Food Security Indicators in Two Sites of Norwegian Church Aid’s Intervention Zone in Mali: Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki
(Malian Gourma)
Sidibe Halassy Gry Synnevåg
July 1998
Background and Vision The Drylands Coordination Group (DCG) is a forum for cooperation that promotes the quality assurance of development projects dealing with food security and environmental rehabilitation in the drylands of Africa. DCG was established by the Norwegian NGOs responsible for running development projects previously funded under the Sahel-Sudan-Ethiopia (SSE) Programme.
The SSE Programme: In response to the catastrophic drought in the Sahel region in 1984-1985, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs established the Sahel-Sudan-Ethiopia Programme (SSE). The main objectives of the programme were food security and environmental rehabilitation. The countries that have received support through the SSE Programme are Mali, Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The average annual funding during the last three years of the programme amounted to NOK 140 million, of which almost half was channelled through multilateral institutions (UN system), a small percentage through research activities, and more than half through NGOs. The SSE Programme was phased out in 1996, but the work of the NGOs continues through the Drylands Coordination Group (DCG).
The members of the DCG are ADRA Norge, CARE Norge, Norwegian Church Aid, Norwegian People’s Aid, Strømme Foundation and the Development Fund. Noragric, Centre for International Environment and Development Studies, Agricultural University of Norway, functions as the group’s secretariat and technical advisor. The DCG activities are funded by NORAD. The DCG’s overall objective is to improve the livelihood security of vulnerable households in drought-prone and marginal areas, especially in Africa. The DCG believes that Norway through the SSE experience has developed special competence within development assistance in drought-prone countries and that this competence should be fostered and advanced.
The DCG will: • Contribute to assuring the quality of Norwegian development assistance in the drylands • Contribute to the fulfillment of Norwegian responsibilities to the Convention to Combat Desertification • Assist NORAD in its increased efforts in sustainable agriculture and natural resource management • Promote the effectiveness of Norwegian development cooperation. • Promote cooperation with partner institutions working with dryland management issues
The Drylands Coordination Group and Noragric Noragric provides the DCG with the following services: • Quality assurance and technical assistance to individual projects. planning, reviews and special assignments • Seminars and workshops • Research and study reports • Secretariat
A Sampling of DCG’s Activities • Seminar on sustainable agricultural development and natural resource management in the drylands • Case studies in gender issues in agricultural and natural resource management projects • Study of decentralisation, institution building and phasing out of Norwegian project involvement • Study on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ...... 5 List of acronyms and abbreviations ...... 6 List of figures and maps ...... 7 List of tables ...... 7 Introduction ...... 8 Chapter I Methodological Approach ...... 10 1. Principal phases of the study ...... 10 1.1. Preparatory phase ...... 10 1.2. Data-collection phase ...... 13 1.3. Phase of data examination and analysis and drafting of preliminary report ...... 14 2. Difficulties encountered ...... 15 2.1. Difficulties related to the timeframe of the study and the distance between the two sites concerned ...... 15 2.2. Difficulties related to the ambiguity of the concept of pastoralism ...... 15 2.3. Difficulties linked to the ambiguity of the concept of “indicator” 15 ...... 2.4. Difficulties related to the diversity of languages spoken in one and the same site ...... 15 Chapter II Socio-economic characteristics of the sites ...... 16 1. Bambara Maoudé ...... 16 2. N’Daki 18 ...... Chapter III Analysis of results ...... 21 1. Definition of a key concepts ...... 21 1.1 Food security concepts ...... 21 1.2 Foodstuff self-reliance ...... 25 1.3 Concept of food security indicators ...... 25 1.4 Coping strategies ...... 27 1.5 Pastoralism ...... 28 1.6 Hunger ...... 28 1.7 Famine ...... 29 1.8 Food shortage ...... 29 1.9 Lack of food ...... 29 1.10 Malnutrition ...... 29 1.11 Food vulnerability ...... 29 2. Evaluation of factors influencing food security ...... 30 2.1 Factors of the physical environment ...... 30 2.1.1 Climatic factors ...... 30 2.1.2 Factors linked to the human environment ...... 31 2.2 Factors associated with production systems ...... 42 2.2.1 Production ...... 42 2.2.2 Market trade ...... 43 2.2.3 Gathering of wild crops ...... 43 2.2.4 Purchasing power ...... 44 3. Review of the activities of certain development operators in the field of food security ...... 44
iii 4. Presentation of some follow-up systems set up by development operators ...... 54 4.1 Existing information structures ...... 54 4.1.1 Early Warning System ...... 54 4.1.2 Grain Market Information System ...... 55 4.2 Decision-making structures ...... 56 4.2.1 Ministry of Territorial Administration and Security (MATS) .... 56 4.2.2 Ministry of Finance ...... 56 4.2.3 Grain Market Restructuring Programme (PRMC) ...... 56 4.3 Implementing structures 56 ...... 4.3.1 Support Unit for Grass-roots Development (CADB) ...... 56 4.3.2 Mali Agricultural Products Office (OPAM) ...... 57 4.3.3 Private agencies and NGOs 57 ...... 4.3.4 Associative, co-operative and mutual benefit organisations (OACM) 57 ...... 4.4 Action plan for the implementation of interventions ...... 58 4.5 Review of a number of follow-up systems set up by development operators ...... 58 Conclusions and recommendations ...... 63 Bibliography ...... 74 Annexes ...... 77
iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Upon completion of the present study, we wish to express our deep gratitude to NCA management teams in Bamako and Gossi. Without their competent organisation and, above all, their entire availability, this work would not have been completed in the fixed deadlines.
