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University Microfilms, a XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan 71-22,536 STUDER, Virginia Lee, 1943- AN EXPLORATION OF THE FUNCTION OF TIME AS A SOURCE OF VARIABILITY IN HUMAN MOVEMENT. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1971 Education, physical University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan (c)Copyright by Virginia Lee Studer 1971 AN EXPLORATION OF THE FUNCTION OF TIME AS A SOURCE OF VARIABILITY IN HUMAN MOVEMENT DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University by Virginia Lee Studer, B.S., M.S The Ohio State University 1971 Approved by Adviser School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time. T. S. Eliot, Little Giddlng ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to acknowledge indebtedness to: Professor Charles Mand whose patience, understanding and guidance through provocative questions brought the study from a possibility to a reality; Professor Naomi Allenbaugh for her personal insight and critical suggestions of the concepts involved in the study; Professor Margaret Mordy whose editorial assistance and personal encouragement made the task of preparing the manuscript infinitely easier; Professor Dorothy Allen for her suggestions at crucial stages during the course of the investigation; and Professors Marjorie Souder and Phyllis Hill whose adventures in ideas have continued to be a professional challenge and inspiration. iii VITA March 11, 1943 . Born— St. Charles, Illinois 1965 ........ B.S., University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 1965-1966 ..... Teaching Assistant, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 1966 ............. M.S., University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 1966-1968 ......... Instructor, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 1968-1971 ..... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Physical Education Studies in Philosophy. Professors Charles Mand, Seymour Kleinman, Naomi Allenbaugh, Margaret Mordy, and Barbara Nelson Studies in History. Professor Bruce Bennett Studies in Perception. Professor Dorothy Allen Studies in Research Design and Statistics. Professor Donald Matthews Minor Field: Philosophy Studies in History of Philosophy. Professors Paul Olscamp and Ivan Boh Studies in Aesthetics and Existentialism. Professor Lee Brown Studies in Logic and the Philosophy of Time. Professor Peter Machamer Studies in Ethics. Professor Andrew Oldenquist iv CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................... iii VITA .......................................................... iv CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM ........................................... 1 Introduction 1 Rationale ...... ......... ......... 5 Statement of the problem ........................ 9 Assumptions ................... 9 Definition of terms ............ 10 Procedures ................................... 11 Limitations .... ............. ........ 13 II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................ 14 Introduction ..... 14 Systems of analyzing and recording human movement 15 Sys terns of reference for the temporality of human m o v e m e n t .............................. 32 Man's orientation to time .................. 33 Man's perspective of time .................. 36 Measurement of t i m e ............................ 44 Summary ........ 47 Function of time as a source of variability in human movement ................. 48 Temporal limits ................................ 50 Temporal dimensions .............. 57 Temporal relations .............. 63 S u m m a r y ......................................... 72 Recent research studies related to time as a source of variability in human movement . 72 Reaction time ................. 74 R h y t h m .............................. 79 Speed of movement .......................... 83 Endurance ....... .... 87 Measurement ...... ............... .... 89 Time estimation................................ 90 Time allotments in games ........... 91 Experience of time .............. 92 M e m o r y ......................... 92 Time allotments in practice .......... 95 Summary .................... 95 v CONTENTS (continued) CHAPTER Page II (continued) Summary and conclusions ............ 96 III THE CONSTRUCT ......................................... 98 Introduction ..................................... 98 Construct for the functions of temporal vari­ ability 103 Evaluation of the construct................... • * 105 Summary ..................... 109 IV AN APPLICATION OF THE CONSTRUCT ...................... 110 Introduction .................................... 110 Application of the construct 113 Evaluation of the application.......... 119 Summary .... ........ 121 V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ................ 123 Summary ...... .................. ...... 123 Conclusions ............ 126 Recommendations ................. 127 APPENDIX ....................................................... 130 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 133 vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Time, which is everywhere yet nowhere, which Is intuitively obvious yet logically indefinable, which is as straightforward as a clock yet as paradoxical as relativity, has inevitably fascinated speculative minds in almost every age. Whereas analyses of time seem clear to some, to others time is irremediably obscure. Few ideas have engendered more philosophical argument than time. In addition to provoking opposite emotions from the poets, it seems to engage the philosophers in a dispute about its rationality. Men have become bewitched over statements which, on the slightest analysis, are found to express the most trivial truisms. Although the Idea of time is traditionally linked with that of space and motion it seems to be a much more illusive concept. Unlike space, which has generally seemed simple and obvious, time has been regarded as a dark subject of speculation, fundamentally enigmatic, even incomprehensible. For although man is rooted in space and motion, his memory and expectation enable him in a sense to en­ compass time, and thus save him from being merely rooted in it. Time seems to give continuity and pattern to life, yet also brings disruption and death. Man not only reaches out to past and future, but also sometimes lifts himself above the whole of time by conceiving the eternal and the immutable. Accepting the complexity and difficulty of the concept of time, man is both curious and deeply concerned about his relationship to time; for while it is unreal, it has reality for him as an appearance owing to erroneous perception from which he cannot seem to escape. Our idea of time, even if epistemologically a priori in the sense that it is an essential presupposition of physical science, is a product of human evolution. On the other hand, our awareness of temporal phenomena would seem in the first instance to be based solely on fundamental and irreducible personal experience. Nevertheless, on further analysis it is clear that our perception of temporal phenomena like so much else that we are tempted to regard as irreducible, is a complex activity which we acquire by learning.^ An overview of expressed ideas concerning time reveals the possibility of four different orientations to related areas of inquiry. The first and foundational area consists of questions concerning the illusive nature of time, its reality or unreality, subjectivity or objectivity, its definition. The second area concerns the discussions of the various modes of existence which time assumes. Does time originate in the universe or in man? Is its form rectilinear or cyclical? What are past, present, and future? beginning and end? The third area is concerned with man's understanding of and relation­ ship to time; how man learns about time, his experience of duration, the significance of his temporality. The fourth area consists of the various theories and ideas of the qualitative and quantitative measurement of time. These four areas when conceived in their inherent ^G. J. Whitrow, The Natural Philosophy of Time (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1961), p. 71. 3 breadth seem to be inclusive of the historical and diverse ideas of time from Pythagoras through Einstein. Usually emerging from a study of each area are at least two views, sometimes conflicting and sometimes one as an extension of the other. Most often the divergence is dependent on whether the per­ spective has been physical or psychological time. These two perspectives represent the nature of time, for example as either a logical construct claiming objective validity (physical time) or as an immediate datum of consciousness (psychological time). Much of the obscurity regarding the nature of time has arisen from using without qualification the word time to connote the two perspectives. According to the outstanding analysis of time by Whitrow one perspective is assumed by the idealistic philosophers and the modern 2 scientists who believe that time is neither ultimate nor irreducible. The opposing view is prevalent both in the concepts of realistic philosophers and scientists as well as in common language usage. Whitrow continues by rather uniquely identifying the central point of the dispute between these rival views as the features of time for which there are no spatial analogies, including such concepts as 3 becoming or happening and past, present and future. However, this central focus of dispute
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