-359.
Russell, B. "On the Experience of Time," The Monist, XXV (1915), 212-233. 153
Rutschmann, Jacque and Link, Ruth. "Perception of Temporal Order of Stimuli Differing in Sense Mode and Simple Reaction Time," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XVIII (April, 1964), 345-352.
Schafer, V. G. and Gilliland, A. R. "The Relationship of Time Esti mations to Certain Physiological Changes," Journal of Experi mental Psychology. XXIII (1938), 545-552.
Scholer, Diane. "The Human Dance," Journal of Health, Physical Edu cation and Recreation, XXVIII (April, 1957), 32-34.
Schwanda, Nancy A. "A Study of Rhythmic Ability and Movement Per formance," Research Quarterly, XL (October, 1969), 567.
Sellars, W. "Time and World Order," Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, III (1962).
Shacter, Joseph. "The Game of Lacrosse," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation. V (October, 1934), 28.
Sheehan, Thomas J. "Sport: The Focal Point of Physical Education," Quest, X (May, 1968), 59.
Simmel, Edward C. "Time Estimation in Hospitalized Patients as a Function of Goal Distance and Magnitude of Reward," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XVII (August, 1963), 91.
Simpson, S. E. "Development and Validation of an Objective Measure of Locomotor Response to Auditory Rhythmic Stimuli," Research Quarterly, XXIX (October, 1958), 342-348.
Slater-Hammel, A. T. "Reaction Time and Speed of Movement," Per ceptual Motor Skills, Research Exchange, IV (1952), 109-113.
______. "Initial Body Position and Total Body Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, XXIV (March, 1953), 91-97.
______. "Comparison of Reaction-Time Measures to a Visual Stimulus and Arm Movement," Research Quarterly, XXVI (December, 1955), 470-479.
Slater-Hammel, A. T. and Stumpner, R. L. "Batting Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, XXI (December, 1950), 353-356.
Smart, J. J. C. "The River of Time," Mind (October, 1949), 483-494.
Smith, Karl U., McDermid, Charles D. and Shideman, Frederick. "Analysis of the Temporal Components of Motion in Human Gait," American Journal of Physical Medicine, XXXIX (August, 1960), 142-151.
Smith, Leon E. "Reaction Time and Movement Time in Four Large Muscle Movements," Research Quarterly, XXXII (March, 1961), 88-92. 154
Smith, Leon E. and Whitley, J. "Relation Between Muscular Force of a Limb, Under Different Starting Conditions and Speed of Move ment, " R£search_Quarter^j£, XXXIV (December, 1963), 489-496.
Smith, 0. W. "Relationship of Rhythm Discrimination to Motor Rhythm," Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXXI (December, 1957), 365-369.
Smythe, E. and Goldstone, S. "The Time Sense: A Normative Genetic Study of the Development of Time Perception," Perceptual and Motor Skills, VII (1957), 49-59.
Solley, William H. "The Effects of Verbal Instruction of Speed and Accuracy Upon the Learning of a Motor Skill," Research Quarterly, XXIII (May, 1952), 231, 240.
______and Whipp, Bryan J. "Effects of Rest Periods of Various Lengths on the Consistency of Maximal Performance on a Muscular Endurance Test," Research Quarterly, XXXVI (October, 1965), 327-335.
Suci, George J. "Reaction Time as a Function of Stimulus Information and Age," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LX (October, 1960), 242-244.
Sweet, A. L. "Temporal Discrimination by the Human Eye," American Journal of Psychology, LXVI (1953), 185-198.
Sweigard, Lulu E. "Better Dancing Through Better Body Balance," Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXVI (May, 1965), 22, 23, 56.
Swindle, P. F. "On the Inheritance of Rhythm," American Journal of Psychology, XXIV (1913), 180-2-3.
Takano, Kenji. "Study of Human Skill Timing Ability," Japanese Journal of Physical Education, XI (November, 1961), 567-571.
Talbot, E. B. "The Time Process and the Value of Human Life," Philosophical Review, XXIII (1911), 634-647.
Taylor, Richard, "Moving About in Time," Philosophical Quarterly, IX (1959), 289-301.
Thompson, C. W., Nagel, F. J., and Dobias, R. "Football Starting Signals and Movement Times of High School and College Football Players," Research Quarterly, XXIX (May, 1958), 222-230.
