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2 0 6 Freudian teaching. possibly becauseofBerne’s divergence from, of, andcriticism traditional Institute, there. andin1956appliedformembership This request was refused, In the1940shetrainedas apsychoanalystattheNew York Psychoanalytic at medical trainingin1935andlaterstudiedpsychiatry Yale University. Berne,Eric whowas thefounderoftransactionalanalysis, completedhis Eric Berne(1910–1970) of socialtransactions–adimensionnotemphasisedby theothertwo. psychodynamic andhumanisticapproaches, sinceitstresses the importance change. However, from greatly transactionalanalysis differs boththe ‘actualisingtendency’ isseenasapowerful force for improvement and view isimplicitintheperson-centredapproach, where theindividual’s helping clientstobecomemore autonomousand ‘script’-free. A similar intoconsciousness.material thismeans Intransactionalanalysisterms have much incommon, unconscious sincebothaimtohelpclientsbring and thepossibilityofchangethrough therapeuticintervention inlaterlife. psychodynamic theory, where theemphasisisalsoonchildhoodexperience ofbehaviour altered.patterns These ideasare similartothoseexpressed in events ofearlychildhoodcanbere change. This means, forexample, thatthrough awareness andinsightthe oftransactionalanalysis. conceptsthatare centraltothetheory important defi feels andexhibitsatany given time. ofthisunit, Inthecourse we shall infl According tothetheory, exerts considerable thisearlyexperience inspired approach that linksproblem behaviour toearlyexperience. of counsellingandtherapy. Transactional analysisisapsychoanalytically The subjectofthisunitistransactionalanalysisanditsuseinthecontext ◆

Transactional analysis specifi style or‘transactions’,whichiscarriedoutwiththeaidofdiagrams sothatthe KEY TERM The goals of psychodynamic counselling and transactional analysis The goalsofpsychodynamiccounsellingandtransactionalanalysis The approach alsohighlightseachperson’s aptitudeandcapacityfor inthe uence inthepresent andisdiscernible ‘ego states’ eachperson ne anddiscusstheseegostatesconsideranumber ofother

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM rst rst cial. Berne cial. Games People (1961), (1961), What Do You Say After Say You What Do (1966) and rst and foremost about the development of of rst about the development and foremost uenced by his father (also a doctor), who died when his father a doctor), by (also uenced Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy Analysis Transactional which was published in 1972, after his death. The principles of after his death. in 1972, published which was ed dedication to the poor and disadvantaged. Berne demonstrated and disadvantaged. ed dedication to the poor The Principles of Group Treatment The Principles of Group 7 0 2

(1964), (1964), b d Berne greatly infl was Apart from these criticisms, however, transactional analysis continues continues transactional analysis however, these criticisms, Apart from n i . t u books. These books. include Play Hello?, Say You and should be fi in these books, clearly very expressed transactional analysis are wishing to specialise in this approach. choice for anyone who exemplifi and use of the design concern through for the patients in his care his own and a psychotherapeuticmethod of communication As a transactional analysis. accessible ideas and concepts into more meant to translate complex it was tool, In and user-friendly ordinary could be understood language that people. by successful very Eric Berne several also wrote with patients, addition to his work Eric was 11 years old. This early bereavement had a lasting effect on Berne and, on Berne had a lasting effect and, bereavement This early old. Eric 11 years was in his care, the patients method of helping came to formulatewhen he his own to the memory his most importanthe dedicated of his father work (Berne, a degree to underline of it serves because this, mentioning It is worth 1961). a man which Berne with his father, shared (or clients), commitment to patients model. It is important to remember this fact, since it highlights the point since it highlights the point It is important this fact, to remember model. that transactional analysis is fi interpersonaleffective skills. in education, management, industry, health care and many of the caring and many health care industry, management, in education, The Analysis Internationalprofessions. Association Transactional (ITAA) while the formed body, was in 1964 as a training and accreditation performs a similar Analysis (EATA) Transactional Association for European in transactional of the people who become involved Many function. in it as a communications interested are analysis do so because they by different schools and theorists, and new and more complex ideas have been complex ideas have and more and new schools and theorists, different by the fundamental principlesWhile of transactional analysis remain added to it. is often obscured. which Bernemuch, so valued the accessibility, intact, to counselling and approach as a theoretical not only to gain popularity, skills model that is used extensively also as a communications but therapy, it could be grasped by anyone. He was especially interested in helping his in helping especially interested He was it could be graspedanyone. by patients to understand the basic principles the origins and of the approach of Berne In this respect, had come to experience. they the psychological problems not least because transactional analysis does appear certainly successful, was therapy. to help clients and patients to participate fully in their own more model has been extended considerably Berne’s however, Since its inception, Terminology can see that the terminology used in transactional analysis is quite we Already and This is both a strength other approach. that used in any from different and because although the language is memorable of the model, a weakness some critics by and superfi as simplistic it is also regarded accessible, concerned the esoteric so thatwas to demystify language of psychotherapy o y a L

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2 0 8 states are, ofcourse, commontoallofusand assignedtothem.and thatwhichBerne Ego order todistinguishbetween theirusualmeaning and ‘Child’ are always speltwithcapitalletters, in own ofbehaviour. individual patterns Intransactionalanalysis, ‘Parent’, ‘Adult’ orstatesofmind,‘self’ statesof whichhebelievedto describe gave totheir rise toasParent,referred Adult andChild. wordsThese familiar were usedby him ismadeupofthreesuggested thathumanpersonality elements, whichhe An ideafundamentaltotransactionalanalysisisthatofegostates. Berne Ego states relating toothers. while atthesametimebecomingaware oftheintent behindtheirways of stylesofsocialinteractionandanypersonal problems associatedwiththese, always clearlyseeninthisway. Group can, participants therefore, about learn and observable, were Freud ofpersonality described whereas not theparts (Berne, 1961: 31). Insimpleterms, thismeansthatthethree egostatesare real was different inthesensethathisegostatesrepresent realities’‘phenomological Ego andSuperego, didpointoutthathisconceptofpersonality althoughBerne inawayof personality thatseemstoowe somethingtoFreud’s conceptofId, they habituallyuse. As we shallsee, theory hisuser-friendly formulated Berne tomonitorandperhapschangetheinteractiveafforded theopportunity styles is readily available whenclientswork together ingroups. is Eachparticipant in 1954. Invaluable abouttheway information peoplerelate toeachother United States Corps,Army andhesetupthefi ofgroupwork inthe1940s,experience inthe whileworking asapsychiatrist social interactionsandcommunication styles. dealof Hehadgainedagreat lendsitselftotheidentifi since suchaformat believed thatmany problems couldbeaddressed more readily ingroups, Transactional analysistherapy usuallytakes placeinagroupsetting. Berne Groupwork the structural diagram illustratedinFigure 7.1. diagram the structural form,diagrammatic the most basicofwhichis of transactionalanalysis are illustratedin of behaviour (Berne, 1964: 23). The principles voice, posture, vocabulary andallotheraspects includednoticeable changesin these patterns withgroups,experience observed that Berne behaviour displays. theperson As aresult ofhis As feelingschange, of soalsodothepatterns the way isactuallyfeelingatthetime. thatperson ofbehaviour to thatcorresponds pattern certain any given situationanindividual willexhibita govern our thoughts, feelingsandbehaviour. In rst transactional analysis group transactionalanalysisgroup rst cation andanalysisoffaulty of personality Figure 7.1 Structuraldiagram Parent Adult Child 33/26/14 5:12 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM nd uence’ is evident. is evident. uence’ operates in conjunction es actually gures. According to BerneAccording the (1964) gures. uence on a person’s early life. In the example just given, the client described a situation in which In the example just given, the client described

: uence is an indirect one, then the person is likely to respond as to respond then the person is likely one, uence is an indirect 9 0 2

b d Each of these states, Parent, Adult and Child, is present from early childhood, childhood, early from is present and Child, Adult Parent, states, Each of these and others who exerted infl can sometimes ‘become’ one of their own parents when the Parent ego Parent when the parents one of their own ‘become’ can sometimes active. state is directly in the past. required which parents exhibit the kind of response n substitutes as well as to actual parents, and could include, for example, teachers substitutes as well as to actual parents, and could include, for example, teachers she felt she had ‘become’ her own mother in her response to her children. Her she felt she had ‘become’ her own mother actions and her state of mind were the same as her mother’s used to be in a similar situation. It is important to point out here that the word ‘Parent’ refers to parental It pulled me up short and made me really think . . . do I want to become old before It pulled me up short and made me really the way she always seemed to be? tempered, my time and end up hassled and bad Comment quite well, and my husband is supportive and helpful. At other times, especially quite well, and my husband is supportive don’t know where to start. Then I fi when I have just got in from work, I simply shout at them. When this happened to me myself getting into a panic and I start to exactly like my mother. It wasn’t just yesterday I suddenly realised that I sounded as well. I actually used the word ‘weary’ the tone of my voice . . . it was the words expression of hers as well. I’m sure I as she used to do, and later on I used another hands on my hips glaring at the children. looked like her too, standing there with my Parent ego state driving me crazy. Most of the time I cope Sometimes I feel that the children are i CASE STUDY