We also wish to thank the populations (men and women) of Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki for their reception and hospitality.
Finally, our thanks go to our colleagues in NCA, Zeynabou, Agaïchatou, Ag Moha and Mohamed for the assistance and support they have provided during our field mission.
v LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACAER Consultant Support Unit for Rural Development and Equipment ACOPAM Associative and Co-operative Support to Grass-Roots Development Initiatives AMILADO Association for the Development of Lake Dô APE Association of School Pupil Parents BIT International Labour Office CADB Support Unit for Grass-Roots Development CDA Committee for Arondissement Development CEFODOC Training and Documentation Unit CILSS Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel CLD Local Development Committee CLDE Local Committee for Extended Development DP Participatory Diagnosis EEC European Economic Community FIS Education, Information and Awareness-raising HCR High Commission for Refugees MARP Accelerated Method of Participatory Research MATS Ministry of Territorial Administration and Security MF Ministry of Finance NCA Norwegian Church Aid NGO Non-Governmental Organisation Noragric Centre for International Environment and Development Studies OACM Associative, Co-operative and Mutual Aid Organisations OISI International Organisation for the Safeguard of Islam PGRN Natural Resource Management Project PRCSR Regulation and Control Office for the Rural Development Sector PRMC Grain Market Restructuring Programme SAP Early Warning System SIM Grain Market Information System SNS National Security Stock
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Different components of food security Figure 2: Links between National policies and food security Figure 3: The 3 components of food security Figure 4: Characteristics of food security indicators Figure 5: Links between observation indicators of food security indicators and indicators determining project impact Figure 6: Food security system in Mali for grain distribution
MAP
Localisation of sites: Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Historical profile of food security in N’Daki (Group: Men) Table 2: Historical profile of food security in Bambara Maoudé (Group: Men) Table 3: Socio-economic stratification of Bambara-Maoudé (Group: Men) Table 4: Socio-economic stratification of N’Daki (Group: Men) Table 5: Coping strategies in N’Daki (Group: Men) Table 6: Coping strategies in N’Daki (Group: Women) Table 7: Coping strategies in Bambara Maoudé (Group: Men) Table 8: Coping strategies in Bambara Maoudé (Group: Women) Table 9: Review of activities of a number of development operators in the field of food security Table 10: Follow-up indicators set up by technical services in the field of food security Table 11: Follow-up indicators set up by NCA Table 12: Follow-up indicators set up by a market-gardening co-operative Table 13: Recommendations for follow-up indicators for NCA agents in the field of food security in a pastoral environment
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viii INTRODUCTION
This report presents the results of a punctual study, conducted by a team of consultants, consisting of an agronomist and a resource geographer, of the indicators of food security of a pastoral environment in the Gourma area of Mali, in two of Norwegian Church Aid’s (NCA) intervention sites – Bambara Maoudé and N’Daki (see map). The field mission took place from 26 May to 8 June 1998.
The study was commissioned by Noragric for the Drylands Coordination Group’s (DCG) account and ties in with the constant concern of improving the food security of Gourma populations, rehabilitating the environment and promoting community initiatives aimed at achieving local development.
The aim of this study has been to develop a follow-up system based on impact indicators which would enable NCA agents to better evaluate their interventions in pastoral milieus in the fields of food security and environmental rehabilitation.
To achieve this aim, the study set out to fulfil four essential objectives:
• Assess the factors influencing food security; • Review various significant interventions in the field of food security; • Study follow-up systems (currently in application) set up by the various development operators; • Put forward to NCA various project follow-up and assessment indicators in pastoral milieus relating to food security
Hence, rather than striving to describe each site in great detail, we have sought to answer research questions related to the various objectives (Methodology Outline, see Annex 21). This is the reason why we have not endeavoured to provide detailed information about physical conditions, demographics or economic activities. These aspects have been sufficiently dealt with by other competent researchers. For the reader who wishes further information about the sites in question, we recommend that he/she refers to the attached bibliography.
The present report is divided into three principal chapters:
Chapter 1 - Presentation of the methodological approach Chapter 2 - Presentation of the socio-economic characteristics of the studied sites Chapter 3 - Analysis of compiled data, comprising four sub-chapters: Sub-chapter 1 - Definition of key concepts Sub-chapter 2 - Assessment of factors influencing food security Sub-chapter 3 - Review of a number of interventions made by projects, associations and groups in the field of food security Sub-chapter 4 - Review of a number of follow-up systems put in place by various development operators.