Triesman, Michael. "Temporal Discrimination and the Indifference Interval: Implications for a Model of the Internal Clock," Psychological Monograph, LXXVII (1963), 13, 576. 155
Tuttle, W. W. "Relation of Maximum Back and Leg Strength Endurance," Research Quarterly, XXVI (March, 1955), 96-106.
______and Lautenbach, Ruth. "The Relationship Between Reflex Time and Running Events in Track," Research Quarterly, III (October, 1932), 138-142.
______and Bresnoban, George J. "An Apparatus for Measuring Starting Time in Foot Races," Research Quarterly, IV (May, 1933), 110-116.
______and Westerlund, J. H. "Relation Between Running Events and Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, II (October, 1931), 95-100.
Vallerga, J. M. "Influence of Perceptual Stimulus Intensity on Speed of Movement and Force of Contraction," Research Quarterly, XXIX (March, 1958), 93-102.
Venables, P. H. "Periodicity in Reaction Time," British Journal of Psychology, LI (February, 1960), 37-43.
______and O'Connor, N. "Reaction Times to Auditory and Visual Stimulation in Schizophrenic and Normal Subjects," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, XI (August, 1959), 175-179,
Wagner, Ann. "A Basic Concept of Physical Education," The Physical Educator, XXI (December, 1964), 169.
Wallace, M. and Rabin, A. I. "Temporal Experience," Psychological Bulletin, LVII (i960), 213-236.
Wallin, J. E. Wallace. "Experimental Studies of Rhythm and Time," Psychological Review, XVIII (March, 1911), 100-131, 202-222.
Walton, James S. "A High Speed Timing Unit for Cinematography," Research Quarterly, XXXXI (May, 1970), 213.
Weber, A. 0. "Estimation of Time," Psychological Bulletin, XXX (1933), 233-252.
Weber, C. 0. "The Properties of Space and Time in Kinesthetic Field of Force," Journal of Psychology, XXXVIII (1927), 597-606.
Weber, Dale S. "A Time Perception Task," Perceptual and Motor Skills, XXI (December, 1965), 863-866.
Wettstone, Eugene. "Tests for Predicting Ability in Gymnastics and Tumbling," Research Quarterly, IX (December, 1938), 115-147.
Weybrew, Benjamin B. "Accuracy of Time Estimation and Muscular Ten sion," Per£££tuali_and_Wbtor_Skil;ljs_, XVII (August, 1963), 118. 156
Wilkin, B. M. "The Effect of Weight Training on Speed of Movement," Research Quarterly, XXIII (October, 1952), 361-369.
Wilmore, Jack H. "Maximal Oxygen Intake and Its Relationship to Endurance Capacity on a Bicycle Ergometer," Research Quarterly, XL (March, 1969), 203.
Wilson, Don J. "Quickness of Reaction and Movement Related to Rhythmicity or Nonrhythmlcity of Signal Presentation," Research Quarterly, XXX (March, 1959), 101-109.
Winograd, Samuel. "The Relationship of Timing and Visi to Baseball Performance," Research Quarterly, XIII (December, 1942), 481.
Woodrow, Herbert. "Individual Differences in the Reproduction of Temporal Intervals," American Journal of Psychology, XXXXV (April, 1933), 271-281.
______. "Time Perception," in Stevens, S. S. (ed.), Handbook of Experimental Psychology. New York: Wiley, 1951.
Youngen, Lois. "A Comparison of Reaction and Movement Times of Women Athletes and Non Athletes," Research Quarterly, XXX (October, 1959), 349-355.
Zorbas, William S. and Karpovich, Peter V. "The Effect of Weight Lifting Upon the Speed of Muscular Contraction," Research Quarterly, XXII (May, 1951), 145-148.
Unpublished
Adler, N. "The Perception of Time as a Function of Self-Organization." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1954.
Archer, John. "Rate as a Variable in Resistance Exercise." Unpub lished Master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1966.
Austin, Patricia. "A Conceptual Structure of Physical Education for the School Program." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965.
Bender, Eileen Kaper. "The Relationship Between Rate of Learning and Retention of Certain Sensorimotor Skills." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1961.
Beran, Robert L. "Speed of Base Running at Selected Distances from Second Base." Unpublished Master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1959. 157
Bischoff, David Canby. "Speeds of Running and Running and Diving Movements to Short Distance Targets." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1958.
Blish, Russell R. "An Investigation of Basketball Fouls and Vio lations, Delay in Player Substitutions and Time Lost Due to Player Violations." Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1960.
Bond, Marjorie H. "Rhythmic Perception and Gross Motor Performance." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1958.