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t u and all are described by Berne as ‘psychological realities’ (Berne, 1964: 23). 23). 1964: (Berne, ‘psychological realities’ describedand all are Berneby as are they other because each from separated are 7.1 the ego states In Figure and differ considerably. incompatible with a person’s Child ego state. This is, in effect, a dialogue between ego states, ego states, between a dialogue in effect, is, This Child ego state. with a person’s ‘infl the parental and when a person in this way, responds is one which clearly shown this is that the response of saying Another way This ‘do as I say’. or one should behave’ ‘this is how the instruction stems from Do as I say: indirect Parent BerneThe second category identifi of Parent his parents would have wished him to respond. A distinction between these A distinction between him to respond. wished have would his parents people: how and explains formstwo is important, ● ● The Parent ego state represents a set of thoughts, feelings and behaviour, feelings and behaviour, a set of thoughts, ego state represents The Parent fi parental from derived which are A person form. and direct in both indirect ego state is exhibited Parent in a responded actually as one of his parents respond for example, may, When the shown. the ego state is directly When this occurs, situation. given infl parental Parent ego state Parent A client called Viv recounted the following experience. the following recounted Viv A client called o y a L

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2 1 0 and implicitlytothedeveloping child’s Parent egostate. analysis, therefore, bothparents are explicitly believed information toimpart is absentfrom many ofthepsychodynamicapproaches. Intransactional discussedinUnits3and4,the theories itisclearthatsuchanequalemphasis formulation, ispotentiallyjustasinfl theory. the This difference concerns ‘paternal’ infl by branchesofpsychodynamic thevarious andthosedescribed of personality teaching, includingobjectrelations theory. iscommon toallbranchesofpsychodynamic idea ofparental internalisation Once againBerne’s psychoanalytictrainingisevident inhistheory, sincethe ofthepersonality. tobecomepart by thechildisinternalised experienced infl other signifi injunctions thatare recorded inthisway; theexamplegiven by parents and by thegrowing child. However, itisnotjustparental pronouncements and signifi early life. This earlysocialisationispassedfrom parents, andother teachers compendium oftheentire socialisationprocess hasreceived eachperson in Whether shown indirect orindirect form, theParent egostateresembles a Aspects ofsocialisation which we shallconsiderlaterinthissection. adaptation toparental infl people tofunctionasparents themselves andraisetheirown children. with allaspectsofliving. Italsoprovides toenable all the datanecessary which isrecorded intheParentInformation egostateenables ustocope Information fromthe past

CASE STUDY infl him directlyinfl he died,andtoappreciateallthatdidforthefamily.Though Ican’tremember from earlymorninguntillateatnight.Ionlyreallystartedto thinkabouthimafter concentrated onworkinghard,settingupabusinessand virtuallynon-stop can identifycharacteristicsofmyfathertoo.Whenhecame tothiscountryhe opinion abouteverything.Icanseemanyaspectsofmymother inmyself,butI My motherwastalkativeandoutgoing.Shetheonewho seemedtohavean in childhoodandherrelationshipwithfather,whichshedescribedasfollows: During bereavementcounselling,aclientcalledKavitarememberedherexperiences Paternal infl very gratefulnowforthemanypositivemessagesheconveyed tome. There is an important pointofdifference,There isanimportant however, between Berne’s theory uences are recorded intheParent egostate, andeverything thatis uence wasimmense.Ihaveabsorbedhisattitudetoworkandfamily,am cant peopleinchildhood, andisusuallyabsorbedwithoutquestion cant peopleisalsorelevant here. Bothnegative andpositive uencing mewhenIwasachild,knownowthat hisunspoken uence uence isevident inthe ‘adapted Child’ egostate, uential asthe ‘maternal’. Ifwe consider uence, which, inBerne’s 33/26/14 5:12 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM CP ADULT FC AC NP Free Child Adapted Child cant aspect of the Parent ego state is that it enables people people is that it enables ego state of the Parent cant aspect Nurturing Parent Controlling Parent Descriptive diagram of personality 1 1 2

b d Berne (1972: 75) elaborated on his structural diagram of personality, so 75) elaborated on his structural diagram of personality, Berne (1972: n EXERCISE in a Parent ego state. How do you think, feel and act when you respond in this way?in a Parent ego state. How do you think, your gestures, your facial expressions andThink carefully about your tone of voice, in your Parent ego state. any other observable features that are manifest Parent ego state situations as possible where you respondWorking individually, try to identify as many i

. t u Figure 7.2 that the Parent ego state is now commonly divided into ‘Nurturing Parent’ ‘Nurturing Parent’ into commonly divided is now ego state that the Parent This diagram also 7.2. – see Figure Parent ‘Controlling’ or ‘Critical’ and ‘Rebellious’ or ‘Free’ of the Child ego state into illustrates the subdivision Child. ‘Adapted’ and Child, relation to the account holders she is meant to serve. Her critical parental account holders to the she is meant to serve. relation in which attitudes to money a childhood to stem from attitude is likely and moral fraught with ambiguity it) are who borrow (and especially those Parent the bank cashier’s however, situation, In the present disapproval. ‘Child’ to encourage a since it is sure to cause problems, ego state is liable communication. productive and an end to real, the customer from response Another signifi Another matters’, ‘routine many so that situations, in many automatically to respond unnecessary with without can be dealt as Berne expenditure describes them, ego Parent when the though, arise, Problems 27). 1964: (Berne, of energy One situation. in a given state is inappropriate or counter-productive stance in ‘superior’ the bank cashier who adopts a certainexample of this is o y a L

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2 1 2 toys anddolls. for someoneorsomethingsmaller, weaker andmore vulnerable, including are inthe Parent’‘Nurturing state it tendstobedemonstratedasconcern children are alsocapable ofresponding inallthree egostates, andwhenthey inneedordistress. forothers or support toremember that Itisimportant shown inacompletelydifferent way, andisusuallymanifestassympathy a parent orparents would have done. The Parent’‘Nurturing egostateis the way situationsexactlyas inwhichsomepeoplerespond toparticular example ofthebankcashierisacaseinpointhere, andserves toillustrate situations.exhibited automaticallyandwithoutquestionincertain The pro these words, ‘Controlling’ and ‘Prejudicial’, and are meanttodenotearbitrary which theParent ego state isexhibited(Berne, 1961: 48). However, both the word ‘prejudicial’ insteadof ‘controlling’ thesecond form, todescribe in distinguishable from eachotherwhenthey are used manifest. originally Berne sets ofinfl Parent’The terms ‘Nurturing and ‘Controlling Parent’ refer totwo different Nurturing ParentandControlling an exampleofthis. isunawareconcerned thattheresponse isanarchaic one. The following is These feelingscanbeevoked atany timeinadultlife, andoftenthe individual vocabulary inthevery earlyyears, are recorded soexperiences asfeelings. (1973)referstothisresponse,Harris makingthepointthatachildhasno situationproduced are feltonceagain.when theemotionsthatoriginal on intheenvironment. Lateron, inadultlife, theChildegostateisevident from thepastandrepresents ayoung child’s actualreactions to whatisgoing recording istakingplacesimultaneously. This secondrecording alsoderives isbeingrecorded intheParentWhile information egostate, another Child egostate

to each? How dideachstyleofcommunicationaffectyou,andhowyourespond people soundandlookwhentheyrespondedtoyouinthesetwoegostates? to youaseither‘ControllingParent’or‘NurturingParent’.Howdidthese Working individually,identifyanysituationswhereotherpeopleresponded Nurturing ParentandControlling EXERCISE hibitive attitudesthatare borrowed from parental fi uence, whichare absorbedinearlychildhoodandare clearly gures and are usually 33/26/14 5:12 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM ict. y at how people adapt to y at how cult, Gwyneth felt angry and defensive, or extremely felt angry and defensive, or extremely cult, Gwyneth uence, and the way in which this adaptation is revealed through through this adaptation is revealed in which and the way uence, 3 1 something she achieved immediately, ict or disagreement arose. This was not 2

b d The person who is functioning in Adapted Child will demonstrate The person who is functioning in ‘crossed’ transactions work in practice (see also Figures 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5). ‘crossed’ transactions work in practice (see n responded to parental criticism in the past. When she understood this, Gwyneth criticism in the past. When she understood responded to parental Adult ego state when alter her responses and access her was in a position to confl necessary before long-established ways however. Understanding and practice are Gwyneth’s counsellor taught her the basic of responding are changed in this way. showed her how ‘complementary’ and principles of transactional analysis and When things became diffi When things became but was unable to that her responses were inappropriate, tearful. She was aware In the course of certain people and situations evoked. modify the strong feelings critical so that she that her parents had been habitually counselling, she revealed pleasing them. Her childhood where she despaired of ever reached a point in her replica of the way she to staff and customers were an exact transferential responses Child ego state Child ego was unable because she 40s, received counselling who was in her early Gwyneth, from to deal with complaints arose when she had work. Her problems to cope at there was confl or when any situation arose in which staff or customers, i CASE STUDY