The final sub-chapter is followed by proposed recommendations for measurable and/or observable indicators that could be used in follow-up and assessment systems for projects in pastoral environments. 1 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
The methodological approach applied in conducting the present study comprises the following phases:
• Study preparation phase • Field data collection phase • Phase involving data examination and analysis and drafting of preliminary report • Difficulties encountered
1. Principal phases of the study
1.1 Preparatory phase
This phase comprised the following stages: a) Understanding the Terms of Reference: consisting of:
• analysing the Terms of Reference • conducting interviews with resources persons • making use of basic documentation • devising a methodology outline (see Annex 21) • drawing up a field work calendar b) Organisation of the field mission:
Selection of sites: The sites were selected in collaboration with NCA executives and technical service representatives and their choice was a reasoned one:
Bambara-Maoudé is a mixed agro-pastoral area characterised by:
• an “arondissement” head village – with the presence of technical services, a weekly market, an NCA branch , and numerous men’s and women’s groups; • the presence of Kel Tamcheq and Peul communities whose incomes essentially stem from animal husbandry; • a geographically isolated area, far removed from circuits and networks for the supply of basic commodities; • rainfall of less than 300 mm, unevenly distributed in time and geographical scope; • degradation of grazing land and the massive migration of grazers eastward, particularly to N’Daki;
N’Daki: an essentially pastoral area, characterised by:
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• overgrazing caused by a concentration of livestock coming especially from western Gourma; a very modest introduction of rainfall-watered agriculture around the village and encampments; • its isolated geographical location means that supply markets are far- • removed (Gossi 75km away and Hombori 90 km away); • the presence of NCA, HCR and health centre; • the presence also of a number of community associations and groups; • animal husbandry is the primary source of income for survival.
And finally, in the socio-economic context of the sites studied, the term “pastoralism” is not necessarily synonymous with nomadism in the strict sense of the term. These are areas where pastoral and agricultural activities co-exist to varying degrees. c) Selection of investigative instruments and techniques:
The investigative tools and techniques were selected in accordance with the research objectives and consist of PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) including gender sensitive techniques:
PRA tools and techniques:
- Resource map (or land use map), making it possible to inventory the resources of the area and to observe any changes occurring in the utilisation of these resources;
- Social map, enabling an inventory of social, economic and cultural infrastructures in the community. This map provides information on the community’s level of organisation and equipment, e.g. existence of a market, co-operatives, grain banks, etc.;
- Historical profile of food security, providing information about significant events that have impacted economic, political and social life in the community.
- Venn diagram, making it possible to inventory internal and external organisations in the area and to explain the links existing between them. It allows in particular for an evaluation of the level of social cohesion in the community and its impact on food security;
- Polarisation diagram, making it possible to measure the influence that an area has on its immediate surroundings, for example, that of villages with a market or with administrative headquarters;
- Prioritisation diagram, which classifies problems and solutions according to degree of importance and the priorities of local populations;
- Semi-structured interview check-list, which is attached to each tool and which allows for a free discussion of topics with local populations in the form of
3 conversations and/or exchanges;
- Participatory observation guide for making direct observations about the living conditions of local populations, for example, relating to activities in practise, products consumed or sold on the market, state of food security, condition of livestock, prices, incomes, etc.;
- Annual or seasonal calendar, providing information about the staggering of activities throughout the seasons and/or year, as well as about the state of available food reserves;
- Socio-economic stratification profile enabling inhabitants to classify themselves according to socio-economic categories: well-off, poor, destitute, etc. This profile provides information about levels of affluence and poverty:
- Revealing proverbs and idioms, providing information about the community’s deepest thoughts – about relations between man and woman, about production, famines, droughts, etc.
Gender tools and techniques
- Activity profiles, enabling an inventory of activities of production and reproduction, as well as of activities associated with community management. These profiles also enable observations of current workloads and their impact on the implementation of projects. Furthermore, they provide highly sensitive information about the social division of labour and highlight disparities and discrimination in relationships between men and women;
- Profiles of access to/control over resources and benefits; within the context of man-woman relationships. Such profiles provide information about the way in which resources and benefits are utilised and managed within a community. Hence, the profiles show up inequalities and discrimination between men and women;
- Impact factor profiles, enabling an analysis of any detected gender problems and proposing solutions to overcome them with a view to achieving social equality. d) Definition of selection criteria:
For the two sites in question, the size of populations investigated in focus groups varies according to gender. In Bambara, the minimum number in the men’s group was between 15 and 20, whereas the women’s group numbered between 10 and 15. In N’Daki, this number was between 15 and 30 for the men and between 10 and 20 for the women (See list of participants in Annex). It is worth noting that the focus group is representative of all the communities living in the same site.
Focus group inquiries were corroborated by loosely structured individual interviews of resource persons, such as religious leaders, fraction chiefs, development agents, as well as of
4 men and women having no particular status. Individual interviews were conducted with 10 to 15 persons in each investigated site.
• Providing information to local populations
Prior to our arrival, NCA management had informed their branch managers in Bambara Maoudé and in N’Daki. During a subsequent phase, this information was further communicated at explanatory meetings held in each site. In this way, the entire population was informed of the object of the inquiry and of the timeframe for its execution. This precautionary measure enabled each target category (men and women) to be prepared and available for receiving the interviewers.
• Training of interviewers
Four colleagues from NCA, two women and two men, joined us in our work to collect data. They were trained in situ at Bambara Maoudé in the techniques of Participatory Diagnosis (DP). Training consisted essentially of a presentation of the study, of the nature of the inquiry, a definition and presentation of investigative tools and techniques, as well as of the method of work to be applied. With the help of simulation exercises, it was possible to check that work was being correctly conducted.
