of religious devotion and fidelity. Establishing a basis for reli­ shortly after the parliament began, were the nontheists-Bud­ gious accord and agreeing on common goals would serve as a dhists, humanists, and nee-pagans.'? No less intolerable for four prelude to a final resume of the extraordinary religious progress Jewish cosponsoring organizations who announced their with­ of the nineteenth century. The whole affair wasbathedin a heady drawal the fifth day of the parliament was the appearance of mist of optimism. Louis Farrakhan of the Nation of Islam." The stated purposeof the second parliament, though neither The 1893 parliament experienced its own rough spots, in­ utopian nor ethnocentric, was formidable. The mission of the cluding refusals of endorsement and dire predictions that recog­ 1993 parliament would, its planners said, "inspire action and nition of "heathen" religions would undermine the Christian change around the world," serve as "a catalyst for dialogue," missionary effort and vitiate the claim of Christ's uniqueness. "promote understanding, introspection, and reflection," and During the sessions some speakers were interruptedbyshouts of "ignite changes in the ways we live and relate to each other.":' "Shame, shame," and vigorous objections were voiced when The planning committee for the first parliament was com­ Christianity's faults were denounced by certain Asian speak­ posed of fourteen of Chicago's well-known Protestant Christian ers." Also, when some Baptist leaders and officials of the inter­ leaders, one Jewish rabbi, and a Roman Catholic bishop, while denominational Christian Endeavor movementlearned that nei­ the planners for last year's meeting included a number of Chris­ ther the exposition nor the parliament would close for Sabbath tians, Protestant and Catholic, and also representatives of the observance, they promptly canceled the conferences they had Baha'i, Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and Zoroastrian communities. scheduled to be held in conjunction with the parliament." Whereas the 1893 meeting, a seventeen-day affair, was held Delegates to the 1893 Parliament in what was called a humble and modest building "temporarily attached to the Chicago Art Institute"-onedescribed it as a kind The planners of the first parliament sent invitations to more than of "woodenwigwam"I4-theprincipalvenueof lastyear'seight­ ten thousand of the world's religious leaders, but other than dayconclavewastheelegantPalmerHouseHiltonhotel. Though Christians, the number who came was relatively small. The the hotel was certainly comfortable and the staff remarkably sultan of Turkey, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the Euro­ prepared to accommodate the multiple and often conflicting peanRoman Catholic hierarchy all opposed the gathering, as did dietary requirements of the delegates, less than half of those manyNorthAmericanevangelicalProtestants,includingDwight L.Moody. AndthoughJohnHenryBarrowswasthe parliament's president, the General Assembly of his own church, the Presby­ At the 1993 parliament no terian Church in the U.S.A., declined to be involved officially. In spite of this widespread and imposing opposition, some Christian missionaries four hundredregistered delegates,menandwomen,werepresent, offered papers or joined representing forty-one different religious groups, including Christian (Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), any panel discussions. Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Shinto, Confucian, Zoroastrian, Mus­ lim, and Jain. This is not to imply that the representation was in any sense balanced. Most of the official delegates were Chris­ registered could crowd into the Grand Ballroom for the plenary tians, two-thirds of the papers presented wereby Christians, and sessions. Those who could not get in were obliged to find a parlor the vast majority of the three to four thousand from the general or room where the sessions were shown by video or try to arrive public who attended the daily sessions were professing Chris­ earlier the next time. tians. The number of Buddhists, Hindus, Zoroastrians, and Con­ The number of official delegates in 1893 was said to be four fucians was quite small. Only one Jain and one Muslim were hundred. The second parliament attracted nearly seven thou­ there. The Muslim, not a lifelong follower of the Prophet but sand registrants who anted up a fee of $200 before June 1, 1993, rather an American convert to Islam, Mohammed Alexander or $350 thereafter. The number was more than double what the Russell Webb, was a former Presbyterianand U.S.ambassa.dor to planners had anticipated, and consequently they were forced to the Philippines who had taken the name Mohammed at the time suspend registration several days before the parliament began. of his conversion."The Jain was also something of a novelty-not In 1893 the most prominent participants were James Cardi­ clergy, but rather a young Indian lawyer, Virchand Gandhi, who nal Gibbons, George Dana Boardman, PhilipSchaff, Washington agreed to represent his faith in the parliament and was given Gladden, Lyman Abbott, Charles A. Briggs, Isaac M. Wise, Rabbi intensive