. t gures. Different parents have different expectations, however, and however, expectations, different have parents Different gures. u behaviours that please one will not necessarily please the other. This means that please one will not necessarilybehaviours please the other. these and in later life, that people learn or adapt to both parents; to respond of earlier ones. will be triggered reminiscent responses in situations that are for poor grades in college assignments, who has received woman A young parental infl parental the Child ego state in adult life. meant to conform and parental behaviour to the expectations of parents fi in a disparaging way. In his early writings he uses the terms ‘Adapted’ and ‘Adapted’ In his early writings he uses the terms in a disparaging way. of that particular manifestations to describe Child broad the two ‘Natural’ ‘Natural’. for often substituted is now ‘Free’ The word ego state. Adapted Child briefl looked we ‘Do as I say’ In the section entitled the Parent ego state, the Child is demonstrated in speech, stance, demeanour stance, the Child is demonstrated in speech, ego state, the Parent Steiner (1974) suggests that these outward In addition, appearance. and overall and thoughts that correspond feelings to the visible accompanied by signs are Berne that it was stressed In referring ego state, to the Child indicators. Berne was 24). 1964: (Berne, ‘immature’ or ‘childish’ not intended to mean that his terminology of the danger could be misinterpreted and used aware Adapted Child and Free Child Adapted Child and Free childhood so that a from is preserved seen that the Child ego state have We Like early age. did at a very as she or he behaves person functioning in this way o y a L

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2 1 4 personality which can truly be described as autonomous andfree from bedescribed whichcantruly personality Adult egostaterepresents reason andcommonsense. ofthe Itisthatpart in commonwiththeFreudian conceptofthe ‘Ego’. Like theEgo, the of psychodynamictheory, sincethe tohaveAdult egostateappears much between andaspects Berne’sdetect similarities ofpersonality description reality andrelationshipscurrent inthepresent. Onceagain, itispossible to which belongexclusively totheindividual, andwhich are intouchwith The Adult egostatedenotesthefeelings, attitudesandbehaviour patterns Adult egostate phrases like ‘super’ and ‘wow’, forexample, whichare associatedwithit. behaviour thatcanbeidentifi ego stateisgiven forexpression. unlimitedopportunity from Apart aspectsof events situations, asexamplesofstructured andparties inwhichtheFree Child or contextswhere suchexpressions are permitted. Steiner(1974)listssports hand, positive Free Childegostatesare oftenobserved insocialsituations theseuncensoredinappropriately impulsescanbeproblematic. Ontheother have escapedtheinhibitinginfl of Free Child.and asenseoffunare characteristic These are allfeelingswhich as eitherpositive ornegative. Spontaneousexpressions ofjoy, anger, sorrow The Free Childegostateisthesource ofstrong feelingsandcanbeclassifi Free Child consider later, represents amuch more effective way ofcommunicating. peopleinherlife.with theimportant The Adult egostate, whichwe shall communicating intheway thatshewould have doneatamuch earliertime responses are outmodedandarchaic, becauseineachcasethestudentis had withhermother. The pointtomake here isthatboththese ‘adapted’ more combative response, whichstemsfrom therelationship thestudent a child. A woman teachermay, ontheotherhand, evoke adifferent, perhaps since thatwas theway sheresponded toherfather’s disapproval whenshewas example, may respond toamalelecturer by becomingsilentandwithdrawn, realistic decisionson one’s own. development ofindividual autonomy and andtheabilitytomake informed other signifi passedtothemfrom parentshas absorbedandtested information and have an Adult egostate, which whichrepresents ofpersonality thatpart to keepcircumstances andneeds. intouchwithchanging Children, too, stored inthe the material Adult egostateisreassessed andupdated, in order when in Adult, sothatrealistic choicescanbefreely made. Every sooften gainedthroughout lifeareExperiences examinedandusedby theindividual ability tomake independentjudgmentsanddecisionsinany situation. The by objective,Adult egostateischaracterised thinking, logical andan parental infl uence, orstrong feelingsemanating from theChildegostate. cant people. forthe The central concern Adult egostateisthe ed withFree Child, there are alsowords and uence ofparents, but whenthey are expressed ed ed 33/26/14 5:12 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM les for les ce at work. Phil’s girlfriend nds she becomes angry and nds rm is concerned that her secretary is repeatedly rm is concerned that her secretary is repeatedly 5 1 control, then makes an appointment to speak to her secretary. She expresses her concern and asks for an explanation. late for work. The manager, Mrs Burrows, waits until her irritation is under ‘He’s not worth it. I never thought he was good enough for you. To be quite ‘He’s not worth it. I never time.’ honest, I thought you were wasting your fi ‘Look, I know you must be feeling rotten. If you like, I’ll clear up those you and you could leave a bit early.’ for. She has a confrontation with her boss and fi for. She has a confrontation with her boss tearful. to do this, because he got burned on holiday last year. and shares an apartment with some friends, replies that her mother needs to get out and about more so that she can have a life of her own. asks her if she would like to go out for a walk, since the day is warm and sunny. asks her if she would like to go out for a and adds that she wouldn’t mind Mrs Rae is enthusiastic about the suggestion, paddling at the local beach as well. play in the sun without wearing sunscreen lotion. He replies that he knows not plans. They had planned a sightseeing holiday, including visits to the local plans. They had planned a sightseeing they need a more relaxing break. art galleries and museums. He suggests had both resolved to improve their Karen responds by pointing out that they better things to do than waste time knowledge of art and, anyway, she has on the beach. with her boyfriend and Lyn responds in the following way: with her boyfriend and Lyn responds in responds in the following way: breaks off their relationship and Simon not understand. Instead of asking, however, he keeps silent and worries for the of asking, however, he keeps silent not understand. Instead rest of the day. asks for some time to consider the situation. Next day, she replies that she has consider the situation. Next day, she replies asks for some time to and is willing to do the overtime. given it some thought which Bruce does carry out some diagnostic procedures doctor who wishes to 2

Karen’s husband asks her to consider changing their next year’s holiday Karen’s husband asks her to consider changing Catherine has just learned that she has not got the promotion she hoped learned that she has not got the Catherine has just Carolyn’s mother has asked her to visit home more often. Carolyn, who is 20 Mrs Rae is an 80-year-old resident in a nursing home. One of the attendants Mrs Rae is eight years old, has been told by his parents that he must not James, who Phil and Simon are friends who share the same offi Phil and Simon are friends who share the Joanne and Lyn are friends and attend the same university. Joanne has a row Joanne She to work extra hours at the weekend. Helen has been asked by her manager by a for an operation. He is approached Bruce has been admitted to hospital The manager of a small fi The

b 9 7 8 6 5 3 4 1 2 d n 10 ego states. Looking at ego states Looking Say to the situations described. the responses given look at Working individually, Parent, Adult or Child responses come from each person’s whether you think these i EXERCISE EXERCISE

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2 1 6 4 3 2 1 relate tootherpeople. withfourmajorareas ofanalysis: Itisconcerned is meanttohelpclientsgainintellectualinsightthrough analysisoftheway they (Berne,communicating withothers 1964: 28). Transactional analysis, therefore, in order tohelppeopleidentifysomeoftheproblems in they experienced at any given time. These ‘transactions’, ashecalledthem, couldbeanalysed ofways,a variety dependingontheegostatewhichdominated thepersonality and according tocircumstances. Healsoobserved thatpeoplecommunicated in by different ‘inner’ personalities, whoseinfl by thisphenomenon,intrigued andobserved thatpeopleseemedtobegoverned expression, posture, bodymovement andeven sentenceconstruction. was Berne he notedincludedalterationsinvoice tone, gesture, choiceofwords, facial he observed andthenidentifi asaresult ofworkingtheories directly withpatients, whosebehavioural changes provide aframeofreference forhelpingclientsintherapy. Hedeveloped his Berne’s mainobjective transactionalanalysiswas that itshould informulating Application tocounselling Gameanalysis: gamespeopleplay analysisofthepsychological analysis: Structural theanalysisofindividualoregostates personality

