THE LEGACY OF BRAZIL'S PEDRO I: MEMORY AND POLITICS DURING THE EMPIRE AND REPUBLIC by Debra Law A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore, Maryland October, 2015 © 2015 Debra Law All Rights Reserved Abstract The long-term historical legacy and place in national memory of Brazil’s Pedro I has not been sufficiently analyzed in the historiography centered on the nation’s first emperor and the ways in which successive political regimes approached remembering the past. Yet, Pedro I provides a fascinating case study in memory because of his complicated relationship to Brazil. The Portuguese prince who declared Brazilian independence but was forced into exile, Pedro I became the subject of Brazil’s first public monument. Located in Rio de Janeiro, the equestrian statue of Pedro I serves as a touchstone for how the ruling political elites of different eras viewed the nation’s founding historical figure, its past, and the legitimacy of their own societies and regimes. The methodology of this study serves to explain how the Brazilian people, represented in the writings of their intellectual elite, remembered their first emperor on the occasion of his statue’s inauguration in 1862 and after an incident involving the covering of his statue in 1893. Because the former took place during the imperial era of Brazilian history and the latter during that of the Republic, the examination of those moments will shed light onto the ways in which the concepts of history, memory, politics, and sovereignty intersected in the public square in Rio de Janeiro. This dissertation argues that the historical standing of Pedro I was constructed, deconstructed, and reconstructed in the public sphere throughout the first century of Brazil’s national history, and that contested legacy was being continually impacted by the dueling forces of acclaim and repudiation as well as political change and tradition. The thesis is argued through an analysis of public perceptions of the Emperor and his statue amidst moments of larger reflection on the nature of Brazil’s national origins and ii identity. The discourse surrounding the moment of the statue’s inauguration in 1862 establishes the imperial definitions—and critical refutations—of Pedro I as the founder of both the nation and its constitution while similarly establishing competing narratives regarding his abdication, exile, and portugalidade (Portuguese-ness). The discourse surrounding the statue’s controversial covering in the incipient years of the Republic shows not only contested views of the nation’s past and traditions but also the profound tensions between the disparate groups who constituted the new republican elite. Ultimately the statue of Pedro I kept its place in the public square in Rio de Janeiro despite calls for its removal. The statue’s perseverance amidst contestation mirrors the ways in which Pedro I’s place in national memory would be both challenged and perpetuated in the observance of Brazilian civic tradition. iii Acknowledgements This thesis was researched and written between 2006 and 2015 in Brazil and the United States. The generosity of the Graduate Studies Committee of the Department of History at The Johns Hopkins University made this work possible through the extension of tuition fellowships and stipend awards from 2005 to 2010. In addition, I am indebted to the Program in Latin American Studies at The Johns Hopkins University for a Summer Research Grant. In the development of my Portuguese language skills, I am particularly grateful for receiving the FLAS (Foreign Language and Area Studies) Summer Fellowship in Brazil and for my acceptance into the Florida Consortium for Latin American Studies, UF/FIU Summer Portuguese Program in 2006. My endeavor to complete this dissertation has been a long process, and it would not have been possible without the generosity, expertise, and time of many individuals and the rich resources of various institutions. In Brazil, I owe the greatest debt to the administration of the Biblioteca Nacional for their help with and access to the periodicals and pamphlets analyzed in this study. Upon my return to the United States, my debt was only deepened by the creation of the Acervo Hemeroteca Digital for remote access to those sources. I would also like to thank Drs. Lúcia Maria Bastos Pereira das Neves and Tânia Maria Tavares Bessone da Cruz Ferreira of the Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ) for welcoming me into their offices and allowing me to benefit from attending university discussions and regional conferences. Without their counsel, I would not have taken my research in the direction I did. My time in Rio was also greatly aided by the logistical help of Suzana Ruzzante. Luciana Freire also made the success of my research possible by helping me to conduct surveys and navigate the city of Rio, iv discussing my