• Collection of secondary data
Data collection was carried out throughout the entire inquiry process in Bamako and Gossi. Contrarily to Bambara Maoudé, studies conducted in the N’Daki site were few in number, if not entirely non-existent. The bulk of documentation consists of environment studies, evaluation reports and annual activity reports. However, it should be noted that two basic documents served as useful sources for the present study – “Food Security Indicators” (Nyborg and Haug, 1994) and “Environmental Indicators for development activities by Norwegian NGOs in the SSE countries” (Haug, Aune-Johansen, 1996).
1.2 Data-collection phase a) Principals behind the study
Data-collection has complied with the following principles:
- Inter-disciplinary approach: one agronomist and one resource geographer - Gender-sensitive team: three male and three female research workers - Participatory research: populations-researchers - Triangulation: at least three points of view in the analysis of phenomena - Optimal ignorance: it was not a matter of learning everything about food security indicators - Acceptable degree of imprecision: the aim was to identify tendencies and to manage orders of magnitude
- Respect for culture: respect for the ways and customs and ethical values of local populations.
5 b) Data-collection
Data-collection was conducted systematically in Bambara Maoudé as well as in N’Daki. The research team was divided into two groups: one group interviewed the men and one group interviewed the women. Neither of these categories is homogenous. The men’s groups consisted of youth, adults and elderly members, as was the case in the women’s groups.
Revealing proverbs and idioms were compiled in parallel with the “conveyance” of tools and with collective and individual interviews. c) Control of tool “conveyance”
At the end of each data-collection day, the entire team would meet over a cup of tea to share the successes and difficulties encountered. During a “tour de table” everyone had the opportunity of speaking and summing up the day’s achievements and failures. This session was also spent to draw up a timetable for the next day’s work. A debriefing was given on each tool “conveyance”, which was followed by a discussion and validation of collected data.
1.3 Phase of data examination and analysis and drafting of preliminary report
This phase consisted of:
- Drawing up an examination grid - Classification of information under thematic headings - Identification of main tendencies - Classification of results - Drafting of report
Remarks:
Following the field survey, a debriefing meeting was held in Gossi, grouping NCA executives and agents and technical service representatives. The meeting gave rise to a great deal of interest, discussions and exchanges of views, enabling the rectification of a number of biases related to data-collection.
In Bamako, another debriefing meeting was held for NCA staff. The observations registered there were taken into account when drafting the present report.
2. Difficulties encountered
The work performed was not without difficulties.
6
2.1 Difficulties related to the timeframe of the study and the distance between the two sites concerned
The Terms of Reference of the study planned for seven (7) days of field-work, i.e. 2½ days per site, plus travelling days. The brevity of the stays did not give us time to clarify the quantitative aspects of certain indicators, nor to go into them more deeply with local populations.
2.2 Difficulties related to the ambiguity of the concept of pastoralism
In the field, the concept of pastoralism is difficult to define because of its changing character. In fact, since the two great droughts in the 1970’s and 1980’s, pastoralists and non-pastoralists have diversified their survival activities. Thus, in Bambara Maoudé, for example, people are both farmers and grazers at the same time, and vice versa. This was a difficulty the inhabitants themselves felt when they were asked to classify their principal activities by order of importance. In Bambara Maoudé, for example, animal husbandry, which is the source of more than 50% of household incomes, came in second to agriculture, which only has a relatively recent position in the area.
2.3 Difficulties linked to the ambiguity of the concept of “indicator”
The translation of the concept of indicator is extremely abstract in the logic of grazers. Grazers do not reason by means of quantifiable indicators, but rather by means of major tendencies. As a result, difficulties were encountered in identifying quantifiable indicators.
2.4 Difficulties related to the diversity of languages spoken in one and the same site (Peul, Songhay, Kel Tamacheq)
The time needed for translating from one language into another made interviews and tool “conveyance” sessions protracted and tedious. Hence, inquiry sessions starting at 08.00 did not finish before 18.00. This often resulted in the discouragement and weariness of the interviewees.
7 2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITES
The aim of this chapter is to give a brief presentation of the environmental and socio- economic conditions prevailing in the investigated sites – a survey in the context of the study.
1. Bambara Maoudé
This site is located between latitude15o48’ and 16o N and longitude 2o40’ and 3o W. The area belongs to the eastern part of the Gourma lake region, known as Western Gourma. It includes the two dried up lakes on the right bank of the River Niger – Dô, covering an area of 16 000 hectares and Niangay covering more than 20 000 hectares. These lakes have progressively dried up to the east and west of Bambara Maoudé (Ag Mahmoud, 1992) (See map next page).
The climate in the area is of the Sahel type, characterised by marked irregularity of rainfall and uneven distribution in time and geographical scope. Rainfall has been estimated at 300.1 mm in 1995 as compared with 116.6 mm in 1985 (Samaké, 1995). Rainfall significantly determines the migratory movements of pastoral populations.
Monthly temperature fluctuations during the course of a year show two extremes: a maximum of 47oC (in May) and a minimum of approx. 18oC (in December). Temperature ranges are thus greater during the dry season.
The dominant wind is the harmattan, which blows during the entire dry season. It increases the loss of atmospheric humidity and thereby accentuates the conditions of aridity.
Pools remain the principal water courses, but dry up two to three months after the winter rainy season. The principal pools are the Danguel and Tassawouak, which after drying up are succeeded by drainage wells and drilled wells in order to assure the watering of livestock.