EXERCISE Cont... specifi largely unconscious,motivationsintoconsciousawareness. which determinesbehaviourandlifechoices.Analysisofscripts bringsthese, Transaction Structural analysis Script analysis situation. This communication can be verbal or non-verbal. Berne used the term situation. Thiscommunication can beverbalornon-verbal.Berneusedtheterm KEY TERMS given, theanswersareshownatendofthisunit. tone ofvoicethepersonrespondingineachcase.However,fromevidence answers tothisquestionnaire.Thisisbecausesomuchdependsonthemannerand It shouldbestressedthatitisnotpossibletototallyaccurateaboutthecorrect Answers ‘strokes’ todenotetheexchanges thatpeopleengageinsocially(Berne,1964:14). compulsively. analysis:Script analysisofacomplexsettransactionspeopleactout behaviour Transactional analysis: theanalysisofcommunication stylesorsocial c egostates.Thesestatesare:Adult,ParentandChild. :

This refers to communication between two or more people in any social This referstocommunicationbetween twoormorepeopleinanysocial : Thisisbasedontheideathateveryonehasalifeplanor‘script’, :

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:12 PM gures; gures; nitely. nitely. es nine possible types of complementary es nine possible ned by Berne as ‘the fundamental unit of social ‘the fundamental unit of social Berne ned by as Have you seen my glasses? they’reYes, on the dining room table.

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b d n i . t u ego states. Berne (1972: 14) identifi Berne (1972: ego states. those which the question or were given in which the responses transactions, 7.4 is an example of one. Figure intended. stimulus RESPONSE: Berne his theory illustrated in of transactional analysis in diagram form, the point that when He also stressed it easier to understand. to make order indefi proceeds communication complementary, transactions remain Adult Adult to place between just take Complementary transactions don’t (Adult to Adult) one person addresses another from the Adult ego state, and the second and the ego state, Adult the one person another from addresses (See also example. This is illustrated the following Adult. person from replies 7.3.) Figure STIMULUS: (Adult to Adult) communicate with, and seek approval and recognition from, other people. from, recognition and and seek approval with, communicate Complementary transactions Adult or Child ego state. the Parent, with others communicate from People one of the three will also do so from The person making the response for example, place when, A complementary transaction will take ego states. interaction, and we all need them even when they are negative. Children Children negative. are when they all need them even and we interaction, or other important parental fi from seek recognition for example, will, seen are strokes negative is not forthcoming, recognition positive when and, in early established When patterns this are like at all. to none as preferable analysis Transactional some time for people to change them. take it may life, they in which clients can learnway to change the counselling is one way social exchanges that take place between people. Stroking implies recognition implies recognition Stroking people. between place take social exchanges that of another person is defi and ‘transaction’ is called a of strokes exchange Any 15). 1964: (Berne, action’ through exchange strokes We and is the basic unit of social interaction. and so hugging, kissing, touching, recognition, non-verbal greetings, verbal a necessary are and integral part strokes of human to Berne, According on. way they conduct transactions with other people. conduct transactions with they way Transactions transactions analysis of While structural refers to the individual, analysis Berne is used by to describe the ‘stroking’ The word refers to social behaviour. Structural analysis Structural in shown was which structure of personality, Berne’s considered have We that structural Berne analysis should believed diagram form 7.1). (see Figure in be taught to clients and can analysis, transactional before come always It is important for clients 1961). settings (Berne, or individual either group on to consider the move can they to understand state model before the ego o y a L

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2 1 8 Figure 7.3 (ChildtoParent) (Parent toChild) (Parent toParent) RESPONSE: (Parent toParent) STIMULUS: Parent toChild. The following transaction, isanotherexampleofacomplementary thistime RESPONSE: STIMULUS: Figure 7.4 Complementarytransaction Complementary transaction

I’m sorry tobesuchanuisance. I’m sorry That’s twicethisweekyou’vekeptmewaiting. Yes, it’sdisgraceful.Theyshould havemorestaff. checkouts? Isn’t itdreadfulhowlongtakestogetthroughthese AA AA CC CC PP PP Response Response Stimulus Stimulus 33/26/14 5:12 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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b d n i . t u Once again this is illustrated in diagrammatic form 7.7). (see Figure STIMULUS: RESPONSE: (Adult to Adult) (Child to Parent) RESPONSE: been might have glasses’ seen my you ‘Have to the question The response a Child ego state as follows: from given Adult) (Adult to Child) to (Parent Crossed transactions is not the one which transaction occurs given when the response A crossed tends to communication a situation arises, When such intended. the stimulus 7.6 illustrates this. Figure down. break STIMULUS: Figure 7.5 o y a L

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2 2 0 Figure 7.6 are frequently contained inexchangesbetween peoplewhowishtobecome dominates thesocialmessage, whichisconveyed verbally. transactions Ulterior up vianon-verbal clues. Itisbythestronger far of thetwo messages and aspectofthetransactionisconveyedpsychological subtly, andisoftenpicked level,at apsychological whilethe other takes placeatasocial level. The agenda. Another way ofstatingthisistosay thatoneofthemessagesoccurs These are toas referred ‘ulterior’ transactionsbecausethey containahidden transaction thatoperatesontwo levels andconveys adouble setofmessages. operate ononelevel. However, another, describes Berne more complicated, andcrossedBoth complementary transactionsare relatively simple, and Ulterior transactions Figure 7.7 Crossedtransaction Crossedtransaction AA AA CC CC P PP

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level Psychological level Social PP CC AA Doctor Patient I’m not ready to go back to work and I need your help. I’m not ready to go time. I’ll take care of you and give you extra My back is less painful, although it does tend to play up it does tend is less painful, although My back sitting at my desk. when I’m make it worse for you. Certain situations

Ulterior transaction 1 2 2

b d n EXERCISE Working individually, identify any ulterior transactions you have experienced Working individually, identify any ulterior transactions you have experienced either at work or at home. Illustrate these in diagram form and discuss the way they work with other members of the training group. Are there some transactions that are common to a number of people in the group? Ulterior transactions i

. t u Figure 7.8 other non-verbal clues, the ulterior be as follows: message may clues, other non-verbal PATIENT: DOCTOR: Parent) (Child to Child) to (Parent DOCTOR: who people two transaction between On the surface is a straightforward this the however, At a psychological level, medical condition. discussing a are with a subtle testing of responses complex, to be more transaction is likely and body language tone, on voice Depending sides. taking place on both Adult) (Adult to more intimate and are wary of stating their intentions openly. However, they they However, intentions openly. wary of stating their and are intimate more is an example: The following other situations. common in many also are PATIENT: Adult) (Adult to o y a L

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2 2 2 game. The following casestudyisanexampleofagame. whogivesperson thehelpisadversely affectedindoingso, thenthatisa and getsit, forexample, thenthatisanoperation. If, ontheotherhand, the game –adishonest ‘manoeuvre’ (Berne, 1964: 44). Ifsomeoneasksforhelp transaction ortransactionssetinmotionforaspecifi alsomakes ausefuldistinctionbetweenBerne an ‘operation’ –asimple ● ● ● ● ● (1964)defi Berne Game analysis

