AN ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS TO MARINE FISHERIES IN

Rokhmin ~ahuri'

ABSTRACT Although the $she& sector contributes a relatively small share to Indonesian GDP, it plays a substantial role in socio-economic development. Thefisheries sector, 75% of which is marine fisheries, currently provides direct employment to about 3 million people living along the coasts, and generates export earnings of about US$ 1.5 billion. Besides being a primary source of animal protein, fish is akio the most affordable animal protein and is a staple part of the diet of most Indonesian people. Unfortunately over the last ten years soine fisheries resources in many Indonesia's marine waters, especially the Straits of Malacca, the North Coast of Java, the , and the South Coast of Sulawesi, have shown signs of ovefihing, reflected by the constantly declining catch per unit of effort in these areas. There is strong evidence that highfishingpressure is not the only factor threatening the sustainability of marine fisheries resources in these areas; other causes include pollution from both land-and marine-based activities, and degradation of critical habitats for marine biota, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. This paper presents a critical analysis of the impacts of such environmental threats to the sustainability of IndonesiaL marine fisheries resources and offers alternative bio-technical and institutional approaches to manage these environmentalproblems.

1. INTRODUCTION As Indonesia embarks on its Second Long-tem Development Plan (1993- 2018), the focus of economic development has shiRed to marine and coastal resources. This is reflected in the State Policy Guidelines (GBIIN) 1993, which consider marine and coastal-related development aspects as a sector in itself. Before GBHN 1993, marine and coastal resources were only part of other development sectors. Development focus has shifted fkom terrestrial resourcsbased activities to marine resource-based activities for two main reasons. First, Indonesia is the largest archipelagic state in the world, with 17 508 islands, 81000 km coastline, and 63% (3.1 million km2)of its territorial area covered by marine waters endowed with diverse and rich natural resources. Second, although the pace of development in Indonesia is among the fastest in the world, it still depends heavily on natural resources. As the population increases (expected to reach 276 million by 2020) and terrestrial (upland) resources become scarce or difficult to develop, the role of coastal and marine resources will be more prominent in the Second Long-term Development Plan.

--- - Associate Professor, Faculty of Fisheries and Head of Coastal Zone Management Programme, Environmental Research Centre, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia. Fisheries are one of the most promising coastal and marine resources which can be utilized to sustain Indonesian economic development. It has been reported that sustainable potential (MSY) of Indonesia's total marine fisheries resources is about 6.7 million ttyear, and up until now the exploitation rate is only about 47% (Directorate General of Fisheries, 1996). There are an estimated 840 000 ha of coastal areas with potential for brackishwater shrimplfish culture, with only 300 000 ha actually exploited for coastal aquaculture (tambak) (Dana et al., 1996). Endowed with vast areas of relatively calm marine waters, such as bays, shallow waters (Sunda and Sahul shelves), and estuaries, Indonesia also has high mariculture potential, including seaweed, molluscs, crustaceae, finfish, and other marine biota. Mariculture development in Indonesia is still in its infancy. It is logical, therefore, that marine and coastal fisheries have been selected by the Government of Indonesia as a new source of economic growth within the agricultural sector for the Second Long-term Development Period (Minister of Agriculture, 1996). Marine fisheries with their backward and forward linkage industries are expected to provide more employment opportunities, generate higher foreign earnings, supply more protein for the diet of most Indonesians, and increase the standard of living of fishermen and fish farmers. Despite these bright prospects and high expectations for marine fisheries in Indonesia, resources (stocks) themselves in populated and industrialized coastal and marine areas, such as the North Coast of Java, and the Straits of Malacca, have been seriously threatened to the point that endangers their sustainability. The threats can be grouped into three categories: (1) overexploitation of marine fisheries resources; (2) pollution from both marine-and land-based activities; and (3) physical degradation of coastal habitats, particularly coral reefs, mangroves, and estuaries. The following sections will elaborate the major environmental issues which threaten the sustainable development of marine fisheries in the country, and identify the root causes of the problems. The trend of environmental stresses on marine fisheries resources and their socio-economic consequences on the fisheries sector will also be highlighted. The paper also reviews existing management initiatives by both government and private sectors to tackle such environmental degradation and marine fisheries resource depletion, and finally proposals are made for alternative approaches in addressing environmental threats to the sustainability of marine fisheries resources.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AFFECTING THE FISHERIES SECTOR IN COASTAL AND MARINE AREAS During the First Long-term Development Period, fisheries development had brought about a significant contribution to Indonesian national economic development. Fisheries production increased hm1.16 million t in 1968 to 4.02 million t in 1994, 75% of which came fiom marine fisheries. Export earnings fiom the fisheries sub-sector increased fiom US$ 2.8 million in 1968 to US$ 1.655 billion in 1994, consisting of shrimps (64%), tunarand skipjack (14%), and others (26%) (Directorate General of Fisheries, 1996), The total number of fishermen increased from less than 500 000 in 1968 to about 2 million in 1994, and national per caput fish consumption also increased from less than 7 kg/year in 1968 to 19 kg/year in 1994 (DPP Gappindo, 1996). Yet, there is much to be done in marine fisheries development in order to meet Indonesian people's expectations fiom the fisheries sub-sector, as clearly stated in GBHN 1993 and the Sixth Five Year Development Plan. The contribution of fisheries to GDP is still very low, only about 2%. Most fishermen are still among the poorest social groups in the country. More importantly the sustainability of marine fisheries has been seriously threatened because of stock depletion as a result of overfishing and degradation of coastal and marine habitats which fish and other marine organisms live in. As marine fisheries are essentially a resource-dependent industry, sustainability and viability depend considerably on the sustainability of fish stocks. Environmental stresses which could threaten the sustainability of marine fisheries can be grouped into three categories: (1) over-exploitation of fish stocks, (2) physical degradation of coastal and marine habitats, and (2) pollution. While the impact of fishing on marine fisheries has been studied for some time, it is only recently that attention has been given to observing non-fishing impacts in the coastal zone, including pollution and the degradation of vital habitats (e.g. mangroves and coral reefs), on the sustainability of marine fisheries (Cartwright, 1995).

2.1. Overexploitation of marine fisheries resources While it seems promising that Indonesia has a potential sustainable yield fiom marine fisheries of as much as 6.7 million tiyear which has only been harvested at a rate of 47%, and that marine fisheries production has been increasing over time, these aggregate statistics mask many fundamental problems facing fisheries management. If Indonesian marine fisheries development is considered on a regional and species basis, it is clear that there has been a severe problem in some coastal and marine areas with respect to maintaining the sustainability of marine fisheries. The level of exploitation of marine fisheries has varied fiom one area to another (Table 1). Some coastal and marine areas, such as the , the North Coast of Java, the Strait of Bali, have been overfished since the early 1980's (Naarnin and Hardjamulia, 1990; Dwiponggo, 1991). This is because the distribution of fishing activities is highly skewed, with most fishermen, mainly traditional ones, being concentrated in these coastal areas. Furthermore, due to strong international demand and high prices, Penaeid shrimpslprawns have been highly exploited (more than 60% of their MSY level) not only in these coastal and marine areas, but also in other areas including SouthWest and East Kalimantan, East Coast of Sumatra, South Sulawesi, West Nusa Tenggara, and the Arafira Sea. As the growth of the fisheries sub-sector has primarily (75%) been achieved by increasing the utilization rate of marine fisheries resources, it is estimated that the MSY level of marine fisheries resources in all Indonesian coastaI and marine waters will be reached by the end of the Second Long-term Development Period (2019) (Anonymous, 1992). Such a prediction takes no account of environmental degradation, in the form of water pollution and habitat degradation, which may reduce the productivity and sustainability of marine fisheries resources (Muchsin et al., 1993). Table 1. Summary of the status of exploitation of Indonesian marine fisheries resources based on landings data for the period 1975- 1979. Table 1 (continued) Table 1. (continued)