The area is covered by clayey alluvial soils (in lakes and depressions) as well as dune soils.
Vegetation consists of annual herbaceous plants, a few scattered perennial graminaceous plants and ligneous plants on dunes and in depressions.
8 MAP OF SITE LOCATIONS: BAMBARE MAOUDÉ AND N’DAKI
Source: NCA, 1995: 3rd SSE Conference on Food Security
9 On a demographic level, Bambara Maoudé is principally inhabited by Peul and Songhay peoples, in addition to Moors, Tuaregs, Bellas, Bambaras and Bozos. The Peuls, Moors and Tuaregs are grazers, whereas the remaining populations are farmers. The total population of the “arrondissement” is estimated at 3 354 (1996), of whom 1 600 are women and 1 754 are men. The working population numbers 1 934 (58% of the total population), of whom 941 are women. Population density is 5hts/km2 (PGRN, 1997).
Social hierarchies within these ethnic groups are based on the same structure: nobles at the top of the pyramid, followed by vassals (or free men) and slaves (or caste men) charged with doing the work. Within this hierarchy, women have an inferior status to that of men. However, since the major climate changes and political and social events of the last thirty years, the image of women has been somewhat re-established. Thus, women today participate actively and constructively in all economic and social activities.
Economic life is principally concentrated on animal husbandry and agriculture. These two activities have always been the area’s source of prosperity. Today, flood agriculture is faring poorly, due to insufficient river water to fill the Dô and Niangay lakes.
As for animal husbandry, since the massive slaughters of the 1970’s and 1980’s , only subsistence grazing remains, dominated by a proliferation of sheep and goats. The image of prestige animal husbandry is today nothing but a memory in the minds of local peoples.
Commercial life is essentially founded on these two activities. Grain and livestock drew a large number of people from the surrounding regions to the market in Bambara Maoudé. At present, “this attraction has disappeared and the market is dying away while awaiting a hypothetical revival brought about by the return of annual flooding and the resumption of livestock trading” (André Marty et al., 1991). Until such time, families owe their survival to a diversification of activities – everyone seeks to graze livestock and to cultivate the land, but also to carry out, wherever appropriate, other activities: crop-gathering, handicrafts, trade and exodus have become indispensable recourses for families’ survival.
2. N’Daki
The N’Daki region is located south of Gossi, the chief town of the “arondissement”. It is bordered to the east by the region of Intillit, to the west by Ebanguimallane, to the north by Gossi and to the south by Burkina Faso. Ecologically speaking, it is attached to the zone of so-called “mares vives” (“living pools”) of Gourma (see map.).
The climate in the area is South Sahelian, with an annual rainfall of 350 mm. Rain falls between June and September and is characterised by distinct irregularity in time and geographical scope, and from one year to the next.
Temperatures are extremely high, with relatively significant variations between day and night, as well as between seasons.
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The area’s water resources consists of a network of wadis (Ndaki, Beybangou, Interdjiten) and temporary pools. Drainage wells dug in pools and wadis constitute the only water sources for watering livestock during the hot and dry season.
There are three types of soils: dune, sandy alluvial to alluvial clay and clayey alluvial to alluvial on lower ground.
Vegetation is dominated by shrubby steppe-lands. On the dunes, the following plants grow: Acacia raddiiana, Acacia ehrenbergiana, balanites aegyptttiaca, Acacia senegal, Acacia sengalensis, Guiera sengalensis. In the depressions, Acacia seyal, Acacia nioltica, Balanites, Combretum are found.
As for the area’s demography, N’Daki has 3 274 inhabitants, of whom 2 080 are men and 1 194 are women. The area is inhabited by 13 fractions, in addition to the village of N’Daki. The population consists essentially of Kel Tamacheq, Peuls Jalgoji, Songhay and Ifoulane peoples.
The social structure is identical to that of Bambara Maoudé. This same structure prevails throughout all of Gourma (Ag Mahmoud, 1980).
There are major population migrations in the area (Berge G., Hveem B., 1992), particularly manifested by the departure of young people toward the urban centres in the south, either to the interior of Mali or out of the country, to Burkina Faso, Niger, etc.
On the economic level, animal husbandry is the principal activity in the area, being the main source of annual income for almost the entire population. Grazing is particularly practised by the Kel Tamacheq and Peul peoples, who engage in transhumance between the N’Daki pool and other temporary water-holes. However, from the month of January, grazers start to gather around the village, thereby creating extremely high pressure on grazing land during the hot season.
In addition to cattle, grazing of smaller ruminants (sheep and goats) is well developed in the area. It provides the population with most of its dairy products (Berge G., Hveem B., 1992). Hence, goat-herding, for example, is practised by all communities in the area.
Animal husbandry is supported by secondary activities, such as agriculture, trade, wild-crop gathering, handicrafts and emigration, which provide families with fairly significant additional incomes.
In conclusion, at the time of the inquiry, the socio-economic situation in the two sites concerned can be summarised as follows:
• Return to peace and resumption of development activities; • Chronic shortage of rainfall and river water flow (the year 1997-1998 is considered as a bad year); • Insufficiency and/or lack of grazing land (Bambara Maoudé); • Insufficiency and/or lack of dairy products (Bambara Maoudé);
11 • Insufficiency and/or lack of food reserves at household level; • Extremely precarious foodstuff situation, due to difficulties of supply, poor purchasing power and price fluctuations; • Drop in livestock prices, even cut-price selling or selling at a loss; • Migration of grazers eastward (Bambara Maoudé); • Exodus of young people and men.