CASE STUDY Comment he wasplayingoverandagain,thepayoffreceivedoneachoccasion. period oftenweeksand,duringthattime,wasabletohelphimidentifythegame attempts tounderstandandassisthim.Nevertheless,sheworkedwithhimovera far. ThecounsellorobservedthatMrPhillipssmiledashedescribedallthefailed his fi giving himthehelpheneeded.Atalaterdate,requestedcounselling,andduring alternative practitioners,allofwhomhedescribedas‘hopeless’andincapable diagnostic proceduresthathadbeencarriedout.MrPhillipsalsovisitedseveral that hehadnoserioushealthproblems,anassessmentconfi on manyoccasions.However,hisGPhadsomediffi had anumberofminorhealthproblems,whichmeantthathevisitedhisdoctor Mr Phillipswasa36-year-oldmanwhohadbeenoutofworkforseveralyears.He Mr Phillips result of his repeated visits to helpers. Gaining attention in this way was a continuation result ofhisrepeatedvisitstohelpers.Gainingattentioninthis waywasacontinuation of behaviour in an unconscious and repetitive way. This idea is taken up by Berne of behaviourinanunconscious andrepetitiveway.ThisideaistakenupbyBerne (and otherFreudiantheorists) believedthatpeoplefrequentlyrepeatearlypatterns units dealingwithpsychodynamic approachestocounselling,wenotedthatFreud The factthathewassabotaging hisownbestinterestsdidnotoccurtohim.Inthe as ‘racket’,feelingsofhurtand satisfactionassociatedwithhisownspecialgame. able toexperiencethefamiliar,andwhatBerne(Harris,1972: 137–139)referredto of gainingthe‘strokes’orrecognitionhedesperatelyneeded. Asaresult,hewasalso abusive parents.Inresponsetotheseearlyevents,hehaddevised hisownmethod This wasalessonhehadlearnedinchildhood,atthehands of neglectfulandoften to others.AsfarasMrPhillipswasconcerned,realintimacy fraughtwithdanger. support theoriginaldecisionspeoplemakeinearlylifeabout thebestwaytorelate to otherpeople.Intransactionalanalysisterms,gamesaredesigned toconfi client receivedeffectivelypreventedhimfromachievingany real intimacyinrelation of thestrategyhehademployedasasmallchild.However, kindofattentionthis negative payoff. All gameshave somecommonelements, includingahiddenagendaand What issaidnotwhatfelt. Superfi They progress toanexpectedanddefi transactions. They are extensionsofulterior and isintegralto histheoryofgamesandlife scripts. rst sessions informedhiscounsellorthatnoonehadbeenabletohelphimso cially, they appeartobestraightforward transactions. : We can see that Mr Phillips was receiving a great deal of attention as a We canseethatMrPhillipswasreceivingagreatdealofattention asa nes the psychological gamespeopleplay nesthepsychological asfollows: niteoutcome. culty inpersuadingMrPhillips –anda c purpose rmed bythemany rm and 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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b d When this last situation obtains, some children respond by adopting the by respond some children When this last situation obtains, Some fortunate people retain the I’m OK – You’re OK position You’re Some fortunate the I’m OK – people retain (Harris, 1973: 42) 1973: (Harris, n i . I’m OK – You’re not OK. You’re I’m OK – OK. You’re I’m OK – I’m not OK – You’re OK. You’re I’m not OK – not OK. You’re I’m not OK – t u I’m not OK – You’re not OK ‘futility’ position. Another group of people, people, Another group of position. ‘futility’ not OK You’re I’m not OK – will slot into the I’m OK – and distrustful arrogant of others, those who are in relation An important point to make position. ‘paranoid’ not OK You’re one to from for all of us to move to OK positions is that it is possible depending on changing circumstances. stages of life, the other at different throughout life, but the majority of others probably fall into the depressive the majority but fall of others into the depressive probably life, throughout learning so much This is because be has to OK group. You’re I’m not OK – often Parents to be overcome. obstacles have and so many done in childhood, or be abusive even may they cases, in extreme feedback and, negative give neglectful. relations theory – in Berne’s ideas. Unfortunately, problems tend to arise problems Unfortunately, ideas. theoryrelations – in Berne’s and others critical become more in later childhood when the parents and OK position of an You’re the I’m OK – When this happens, demanding. and the original may of worth conviction be questioned, earlier era may then be lost. The fourth position is the most positive one; it is based on the conviction it is based on the conviction one; The fourth position is the most positive and cared An infant who is loved and value. has worth that everyone quality of care if the to imbibe feelings of goodness which, for is likely ‘self’ then are of goodness about Feelings will last a lifetime. continues, Once again it about other people too. translated into feelings of goodness object to detect echoes of psychodynamic theoryis possible – in particular, 3 4 What the positions mean positions, described by Harris (1973). OK positions represent a variety a variety described represent OK positions Harris by positions, (1973). childhood through to from adhere people adopt and of convictions and scripts which games from four basic OK positions, are There life. as follows: These are originate. 1 2 construct their activities, lives and relationships (Berne, 1961: 23). 23). 1961: (Berne, and relationships lives construct their activities, about an individual’s fundamental decisions theory, to this According Scripts based are formulated are lifespan early age. at a very entire two come under and they and influence, conditioning on parental These scripts are 203–5). 1972: (Berne, ‘Losing’ and ‘Winning’ headings: the OK concept, with another transactional analysis closely associated Scripts The theorylife scripts of analysis. in transactional a central place has goes on to and ‘complex operations’ Bernescripts refers to life as to which people life plan’ unconscious ‘an extensive describe a script as o y a L

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2 2 4 ● ● ● ● following ofobjectives isasummary intransactionalanalysistherapy. Clients: of considerable helpinincreasing self-knowledge forindividual clients. The groupwork, clientsreceive feedbackfrom otherparticipants. This practiceis must alwaysUnderstanding precede change, andintransactionalanalysis become more aware andhow they lifescripts originated. abouttheirpersonal in groups. The group is, infact, theidealmediumforclientswhowishto and negative tobecomemore canbereconstructed positive. lifescripts The OKpositionsadoptedinearlychildhoodcanbe about theirlives, andalternative ways ofbehaving are explored intherapy. neglected) copingabilities. Clientsare encouragedtomake new decisions the approach isthatpeoplecan behelpedtolocatetheirinnate(thoughoften transactional analysispeopleare viewed inapositive way; of abasicprinciple use theirown resources sothattherapeuticchange becomespossible. In the individual. circumstances,simply beeffectedby external but must comefrom within writing, (1961)makes changecannot itquiteclearthatpersonal Berne respect themselves, andallpeoplewithwhomthey are incontact. Inhis inadultlife.decision (andsomeeffort) People whodoachieve ittendto Achieving theI’mOK– You’re OKpositionoftenrequires aconscious Focus oncounselling of life. in childhoodisnever totallyobscured, even inthemostadverse conditions However, afundamentalI’mOK– You’re OKpositionthatisestablished

4 3 2 1 diffi them. Whatwerethecircumstancesineachcase,andhow didyouresolveany below andidentifyanysituationsinyourownlifewhenyou experiencedeachof Working eitherindividuallyorasagroup,lookatthefour lifepositionslisted Life positions EXERCISE take responsibility fortheirown feelings. tostatetheirneedsandviews clearlywithoutgameplayinglearn work towards theI’mOK– You’re OKlifeposition should becomemore autonomousand free’ ‘script Earlier inthisunit, we notedthattransactionalanalysisisfrequently conducted An important objectiveAn important incounsellingistohelpclients identify and I’mOK– You’re OK I’mOK– You’re notOK I’mnotOK – You’renotOK I’mnotOK–You’re culties youhad? challenged andchanged, 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:13 PM away c beliefs and c beliefs and detailed c exibility are furtherexibility are attributes that rst introduced his transactional analysis rst introduced cial problem-solving approach. However, this does not imply However, approach. cial problem-solving 5 2 2

b d Attitudes about the relationship between counsellor and client have counsellor and client have between Attitudes about the relationship Clients are also encouraged to become more aware of all aspects of everyday of all aspects of everyday aware also encouraged to become more Clients are n i . t u changed considerably since Berne changed considerably fi discussed later in this unit under the These changes are model of helping. on page 229. has evolved’ transactional analysis ‘How heading of should be clear, and this clarity is facilitated familiar when clients are with should be clear, Clients its terminology. of transactional analysis and framework the theoretical if encouraged to learnare and to attend courses, about transactional analysis and objectives its aims is taking place in a group context, When therapy possible. discussed so that all participants clear about purposeare are and progress. life, and to live with spontaneity in the present. Spontaneous living in the Spontaneous living with spontaneity in the present. and to live life, as an ability to as well outdated scripts, from implies freedom and now here toThe ability in personalchoose appropriate and social situations. responses form without resorting subterfuge is another desired to games or relationships client and counsellor between Communication outcome in counselling. openly. Clients in transactional analysis counselling are helped to achieve helped to achieve in transactional analysis counselling are Clients openly. the primary but is certainly focus of therapy emotional and intellectual insight, as mentioned, already have This refers to the understanding we cognitive. and script-free autonomy towards a necessary component in the progress and fl creativity However, independence. transactional analysis counsellors need to have. be renegotiated at any stage throughout transactional analysis counselling. transactional analysis counselling. stage throughout at any be renegotiated The relationship the two itself is based on the concept of equality between The relationship is shared notes taken, including any and all information, people involved, these objectives. This joint approach serves to strengthen the equality of to strengthen serves This joint approach these objectives. to experience and encourages clients as active themselves the relationship, a behavioural In 1971 Franklin Ernst, therapy. participants own in their be agreed suggested that contracts should transactional analysis practitioner, was This end of therapy as the beginning. as well at the end of therapy, contracts can In fact, commitment to change. meant to solidify the clients’ the way these will be achieved is included too. Goals are always stated in always Goals are is included too. these will be achieved the way This means that terms necessary. and updated when and revised positive and of personal development a wide view towards attention is directed a superfi from Clients state the specifi be lengthy. should always that therapy towards work and both client and counsellor wish to change they behaviours Contracts and goals Contracts a specifi establish client and counsellor analysis, In transactional and business All administrative both. agreed be by which must contract, in a transactional included are relationship the counsellor–client aspects of and agreement wider goals of therapy, on the a much but analysis contract, o y a L