1979 Tptal Level of No. , Sub-ma Production Standead MS Optimum explolta- (X lo3t) effort : (x103t) effort tion 12. lrian Jaya Dernersal a Demersal gear 7,2 . 74 7-12 27-52 Full

b. Penaeid shrim~ 4.9 54 4.7 39- ~ Full. .... I pelagic I I a. Smdl pelagic 64 b. Tuna 0,6 c. Skipjack 4,1 Source: Dwipongo, A (1987) Note : The levels of exploitation are adapted from FA0 (1974). If marine fisheries resources are harvested without proper regulations as has been occurring in the country for quite some time, such an alarming prediction is not unimaginable. Marine fisheries resources will inevitably become over-exploited, resulting in the inefficient use of resources and, at worst, stock collapse or species extinction as for "ikan terubuk" or Chinese herrings (Clupea toli) in the Strait of Malacca and the east coast of Sumatra, and "ikan terbang" or Flying fishes (Cypselurus spp.) in the south coast of Sulawesi. The decrease in CPUE (catch per unit of effort) presented in Table 2 demonstrates that some fish stocks in several coastal and marine areas have been fully exploited or overfished, such as off the Coast of East Sumatra, the North Coast of Java, and much of Sulawesi. Based upon the author's field observations along the north coast of West Java in 1994 and 1995, the majority of fishermen in this coastal area, or even along the north coast of Java, have experienced a decline in CPUE and theirper caput income from fishing activities since the mid 1980's.

2.2. Degradation of coastal and marine habitats

The life and growth of fish stocks depends considerably on the quality of their coastal and marine environment. Coastal and marine habitats, especially mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and estuaries, are very important for the sustenance of most tropical marine species for nursery grounds, spawning grounds, and feeding grounds. According to Berwick (1983), 90% of global marine fish production originates fiom the continental shelf. These fishing grounds are frequently associated with shallow waters where highly productive coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and estuaries, play a key role in providing fisheries with support systems like breeding, nursery, and feeding igrounds, Macnae (1974) demonstrated that high prawn yields were derived' from marine waters bordering mangrove coastlines in eastern Africa and . Martosubrob and Naamin (1977) were able to correlate commercial prawn landings in Indonesian marine waters to the area of mangroves adjacent to the fishing grounds. Table 2. Marine Fishery Catch, 1982-1992.

Change in catch Change in catch per unit effort (%) ("w Catch (tomes) (tomes) (tomes) (tomes per fisher) (tomes per fisher) (tomes per fisher) 1 Kalimantan 201.209 West Kalimantan 5 1.022 65.049 27.540

South Kalimantan I East Kalimantan

I Central Sulawesi

Maluku and Irian

Irian Jaya 1 Indonesia Source : Direktorat Jenderal Perikanau, 1982 and 1994. Note : Catch per unit effort is estimated in terms of catch of per fisher. Table 2 (continued)

1992 Change in catch Change in catch per unit effort

(%) (%) Province Catch Catch per unit effort Catch Catch per unit effort Catch Catch per unit effort 1982-87 1987-92 1982-87 1987-92 (tomes) (tonncs pcr fisher) (tonncs pcr fisher) ('Om=) (tonnes per fisher) Sumatra Dl Aceh North Sumatra West Sumatra Riau Jambi 1 16.551 1 3,3 1 15.673 1 2,o South Sumatra 62.471 2,3 75.969 2,1 Ehgkulu 1 4.209 1 1,l I 5.361 1 1,5

Java DKI Jakarta West Java Central Java 111.237 1,7 165.904 1,8 Fast Java 1 157.4181 0,8 1 164.355 1 09

Nusa Tenggara 88.496 1,0 184.166 1.8 Bali 1 30.306 1 1.7 1 106.966 1 4,s West Nusa 1 35.284 1 1,l 1 39.815 1 1,O Tenggara I I East Nusa Tenggara 1 22.509 1 0,6 1 36.722 1 03 East Timor 397 I 663 nurce : Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1982 and 1994. Note : Catch per unit effort is estimated in tams of catch of per fisher. Thus, the degradation of these vital habitats has undoubtedly been also responsible for reducing yields of marine fisheries in Indonesia. Indeed evidence of CPUE does not necessarily provide the whole picture of the problem. Anecdotal examples from South Sulawesi suggest that declines in coastal fishery production, possibly resulting from the destruction of mangroves, coral reefs and associated habitats, have led to fishermen travelling farther distances to offshore fishing grounds (Dobbin Milus International, 1995). Despite their economic and ecological value, about 25% of Indonesia's estimated 4.25 million ha of mangrove forests are undergoing rapid destruction (Table 3). Most mangrove habitat loss along the east coast of Aceh Province, the north coast of Java and South Sulawesi has been attributed to conversion for other land uses, especially settlements, tambak (brackishwater fish/shrimp ponds), harbours, and industrial estates. Meanwhile, most mangrove loss in Riau, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya is caused by forest concession operations that clear large tracts to supply the pulp and paper industry. Some 270 000 ha have been cleared for fish/shrimp ponds, and a total of 671 000 ha, mostly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, have been converted for agriculture since 1964 (Dobbin Milus.Internationa1, 1995). The decline in CPUE along the north coast of Java from 1982 to 1992 (Table 2), which coincided with mangrove habitat loss in the same coastal area of about 45% (Table 3), might indicate that mangrove forests play an important role in sustaining marine fisheries production, as already suggested by many researchers and authors (e.g. Macnae, 1974; Martosubroto and Naamin, 1977; Turner, 1977). Coral reef degradation, which is defined by the percentage cover of live corals found within a certain coral reef area, indicates that most Indonesian coral reefs are considered to be in poor condition. Only about 7% are considered to be in excellent condition (Table 4). Major pressures on wral reefs include reef mining for construction materials, fishing with explosives and poisons, and pollution from land- and marine-based activities. Destruction of wral reefs seems to have direct negative impacts on marine fisheries production, especially on species who rely on coral reef habitats for either part or all of their life cycle. This may be proven by the fact that coral fish stocks in all Indonesian coastal waters have already been overfished (Table 5). To date, there are no quantitative data on the degradation of seagrass beds, seaweeds, and estuaries. Knox and Miyabara (1982), Pulonin (1983), Burbridge and Maragos (1985), and Ongkosongo et a1 (1991) provide qualitative assessments of the level of degradation of these coastal ecosystems. Water quality in estuaries near urban areas, such as and Banten Bay, have been heavily affected by domestic and industrial pollution. In addition, many estuaries have been reclaimed for real estate development and other land uses, such as Pantai Indah Kapuk adjacent to Sukarno-Hatta International Airport. Table 3. Location and size of mangrove areas in Indonesia.

Province Area (ha) 1982 1993 DI Aceh 54 335 102 969 North Sumatra 60 000 98 344 West Sumatra 4 844 Riau 276 000 221 045 Jambi 65 000 13 453 Sumatra Selatan 195 000 363 424 I I Bennkulu 2 612

- - I I DKI Jakarta 95 I West Java 28 513.16 594 061 Center Java 13 376.87 12 188 DI Jogjakarta 1 1875 East Java 7 750 10 156 Bali 2 950 0 West Nusa Tenggara 3 678 0 East Nusa Tenggara 1 830 10755 . Timor Timur 4 598 West Kalimantan 40 000 194 288 Center Kalimantan 10 000 48 733 South Kalimantan 66 650 120 782 East Kalimantan 266 800 775 640 North Sulawesi 4 833 38 135 Center Sulawesi 37 640 Southeast Sulawesi 29 000 70 841 South Sulawesi 66 000 104 021 100 000 148 696 Irian Jaya 2 943 000 1 326 990 Total 14251811.03 1 3771493 I I I I I Source: Ditjen Intag, Departemen Kehutanan (1993) Table 4. Location and condition of coral reefs in Indonesia.