preparation by Jain monks who, because of their own Joseph Silverman, Henry Drummond, Edward Everett Hale, religious prohibitions, could not travel outside of India." Julia Ward Howe, Frances E. Willard, Josephine Lazarus, Prince Conspicuously absent from the 1893 meeting, however, Chandradat Chudhadharn, and Bishop Dionysios Latas. Three were official envoys from the Anglican Church of Great Britain young Asians-one Hindu and two Buddhists-becameequally and the Episcopal Church of America," as well as all but a few well known as a result of the parliament. At least a dozen conservative Protestant evangelicals. Missing as well, but not Christian missionaries were featured on the program." conspicuously so, were representatives of American, African, During the second parliament, no one received the press and Asian indigenous religions," Sikhs, Baha'is, and scores of the coverage or drew crowds equal to those of the final speaker, other religious groups that had begun to multiply in the United Tenzin Gyatso, the exiled fourteenth Dalai Lama of Tibet. But States during the nineteenth century. Hans Kung, Joseph Cardinal Bernardin, Gerald Barney, Except for conservative U.S. evangelicals, nearly all of these Raimundo Panikkar, Diana L. Eck, Louis Farrakhan, David groups were well represented in the 1993 parliament," plus a few Steindl Rast, Ma [ayha Bhagvati, and Metropolitan Paulos Mar whose presence caused palpable consternation for some and Gregorios were quite visible. No Christian missionaries, as far as withdrawal by others. Particularly objectionable to the Greek I could determine, presented papers or were members of any Orthodox Diocese of Chicago, who canceled their sponsorship panel discussion.

April 1994 61 It is generally agreed that one of the most significant results Christian claims of uniqueness or superiority. When they spoke, of the 1893 parliament stemmed from the presence and presen­ they addressed primarily the more commonly recognized issues tations of three youngand extraordinarilyengagingAsians-the and problems such as religious intolerance and violence, the Hindu reformer Narendranath Datta (1863-1902), better known need for nurturing the planet, interfaith understanding and by his religious name, Vivekananda; the Sri Lankan Buddhist dialogue, and ways to promote justice and peace. Christians did Anagarika Dharmapala (1864-1933); and the Japanese ZenPriest not disguise their allegiance and usually spoke to these crucial Shaku Soyen (1859-1919)-who spoke with great passion of questions as Christians, their words often reflecting their faith their respective faiths. In fact, not only did the parliament pro­ position. But they were uniformly devoid of the 1893 optimism, vide them a unique public forum and gain for them instant and in some cases their comments were indistinguishable from notoriety, it also opened the door to what would become a what was said by those of other religious persuasions. growing influence and flourishing presence of Eastern religions One need only review the titles of many of the 1893 ad­ in the West. dresses to appreciate the straightforward, occasionally arrogant, Barrows offered nearly twenty positive results of the 1893 and frequently aggressive presentations of the Christian faith­ Parliament, including providing for Christians an unequaled titles such as "The Truthfulness of HolyScripture," "Christianity opportunity to share their faith, inciting a desire for Christian a Religion of Facts," "The Incarnation of God in Christ," "Christ unity, encouraging and giving new impetus to Christian mis- the Savior of the World," "Christ the Unifier of Mankind," "Man from a Christian Point of View," and "The Message of Christian­ ity to Other Religions." It is fair to say, I believe, that there were 1893 no comparable presentations in the 1993 parliament-except by The parliament opened non-Christians. the door to a flourishing The forthrightness and evangelistic ardor that characterized presence of Eastern the Christians attending the 1893 parliament could be seen most vividly in 1993 in Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Zoroastrian, and religions in the West. Muslim presentations. Consider, for example the following: "The Genuine, Authentic Religion We Need Today" (Hindu), "Bhakti Marga and the Unity of Religion," "Hinduism as a Way sions, and stimulatingthe studyof comparative religions, which, of Life," "Guru Nanak's Message for Humanity" (Sikh), "Sikh he was convinced, would "reveal the superiority of Christian­ Scripture as Universal Text," "Simple Sikhism: A Youthful and ity."16 Not everyone shared his views, especially in regard to Modern Perspective on a Young and Modern Faith," "Old Fash­ Christian missions," but it would be difficult to disprove his ion Buddhism for Today," "Zoroastrianism: A Universal Faith," contention that the first parliamentaccorded African Americans, "[ainism as a World Religion," "The Solution of Present-Day Jews, RomanCatholics, andwomena new status in U.S.religious World Problems from a Jain Perspective," and "Mohammed the circles." Model for Humanity." Christian presenters for the most part addressed crucial, Different Presentations of Christianity