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2 2 6 case study highlights the therapeutic effects of permission incounselling. case studyhighlightsthetherapeuticeffectsofpermission autonomy true andfreedom fromexperience outdatedscripts. The following messages. theirown totrust judgmentbefore they Clientsneed tolearn can reasonmore forhelpingclientstobecomefree important ofnegative parental that isresponsible fortheclient’s problems. However, there isanother much is possible forthecounsellorortherapisttoswitch offtheparental recording Parent egostate. The have beenpassedonfrom parents andbecomeabsorbedintotheclient’s own childhood beliefsstilloperatingatanunconsciouslevel. Many ofthesebeliefs that they typesofbehaviour neednotcontinue withcertain thatstemfrom affi unhealthy ordestructive behaviours, infavour ofmore positive andlife- ‘permission’ refers tothecounsellor’s role clientstoabandon inencouraging nowtransactional analysiscounsellors tendtode-emphasisethis. The word place,has animportant although, asStewart (1996)pointsout, some In thetransactionalanalysismodelofcounselling, theconceptof‘permissions’ Permission

CASE STUDY Comment to socialiseinthatway.Ithinksomethingbadwillhappenmeifenjoymyself. to feelguiltythatIamoutonthetown,whensomanyotherpeoplecan’tafford on meandsomethinginsidesaysthatIshouldnotenjoymyself.Afterstart it. ThenwhenIgettothecinemaorrestaurant,ablackcloudseemsdescend I makeplanstogooutwithFreda[herbestfriend]andI’mreallylookingforward enjoy herself,whichshedescribedinthefollowingway: started counselling.Shewasnowlivingaloneandcomplainedofaninabilityto Shelly wasamiddle-agedclient,whosemotherhaddiedtwoyearsbeforeshe Shelly were alsodiscussed,andafterthisatreatmentcontractwas devised.Shellystated contract withher.BackgrounddetailsaboutShelly’slifestyle andgeneralhealth necessary, asShellystartedto feelmoreindependentandfreetothinkforherself. when sheneededit.Eventually, eventhisconsciousself-permissionwasnolonger This workedverywellforthe client,whothenlearnedtogiveherselfpermission Shelly topicturetheirpresent conversationeachtimepangsofguiltassailedher. feel guiltyonthenextsocialouting. Inordertoreinforcethispermission,sheasked without someonetoencourageher.ThecounsellortoldShelly thatsheneednot stored, therefore,inherParentegostate,andshewasunable todislodgethem was acceptedinthefamilywhenShellyachild.These strongmessageswere so long.Herparentshadbeenveryreligious,andtheideathat enjoymentwassinful going out.Shealsowishedtobefreeoftheguiltfeelingsthat hadplaguedherfor positive terms,andShellystatedthatshewishedtobecome moreconfi agreed betweenclientandcounsellor.Thetreatmentcontract wasoutlinedin what itwasshewishedtoachievethroughcounselling,and laterongoalswere rming action.rming may ofsimplytellingclients Giving take permission theform :

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:13 PM gure. An example is shown in Figure 7.9. in Figure An example is shown gure. ciently potent to deal with the client’s ‘Parent’. ‘Parent’. ciently potent to deal with the client’s 7 2 2

b d n EXERCISE EXERCISE how these beliefs affect you now, and identify any that you now consider to be you now, and identify any that you how these beliefs affect outdated. Inherited beliefs Inherited (either strongly held beliefs to four, identify any groups of three Working in of origin. Discuss that you have inherited from your families positive or negative) i

. t u transactional analysis, the most effective way of illustrating transference (and illustrating transference of way the most effective transactional analysis, When clients transfer to counsellors countertransference) is in diagram form. then the counsellor is childhood, their feelings and attitudes stemming from fi of a parent cast in the role psychodynamic approaches to counselling, and it is discussed in Unit 9, and it is discussed in Unit 9, to counselling, psychodynamic approaches to approaches Individual alongside other important issues in counselling. of its aware all are but about transference, views their own have therapy Transactional counselling relationship. in the or potential existence, existence, a common it was that Berne (1972) believed Indeed, analysis is no exception. In the context of both inside and outside therapy. problems, cause of many emphasis throughout is on helping the client to get well and become more more and become is on helping the client to get well emphasis throughout autonomous. Transference in the units dealing with the concept of transference considered have We recognition that clients frequently need strong support and protection at at support and protection need strong that clients frequently recognition This means that counsellors to be aware need certain stages of therapy. as within the relationship, position and protective strength of their own to The client is there when necessary. be directive as the need to well not clients are However, it. to give and the counsellor is there help, receive and the in transactional analysis therapy, encouraged to become dependent Furthermore, the client’s ‘Child’ must be convinced that the counsellor that the counsellor be convinced must ‘Child’ the client’s Furthermore, 1972: anger (Berne, against parental ‘protection’ is potent enough to give the form the counsellor can often take assurance from of Protection 371–6). This highlights an aspect if the client should need her. that she is available for other models, many it apartof transactional analysis that sets from is also there is an emphasis on client–counsellor equality, although there Offering permission to clients, in the way just described, can only be be can only just described, in the way Offering permission to clients, other importantdone when the and protection conditions of potency or strength refers to the counsellor’s ‘potency’ The word also present. are injunctions and the client if parental be felt by which must conviction, as the counsellor must, In other words, outdated rules to be challenged. are feel suffi Berne describes it, Potency and protection Potency and o y a L

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2 2 8 (ChildtoParent) Countertransference (AdulttoAdult) against its in transactionalanalysis, andtheequality oftherelationship tendstowork Transference notencouraged dependenceonthecounselloriscertainly CLIENT: COUNSELLOR: The conversation takingplacebetween counsellorandclientwas asfollows: Figure 7.9 shows the counsellor’s Parent response toastatement theclienthasmade. form. canalsobeillustratedindiagram Countertransference Figure 7.10

Transference(crossedtransaction) continuing development inany case.

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Countertransference

9 2 2

b d n EXERCISE Transference and countertransference this unit, illustrate in diagram form any Using the ego state model described in you can identify from personal examples of transference or countertransference experience of helping, or being helped. i

. t u Since its inception in the 1960s, transactional analysis has evolved and transactional analysis has evolved Since its inception in the 1960s, who refers to transactional analysis as Erskine, changed in fundamental ways. and varied developments the many enumerates 2009), (Erskine, culture’ ‘live a How transactional analysis has How transactional analysis has evolved COUNSELLOR: to Child) (Parent The conversation during as follows: this exchange was The conversation CLIENT: (Adult to Adult) Figure 7.10 o y a L

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2 3 0 meant tosolidifytheclient’s commitmenttochange. Inaddition, placed Ernst of therapy andnotjustthebeginning. This endoftherapy innovation was patterns.outdated script Heintroduced theidea ofusingcontractsattheend ofbehavioural emphasised theimportance changeasameansofending (1971),Franklin Ernst whowas abehavioural transactionalanalystandwriter, Franklin Ernst and practice Major advancesintransactionalanalysistheory andpractice.transactional analysistheory Someoftheseare asfollows. in any otherway. From thispointonwards, hedetailsthemajoradvances in clients’ attemptstoconvey unconsciousmessages they couldnotconvey were simplyinvolved ingameplaying. Onthecontrary, gameswere the nature ofgames,the true forexample. To Erskine, itwas notthatclients totreat clientswithposttraumaticstressstarted thathecametounderstand oflifescripts,analysis oftransactionsandtheory but itwas notuntilhe introduction theories, toBerne’s withitsemphasisonegostates, original developmental milestonesthathave preceded it. Hehighlightshisown within transactionalanalysis, enumerates someofthesignifi Erskine thecentrality oftherelationship asitexistsnowBefore goingontodescribe ‘paramount’ intrainingprogrammes andinitsliterature (Erskine, 2008: 16). is onlywithinrecent years thatthequalityofthisrelationship hasbecome have always emphasisedthe ‘centrality ofthetherapeuticrelationship’, but it professional involvement withit. new methodsandtheories,and integrated detailshis40years Erskine of vibrant andhealthy state. and proofpracticeoftransactionalanalysisisina tohimthatthetheory 2009: 15). These changesanddevelopments are seenasessentialby Erskine the approach hasundergone, especiallywithinthepasttenyears (Erskine, model oftransactionalanalysis, whichwas designedtohelppatientsin often encouragedconfrontation. Schiff (1975)developed the ‘Cathexis’ ‘Drama Triangle’ was meanttoexplainthedynamicsofgameplaying, but developments are (1968), indicated by Karpman whose illustrationofthe synonymous withamore confrontational style. Aspects ofthese analysis, therapy. alongwithafocusonshort-term This eraalsobecame An emphasisonbehavioural changebegantoemergeintransactional Behavioural changeandshort-termtherapy worked withprisoners, andhisapproach with themwas positive andaffi name andfocusingonareas oftheir lives thatthey were proud of. often Ernst stressgreater on theuseofstrokes withclients. This meantaddressing themby The fi In hisanalysisoftheways inwhichtransactionalanalysis hasabsorbed rst pointhemakes oftransactionalanalysis rst isthatsome practitioners rming. cant 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:13 PM xed as Schiff suggests, then then as Schiff suggests, xed dence and freedom from outdated injunctions. injunctions. outdated from dence and freedom 1 3 2