No Location Total Excellent Good Moderate Poor (%) of Station Western Indonesia 1. 16 0 1 6 9 56.25

2. Seribu Islands 40 0 4 8 28 70.00- .. 3. Belitung Archipelago 7 0 2 3 2 28.57 4. Natuna Archipelago 11 2 5 3 1 9.09 5. Nusakambangan 3 0 0 1 2 66.67 Archipelago- - 6. Karimun Jasva Archipelago 16 2 4 6 4 25.00 7. Bali Island 14 0 0 2 12 85.71 8. Kangean Archipelago 7 0 4 3 0 0.00 Middle Indonesia 9. West Lombok 12 2 2 4 4 33.33 10. Surnbawa 3 0 3 0 0 0.00 11. Komodo Archipelago 6 2 2 1 1 16.67 12. Selayar Archipelago- - 5 0 2 3 0 0.00 13. Taka Bone Rate 5 1 0 4 0 0.00 14. Tukang- Besi Archipelago- - 5 0 0 3 2 40.00 15. Bangai Archipelago 14 1 6 5 2 14.29 16. Tiga Island 6 1 3 2 0 0.00

17. Sangkarang Island 32 , ' 0 0 20 12 37.50 East Indonesia 18. Tabelo Island 14 0 4 2. 8 57.14 19. Merotai Archipelago 14 0 0 1 13 92.86 20. 1 Ambon Bay 1 10 11 I 51 12 I 20.00 21. 1 West Seram 4 10 131 1 10 1 0.00 22. Banda Archipelago 7 1 5 1 0 0.00 23. Kai Island 17 2 5 7 5 29.41 24. Padaido Archipelago 13 0 3 6 4 30.77 Total 281 15 61 94 111 1 5,3 I 2I,7 1 33,5 1 393 1 Source: Suharsono and Soekarno (1992) Note : Excellent = percent cover of live corals (76 - 100) Good = percent cover of live corals (5 1 - 75) Moderate = percent cover of live corals (26 - 50) Poor = percent cover of live corals (0 - 25) 2.3 Pollution

A variety of wastes eventually enter marine ecosystems, originating from both land-based and marine-based activities. Waste accumulation in marine waters, especially in coastal areas with high population density or industrial activities like the north coast of Java and the Malacca Strait, leads to heavy pollution in these coastal waters which, in turn, could threaten the sustainability of their marine fisheries resources and human health. Cases like massive fish kills in Jakarta Bay in 1986 and in Bontang Bay of East Kalimantan in 1989, and Minamata like diseases found in the North Jakarta (Tempo, 1986, Dahlwi, 1991), are examples of such threats. Table 5. The exploitation rate (ER)of coral fish in Indonesian marine waters.

15. EEZ of North Sulawesi 16. KKL of North Irian Jaya 17. NorthlWest Sulawesi Source : Muchsin et a1 (1995) Note : ER = Exploitation rate Constantly increasing coastal water pollution in highly populated and industrialized areas is believed to be one of many factors that have caused the decline in marine fisheries production and recent harvest failures fiom shrimp ponds, especially in Aceh Province, the north coast of Java, and South Sulawesi. It has been argued that poor quality coastal and river water, the main sources of water input for shrimp aquaculture, has resulted in cultured shrimp susceptibility to pathogenic diseases (Monodon baculo virus) and to stunted growth (Muchsin et al, 1993).

Sources of marine-based pollution include oil spills fiom operations, collisions of oil tankers (ships), rig blowout, and offshore mineral mining. In the Malacca Strait, there were 25 reported shipping accidents fiom 1975 to 1987 (Soeharto, 1988). Records indicate that spills have taken place in many coastal areas with varying degrees of severity (Table 6). Sources of land-based pollution are more varied and largely enter,the sea through rivers. They include industrial pollutants from wastewater discharges; pesticide and fertilizer residues fiom agriculture and aquaculture; nutrients and organic wastes from urban and domestic wastes, and agricultural run off; sediment hmerosion due to deforestation and other types of poor upland management; and thermal pollution (heat) from industrial cooling plants and power generation.

Pollution levels vary from one coastal/marine area to another, and are directly correlated to population density and the degree of industrialization in a certain coastal area and adjacent upland areas. For example, the most heavily polluted coastaWmarine waters are in Jakarta Bay, where the inshore demersal fishing industry has been all but destroyed. These waters are followed by those in the north coast of Java, the Malacca Strait, and East Kalimantan. Estimated pollution loading generally corresponds to sources of industrial, domestic, and agricultural wastes in each province of Indonesia (Table 7,8, and 9). Table 7 shows that the provinces of Java generate the highest industrial pollution loads, followed by North Sumatra, South Sumatra, East Kalimantan, Riau, and Lampung. According to World Bank (1995), by 2020, much of Sumatra and Kalimantan appear to be subjected to high industrial pollution loads. High loads could also occur in parts of North and South Sulawesi, Maluku, and Irian Jaya. In terms of domestic and agricultural pollution, the provinces of Java also rank as the highest polluters to the marine environment. Although there is no comprehensive data on marine pollution in Indonesia, some data can indicate the level of pollution in several coastaVmarine waters. In some locations of the Malacca Strait, such as Lhokseumawe of Aceh, and Asahan and Deli Serdang of North Sumatra, the concentration of BOD, COD, and heavy metals exceed the national environmental standards for bathing and swimming as well as for marine organisms and mariculture (Table 10). Based upon the allowable maximum concentration of PCB within the shellfish meat, which is less than 0.03 ppb for the US State of Maryland , the inner reaches of Jakarta Bay are significantly polluted. This is because PCB concentrations in clams from this area reached 279 ppb and in mussels 264 ppb. The concentration of PCB in green mussels from the bay reached 1 320 ppb (Dobbin Milus Intl., 1995). Coliform bacteria and faecal streptococcus levels were extremely high at 122 000 and 15 000 per 100 ml respectively (Thayib and Razak, 1988), while the European Union mandatory limit for bathing water is 10 000 per ml for coliform bacteria and 100 per 100 ml for streptococcus (Dobbin Milus Intl., 1995). If the marine water standards of the US-EPA were applied, heavy metal pollution of the Jakarta Bay fiom lead and cadmium would be considered especially high. Mercury, copper, and zinc concentrations would be close to the US-EPA permissible limits (0.1 ppm Hg; 0.05 ppm Cd; and 0.1 ppm Zn) (Sutamihardja, 1985). In the eastern part of the country, industrialization is limited so pollution levels in coastal/marine waters are generally low. In other words, most coastallmarine waters in areas with less population and industrialization are relatively unpolluted. Pollution potential in these areas originates from mining, wood industries, and domestic wastes. Table 6. Recorded incidents of marine pollution. Date Type of Pollution Sep-72 Oil, tarball