though in a few cases peripheral, issues. Most focused on legiti­ mate concerns such as ecology, religious fundamentalism and Although the 1893 parliament established Judaism and Roman pluralism, conflict resolution and peacemaking, strengthening Catholicism as authentically American and Hinduism and Bud­ the African American family, human rights, sexual equality and dhismas viable religious expressions that would attract a signifi­ homosexuality, prayer and spiritual development, interfaith cant number of followers, this first world convocation of reli­ dialogue and relations, and Christian reflections on other reli­ gious leaders was unabashedly a Christian event. It was planned gions. and directed primarily by Christians. Christian ministers and To have manifested in 1993 the insensitivity and hubris of missionarieswere the mostfrequent programparticipants. Chris­ someof theChristianspokespersonsin the1893parliament, or- tian hymns were sung and the Lord's Prayer was repeated in eachday's worship, and the final session endedwith the exultant singing of Handel's "Hallelujah Chorus."!" Thus the first parlia­ Many leaders of the 1893 ment was predominantly a Christian extravaganza based on an underlying assumption held by many of the leaders, including parliament believed that John Henry Barrows, that Christianity would eventually tri­ Christianity would umph over all other religions. The sessions provided an ideal setting for presenting Christianity as morally, spiritually, and eventually triumph over all materially superior to all other religious traditions, and they other religions. served to vindicate the Christian belief in the rightness of their burgeoning missionary enterprise." Barrows would later de­ clare that anyone present during the 1893 meeting or who read even had it been possible-to have attempted to dominate the the record of the proceedings could not helpbutbe awarethatthe proceedings as in 1893 would have been a serious blunder. first parliament "was a great Christian demonstration with a Nonetheless, throughout the eight days of the 1993 meeting, I non-Christian section which added color and picturesque ef­ repeatedly wondered why there was hardly a word and not a feet."?' single paper that set forth in a clear and comprehensive fashion Noone, I believe, would so characterize the 1993 meeting. In what Christianity is today, who Jesus Christ is, what Christians some respects, the situation was reversed. It was predominantly believe, theChristianbasis of religious authority, or the Christian an other-than-Christian assembly, with the Christians who were view of the Missio Deior the mission of the church." present maintaining a modest profile and assiduously avoiding Silence on these subjects did not stem from the fact that

62 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Christians were not present. They were there in force-Protes­ Protestant Host Committee initially sent a letter to the adminis­ tants, conciliar and nonconciliar, Roman Catholic, Anglo-Catho­ tration and faculty of a well-known evangelical seminary in the lic, Orthodox, charismatic and noncharismatic. I counted at least Chicago area, inviting their participation and also requesting twenty to twenty-five Protestant evangelicals whom I knew. Dr. names of Protestant evangelicals whom they would recommend David Ramage, retired president of McCormick Theological as program personnel. The committee's invitation and request, I Seminary, was the chair of the Parliament Board and the princi­ was told, were declined." pal presiding officer. John Templeton and Laurance Rockefeller It is distressing that these who were specifically invited, as each made substantial donations of $100,000 or more to under­ well as other evangelicals, did not choose to be a part of the write the parliament. Christians were a part of the planning parliament. Were any of them aware of what the renowned meetings, and they were involved in many of the more than 850 Scottish theological conservative James Orr advised nineteenth­ different sessions including plenary, lecture, seminar, work­ century evangelicals before the opening of the 1893 parliament? shop, artistic, and worship events. They gave their share of the Orr said: "I cannot imagine that anything but good can come papers. Yet, the criticism of one evangelical observer, Erwin from the appearance of the representatives of the great religions Lutzer, pastor of the Moody Church in Chicago, cannot be of the world on a free platform, with full liberty to each to state dismissed. "Jesus did not get a fair representation here," Lutzer its views and claims on the homage of mankind, provided it be declared, and I tend to agree with him, though we may not share understood that there is no necessary abating on the part of any, a common understanding as to what would have been a "fair of what may be held to be its exclusive title to acceptance. representation." The more difficult question, it seems to me, was, Christianity should, least of all, shrink from such an ordeal and why not? should welcome the opportunity of a world-wide audience.T" The same could have been said about the 1993 parliament, but it Reflections for Christian