b d n i . t u but focused instead on clients’ experiences and feelings. Alongside this, Alongside this, experiences and feelings. clients’ focused instead on but that clients most needed attitudes of acceptance Erskine came to believe rather than confrontation. The 1980s saw a decrease in confrontational methods within transactional methods in confrontational a decrease The 1980s saw to clients and practitioners Many challenged aspects of the approach analysis. with people Erskine (2009) refers to his work that time. at patients in vogue sensing their vulnerability he disorder; suffering post-traumatic stress from did not use the He change or confrontation. focus on behaviour any avoided interpretation or explanation, transactional analysis methods of interviewing, energy. It should be possible for a person to chart their own egogram by person for a egogram be possible by It should to chart their own energy. indicating the ego a period of time, graph a drawing of their feelings over with his work Aside from change. states operating as feelings and behaviour at this time. also confrontational was style Dusay’s egograms, Decrease in confrontational methods in 1980s Egograms (1977) to indicate The egogram is a diagram Dusay or graph Jack designed by This personality. importance of each ego state within a person’s the relative amounts of psychic energy different all have that we is based on the premise this distributionThe egogram of shows ego states. in the three invested them to return to childhood and the time when inappropriate decisions were them to return to childhood and the time when inappropriate were decisions to go back to the prompted clients were meant that This approach made. decisions could be a Child ego state new and from original childhood scenes, for clients time and with practice, over it is then possible, Theoretically, made. sense of confi to gain a new The ‘Redecision’ school The ‘Redecision’ Mary school founded by and Robert (1979) Goulding ‘Redecision’ The integrated the theory and practice of transactional analysis with Gestalt therapy Their to change or redecision. as a prerequisite and often used confrontation early decisions made in the possibility of reversing theory stresses of redecision encouraged the Gouldings to facilitate order In this change in clients, childhood. it follows that a reparenting relationship with a therapist is possible. The The with a therapist is possible. relationship that a reparenting it follows a dysfunctional to help disturbed clients repair meant Cathexis model was also designed to Schiff’s techniques were an actual parent. with relationship on other behaviour clients to consider the effects of their encourage these as well. tended to be confrontational Schiff’s but approach people, residential care and used the concept of ‘reparenting’, in order to mend to mend in order ‘reparenting’, the concept of and used care residential ‘Cathexis’ word The their originalparents. with dysfunctional relationship person energy a refers to the psychic psychoanalysis and from is derived model of In the Cathexis or objects. ideas person, in another invests constantly throughout ego state develops Parent analysis the transactional is not fi ego state If the Parent the life span. o y a L

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2 3 2 to grow anddevelop. perspectives and practicecontinues ensure thattransactional analysistheory on theintegrative andrelational are welcomed andabsorbed. These new abandoned; whatitdoesmeanisthatnew perspectives, includingthefocus inthisunit)haveconcepts oftransactional analysis(described been experience. As we have already seen, thisdoesnotmeanthattheclassical empathy andanacknowledgement of the client’s unique, phenomenological from aninterpretive approach toonethatemphasisedvalidation, presence, have discussedinUnit4, was akey infl client (Erskine, 2009: 20). The work ofKohut (1977), we whosetheories in whichthetherapistis ‘internal This doesnotimplyany overlapping ofprofessional boundaries, however. involvedof thetherapisttobepersonally inrelationship withtheclient. andpractice. transactionalanalysistheory current These includetheability process oftherapy andhealing. (2009: Erskine key 19)describes aspectsof The qualityofthetherapeuticrelationship isnow regarded ascentraltothe healing Quality oftherapeuticrelationshipiscentraltotherapyand transactional analysis, orunbendingdogma. aswell astoitslackofstrict thisproliferation of different attributes approachesErskine to the ‘fl theclient’sunderstand story, withanemphasisonwhatisofinterest totheclient. refers toanapproach that is clientcentred andcollaborative andseeksto transactional analysispractitioners. The term ‘narrative’ usedinthiscontext ‘cognitive behavioural’ and transactionalanalysispractitioners ‘narrative’ transactional analysis’. Inadditionto those listedby Erskine, there are now transactional analysis’, ‘relational transactionalanalysis’ and ‘body-centred analysis, including ‘psychodynamic transactionalanalysis’, ‘constructivist (2009: 18)suggeststhatthere may bea ‘dozen’ different schoolsoftransactional Today, diverse transactionalanalysisintegrates theoretical concepts. Erskine Integration ofdiversetheoreticalconcepts transactional analysis, but they nolongerdominatetheapproach. their approach tohelping. However, theseskillsare stillconsidered usefulin were nolongerthebedrock onwhichtransactionalanalysistherapistsbuilt through asaidstoclientunderstanding teachingandtheuseofdiagrams wane, didnotdisappear. thoughitcertainly The emphasisonexplanation tenet oftransactionalanalysis, itspre-eminence but beganto gradually relative approaches. ofvarious merits Cognitive was understanding acentral develop. At numerous workshops andseminars, discussedthe practitioners andpracticeoftransactionalanalysiscontinued to Change inthetheory Change intheoryandpracticecontinuedtodevelop What itdoesmeanisthatthefocushasmoved disturbance alone’ toanewer, two-person ‘relational psychotherapy’, engaged inanempatheticrelationship withthe uence onErskine’s decisiontomove away from from away exibility’ of the client’s 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:13 PM t t for culties in communicating from this approach t uence that tend to govern the course of our lives and the course of our lives uence that tend to govern ed in this way, clients are then able to make the changes to make then able clients are ed in this way, 3 3 2

b d Because of its strong ‘cognitive’ orientation, transactional analysis tends to orientation, ‘cognitive’ Because of its strong The concept of scripts is useful, too, since it serves to illuminate the early since it serves too, The concept of scripts is useful, n i . t u Some limitations noted that the specialised terminology of we At the beginningunit, of this The language of and its weakness. transactional analysis is both its strength the emphasis on early decisions’. Clients from different cultural backgrounds different Clients from the emphasis on early decisions’. injunctions that bind them to certain restricted work received have may Depending on their or to limited marital or other choices. for example, choices, welcome these clients may family injunctions, from commitment to autonomy claritythe descriptive and structure the theory of transactional analysis offers. approach that is questioning and educational. With its attention to contracts and its attention to contracts With is questioning and educational. that approach counsellor and client when necessary, between can be renegotiated which goals, psychotherapy transactional analysis offers a structured and problem-focused Corey clients. depending on the needs of that can be either short or long term, to offer when applied to that transactional analysis has much 32) suggests (2009: ‘family injunctions and This is because of its focus on counselling. multicultural clients are likely to get quality service from the counsellors to get quality service who help them. from likely clients are already have As we approach. intellectual a more appeal to people who value it does mean but not imply an absence of attention to feelings, this does seen, in transactional prominent is more that a thinking and analytical engagement to an well respond some people In addition, analysis than in some other models. and those clients who are simply interested in personal growth can also benefi in personal simply interested growth and those clients who are since it is and, life, applications to everyday has many The approach it. from clients who experience for it has special relevance often conducted in groups, therapy tends to make approach The group to groups. in relation problems is well and because transactional analysis training cheaper for clients as well; and accreditation, with an emphasis on professionalism and thorough, established such feelings are identifi such feelings are to other people. necessary in relation open and spontaneous to become more infl and formative events Clients who experience certain a compulsion to repeat patterns of behaviour. can learn transactional analysis, a great deal through for example, behaviour, can be helped through the use of the structural the diagrams and descriptive can be helped through of of their diffi the source to identify in order personality, clients to analysis can also encourage Transactional with others. effectively The game playing. to others through of relating ways abandon outdated associated with games and and guilt, fear hurt, anger, like unpleasant feelings When too. highlighted in therapy are 137), Berne by (1972: ‘rackets’ referred to as Clients who benefi Clients potential benefi that has is a model of counselling analysis Transactional skills model, as a communications lies in its accessibility Its strength most clients. problems relationship who have to those clients especially helpful and it is clients situations, of these two In either or in the workplace). (whether at home o y a L