Jan-75 Crude oil spill (super water, Buffalo Rook Couturier (1976) tanker SHOWA MARU shellfish (Singapore Straits) of Japan) 3,600 tons oil Oct-80 Heavy metals (Pb, Cd) water, Angke Estuary Hutagalung & shellfish Razak (1982) 1982 Heavy metals (Pb, Cr, shrimp, Kepulauan Seribu Surtipanti (1 98 1 Cd) finfish (Untung Jawa, Lancang, 1987) Pari, Tidung, Karang, Beras Pramuka, Kelapa, Putri Island); Jakarta Bay (Muara Karang, - Angke, Pasar Ikan) Heavy metals (Hg) water, Cisadane River Surtipanti & - sediment Suwima Heavy metals (Zn) sediment Angke Surtipanti & Suwima 1987 Crude oil spill (tanker water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1988) Stolt Avance of Liberia), 15 tons oil Crude oil spill (tanker water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1 988) El Hani of ~iberia), 3000 tons 1989 Oil residue (terball) sand Trikora Beach (Bintan Suara Karya Island, Sumatra) Daily (28/12/1989) Pesticides from cocoa mussel Nunukan Island Reutergardth plantation in Sarawak (causing death of some (pers. comm.) inhabitants May-89 Poisonous waste from buried in sand Tanjung Uban, Riau Suara Pembaruan Singapore Daily (18/12/1988) Oct-92 Crude oil spill (tanker water Perak Island, Malacca Kompas Daily Nagasaki Spirit), 10.001 Straits (5/10/1992) tons

Severe pollution conditions along the north coast of Java and the Malacca Strait appear to be correlated with the depletion of fish stocks, especially demersal fish and shrimpslprawns, as described above. Coastal and marine waters which still have high potential of marine fisheries production, such as in the eastern part of the country, Economic Exclusive Zone of Indonesia, and the , are relatively pristine and have good quality coastal habitats. Thus, it may be inferred that if the depletion of marine fish stocks is a function, then important variables which influence the function are fishing effort, condition of coastal habitats, and pollution levels. L'nfortunately, the lack of time- series data on these variables in relation to fish stock depletion means the quantitative relationship between the fish stocks and those environmental threats cannot be established. Table 7. Estimated coastal industry waste. Production of Medium and Large Relative Industrial Pollution Province Manufacturing ~ndustries' Total $US thousands 1987 RIPF High Loadings 32 West Java 3 488 368 1 781 456 35 East Java 2 481 374 1 169 109 31 Jakarta 2 484 679 821 864 33 Central Java 1614353 1 674 710 12 North Sumatra 971 834 1 433 512 16 South Sumatra 320 399 1 166 469 64 East Kalimantan 394 943 157 529 14 Riau 324 068 156 723 18 Lampung 243 049 131 497 Medium Loadings 61 West Kalimantan 200944 1 77 660 63 South Kalimantan 222 334 75 759 11 Aceh 123 646 1 73 926 13 West Sumatra . 123 396 48 662 73 South Sulawesi 97 775 48 472 15 Jambi 121 623 43 999 34 Yogyakarta 64 335 37 508 81 Maluku 118 525 37 433 71 North Sulawesi 45 476 1 25 625 Low Loadings 62 Central Kalirnantan 75 573 1 23 388 51 Bali 48 075 1 18 814 82 Irian Jaya 25 933 13 618 72 Central Sulawesi 18 250 6 436 52 West Nusa Tenggara 7 323 3 018 74 Sulawesi Tenggara 5 208 2 506 17 Bengkulu 5 112 2 468 53 East Nusa Tenggara 3942 1 1 375 54 East Timor 1485 1 717 Total 13 632019' 1 6 034 251 Notes: ' Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection database (1994). Estimated by CEMP Project Team. For a defintion of the Relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see the text. Table 8. Estimated coastal domestic waste. Estimated Nitrogen Province Population ' Loading persons thousand tomes High Loadings 32 West Java 35 381 628 116 760 35 East Java 32 487 744 107 210 33 Central Java 28 515 737 94 102 12 North Sumatra 10 525 311 33 833 31 Jakarta 8 227 746 27 152 73 South Sulawesi 6 980 589 23 036 16 South Sumatra 6 311 958 20 829 18 Lampung 6 015 803 19 852 13 West Sumatra 3 999 764 13 199 Medium Loadings 11 Aceh 3 415 674 11 272 52 West Nusa Tenggara 3 368 899 11 117 14 Riau 3 278 807 10 820 53 East Nusa Tenggara 3 267 919 10 784 61 West Kalirnantan 3 228 073 10 653 34 Yogyakarta 2 912 611 9 612 51 Bali 2 777 256 9 165 - 63 South Kalimantan 2 596647 1 8 569 7 1 North Sulawesi 2477189 1 8 175 1- Low Loadings- I 1 15 Jambi 2018463 1 6661 1 14 East Kalimantan I 1 875 032 1 6 188 1

72 Central Sulawesi 1 703 330 5 621 82 Irian Jaya 1 630 107 5 379 62 Central Kalimantan 1 396013 4 607 74 Sulawesi Tenggara 1 349 298 4 453 17 Bengkulu 1 178 951 3 891 54 East Timor 747 557 2 467 Total 179 247,783 591 518 Notes: ' BPS, 1994. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kglyear was applied to the population total. Table 9. Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste

Average Area of fertilizer Total fertilizer Nitrogen Province paddy ' I applied I applied I content ( thousand 1 ( thousand 1 thousand hectares I kglha I tonnes tonnes High- hadings- 32 West Java 2 133 1 404 1 861.7 373.4 1 35 East Java 1 589 404 642.0 278.2 33 Central Java 1 550 404 626.2 271.3 73 South Sulawesi 736 195 143.5 62.2 12 North Sumatra 682 205 139.8 60.6 16 South Sumatra 454 205 93.1 40.3 13 West Sumatra 363 205 74.4 32.2 18 Lampung 363 205 74.4 32.2 52 West Nusa Tenggara 262 26 1 69.4 30.1 Medium Loadings 11 Aceh 299 205 61.3 26.6 34 Yogyakarta 138 404 55.8 24.2 51 Bali 168 261 43.8 19.0 15 Jambi 183 205 37.5 16.3 53 East Nusa Tenggara 133 261 34.7 15.0 63 South Kalimantan 355 96 34.1 14.8 14 Riau 147 205 30.1 13.1 6 1 West Kalimantan 288 96 27.6 12.0 72 Central Sulawesi 133 195 25.9 11.2 Low Loadings 17 Bengkulu 85 1 205 1 17.4 1 7.6 7 1 North Sulawesi I 88 1 195 1 17.2 1 7.4 1 62 Central Kalimantan I 148 1 96 1 14.2 ) 6.2 1 64 East Kalimantan 108 96 10.4 4.5 74 Sulawesi Tenggara 52 195 10.1 4.4 54 East Timor 18 26 1 4.7 2.0 31 Jakarta 8 404 3.2 1.4 81 Maluku 8 195 1.6 0.7 82 Irian Jaya 1 195 1.4 0.6 Total 10,502 303 3,lg.l 1,378.8 Notes: ' BPS, 1994. * Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer is assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen. Table 10. Values and National Environmental Standards for some water quality parameters in the Straits of Malacca

Parameters Lowest Highest Environmental Standard * (mg/l) (mgil)

1. BOD 3.3 56.6 <25 545 2. COD 10.8 766.1 540 180

6. Cu 1 0.071 1 0.107 1 <0.001 1 10.06 Sources: Rozak et al. (1984). * = Based upon standard for fisheries uses of marine waters (Environmental Ministerial Decree No. 02iMENKLH11988). ud = undetected.