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3 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
1 Definition of some key concepts related to food security
1.1 Food security concepts
One of the most commonly used definitions of food security is provided by the World Bank (1986): “Food security means all people’s access at all times to a sufficient quantity of nourishment in order to have an active and healthy life”.
FAO defines the same concept as: “The guarantee for all people at all times to have access both physically and economically to a sufficient food base”
According to the declared general policy and action plan of the World Food Summit (Rome, 1996) food security refers to “a question of availability, stability and access to nourishment”.
The understanding of the concept of food security has progressively evolved over the last years to include not only the transitional problems of supply at national level, but also the chronic problems of inadequate access and uneven distribution of resources at household level.
Upon analysis, all these definitions highlight the following aspects:
• A quantitative aspect: produce as much as possible in order to be self-reliant • A qualitative aspect: diversification of available food in order to improve the nutritional level of the population (foodstuff equilibrium) • An economic aspect: linked to the population’s purchasing power in terms of supply/storage and sale of the food products (distribution); • A health aspect: reduction of problems linked to food dis-equilibrium, disease and lack of hygiene.
These aspects illustrate that food security is a system composed of various mutually dependent elements. The system is subject to the influence of other external factors, such as geographic isolation, natural hazards (rainfall, pests, noxious animals, etc.), production techniques, technologies, etc.
Food security as a system consists of several elements (Fig. Nº1):
• Production; • Sale/distribution; • Population’s purchasing power; • Diversification of food products (food equilibrium); • Health, hygiene and water; • National policies (Fig. Nº2).
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Figure No. 1: Different components of food security
Natio nal po licies Populations purchase Production,
• Food aid ability transformation and product conservation • Techniqual support Supply of food products • Establishment of health centres • ioEcd ucation, information and awareness-raising (F.I.S)
Food security
Health/hygiene: Diversification of Commercialisation
production and food (Reduction of diseases products (Geographical linked to drinking water distribution of food) policies as well as others (food equilibrium) likely to give rise to malnutrition)
Source: Mahamadou Seydou SIDIBE, 1997 (IPR - IFRA)
14 Figure No. 2: Links between National policies and food security
Food security
High availability of Easy access to food Good nutritional level food (physically and economically)
• Tchnocal framework • PRMC (Price - taxes) • Production • Agricultural credits • Growth of market diversification • Subsidies on inputs competition • F.I.S. on the • Research • Population’s incentives advantages of nutrition • Food aid to create activities and hygiene • Other incentives • Investments • Drinking water • Interest cultures • Establishment of health centres • Recruitment of agents
National policies
Source: Mahamadou Seydou SIDIBE, 1997 (IPR - IFRA)
A rational combination of these elements is essential in order to achieve food security. Such a combination includes three components:
• Availability of foodstuffs, comprising production, programmes of nutritional assistance and conservation of food products; • Nutrition, comprising diversification of products, health, hygiene and water; • Access to products, comprising two dimensions: a physical dimension (marketing/sale) and an economic dimension (purchasing power).
According to Josué Dione (1991): “To achieve food security, it is necessary to face the problem while taking into account food availability and access to products”, (Figure No.3: The three components of food security).
15 Figure No. 3: The three components of food security
Food security
Availability Physical and economic Nutrition access
• Agro-sylvi Nutrtional Purchasing Market Diversifica- Health,
pastoral assistance power trade tion of hygiene,
production pro- production water
grammes (food (geographi and
• Transforma product cal exchange available (reduction of
tion and (food aid) supplies) and food disease
conservation distribution products linked to
of food of food water and
products products) (food environmen equilibrium) tal pollution
Institutions: NGOs, technical services, projects
Food security
Source: Mahamadou Seydou SIDIBE, 1997 (IPR - IFRA)
According to Frankenberger (1995), a secured household may be defined as: “a household that disposes of satisfactory and stable food supplies and is capable of withstanding a temporary crisis.
For the populations investigated in our study, food security means purely and simply the permanent access of a community to sufficient and appropriate food (consistent with local food habits and purchasing power).
16 This definition comprises three fundamental elements:
• Food availability (in quantity and in quality of available stocks) • Purchasing power (based on a diversification of income-generating activities) • Stability and affordability of prices for the households
Food insecurity appears inter-annually (in years of drought) or seasonally (during periods of food shortage during the course of a year).
1.2 Foodstuff self-reliance
Self-reliance in food supplies exists when the level of production which, in a normal year, is sufficient to cover habitual needs of basic consumption, i.e. animal or vegetable food products and grains in our particular case.
1.3 Concept of food security indicators
In the same way as it is difficult to define the concept of food security, as it relates to a notion that is inter-sectorial and interdisciplinary, it is equally difficult to define food security indicators.
Indicators are defined as the variables that serve to measure changes in a given phenomenon or process. They can be quantitative or qualitative.
In the study of food security indicators related to the development activities of Norwegian NGOs in Mali, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Ingrid Nyborg and Ruth Haug (1994: pp. 6, 7, 8 and 9), make a distinction between two main types of indicators: performance indicators and strategy indicators.