ideas, and being a cherished friend whom I was truly blessed to have the opportunity to work with in the JHU Study Abroad Program. I would also like to thank Professor Hellen S. S. Moreira with whom I had the great fortune of studying Portuguese at the Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos (IBEU) during the UF/FIU Summer Program. I cannot say which I am more grateful for: her linguistic expertise or her kindness and friendship. Finally, I would like to thank Kathy Boss for her help during my time in Brazil and for providing a little Texas twang and sense of home while we were far away. In the United States, I benefitted greatly from the access to a wide range of Brazilian sources granted by the Oliveira Lima Library located on the campus of the Catholic University of America. I would like to thank Assistant Curator Maria Leal for her help throughout the many stages of my research. In recent years, the ongoing support of Dr. Mary Brennan, Chair of the Department of History at Texas State University, has been invaluable and much appreciated. In my program of study, I also had the tremendous privilege to learn from the members of the Department of History at Johns Hopkins. I am especially indebted to Professor Philip Morgan who guided me to a more nuanced view of Atlantic History and to Professor Richard Kagan for a delightful one-on- one exploration and discussion of the Spanish empire. For her guidance, support, and never-ending willingness to share the benefit of her experience and insight, I would also like to thank my colleague Dr. Teresa Cribelli. Lastly, I owe a great deal of personal and professional gratitude to Megan Zeller, whose institutional assistance allowed me to see my program of study through to the end. There are three scholars to whom I owe a special debt of gratitude, two of whom have passed away. Professor Lydia Garner, a JHU alumnus and Texas State University v professor, inspired my interest in Latin American history and set me on this path. I miss her counsel and insight. At Johns Hopkins, I was also privileged to have Professor A. J. R. Russell-Wood as my original thesis adviser. He allowed me the freedom and flexibility to find my way and my topic while always providing me an anchor of insight, perspective, wisdom, kindness, compassion, and humor. I cannot express what a joy and honor it was to have him in my life. He was the ultimate model for me of what a historian and teacher should be, and it is to his memory that I dedicate this work. While Professor Russell-Wood oversaw the beginning of this thesis, its culmination has been made possible through the singular generosity, expertise, and patience of Professor Franklin W. Knight, who gave of himself even after his retirement from the university. His guidance has profoundly shaped the contours of this thesis and made me a better writer and scholar. For all of this, I could not be more grateful. How fortunate can a student be to begin a doctoral program with John Russell-Wood and end it with Franklin W. Knight. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their unwavering support throughout the many twists and turns of this experience. Without the love, encouragement, and steadfast belief of my mother Jodie and my sister Karen, this dissertation would never have been completed. I love you both so very much. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT……………… ………………………………………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………… iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS………………………… ...…………………………... ix CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………….. 1 2. DEFINING THE HISTORICAL LEGACY OF PEDRO I IN 1862……… 21 The Icon of Independence and the Founder of the Empire The “Grito do Ipiranga” as an Historical Moment The “Grito do Ipiranga” as Used to Define Pedro I in 1862 The Counter Narrative: Pedro I as Opportunistic Antagonist to Independence Giver of Law The Counter Narrative: Pedro I as Violator of Constitutional Principles Pedro as Soldier Hero of Two Worlds The Counter Narrative: Pedro I as the Hero of Only Portugal Magnanimous Father Who Bequeathed the Throne to His Son The Counter Narrative: Abdication as the Just Consequence for Tyranny Conclusion 3. AN IMPERIAL STATUE IN A REPUBLIC’S PUBLIC SQUARE……. .. 97 The Proclamation of the Republic: The New Political Landscape The Statue of Pedro I Newly Re-named Praça Tiradentes The Bandstand, Its Critics, and Its Demolition Defending the Statue: The Popular Element Defending the Statue: Respect for Art Defending the Statue: Respect for History The Perceived State of the Republic The Fear of the Silent Plotting of Monarchists Criticism towards Municipal Authorities The Bandstand Incident as “True Republican” Litmus Test The Post-Incident Sense of Ideological Disunity and Antagonism Republican Infighting amidst Popular Indifference Conclusion vii 4.