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Diffuse Coevolution Between Two Epicephala Species (Gracillariidae) and Two Breynia Species (Phyllanthaceae)

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Diffuse Coevolution Between Two Epicephala Species (Gracillariidae) and Two Breynia Species (Phyllanthaceae) Diffuse Coevolution between Two Epicephala Species (Gracillariidae) and Two Breynia Species (Phyllanthaceae) Jing Zhang., Shuxia Wang., Houhun Li*., Bingbing Hu, Xiaofei Yang, Zhibo Wang College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, China Abstract The diffuse coevolution between two moth species (Epicephala lativalvaris and E. mirivalvata) and two plant species (Breynia fruticosa and B. rostrata) is reported based on field observations and indoor experiments conducted in Hainan and Fujian, China. Study results showed that the two Epicephala species jointly pollinated the two Breynia species, which led to a unique obligate pollination mutualism of two2to2two species specificity. A single Epicephala larva exclusively fed on seeds of host plants and developed to maturity by consuming all six seeds of each fruit, whereas a fraction of intact fruits were left to ensure the reproduction of plants within the whole population. Larvae of the two Epicephala species are competitive for resources; the population of E. mirivalvata is much smaller than that of E. lativalvaris, which has resulted from the differences in the female ovipositor structures and oviposition mode. The life history of Epicephala species highly coincides with the phenology of Breynia plants, and different phenology of B. fruticosa resulted in the different life history of the two Epicephala species in Hainan and Fujian. The natural hybridization of two host plants, possibly induced by the alternate pollination of two Epicephala species, is briefly discussed. Citation: Zhang J, Wang S, Li H, Hu B, Yang X, et al. (2012) Diffuse Coevolution between Two Epicephala Species (Gracillariidae) and Two Breynia Species (Phyllanthaceae). PLoS ONE 7(7): e41657. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041657 Editor: Dmitry A. Filatov, University of Oxford, United Kingdom Received February 14, 2012; Accepted June 25, 2012; Published July 27, 2012 Copyright: ß 2012 Zhang et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Funding: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30930014). Funder’s website: http://www.nsfc.gov.cn/. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. * E-mail: [email protected] . These authors contributed equally to this work. Introduction carrying numerous pollen grains on proboscis, which led to a deduction that this species was an active pollinator of B. fruticosa The obligate pollination relationship between plants and their [11]. Okamoto et al. [12] suggested the floral scent of Glochidion is seed-parasitic pollinators is perhaps one of the most specialized one of the important key signals that mediate the encounters of the cases in mutualism between insects and plants [1–4]. Ehrlich and species-specific partners in the Glochidion–Epicephala mutualism. In Raven defined coevolution as the interaction between two major tightly coevolved mutualism between Breynia vitis-idaea and groups of organisms with a close and evident ecological relation- Epicephala species, system-specific chemistry is not necessary for ship, such as plants and herbivores [5]. In the known classical efficient host location to Epicephala moths [13]. obligate pollination mutualism between figs–fig wasps and yuccas– By means of field observations and indoor experiments, we yucca moths, figs and yuccas depend exclusively on pollination of studied the phenology, the phylogenetic relationship and the fig wasps and yucca moths respectively, while sacrificing some morphological characters of the two Breynia species, as well as the seeds for larvae of fig wasps and yucca moths to feed [6,7]. The morphological characters, the behavior, the life history, the obligate pollination mutualism between Epicephala moths of phylogenetic relationship and the population size of the two Gracillariidae and Glochidion plants of Euphorbiaceae was discov- Epicephala species in Hainan and Fujian. Based on related ered in 2003 [3]. Three pollination relationships were proposed literature and results of our study, we discussed herein: (1) the [8]: (1) one Epicephala species obligately pollinates one Glochidion impact of the different phenology of the allopatric B. fruticosa species, (2) two Epicephala species jointly pollinate one Glochidion populations on the life history of the Epicephala moths in species, and (3) two Epicephala species jointly pollinate two closely coevolution; (2) the influence of moth pollinators on the related parapatric Glochidion species. The most distinctive floral hybridization of Breynia species; and (3) whether the relationship features associated with the pollination mode are the structures of between the pollinators is stable in this diffuse coevolution. the pistils and stamens: styles are usually reduced to entire tips and medially fused, or filaments and anthers are variously fused [9– Results 10]. An obligate pollination relationship between Breynia vitis-idaea Life History of Epicephala Moths and Phenology of and an unnamed Epicephala species was discovered in 2004 [11]. Breynia Plants This Epicephala species actively pollinated B. vitis-idaea and was In Hainan, B. fruticosa has six fruit periods per year, lasting from observed loading numerous pollen grains on proboscis. Another the first period in early January to the sixth period in late Epicephala species on leaves of B. fruticosa was also observed November. Epicephala lativalvaris and E. mirivalvata have six PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 July 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 7 | e41657 Coevolution between Two Epicephala and Two Breynia Figure 1. Female flowers and fruits with double characters of Breynia plants. Female flowers (A) and fruits (B) with erect stigmas and flat calyx sepals. Female flowers (C) and fruits (D) with excurved stigmas and reflexed calyx sepals. (cs) calyx sepals. (s) stigma. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041657.g001 generations correspondingly, lasting from the first generation in A single larva of both E. lativalvaris and E. mirivalvata needs to middle January to the sixth generation in late December (Table consume all six seeds within a fruit to develop into maturity. S1). Mature larvae (the last instar) gnawed a hole in the fruit wall and In Fujian, both B. fruticosa and B. rostrata have 4–5 fruit periods exited, then produced cocoons and turned into pupae on leaves of per year, which lasted from the first period in early June to the fifth hosts or the ambient plants. Pupal stage of E. lativalvaris lasted 9– period in late April of the following year. A large number of 15 days, and pupal stage of E. mirivalvata lasted 9–12 days. Adults flowers withered in winter due to absence of pollinators. A small of both Epicephala species could survive 3–5 days by sucking nectar amount of flowers that were pollinated during middle to late for nutrition (Figure S1). November were dormant and no seeds were formed until middle or late March of the following year, and the fifth fruit period lasted Hybridization of Breynia Species from middle to late April. Both E. lativalvaris and E. mirivalvata have We found some plant individuals are difficult to identify, 4–5 generations correspondingly, which lasted from the first because they possess double morphological characters of both B. generation in middle June to the fifth generation in middle May of fruticosa and B. rostrata: three individuals (Figure 1: A, B) in Hainan the following year. Larvae that pupated during early to middle with erect stigmas (characteristic of B. rostrata) and flat calyx sepals November could emerge into adults, pollinate mature female (characteristic of B. fruticosa); nineteen individuals (Figure 1: C, D) flowers and lay eggs of the fifth generation during middle to late in Fujian with excurved stigmas (characteristic of B. fruticosa) and November. Larvae that pupated in late November overwintered in reflexed calyx sepals (characteristic of B. rostrata). pupas, and they began to emerge in late April and disappeared in The result of the hand-pollination hybridization experiment middle May. Pollinated flowers and Epicephala eggs in flowers were showed that there are no reproductive barriers between B. fruticosa dormant until middle or late March of the following year, and the and B. rostrata. 90% B. fruticosa female flowers (n = 50) with pollen adults of the fifth generation emerged in middle May (Table S2). grains from B. rostrata developed, so did 94% B. rostrata female We smelled flower fragrance of both B. fruticosa and B. rostrata at flowers (n = 50) with pollen grains from B. fruticosa (Table S7). night only, which suggests that they were blooming at night. PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 2 July 2012 | Volume 7 | Issue 7 | e41657 Coevolution between Two Epicephala and Two Breynia Figure 2. Behavior of female Epicephala moths. Epicephala lativalvaris collecting pollen grains on male flower of Breynia fruticosa (A) and actively pollinating for Breynia fruticosa (B) and B. rostrata (C). E. lativalvaris inserting ovipositor through calyx lobe and ovary to lay eggs on B. fruticosa (D) and B. rostrata (E). (F) Egg of E. lativalvaris. E. mirivalvata laying eggs between ovary and calyx lobe on B. fruticosa (G) and B. rostrata (H). (I) Egg of E. mirivalvata. (e) egg. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041657.g002
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