3. EXISTING MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES DEALING WITH ISSUES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND MARINE FISHERIES RESOURCE DEPLETION Although Indonesia is well known as a maritime nation, national economic development during the First Long-term Development Plan was largely based on terrestrial resources. Most planners and decision makers in both government and the private sector view marine ecosystems and their embodied resources as a secondary choice, or as waste dumping sites. Only recently has govemment recognized the strategic value of coastal and marine resources for sustained economic development. Thus, since the enactment of GBHN (the State Policy Guidelines) 1993, in which marine-related aspects became a defined sector, the government has been paying more attention to coastal and marine resources. This is reflected in discussions about establishing a single institution at ministerial or departmental level for managing coastal and marine resources development. Three options on the type of such an institution were put forward at the National Marine Seminar 1993, organized by the State Ministry of the Environment: (1) a Coordinating Ministry, (2) a Department or Ministry, or (3) an Agency like existing BAPEDAL. However, no decision regarding such a reorganization has yet been made, nor is a decision expected in the near future. 3.1. Key institutions involved in coastal and marine resources management a. Government agencies There is no single agency or coordinating agency at national, provincial, or district level responsible for managing coastal and marine environment and resources. National authority remains sectoral according to the coordinating and line agency mandates listed in Table 11. Agencies at all levels of government are involved directly or indirectly in marine and coastal development. Since all 27 provinces are coastal, they are all concerned with marine and coastal development. However, national policy and coordination support for developing the regions, including coastal management, comes from the Directorate General of Regional Development (BANGDA) Ministry of Home Affairs. The LH (Ministry for the Environment), established in 1978, is the national coordinating agency for environmental planning and policy development, and the minister oversees the environmental impact management agency (BAPEDAL). Marine and coastal planning coordination comes under the LH Natural Resource Management Group. BAPPENAS controls the flow of development funds for the REPELITA, which it drafts and administers within the 25-year long-term development cycle formulated by Indonesia's parliament and declared in the Guidelines for State Policy (Garis-garis Besar Haluan Negara, GBHN). BAPPENAS will fund and oversee the new "Marine Sector" and it funds Program Laut Lestari , executed by LH. National policy and coordination support for developing the regions comes from the Directorate General of Regional Development (Direktorat Jenderal Pembangunan Daerah, BANGDA) including coastal management. The Research and Development Centre for Oceanology of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences' (Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, LIPI) provides basic research and scientific consulting services to other government departments. There has been a significant recent expansion in the network of LIPI marine laboratories around the nation. LIPI also established the Indonesian Marine Data Centre in 1991, from which it issues its Marine Information Journal to disseminate Indonesian marine data. The national mapping (Badan Koordinasi Suwei dun Pemetaan Nasional, BAKOSURTANAL) and technology application (Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi, BPPT) agencies have their own marine resource data and inventory projects. BPPT is the secretariat for the Committee for inventory and Evaluation of Natural Resource Endowment (Panitia Inventarisasi dun Evaluasi Kekayaan Sumber Daya Alum). Panitia Koordinasi Penyelesaian Masalah Wilayah Nasional dun Dasar Laut (PANKORWILNAS) is chaired by Defence and Security Department and Coordinates international sea law issues, but has no environmental mandate. It was established by Presidential Decree in 1971. A Less senior agency, Badan Koordinasi Keamanan Laut (BAKORKAMLA), is chaired by the navy and was established in 1972 by Joint Ministerial Decree (Defence and Security, Justice, Communications). This board coordinates marine security issues, including transboundary pollution and transgressions by errant foreign fishing vessels. The line agencies in Table 11 exercise their mandates as listed. National agencies represent legislation relating to their sector; the provinces apply the laws locally. Overlap occurs: for example, forestry manages mangrove forest harvest and overall marine conservation, while agriculture' manages mangrove - associated fisheries. Most National agencies assist the provincial governor with their appointees (Kanwil) who work with the Governor's staff (Dinas) within that sector. The framework and representation that exists for national interests in provincial management of forestry, agriculture, and mining, for example, is not in place for coastal and marine management.

The complexities and overlapping interests evident in Table 11 demonstrate why Indonesian marine and, coastal management has been faulted for being highly sectoral (Koesoebiono et al., 1982; Burbridge et al., 1988). The nation's first major marine and coastal area sustainable development action plan by BAPPENASICIDA (1988) referred to inter-agency coordination as a "critical first step." The thrust of current LH coastal coordination efforts is based on the BAPPENASICIDA (1988) action plan. b. Non-government organizations (NGOs)

Non-profit, voluntary and non-government organizations in Indonesia are called Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (LSM). They are a growing component of the environmental sector, and contribute to public debate on environmental management concerns such as the imperfect implementation and enforcement of legislation. Many LSMs are actively involved in community development, problem-solving, monitoring the effects of local industry and development projects, sensitizing public officials and business groups to environmental issues, and promoting campaigns to enhance public awareness and support for environmental protection and participatory involvement. However, the capabilities and experience of Indonesia's LSMs vary. Many LSMs have limited access to information, and sometimes lack well trained and well educated staff. Still, LSMs could be the key to successful implementation of coastal community support programs, particularly if they can work together with existing government institutions which already have been established at village level, such as the PKK and LKMD. There are also a number of emerging regional and locally based LSMs, such as Hualopu in Ambon, which are starting coastal community development initiatives. c. Private Sector Generally most private companies only deal with the utilization of marine fisheries resources. Inter alia, they include PT. Jayanti Group, PT. Bimantara, PT. Karya Mina, PT. Perikanan Samudera Besar, PT. Usaha Mina, PT. Bonecom, PT. Irian Marine Products, PT. Maprodin, PT. Poleko Group. However, in the last five years, some private companies have also become involved in coastal and marine resource conservation, such as the Wallacea Foundation.

3.2. Management Programmes

The GO1 (Government of Indonesia) acknowledges the need to change its sectoral approach for planning and management of coastal and marine resources. Table 11. National Indonesian Coordinating and Line Agencies and Their Roles Relating to the Coastal Environment. A. I Coordinating Agency I Role I. 1 Ministry of State for Environment I National coordination of marine and coastal (LH)/ ~nvironmentalImpact management and policy development; I I Management Agency (BAPEDAL). BAPEDAL manages the AMDAZ, I (Environmental impact Assessment) process. 2. National Development Planning Drafts, coordinates, and implements national Board (BAPPENAS). 5-year development plans (R.EPELITA) . 3. Department of Home Regional development policy, planning, and AffairsDirectorate General of Regional coordination from the national perspective Development (BANGDA). 4. Ministry of State for Science and Natural resource inventory, evaluation, and Technology~TechnologyAssessment technology coordination and Application Board (BPPT) 5. National coordinating Agency for Land (including coastline) mapping; receives survey and Mapping data from other agencies such as DIHIDROS (BAKOSURTANAL). 6. Indonesian Institute of Science (LIP1)l Marine research, data coordination, and Research and Development Centre for scientific advice to other agencies Oceanology. . 7. Coordinating Committee for National National marine boundaries, jurisdiction, and Sea Bed Jurisdiction Law of the Sea issues (PANKORWILNAS) 8. Coordinating Board for Marine Secuiity issues, such as piracy, foreign fishing I Security (BAKORKAMLA) I intrusion, pollution, and smuggling 9. 1 Institute for Village Community I Social institutes at the village level that unify Resilience (LKMD). and coordinate all activities in the communities such as religion, security, I I education, environment, economic affairs, I family planning, health and youth.

