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6 – Quaternary Landscape Evolution and the Preservation of Pleistocene Sediments The Early and Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of Greece : current status and future prospects Tourloukis, V. Citation Tourloukis, V. (2010, November 17). The Early and Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of Greece : current status and future prospects. LUP Dissertations. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/16150 Version: Corrected Publisher’s Version Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/16150 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). 6 – Quaternary landscape evolution and the preservation of Pleistocene sediments 6.1 INTRODUCTION ley 1997). Despite the major contributions from geo- logical and geographical investigations, and notwith- The landscape of Greece has long been used as a standing this rather early interest by archaeologists in natural laboratory where prominent scholars from the role of the landscape, the latter was for a long various disciplines of Earth Sciences and Humanities time conceived essentially as a static, inexorable applied and tested their models, developed theoreti- background that needs to be solely reconstructed in cal frameworks and elaborated on different methodo- order to become the setting for the archaeological logical approaches. The Aegean Sea and its sur- narrative. In this respect, it is only recently that re- rounding areas comprise one of the most rapidly searchers have been encompassing a more integrated deforming parts of the Alpine-Himalayan belt, and and holistic perspective of landscape development in as an active tectonic setting it has contributed pro- the frames of Palaeolithic investigations (e.g. Run- foundly to resolving fundamental issues in structural nels and van Andel 2003). geology and plate tectonics, hydrogeology, geomor- phology, and many other subfields of geology (e.g. Although the role of climate, erosion and tectonic McKenzie 1978; Le Pichon and Angelier 1979; Lee- movements was stressed already by the first pioneer- der and Jackson 1993; Jackson 1994; Bell et al. ing researchers (e.g. Higgs and Vita-Finzi 1966; 2009). Tectonic activity restricted the development King and Bailey 1985), it was only later that an em- of broad alluvial reaches in Greece (Macklin et al. phasis was given to such factors as agents of bias in 1995). Coupled with a markedly seasonal climate, the formation of the geoarchaeological archive (e.g. this configuration resulted in the development of a Bailey et al. 1992; Runnels and van Andel 2003). landscape which does not promote extensive ecologi- Inevitably, such a discourse was bound to be focused cal zonation. The prevalence of mosaic environ- on and restricted in the spatial and temporal frames ments, with a striking diversity and variety of ecolo- defined by each project’s objectives. It was basically gical resources over short distances, has attracted the a combination of research biases (e.g. research mod- interest of ecologists and biogeographers (e.g. Tze- els targeting primarily caves and rockshelters until dakis et al. 2002b; Medail and Diadema 2009). Ma- about the 1980’s; Runnels 2003a), the lack of robust jor researchers working in the field of Palaeolithic environmental data sets and the limited evidence studies and/or Landscape Archaeology were soon to from excavated sites that hindered the development appreciate the opportunities that this highly ‘broken- of broader syntheses with respect to Quaternary land- up’ geographical setting offers for the unraveling of scape evolution. key aspects in human-environment relationships. For example, Higgs and Vita-Finzi developed the method In this light, the following chapter aims to contribute of site-catchment analysis during their work in the to the understanding of landscape evolution in rugged relief of Epirus, initiating a long-lasting tradi- Greece during the Quaternary and how this might tion of ecological/landscape approaches in the study have influenced the geological and geomorphologi- of hunter-gatherer economy, which draws much at- cal opportunities for preservation of Lower Palaeo- tention to the topographical and geomorphological lithic material. Needless to say, the temporal and spa- attributes of the landscape (Higgs and Vita-Finzi tial scale for such an endeavor does not allow for 1966; King and Bailey 1985; Bailey et al. 1993; Bai- proper modeling. It does allow, though, for a critical 127 the early and middle pleistocene archaeological record of greece overview of the main aspects of climatic fluctuations, archaeological record are tightly interrelated but are tectonic activity, sea-level changes and slope pro- examined here as separate as possible, into four ma- cesses, as well as the associated geomorphic controls jor groupings: climate, tectonism, sea-level changes imposed by those four principal agents of landscape and surface (slope) processes. When viewed in con- change. The explorative and/or speculative nature of junction (section 6.6), a conclusion can be drawn on some parts of this treatment is believed to be justified how geomorphic processes have shaped the available by the apprehension that the aim has first and fore- geological opportunities, which in turn configured most an archaeological origin: in this regard, rather the nature and extent of preservation of the archaeo- than high-resolution patterns, it is highly robust ones logical record. that are sought. On this basis, we can arrive at both a quantitative and All in all, the geomorphological perspective ad- qualitative assessment of the current picture: how vanced here in order to assess past, actual, and poten- much of the archaeological record may have been tial effects of geomorphic processes upon archaeolo- lost compared to the geological record at our dispo- gical preservation and visibility, serves primarily as a sal, how much of it is likely to have escaped the bias- starting point for: ing geomorphic agents and what kind of geoarchaeo- 1. evaluating the existing status of the Greek Lower logical contexts are we facing today and we should Palaeolithic record, with regard to the issue of expect to deal with in the future. In this sense, the ‘absence of evidence’ or ‘evidence of absence’, results of this exploration do not only touch upon the 2. understanding and anticipating geomorphic evaluation of the evidence at hand, but also anticipate biases, and future research and the methodological toolkit that 3. developing analytical tools and models for future we need to develop in dealing with geomorphic investigations biases. Despite the fact that the landscape of Greece has attracted early on the interest of earth-scientists The critical examination of the Greek ‘Lower Palaeo- and archaeologists, the literature so far lacks a synth- lithic’ evidence (chapter 4) demonstrated that the re- esis of landscape evolution in Greece during the Qua- cord of Greece is in marked contrast to those of other ternary; it is hoped that the following lines will con- circum-Mediterranean areas (chapter 3), in its main tribute in filling this vacuum, even if the perspective quantitative and qualitative characteristics: there are here remains essentially an archaeological one. very few sites and there is an overall lack of stratified material. The fact that a large portion of the evidence 6.2 CLIMATIC CONTROLS lacks a stratigraphic context and/or is associated with secondary contexts emerges as a wider pattern that “If tectonics and lithology favor erosion, the main cannot be attributed to inappropriate research de- determinant of when it happens is weather” (Grove signs, the intensity of investigations or a lack of spe- and Rackham 2001) cialists in the field, as was discussed above in chapter 5. The exploration presented below assesses whether 6.2.1 The climate of Greece this general ‘absence of (stratified) evidence’ could be ultimately regarded as ‘evidence of absence’ for Greece has a Mediterranean climate,42 namely one archaeologically visible hominin activities. The re- with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters, mains of these activities are likely to have been pre- where winter rainfall is at least three times more than served, accessible/visible and stratified until the pre- sent only in areas where the relevant geological record is equally complete enough and has remained 42. As a result of the interactions within a mosaic of environ- largely undisturbed. Disturbance versus preservation, mental processes and ecological responses between biotic and erosion versus deposition, and deposition/preserva- abiotic factors at a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, the tion versus archaeological visibility/accessibility, are climate of the Mediterranean displays a vast diversity of features and hence a variety of climate sub-types (Allen 2001). There are, all conditioned mainly by geomorphic factors. These however, general characteristics which are common in the entire factors and their potentially biasing effects upon the basin. In that sense, the general term ‘Mediterranean climate’ is 128 6 – quaternary landscape evolution and the preservation of pleistocene sediments that of the summer. As the Mediterranean basin is season together with an increase in sclerophyllous situated within the boundary between subtropical taxa, whereas the second refers to the onset of North- and mid-latitude atmospheric patterns, its climate is ern Hemisphere glaciation and global cooling (Suc particularly sensitive even
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