Witness appears that contemporary evangelicals were as unwilling to consider this possibility as were their predecessors a century ago. Some analysis and reflection have led me to conclude that there If the 1993 parliament demonstrated anything, it revealed were a number of reasons for the radical difference in the Chris­ the increasing presence in the United States of adherents to tian presentations in the two parliaments. By and large, Chris­ religions that have traditionally been on the receiving end of tians who read papers or spoke in 1993 appeared to be con­ Christian missionary and evangelistic efforts. Now they are in a sciously avoiding any intimation of theological exclusivism or position not only to challenge Christianity in Asia and Africa but superiority, and Protestant evangelicals who likely would have also to extend their influence in our previously monolithic Chris­ made traditional claims for Christianity either did not attend the tian and Jewish neighborhoods. I do not regard this as a negative parliament or chose to be spectators. One told me that he did not development. But Iam dubious about observers who say that the discover that papers were being solicited by the program plan­ influenceof Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and others is limited to ners until it was too late to submita proposal."This is all the more their particular ethnic enclaves, and I would question the assess­ unfortunate, given the fact that some rather bizarre themes were ment of one authority who recently was reported to have said approved, papers on such subjects as UFO abductions, electronic that "the growth of Eastern religions in the United States is orality, and "Satanism in West Texas." One can reasonably limited largely to immigrants."26 The fact is, no one knows for assume, therefore, that had Christian evangelicals come forth sure how many members of these non-Christian and non-Jewish groups are here, what their strength is, or how many converts they are gaining-although Professor Diana Eck of Harvard and others are attempting to determine the presence, numbers, and If II} esus did not get a fair growth of these diverse and proliferating religious groups in the representation" in the 1993 United States. parliament, we Christians If my limited observation around the country and at the parliament is indicative, and if the claims of those who say that have no one to blame but today there are at least 5 million Muslims, 4 million Buddhists, ourselves. 500,000to 1 million Hindus, and 70,000[ains in the United States are accurate, then their presence and willingness to propagate their faith posesomecrucial theological, social, and missiological with valid proposals, they would in all likelihood have been questions for Christians. If we Christians are unwilling to meet approved and included in the program. If, therefore, "Jesus did with them, listen to them, and discuss our faith with them in a not get a fair representation" in the parliament, it appears to me neutral public forum such as the parliament, where, when, and that we Christians have no one to blame but ourselves. how will we encounter them? If we are going to have any kind of One of the parliament program planners told me that the positive witness, we had better be prepared to listen.

Notes------­ 1. John Henry Barrows, "The World's Parliament of Religions," Chris­ tailed, namely, to plan for and"convene a Parliament of the World's tianity the World-Religion (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1897), p. 321. Religions in Chicago in 1993, to promote understanding and coop­ 2. EricJ.Sharpe, "Dialogueof Religions," in Encyclopedia ofReligion, ed. erationamong religious communities and institutions, to encourage Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987),4:345. the spirit of religious harmony and to celebrate, with openness and 3. Michael Hirsley, "U.N. of Religions Will Gather Here," Chicago mutual respect, the rich diversity of religions, to assess and to renew Tribune, August 27, 1993, sec. 2, p. 8. the role of the religions of the world in relation to spiritual growth 4. "Vision and Mission" statement issued by the Council for a Parlia­ and to the critical issues and challenges facing the global commu­ ment of the World's Religions" (CPWR) as a news release, October nity" and "to develop and encourage interfaith groups and pro­ 23, 1992. The council's complete mission statement was more de- grams which will carry the spirit of the Parliament into the twenty­