--7 -E-T-- Line Agency Role 1. I Department of Agriculture1 I Management, development, and 1 Directorate General of Fisheries I administration of fisheries and aquaculture. 2. 1 Department of forestrylDirectorate I Marine conservation; mangrove harvest ( I General of Forest Protection and ~ature(management; marine protected area planning I Conservation (PHPA) and management. 3. Department of Responsible for ports, shipping, navigational Communications/Directorate General aids, and safety; lead agency for marine of Sea Communications. emergency preparedness and response (e.g.,

- -- I I oil mills).-r----,. 1 4. 1 Department of Mining and Energy/ 1 Regulates oil and gas exploration and ~iiectorateGeneral fir Oil and Gas. production on the sea bed and oil industry environmental safety. 5. Department of Education and Culture/ Marine science education and research. Universities. Table 11. (continued)

€3.-. 1 Line A~encv I Role~ ~ I - ~-~-, I 6. [ Department of Security and I Security in territorial waters, hydrographic. - ~efence~aval~~droba~hic and data, aid nautical chart production.

I Oceanomavhic"1 Service (DIHIDROS). I 7. Department of Industry. Administers industrial development and waste management. I I - 8. Department of Public Works. Coastal engineering, infrastructure, and erosion control. I I 1 9. I Department of Tourism, Post and I Marine tourism development and 1 I Telecommunications. management. 10. 1 The Ministry of Cooperatives. I Development of cooperatives in Indonesia, in this case, fisheries cooperatives in coastal areas. Source: Sloan and Sugandhy, 1994. National LSMs with some experience at the rural coastal community level include (Crawford et al., 1995): * Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia (WALHI). * Institute for Social and Economic Research, Education and information (LP3ES). * Yayasan Pengembangan Masyarakat Desa (YPMD). * Yayasan Swadaya Membangun (YSM). * Bina Swadaya. * Yayasan Indonesia Hijau.(YHI) * Yayasan Gugus Analisis. * Yayasan Laut Lestari The challenge facing the government is to create a mechanism that can link and integrate coastal planning among sector ministries and between central and provincial governments. Although no simple solution is in sight, several new coastal and marine resource management strategies and activities related to the maintenance of marine fisheries production have been started. The Program Laut Lestari (Program of Sustainable Marine Resources Development) consists of several activities or programmes: (1) marine biodiversity management; (2) mangrove forest ecosystem management; (3) coral reef ecosystem conservation and management; (4) marine pollution prevention and control; and (5) coastal community development. a. Marine biodiversity management

A national marine biodiversity strategy was launched through LH (The State Ministry of Environment) coordination in 1993 and consensus was reached on pursuing the biodiversity themes of conservation, systematic inventory research, and sustainable use awareness. Marine conservation focuses on marine protected areas (MPAs). Currently, there are 24 MPAs (6 are National Parks), covering more than 2.5 million ha (Table 2.1). Guidelines are being developed for integrating MPAs into coastal management by PHPA (Directorate General of Forest protection and Nature Conservation). The goal of setting aside 30 million ha by 2000 is off schedule. Only three MPAs have management plans, another three are in preparation, and none have been implemented because they have not been approved by the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA). b. Mangrove ecosystem management

Mangrove ecosystems have been reduced substantially since 1982. Nevertheless, Indonesia has more mangroves than any other country in the world. The Ministry of Forestry exercises jurisdiction cver mangroves through administration of a permit system for exploitation and conversion, and through the establishment of protected areas and rehabilitation schemes. With help from UNESCO, Indonesia established a national mangrove research committee in 1985. In 1990, the Directorate General of Forest Utilization sought to extend additional protection through the development of a Green Belt Buffer Zones along the shoreline. These and other conservation measures have been only partly implemented. Since 1991, Indonesia has became a member of RAMSAR Convention and is a member of the Asian Wetland Bureau. c. Coral reef management Concern over damage to coral reefs, particularly in the more populated and developed western region, gave rise to a national coral conservation and management strategy coordinated by LH and launched in 1992. Coral management is closely related to marine protected area management. Of the 60 000 krn2 of coral reef in Indonesia, 14% are in critical condition, 46% are damaged, 33% are in good condition and only 7% are still in pristine condition. A World Bank funded programme to rehabilitate coral reefs in Indonesia will begin in 1996 (see COREMAP). The GO1 intends to increase the marine protected area from 2.8 million ha to 30 million ha by the year 2000. d. Marine pollution prevention and control Marine pollution is greatest in shallow, nearshore waters close to urban areas, particularly in the highly populated west around Java, Bali, and Sumatra. Most Indonesian marine pollution comes from land-based sources (Soegiarto, 1986), as it does for much of Southeast Asia (Yap, 1992). In a joint LH and UNESCO project, Soriaatmadja and Harger (1993) proposed three areas of action in their national marine pollution control strategy : (1) pollutant criteria for point of discharge and receiving waters, (2) enforcement, and (3) development of monitoring programs. The first two are under the control of LH (BAPEDAL) and the third is being developed by LIPI and UNESCO. The LIPI Research and Development Center for Oceanology in Jakarta will be the national marine pollution monitoring reference laboratory and six provincial laboratories will be upgraded to implement a marine pollution monitoring network of facilities in cooperation with BAPEDAL. In 1988, LH decreed guidelines for seawater quality standards, which have been redrafted and await more senior ratification as Government Regulations. Aspects include explicit physical and chemical cfiteria, and in some cases, swimmingldiving, tourism/recreation, seawater mariculture (e.g., pearl oyster), and Tambak. These criteria are not linked to ecosystem type, which limits their utility. For example, low nutrient system such as coral ,reefs are much more sensitive to eutrophication and sewage pollution than mangrove forest. Indonesia has an extensive offshore petroleum industry and major international oil tanker routes bordered by vulnerable mangrove and coral ecosystems, such as in the Strait of Malacca (Sloan, 1993a). The nation is committed to a range of International Maritime Organization (IMO) and United Nation marine pollution agreements. For example, Indonesia's signing of the 1990 (IMO) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness. and Response stimulated the pending Presidential Decree on spill emergencies, under which BAPEDAL is the agency responsible for impact assessment, habitat rehabilitation, and for determining the environmental basis for compensation claims following oil spills. e. Coastal community development Approximately 7 120 of 66 400 villages in Indonesia are classified as coastal villages. Traditional cultures, limited supporting institutions and schools, and weak social, economic, and cultural support infrastructures are present in most coastal villages. A diversity of income sources enables community members to engage in alternate income earning pursuits during slack periods. Many of the coastal communities are isolated from other centres of development. The physical infrastructure of most communities (water supply, sewage treatment, solid waste management) is inadequate. However, almost all villages have an institution created to stimulate 'gotong-royong' (self-help initiatives) in the village community and to improve and support government programmes and institutional effectiveness in the village (for example, Village Council [LMD], Assembly for Village Community Resilience [LKMD], Family Welfare Promotion Movement [PKK] and Village Development Cadres [KPD]). The national strategy on coastal community development promoted by LH in 1992, contained three action programmes. A. Infrastructure development according to a bottom-up perception of basic needs linked to local conditions. B. Improvements in incomes, education, and community cooperation. C. Optimal sustainable use of coastal resources while maintaining the environment. There is national consensus that developing coastal communities will involve their integration in sustainable coastal resources use and environmental management. Inshore fisheries will continue to dominate livelihood in villages, but future economic growth will require employment diversification (such as tourism) that depends on healthy coastal environments. Community education leading to direct participation in environmental management will be essential to the long-term future of these communities. .