Brennan, Mary A. "A Comparative Study of Skilled Gymnasts and Dancers on Thirteen Selected Characteristics." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1967.
Burdan, Paul. "A Cinematographical Analysis of Three Basic Kicks Used in Soccer." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1955.
Christofel, Fern Marie. "The Interrelationship of Performance of Selected Sport Skills, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement Time and Intelligence of High School Girls." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Colorado, 1958.
Cranston, Virginia Agnes. "A Study of the Relationship of Reaction Time, Movement Time and Visual Tracking to Performance in Badminton." Unpublished Master's thesis, Smith College, 1967.
Creger, Larry R. "A Study of the Movement Times from Two Stances in Basketball." Unpublished Master's thesis, Colorado State College, 1960.
Davis, Benjamin H., III. "A Study of the Time Involved in the Basket ball Throw In." Unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1967.
Dobbs, Elaine L. "A Study of the Sequential Development of Time Sense and Chronology in the Elementary School." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1963.
Doss, Wayne S. "A Manual of Applications of Physical Principles to Physical Education." Unpublished Master’s thesis, Springfield College, 1949.
Douglas, Robert A. "A Study to Determine Time Loss After Violations in Basketball." Unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1958. 158
Erdman, Robert E. "The Relationship of the Success in Making Free Throws in Game Competition with the Time it was Attempted in Practice." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Minnesota, 1959.
Ferguson, Don P. "Racial Comparisons and Relationships of Reaction Time, Body Movement Time and Sixty Yard Dash Performances." Unpublished Master's thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1967.
Foley, John Porter. "An Experimental Study of the Effect of Occu pational Experience Upon Motor Speed and Preferential Tempo." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1937.
Garrison, Levon E. "Electromyographic Cinematographic Study of Muscular Activity During the Golf Swing." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1963.
Gary, Robert Harris. "An Investigation of Time Estimation Among Competitive Swimmers at the University of California at Santa Barbara." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of California, 1967.
Genasci, James E. "A Study of the Effect of Participation in Physical Education and Athletics on Reaction and Movement Time." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, 1960.
Grommett, Glenn Clifford. "The Effect of Time on the Strength of a Psychic Stressor." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1960.
Hays, Joan F. "The Effect of Two Regulated Changes of Tempo Upon the Emotional Commendation of a Specific Dance Study." Unpub lished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1964.
Hoseason, Geraldine Lorraine. "Rhythm— Motor Experience in Motivating Chronic Catatonic Patients." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of California, 1961.
Houston, Sara L. "A Phenomenological Study of Movement Behavior." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1967.
Hoyle, Mary Ann. "The Use of Labanotation for Synchronized Swimming." Unpublished Master's thesis, Women's College of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1963.
Hurst, Margot E. "The Effects of Intensity Frequency, and Direction of Auditory Stimuli on Reaction Time, Movement Time and Com pletion Time." Unpublished Master's thesis, Smith College, 1967. 159
Iden, Margaret Ann. "Substantive Elements About Human Movement." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1967.
Januszewski, Frank A. "The Duration of Ball Control in Basketball." Unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1955.
Jarrett, James. "A Study of the Effects of Time, Endurance and Scoring Variables on Tennis Results as Measured by the Traditional Scoring System and the Van Alen Simplified Scoring System." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1967.
Kadatz, Dennis M. "The Relationship of Weight Distribution and Charging Time for Football Lineman." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Alberta, 1965.
Knapp, Joann. "Emotional Reactions of College Women Gymnasts as a Function of Time to Competition." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Massachusetts, 1966.
Legere, C. L. John. "An Investigation of Time Relationship Under standings in Grades Four Through Eight." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University School of Education, 1962.
Lenguadoro, James R. "The Relationship Between the Time Taken to Execute Free Throws and Success in Free Throw Shooting in Basketball." Unpublished Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, 1961.
Leslie, Janice J. "The Effect of Music on the Development of Speed in Running." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wash ing ton, 1967.
Lilly, Ann Lee. "A Method of Notating Synchronized Swimming Based on Principles Adapted from the Labanotation System." Unpub lished Master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1964.
Lyon, William. "A Cinematographical Analysis of the Overhand Baseball Throw." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1961.
McCann, James Ensley. "The Statistical Relationship of the Speed of Running Backward to the Speed of Running Forward." Unpub lished Master's thesis, Washington State University, 1960.