April 1994 63 first century" (1993 Parliament Program Catalogue [Chicago: CPWR, missionary movement. A summary of both positions can be found in 1993], p. 2). George Goodspeed, ed., The World's First Parliament of Religions 5. Hirsley, "U.N. of Religions," p. 8. (Chicago: Hill and Shuman, 1895). 6. Michael Hirsley, "Common Cause," Chicago Tribune Magazine, Au­ 18. Several African Americans were featured speakers during the par­ gust 29, 1993, p. 14. liament, along with a larger number of Jews and Roman Catholics. 7. The refusal of the archbishop of Canterbury to endorse the meeting Most surprising to me, however, was the number of women speak­ did not prevent some Anglicans and Episcopalians from attending. ers-twenty or more-at least five of whom were ordained clergy. Like many of the other delegates, however, they were self-ap­ 19. See Lorimer's description of how his melancholy and despair were pointed. Dr. Thomas Richey of the General Theological Seminary of swept away by the words "Hallelujah! Hallelujah! Hallelujah! And New York delivered a paper entitled "The Relations Between the he shall reign forever and ever!" ("Parliament of Religions," pp. 36­ Anglican Church and the Church of the First Ages," and one of the 37). first speakers in the final session was the Reverend Dr. Momerie of 20. Robert S. Ellwood, "World's Parliament of Religions [1893]," in the Church of England, who was effusive in his praise of the city, the Encyclopedia of Religion 15: 444. citizens, and the parliament (]. W. Hanson, ed., The World's Congress 21. Barrows, "World Parliament of Religions," p. 311. Barrows's posi­ of Religions: The Addresses and Papers Delivered Before the Parliament tive assessment of the parliament, his belief in the beneficial effects [Syracuse, N.Y.: Goodrich Publishing, 1894], pp. 787-91,939). of Christian missions, and his confidence that ultimately Christian­ 8. A woman, Miss Alice Fletcher, did present a paper entitled "The ity would be accepted as the single world religion were unqualified Religion of the North American Indians." It is a remarkably insight­ (pp. 311-14). He was certainly not alone in this view. Lorimer, a ful discussion, though Fletcher admits that she was risking "formu­ Baptist minister from Boston, declared: "I am confident that Chris­ lating something, which although true in the premises, might be tianity must triumph" ("Parliament of Religions," p. 32). unrecognizable by the Indian himself" (ibid., p. 542). 22. Two papers deserve mention: "The Contribution of Indian Chris­ 9. Amongthe new groupsrepresentedwere the Baha'i, Sikh,Rastafarian, tianity to the Spiritual Heritage of India," by M. Ezra Sargunam, Native American, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Fel­ bishop and president of the small Evangelical Church of India, and lowship of Isis, International Church of Metaphysics, International "Christianity 'Born Again' for a New Age," by a member of the Society of Divine Love, Wicca, and the Goddesses of the Divine Theosophical Society and the Unitarian Universalist Church. Feminine. 23. Individuals who registered before June 1993 were sent a packet of 10. Michael Hirsley, "Diversity Too Great for One Religious Group," materials including an invitation to submit proposals for program Chicago Tribune, September 1, 1993, sec. 2, pp. 1, 4. slots. Accompanying the proposal forms was the statement: "We are 11. Andrew Herrmann and Mary A. Johnson, "Farrakhan,Jews Clash at now in the process of identifying programs, speakers, etc. for the Religious Conference," Chicago Sun Times, September 3, 1993, p. 1. Parliament and would be happy to work with you to develop your See also Michael Hirsley, "Jewish Groups Cite Farrakhan in Exit proposal for one or more presentations ... in the area of your from Religion Parliament," Chicago Tribune, September 3, 1993, sec. expertise." A $100 honorarium was offered for each presentation 2,p.6. plus a registration pass to all events on the day of the presentation, 12. George C. Lorimer, "The Parliament of Religions," in TheBaptists in and "any person giving two presentations would receive a comple­ History (Boston: Silver, Burdett, 1893), pp. 21, 22. mentary full registration." 13. James A. Kirk, "The 1893 World's Parliament of Religions and the 24. Some readers will remember, I believe, a representative of the Continuing Dialogue of World Religions" (paper presented during parliament's council coming to the annual meeting of the American the 1993 parliament, September 2, 1993), p. 8. Society of Missiology in 1989 to inform us that a centennial meeting 14. Lorimer "Parliament of Religions," pp. 8-9. of the 1893 parliament would take place in Chicago during August 15. H. McKennie Goodpasture, "The World's Parliament of Religions and September of 1993. He spoke specifically of the contribution of Revisited: The Missionaries and Early Steps in Public Dialogue," Christian missionaries in that first conference and urged our partici­ Missiology 21 (October 1993): 403-11. pation. Outgoing ASM president Ken Goodpasture analyzed the 16. Barrows, "World's Parliament of Religions," pp. 304-22. role of the missionaries in the 1893 parliament in his presidential 17. Overstatements about the positive and negative effects on Christian address in June 1993 ("The World's Parliament of Religions Revis­ missions by supporters and critics of the parliament were multiple. ited," Missiology 21 [October 1993]: 403-11.) Barrows quotes several of the missionary participants lauding the 25. Quoted by Barrows, "World's Parliament of Religions," pp. 307-8. missiological results of the event (ibid., pp. 314-15,318,321), while 26. John Zipperer, "The Elusive Quest for Religious Harmony," Chris­ others insisted that the gathering took the wind out of the sails of the tianity Today, October 4, 1993, p. 43.

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