• Output/Performance indicators are used to measure the state of food security at a given time. They are especially used to evaluate the state of food security before and after an intervention.
• Process indicators are used to measure changes in food security, and comprise supply indicators and accessibility indicators. - Supply indicators are used to measure the quantity of food available at national and regional level; - Accessibility indicators are used to measure a population’s access and right of access to food, either from own production or from transfers (or donations) (See Fig. No.4).
17 Figure No. 4: Characteristics of food security indicators
Indicators to measure food security
Observation of State of food food security security
Performance Strategy
indicators indicators
Access Supply indicators
Indicators
Source: Ingrid Nyborg and Ruth Haug (1994)
However, in our work we have sought to focus in particular on the factors that influence food security and the impact indicators that are capable of being measured and/or observed, without reference to any specific project activities (Fig. No.5)
Figure No. 5: Links between observation indicators of food security and
18 indicators determining project impact
Indicators to measure the Indicators to determine the impact food security of projects on food security
State of food Observation of security food security Relationship between the project and the improvement of access to food
Performance Strategy indicators indicators
Supply indicators Access indicators
Source: Ingrid Nyborg and Ruth Haug (1994)
1.4 Coping strategies
Before selecting impact indicators of food security, one needs to know how target groups characterise their household food situation, and how they face any deterioration of their food situation.
Coping strategies are used as indicators of a changing food situation; they reflect the responses developed by people to overcome food shortages.
Coping strategies are location specific. The sequence and nature of coping strategies differ significantly according to the livelyhood system, but also according to households with the same livelyhood system (socio-economic group) and gender.
The survival strategies applied by a household, in order to face annually recurring insecurity, may be grouped into series of reactions, depending on whether the phase of food insecurity is early, intermediate or late.
19 Shifts from one series of reactions to another indicate the increasing vulnerability of the household. Therefore, it is necessary to know if the household applies these series of reactions during a difficult period or continuously, the latter being indicative of system disintegration.
1.5 Pastoralism
Pastoralism refers to the activities of grazers where more than 50% of the family’s gross income comes from animal husbandry and related commercial activities (Swift, 1988).
In the locations investigated in our study, pastoralism is increasingly associated with extensive agriculture practised in the basins of flood pools and in the light soil of dunes. As a result of the vulnerability of pastoralist environment, grazers are now showing a tendency to develop agro-pastoralist systems integrating both agriculture and animal husbandry. Hence, grazers are now engaging in agriculture, in the same way as farmers are engaging in animal husbandry.
However, if one considers the realities of the sites concerned, it can be said that pastoralism remains an essential economic and cultural activity of Peul and Kel Tamacheq communities, from which they earn more than 60% of their income.
Pastoralism is fighting a loosing battle against a combination of the following factors:
• recurrent droughts (deterioration of soil fertility, degradation of grazing lands and drying out of water sources); • political instability (conflicts/rebellions); • population increase, exceeding the management capacity of local resources; • decline in purchasing power; • emigration/exodus; • inflation of prices; • devaluation; • macro-economic measures, etc.
1.6 Hunger
Hunger, yolbere in the Peul language, hereye in Songhay and laase in Kel Tamacheq, is defined as the need to eat, a need that is felt when the empty stomach contracts. For some interviewees, hunger arises as soon as there is a disruption in the routine of taking three normal meals (breakfast, midday meal and evening meal). For others, hunger prevails when people are forced to resort to unusual food sources, such as certain wild plants (leaves, roots, bark, etc.) or when transitional food insecurity arises as the result of a bad harvest.
The arguments of local populations about the origins of hunger are very linear in form. Rainfall shortage, low river water and the invasion of pests are mentioned as being the principal causes of the scarcity of grazing land, and in consequence, the lack of dairy products and food. God is mentioned as being at the origin of all these phenomena.
20 1.7 Famine
Famine, rafo, heege in Peul, faraw in Songhay, is perceived by populations as a total lack of food; a situation of severe distress where people are faced with hunger, thirst, malnutrition, under-nourishment, disease, death, massive migrations, etc. Here too, the line of argument is straightforward - “there is famine, because it is not raining, and it is not raining because that is the will of God”.
1.8 Food shortage
Food shortage, Alkarsa in Peul, corresponds to the interval between the three months of April, May, June, a period of great heat or when water sources have dried up, or when grazing land is scarce. At such times there is no milk and grain prices are unaffordable for grazers. According to our interviewees, food shortage is associated with transitory food insecurity caused by a shortage of dairy products and food reserves. It is also referred to as the hunger gap season.
1.9 Lack of food
In the opinion of interviewees, lack of food is a temporary deficit or shortage of grain due to several factors: problems of supply, speculation of traders, weak purchasing power, exhaustion of available stocks, shortage of dairy products, etc.
1.10 Malnutrition
Malnutrition is associated with inadequate food intake - unbalanced in relation to normal rations. It is described as an advanced state of under-nourishment. The symptoms of malnutrition are particularly seen among the children, women and elders.
1.11 Food vulnerability
Vulnerability represents the powerlessness to defend oneself and/or the exposure to risks, shocks and stress brought about by food insecurity.