3.3. Laws and regulations

The management of marine fisheries resource utilization has its legal source in the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, particularly Article 33 para (3). Based upon this Article, the government has the right if not the duty to plan, organize, actuate and control the utilization of marine fisheries resources and their environment (Kusumaatmaja and Purwaka, 1993). According to GBHN 1993 and FUPELITA VI of the Agriculture Sector, the objectives of marine fisheries resource utilization are inter alia to utilize these resources on an optimal and sustainable basis for the upmost benefits of the Indonesian nation. Legal acts and regulations enacted to maintain the sustainability of marine fisheries production can be grouped into two categories: the first gro* aims at regulating and controlling the exploitation level and techniques of marine fisheries resources; the second group aims at protecting the marine environment fiom environmental threats (pollution and physical degradation of coastal habitats) so that fish and other marine biota can live and grow on an optimum and sustainable basis. Table 12 summarizes important legal acts and regulations that address environmental threats to marine fisheries. Given the number and types of laws and regulations enacted to manage the utilization of marine fisheries resources and to protect their habitat fiom environmental threats, there is still a major weakness which means that management of marine fisheries in Indonesia has not been so effective, namely a lack of laws and regulation directly targeted to prevent over-exploitation by controlling effort including: catch quota; restrictions on gear; closed seasons; closed areas; limits on the size or conditions of fish that can be landed; and control on the amount of fishing. Scarce success in addressing environmental threats to marine fisheries has been a result of a lack of regulatory implementation and law enforcement. Major factors that create environmental threats and constraints to sustainable marine fisheries development in Indonesia include: (1) Short-term benefit orientation and lack of awareness of the importance of marine fisheries for Indonesia's economic development. Most planners and decision makers in the country considers marine fisheries less valuable than other economic sectors, especially industry, mining and energy, and transportation; (2) Lack of data and information on which rational planning and decision-making processes concerning marine fisheries development are based; (3) Lack of policy implementation, poor law enforcement, and lack of coordination among agencies involved in or related to marine fisheries development; (4) Shortages of human resources with the skills needed to conduct marine and coastal resources inventories and environmental assessments, formulate improved management approaches, enforce regulations, and monitor development. There is also a lack of technical and managerial skills on the part of local community organizations and private business.

4. OPTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT APPROACHES The objective of marine fisheries management is to control fishing activities and to protect the marine environment from environmental threats so as to ensure sustainable production (harvest) of marine fisheries resources which generates net benefit for the fishermen in particular, and Indonesian nation as a whole. Based upon this objective and environmental issues as described above, management approaches which are able to address environmental threats to marine fisheries should be based on an integrated approach that includes: technical, socio-economic-cultural, and legal and institutional aspects. From a technical point of view, environmental threats to the sustainability of marine fisheries production may essentially be addressed by preventing and reducing over-exploitation of fish stocks in certain coastaVmarine areas by controlling fishing effort, and preventing and rehabilitating damaged coastaYmarine habitats due to pollution and physical degradation. 4.1 Optimizing utilization rate of marine fisheries resources The term fish stocks as a renewable resource has until very recently been mis- interpreted by most Indonesian planners and decision makers as a resource that can be harvested on an unlimited basis. This phenomenon is partly indicated in the management regime of Indonesian marine fisheries which does not have regulations on catch quotas and limited entry, such as limitation on the number of vessels by licensing and on the amount of fishing by each fishing boat. In reality, the development of any marine fishery would be sustainable only if the utilization rate of the marine fisheries resource does not exceed its sustainable capacity (MSY, Maximum Sustainable Yield). As utilization patterns for marine fish stocks are uneven among Indonesia's coastallmarine waters (Table 13), it is urgent to optimize (rationalize) or balance such a utilization rate according to the sustainable capacity of each coastaVmarine water. Muchsin et al. (1993) has made an estimation on the optimal number of fishermen which can be economically and ecologically supported by marine fisheries resources on a sustainable basis in each Indonesia's coastaymarine water (Table 13). It is obvious from Table 13 that the existing number of fishermen in several coastallmarine areas, such as the North Coast of Java and the Malacca Strait, has already surpassed its optimal number. In the meantime, other coastaVmarine areas, particularly in the eastern part of the country and EEZ, the existing number of fishermen is still far below its optimal number. The policy implications of such a finding is then to gradually reduce the number of fishermen (fishing effort) in those over-exploited coastaYmarine areas and, simultaneously, to increase the fishing effort in under-exploited coastaVmarine areas. Within the authority of fisheries sub-sector, such a policy may be implemented through a variety of means which include: (1) control of fishing effort in the form of restrictions on fishing gears, closed seasons, closed areas, catch quotas, limits on the sizes or conditions of fish that cm be landed, and control of the amount of fishing; (2) exploring and utilizing non-conventional species (commodities), such as deep sea fishes and shrimps; (3) developing mariculture industry including sea ranching; (4) developing marine biotechnology including the extraction of bioactive substances (marine natural products) from marine organisms, genetic engineering to support mariculture'industry; and (5) strengthening post harvest technology and marketing of marine fish products. Table 12. Significant laws and regulations that address environmental threats to marine fisheries. No. A. 1. 2. Agriculture No. Ol/KptsNn/1/1975 3. Ministrial Decree of Maintenance of marine fisheries resources in Irian Jaya Agriculture No. marine waters 02/KptsNnllll975 4. Ministrial Decree of Mesh size of purse seine for capturing Indo-Pacific, flying Agriculture No. fish, Yellow striped trevally, Oil sardine and other pelagic 123/KptsNm/3/1975 fish 5. Ministrial Decree of Fishing ground Agriculture No. 607/KptsNm/911976 6. Ministrial Decree of Fishing ground for bottom trawler. Agriculture No. 609/KptsNm/9/1976 7. Act No. 51 1983 Exclusive Economv Zone 8. Regulation No. 511985 I Aquatic resources management in Exclusive Economy Zone 9. Act No. 911985 1 Fisheries B. 1. 2. I Environment: links the principles- - of sustainable environmental ( management to improving human welfare 3. Presidential Decree No. I Ratification of international convention on civil liability for 1811978 oil pollution damage 4. Presidential Decree No. 1911978 Ratification of international convention on the establishment o international fund for compensation for oil pollution damage 5. Regulation No. 511990 Conservation of Living Natural Resources and The Ecosystems : balances the concept of sustainable resources us with ecosystem maintenance 6. Regulation No. 2011990 Concerning the control of Water Pollution : outlines provision concerning water quality and quantity of water, categorie: control, issuance of licenses, surveillance, monitoring, an other. Provincial governors are mandated significant authorit in all the above areas. Act No. 511990 I The conservation of natural resources and its ecosystems. Ministrial Decree of Environmenl Waste water standards for operating enterprises : Provide No. 0311991 I waste water discharge standards for 14 types of industries. Regulation No. 2411992 I Spatial use management : coordinates and integrates the sustainable management of sea, land, and air resources in a spatial context. Draft of Government Regulation, Marine environment pollution control: proposes ambieni 1992 standards for five beneficial uses of the marine environment. general marine biota, seawater, swimming and diving, tourislr and recreation, seawater mariculture, and brackish wate~ mariculture. Regulation No. 5 111993 Environmental impact assessment : revokes pp No. 29, 1986 of the same subject, through the provision of stricter regulatior of those businesses or activities which have a potential impac~ on the environment.