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2 3 4 people todo. traditionsinthewayquestion family thattransactionalanalysis encourages because oftheirculture andbackground, would consideritanathemato (Corey,easy tounderstand 2009: 34). Inaddition, there are clientswho, foreign tosomepeople’, thatitisgenerallyconsidered inspiteofthefact this contexttoo. Hestates, forexample, that may‘the terminology seem strengths inrelation tomulticultural counselling, ithassomelimitationsin section, alsopointsoutthateven thoughtransactionalanalysishasdefi withinit.their experiences Corey (2009), whomwe quotedintheprevious and hasledthemtoseekenlightenmentaboutfamily especially ifthecrisis other hand, may benefi clientspost-crisis to transactionalanalysis. conceptssuchasthoseintrinsic unfamiliar Onthe people insevere toengagewith oftenlacktheconcentrationnecessary crisis for whichtheapproach may notbeimmediatelysuitable. This isbecause contact. There are somesituations, counselling, includingcrisis forexample, sessions, thereby potentially distancingbothfrom person-to-person true may cometodominateexchanges between therapistandclientduring practice.contemporary Itispossible thatthelanguageoftransactionalanalysis relationship meansthatamore empathicapproach toclientsislikely within appropriate. Inaddition, emphasisontheclient–counsellor thecurrent with diverse approachesaspectsoftheseintheirwork, andintegrate where emotion. Ontheotherhand, mosttransactionalanalysistherapistsare familiar some people, especiallythosewhoplacemore value ontheexpression of The traditionalcognitive emphasisintransactionalanalysismay limititfor readily by understood mostpeople, andeven includingteenagers children. delineatedthrough hisuseofParent, Berne structure Adult andChildis concepts, thereby makingthemcomprehensible toeveryone. The personality deliberatelydesignedasystemthat wouldBerne simplifycomplexFreudian seems simplisticorcontrived. However, itisrelevant topointouthere that the approach isattractive tomany people, but there areforwhomit others

SUMMARY about theadvantagesanddisadvantages oftheapproachinrelationtoclients. developments intransactional analysiswereoutlined,alongwithsomediscussion and thedialoguewasincluded toillustratetheseconcepts.Earlyandmorerecent and counsellor.Transference countertransferencewereshownindiagramform, importance ofcontractsandgoals, andthetherapeuticrelationshipbetweenclient discussed. Welookedattheobjectivesintransactionalanalysis counselling,the also described,andthewayinwhichgamesscriptsoriginate fromthesewas transactional, gameandscript)wereoutlined.Thefourbasic OKpositionswere described insomedetail.Thefourmajorareasoftransactional analysis(structural, discussed. Abrief history ofEricBernewasprovided,andhisegostatemodel specialised terminologyusedintheapproach,anditsgroupwork formatwasalso therapeutic counselling.Thefi In thisunit,welookedattransactionalanalysisandconsidered itsapplicationto rst partofthe unitdealtwithsomeaspectsofthe t greatly fromt greatly transactionalanalysis, nite 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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Unit 7 Transactional analysis 6 2 / 33/26/14 5:13 PM . . Transactional Transactional . 2009 39: 14. 14. 2009 39: . . London: Sage London: . (3rd edn). London: London: edn). (3rd London: Corgi Books. London: . London: Souvenir Press. Press. Souvenir London: . . London: Signet Penguin. London: . . Chicago: The University of of The University Chicago: . . New York: Grove Press. Grove York: New . . Oxford: Taylor & Francis. Taylor Oxford: . Changing Lives Through Redecision Changing Lives , London: Pan Books. Pan London: , Your Partner: Successful Relationships Using Partner: Your . New York: Grove Press. Press. Grove York: New . . London: Penguin Books. Penguin London: . Born to Win Born to . Vallejo, CA: Set Publications. CA: Vallejo, . Transactional Analysis Analysis Journal Transactional Relational Transactional Analysis: Principles in Analysis: Transactional Relational Transactional Analysis: A Relational Analysis: Perspective Transactional ) An Introduction to Transactional Analysis: Helping Analysis: Transactional An Introduction to ) . New York: Harper and Row. York: New . Life Scripts: A Transactional Analysis of Unconscious Analysis Transactional A Life Scripts: Yourself, Know Yourself, The Cathexis Reader: Transactional Analysis Treatment The Treatment Analysis of Cathexis Transactional Reader: Transactional Analysis Transactional Getting Well with Transactional Analysis: Get-On-With, Get-On-With, Analysis: Transactional with Well Getting New Directions in Transactional Analysis: An Explorer’s An Explorer’s Analysis: Transactional New Directions in . Plymouth: Zambezi Publishing. Plymouth: . I’m OK- You’re OK You’re I’m OK- Egograms The Restoration of the Self The Restoration Eric Berne: Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy Eric Berne: Developing Transactional Analysis Transactional Developing Counselling Scripts People Live London: Karnac Books. London: Transactional Analysis Counselling in Action Counselling in Analysis Transactional Principles of Group Treatment Principles Group of Games People Play Games People Know What Do You Say After You Say Hello? Say You After Say You What Do Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy in Analysis Transactional , 7 (26) 39–43. , . London: Sage Publications. London: . . London: Free Association Books. Association Free London: . . New York: Harper and Row. York: New . . New York: Brunner Mazel. York: New . 5 . London: Karnac Books. Karnac Books. London: . 3 2

b d n i . t u Stewart, I. (1996) I. Stewart, Publications. London: Sage Publications. London: (2007) I. Stewart, Sage Publications. London: Routledge. London: (1971) D. & Jongeward, M. James, (2013) M. Klein, Analysis Bulletin Analysis et al.(1975) J. Schiff, Psychosis (1974) C. Steiner, Karpman, S. (1968) ‘Fairy Tales and Script Drama Analysis’. Analysis’. and Script Drama Tales ‘Fairy (1968) S. Karpman, Corey, G. (2009) ‘Transactional Analysis’ (online) Available at: www.acadiau.ca/ www.acadiau.ca/ at: Available (online) Analysis’ ‘Transactional (2009) G. Corey, 2013. June Accessed transactional analysis. (1977) M. J. Dusay. Theory, Analysis: Transactional of ‘The Culture (2009) R.G. Erskine, Patterns.’ and Evolving Methods, Berne, E. (1966) E. Berne, (1972) E. Berne, Stewart, I. (1992) I. Stewart, Kohut, H. (1977) H. Kohut, Chicago Press. (2011 C. & Sills, P. Lapworth, People Change (1998) D. Midgley, Handbook Hargaden, H. (2012) H. Hargaden, (2002) C. & Sills, H. Hargaden, Analysis Transactional Further reading (ed.) (2010) R.G. Erskine, Relational Patterns. (eds.) (2011) & Sills C. H. Fowlie, Practice Ernst, F. H. (1971) H. F. Ernst, Winners and Get (to be) Well Getting (1979) R. & Goulding, M. Goulding, Therapy A. (1973) T. Harris, Available at: http://Tax.Sagepub.com/content/ 39/1/14 (accessed June 2013). (accessed June 39/1/14 http://Tax.Sagepub.com/content/ at: Available References (1961) E. Berne, (1964) E. Berne, o y a L

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2 3 6 Cambridge Hardwick 149–151 StNeotsRoad Broadway House Institute of Transactional Analysis Addresses Association. Offi www.tastudent.org.uk The USA. TA Association. www.usataa.org The European Association for Transactional Analysis. www.eataneews.org about General educationalinformation Transactional Analysis. www.ta-tutor-com of TransactionalAnalysis. The offi www.ericberne.com aboutClaudeSteiner,Information andother Berne Eric TA theorists. www.claudsteiner.com The InstituteofTransactional Analysis. Gives detailsofeducationandtraining. www.ita.org.uk International TransactionalThe AnalysisAssociation. www.itaa-net.org Websites Resources London: Routledge. Widdowson, M. (2009) You Say BetweenSaying Hello And Goodbye? Tudor, K. (2001) 10 218] page [from Answers Email: [email protected] CB23 7QJ 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Adult Controlling Parent Adult Free Child(Positive) Controlling Parent Nurturing Parent Controlling Parent Free Child (Negative) Adapted Child Adult oftheInternational cial professional journal Transactional Analysis cial website for Eric Berne.cial website forEric anddescription Includesadetailedhistory Transactional Analysis toBrief Approaches Therapy: Or, What Do Transactional Analysis: 100KeyPointsand Techniques London: SagePublications. . 33/26/14 5:13 PM / 2 6 / 1 4

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