McIntosh, Bruce L. "A Comparison of Reaction Times and Speed of Move ment of College Baseball Players and Non-Varsity College Students." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Oregon, 1958. 160
Nakamura, Makoto. nA Comparison of the Reaction Times of Several Parts of the Body." Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Oregon, 1960.
Nelson, Robert Peter. "The Effect of Hip and Ankle Flexibility on Speed in Running." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of California, 1960.
Nottingham, Gloria Jean. "The Reaction Time and Speed of Movement of College Men and Women Who Participated in Selected Physical Education Activities." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Oregon, 1960.
O'Brien, Donald E. "The Relationship Between Reaction Time and the Type and Complexity of the Succeeding Task." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University,
Parker, Arthur B. "A Study of the Relationship Between Reaction Time and Progressive Resistive Exercise." Unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1960.
Pistochini, Gordon A. "A Comparison of Reaction Time, Movement Time and Lever Length." Unpublished Master's thesis, Sacramento State College, 1967.
Rangazas, E. P. "A Comparative Analysis of Selected College Athletes and Non Athletes on Several Hand-foot Reaction Time Measures." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1957.
Sanborn, Barbara Jeanne. "A Phenomenological Approach to Floor Exercise as an Aesthetic Experience." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of North Dakota, 1966.
Sarge, Robert W. "The Effects of Levels of Intense Activity on Total Body Reaction Time." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, 1960.
Sayed, Alae-Eldin A. E. "A Mechanical Analysis of a Floor Exercise Routine." Unpublished Master's thesis, Springfield College, 1964.
Smith, Jerry D. "A Study to Determine the Fastest Pivot a Second Baseman Could Use in Completing a Double Play." Unpublished Master's thesis, Eastern Illinois University, 1967.
Smith, William H. "A Cinematographic Analysis of Football Punting." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Illinois, 1949.
Stephens, Lois Evans. "What Concepts of Telling Time can be Developed by Kindergarten Children." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1964. 161
Sullivan, Edward. "Emotional Reactions and Grip Strength in College Wrestlers as a Function of Time to Competition." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Massachusetts, 1964.
Terry, Thomas Richard. "The Effect of Task Complexity on Speed of Reaction." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1958.
Thomson, Patricia. "Ontological Truth in Sport: A Phenomenological Analysis." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967.
Trenbeath, William G. "A Comparison of Reaction Time Changes in Freshman Baseball Players Elicited by Practice with the Vari- able-Speed Rotating Pitching Machine." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of North Dakota, 1966.
Walker, Lincoln R. "The Development of a Model Required General Kinesiology Program for the Professional Preparation of Under graduate Physical Education Majors." Unpublished Ph.D. dis sertation, Colorado State College, 1966.
Weber, Mary Ellen. "Development of a Conceptual Model of Human Move ment from Endocrine and Perceptual Theory with Analysis of the Effects of Aberrations on Movement." Unpublished Ed.D. dis sertation, University of California, 1960.
Wrigglesworth, Frank. "A Cinematographic Analysis of the Short Chip Shot in Golf." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1964.
Williams, James Albert, III. "Speed of Movement and Chronological Age." Unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1958.
Reports
American Academy of Physical Education. "A Synthesis of Committee Reports, Workshop Sessions and General Discussion Related to 'The Body of Knowledge Project' as Developed in the Academy Meetings in Washington, D. C.— 1964." (Mimeographed)
Fraleigh, Warren P. "Toward a Conceptual Model of the Academic Subject Matter of Physical Education as a Discipline." Proceedings of the National College Physical Education for Men (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1967), 34.
Kaelin, Eugene F. "Being in the Body." National Association of Physical Education for College Women Report, Ruby Anniversary Workshop (June, 1964), 84-103. 162
National Association for Physical Education of College Women. Work shop Report: Purposeful Action, 1956.
National Association for-Physical Education of College Women. Work shop Report: Competence for Action, 1960.
National Association for Physical Education of College Women Report, 1964.
Other
Davis, Diane. "In Focus: A New Approach to Understanding the Meaning and Significance of Movement as it Relates to the Total Per sonality." Unpublished speech delivered at Asilomar Conference of Western Society of Physical Education for College Women, Pacific Grove, California, November 10, 1967. (Typewritten)
H'Doubler, Margaret. "A Dance Educator Speaks." Speech delivered Boulder, Colorado, June 1965. (Typewritten)
Studer, G. and Williams, H. "Substantive Units of Movements." Un published notes for a Curriculum Revision Meeting, University of Washington, Seattle, November 19, 1967. (Typewritten)