Other alternatives to reduce fishing efforts in over-exploited coastal/marine areas include: (1) " a serious and well prepared transmigration" of the fishermen families from over-exploited areas to under-exploited coastal areas; (2) providing alternative livelihoods for fishermen, especially for younger generations, in secondary sectors of the economy (e.g. fish processing plants, and manufacturing industries), and in tertiary sectors; and (3) integrated rural development to empower fisherman families. However, because these alternative approaches are out of the fisheries sub- sector's authority, their implementation calls for a concerted and well coordinated effort with other related agencies (departments) including transmigration, trade and industry, education and culture, health, public works, and manpower, as well as private sectors involvement. 4.2 Pollution control and water quality management Coastal and marine pollution not only adversely affects the sustainability of marine fisheries production, but can also pose health problems or even death for people who consume marine seafood and diminishes the recreational value of the area. Hence it is urgent for Indonesia to reduce the pollution level of already polluted coastal and marine waters, such as Jakarta Bay, the Malacca Strait, Surabaya, to levels which meet environmental standards. At the same time, coastal and marine waters which are still pristine should be protected from pollution. Pollution originated from land-based sources can be minimized and controlled by strictly implementing the existing regulations concerning industrial effluent standards (Regulation No.2011990); strengthening Clean River (PROKASIH, Program Kali Bersih), Proper, and Blue Sky (Langit Bim) programmes. For urban sewage, it is time for Indonesia to implement common tertiary treatment plants in big coastal cities like Jakarta, Surabaya, and Medan, which can reduce the pollution load to safe levels for the coastal and marine environment. In Singapore and Japan, pollution loading from urban sewage has been successfully reduced through the re-use of sewage effluents for irrigation of agricultural or recreational lands (e.g., golf courses) and for industrial processing water (Gomez et al., 1990). Although industrial liquid wastes are more difficult to treat than sewage as they often contain higher concentrations of oxygen depleting substances, heavy metals, and synthetic organic chemicals, treatment methods are available. The problems of pollution control for these wastes then comes down to economic and political factors as the treatment methods are generally expensive with particularly large capital costs needed to retrofit and build the required infrastructures (Brodie, 1995). Yet, some countries like Singapore and Japan have reduced marine pollution levels significantly through construction of sewage treatment plants, phasing out of garbage disposal into the marine environment, and industrial waste clean up. The result can be seen in the reduction of fecal coliform counts in coastal waters to less than one third of their 1980 value by 1985 (Gomez et al., 1990). Indonesian cities, especially Jakarta and Surabaya, could follow Singapore's example. With respect to diffuse (non-point soprce) wastes from agriculture, brackiswater shrimp ponds, and urban activities, pollution may best be controlled through an integrated watershed (catchment) management scheme where the entire catchment is treated as a management unit. A combination of a wide variety of pollution control techniques (e.g. contour cultivation, stubble retention on cropping lands, better fertilizer placement, riverine vegetation retention or replanting, retention or re-establishment of wetlands, or the construction of silt traps) can be applied alongside such a management scheme. Meanwhile, preventing: reducing, and controlling coastal and marine pollution from marine-based activities can be done by strictly implementing all international and regional conventions ratified by the Government of Indonesia including: the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (ratified in 1978); the International Convention on the establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (ratified in 1978); the Convention on the International regulation for Preventing Collisions at Sea (CORLEG), 1972 (ratified in 1979); the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Annexes I and 11), 1973 and MARPOL Protocol 1978 (ratified in 1986); Convention f6r Safe Containers (CSC); the London Dumping Convention; and Regional Oil Spill Response Plans for the East Asia Sea Area. To implement all these regulations, Indonesia has to improve its monitoring, controlling and surveillance capacity to protect its marine territory from marine-based pollution sources.

4.3 Prevention and rehabilitation of damaged coastal and marine ecosystems

Coastal and marine ecosystems, such as mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, estuaries, upwelling areas, and migratory route areas for marine organisms, play a prominent role in the productivity of coastal and marine waters, biogeochemical cycling, and geomorphological stability of the coastal zone. For fisheries, as described in Section 3, inter alia they act as nursery and feeding grounds for crustaceans, fish, molluscs, birds, and other marine biota; and repositories for pollutants, nutrients, and organic materials. It is, therefore, very important to protect these ecosystems from excessive damage if sustainable fisheries development is to be achieved.

To prevent uncontrolled conversion of coastal ecosystems, especially mangroves, beaches, and coral reefs, to other land and water uses, each regency in Indonesia should establish coastal and marine spatial planning which sets aside a part (at least 30%) of its territorial area for preservation and conservation (protected) areas, consisting of mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, or other critical habitats for marine fisheries. Nationally, the target to set aside 30 million hectares of marine protected areas by the year 2000 should be implemented. The existing 29 marine protected areas (6 of which are National Park), which cover more than 2.5 million ha, should be guarded. In addition, the existing laws and regulations related to coastal and marine conservation as mentioned in Section 3, should be implemented and enforced. Degraded coastal ecosystems should be rehabilitated through appropriate ecological restoration techniques, including mangrove replanting and artificial coral reef construction. 4.4 Integrated coastal zone management

Coastal and marine waters are invariably used for multiple human activities, including fisheries, aquaculture, mining, industry, transport, and tourism. Comparatively speaking, marine fisheries can be considered an "impact taker activity", i.e., a development activity that is significantly affected by negative influences from other coastal and marine activities as well as development activities in the upland areas. Thus, only an integrated coastal zone management approach could make sustainable marine fisheries development possible.

In this case, integrated coastal zone management should be able to minimize cross-sectoral impacts to levels that can be tolerated by coastal and marine ecosystems, so that fish and other marine organisms can live and grow on an optimal and sustained basis. This can be achieved through solid coordination and cooperation among sectors or stakeholders involved in coastal and marine resources development, both within the coastal zone and in the upland areas which influence the coastal zone. Such coordination and cooperation will be especially required during the planning, organizing, and controlling phases of a management cycle of project or programme development.

At regency and provincial levels, integrated coastal zone management is best coordinated by Bappeda (Regional Development Planning Board); at national level, coordination should be entrusted to a national agency that has the specific mandate to manage coastal and marine resources development. The government has considered such an agency in the form of a coordinating ministry, state ministry, a national agency such as Bapedal or Bakosurtanal, or a department in itself.

4.5 Community-based management

Considerable funding is required to implement the above management approaches; yet Indbnesia has limited financial resources to support coastal and marine environmental management. Furthermore, a total of 17 508 islands makes it impossible for the government alone to manage marine fisheries development since so many remote areas cannot be accessed by central government in Jakarta. It is therefore logical for Indonesia to apply community-based management approaches in dealing with marine fisheries development, particularly in remote areas and small islands or bays.

Because some coastal communities in Indonesia have traditionally managed marine fisheries utilization through community-based management approaches, such as "sasi" in Maluku, "panglima laut" in Aceh, and "marga" in South Sumatra, the task is how to strengthen these traditions in line with existing and future needs as well as local conditions. These community-based management approaches may also be applied with the necessary adjustments in other coastal and marine areas. REFERENCES Agoes, E.R. 1991. Indonesia and the LOS convention: Recent developments in ocean law, policy and management. Marine Policy. Anonymous. 1992. Rumusan Rapat kerja Nasional Departemen Pertanian Mengenai Pokok Pikira Pembangunan Pertanian, Jakarta. Askin, M. 1987. Protection of Indonesian living marine resources:

Legislation and resource management. In: Environmental law in Indonesia and Canada: Present approaches and future trends. Gadjah Madah University Press, Yogyakarta. Berwick, N.K. 1983. Guidelines for the analysis of biophysical impacts to Tropical Coastal Marine Resources. The Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Seminar Conservation in Developing Countries. Bombay, India. Burbridge, P.R., and J.E. Maragos. 1985. Coastal Resources Management Development and Environmental Assessment Needs for Aquatic Resources Development in Indonesia. Prepared for International Institute for Environment and Development, and USAID, Bureau of Science and Technology, Washington, D.C., USA, Contract No. P 1OIT. 11 A and 11B. Cartwright, I. 1995. Management of Living Marine Resources. In: Coastal Management in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues and Approaches. K. Hotta and I.M. Dutton (Eds.). Japan International Marine Science and Technology Federation, Tokyo. CIDAEiappenas. 1988. 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