2. Evaluation of the factors influencing food security
21 2.1 Factors of the physical environment
2.1.1 Climatic factors
• Rainfall
Due to its unstable nature and, even more importantly, its uneven distribution in time and geographic scope, rainfall represents, according to our interviewees, the most limiting factor for agricultural and pastoralist production systems. Its consequences are well known to local populations: drying out of water sources, scarcity of grazing land, shortage of dairy products and wild plants for gathering, migration of grazers, bad harvests, famine, etc. Memories of the two major droughts were expressed with a great deal of emotion and bitterness (1973 and 1984).
• Temperature
The months of April, May and June constitute a period of great heat (41°C to 47°C), resulting in the evaporation of plant moisture, increasing aridity which gives rise to the deterioration and, in certain spots, the complete disappearance of vegetation cover.
• Winds
The dominating wind is the harmattan. It is a hot and dry wind, drying out vegetation and filling up pools, wells and saltings with sand.
• Flood
The absence of flood water constitutes a limiting factor on production. In Bambara Maoudé, as a result of the absence of flooding, the Dô and Niangay lakes are no longer cultivated. Local populations are dependent on dune cultivation.
• Pests and noxious animals
These are locusts, blister-flies, caterpillars, seed-eating birds. According to local populations, they generally appear in years of poor rainfall. The damage they cause results, in the majority of cases, to famines: (no harvest, no grazing land nor wild plants for gathering).
• Impoverishment of soils
According to local populations, the good soils are those to be found in lake-beds and depressions. Due to the absence of floods and rainfall, these soils are constantly exposed to the effects of wind erosion. Dune soils are perceived as being infertile and not very suitable for agriculture.
• Predators
22 According to the interviewees - in Bambara Maodé and N’Daki - grazers are having to face a proliferation of predators, such as hyenas and jackals. Damage caused to certain grazers has been considerable. One leading citizen of N’Daki stated that he had lost all his goats in this way.
• Animal diseases
Animal health is being compromised by the proliferation of animal diseases. Interviewees spoke of fairly high rates of animal mortality as a result of a lack of veterinary follow-up. In this context, they also mentioned the insufficiency of health initiatives, lack of infrastructure, equipment, medication and logistic means.
• Epidemics
The impact of epidemics on food security takes the form of increased mortality rates, disablement of the working population and migration.
• Geographic isolation
This problem was mentioned in relation to both sites studied. The absence of service roads or trails exacerbates the difficult conditions of supply and access to neighbouring markets. In Bambara Maoudé, the cost of transportation of one sack of millet to Mopti amounts to 2 000 f cfa. In N’Daki, because of the distance to the markets in Gossi (75 km) and to Hombori (90 km), livestock die during transportation. This situation is highly detrimental to grazers whose incomes are becoming increasingly precarious.
2.1.2 Factors linked to the human environment
• Historical profile of food security in N’Daki and Bambara Maoudé
This profile is an inventory of significant events related to food security that have had positive or negative effects on socio-economic conditions in the communities studied (presented in the table below).
23 Table no. 1: Historical profile of food security (N’Daki) (Group: Men)
Dates Significant events Impact on food security Inception • Setting up of first customs station • Tax on livestock, grain and goods intended for 1962/63 • Setting up of first vaccination centre commercial purposes • Confiscation of assets gained by means of fraud • Sedentarisation of grazers • Organisation of grazers into consumer co- operatives • Vaccination enclosure 1963-73 • Period of great abundance of • Abundant rainfall animal/grain produce • Abundant and high-quality grazing land • Hunger gap period reduced to 2 months • Abundance of dairy products (milk, meat, butter) • Abundance of wild plants for gathering (fonio, cram-cram, boscia, ajar, etc.) • A rich grazer would own: -1000 cattle -3000 sheep and goats -100 camels • A rich farmer could produce: 450 faggots (1 faggot = 20-25kg) millet-sorghum 1973-74 • “Azzagla” (bad year) or • Shortage of rainfall • “Galatet” (starting year) • Tree death • (Big drought) • Disappearance of grazing land • Proliferation of animal diseases • Livestock death • Human deaths • Bankruptcy of grazers • Migration of grazers (in certain cases for good) • Cut-price selling of livestock • Recourse to wild plants (boscia, hasu, dundu, hubey, etc.) or livestock carcasses, cattle hides • Distribution of foodstuffs and clothing 1974-75 • Year of great prosperity • Livestock increase -Sheep:3 young/year -Cows: 2 young /year -Sheep/goats: 2 yound/year • Abundance of milk • Rise in livestock prices • Abundance of fonio and cram-cram (reserves for 2 years) • Good harvest for those having had access to seed 1975-84 • Period of livestock reconstitution • Average rainfall • Regeneration of vegetation (forests, • Average grazing land grazing land, saltings) • Livestock growth • Diminishment of water-holes • Availability of grain on markets
24 Dates Significant events Impact on food security 1984-85 • -“Jajet” (put your belongings on your • Chronic rainfall shortage mounts and get under way) – second • Shortage of grazing land major drought after 73-74 • Famine • Death of livestock/humans • Massive migration of grazers toward Burkina • Cut-price selling of livestock • Recourse to wild plants and animal carcasses • Distribution of food rations • Arrival of NCA • Distribution of food rations -“put the pot on the fire and lie down” - year of donations 1985-1992 • Persistent drought • Gradual decrease in production in all areas
• Development of the N’Daki plain (1989) • Increase in agricultural production (farming techniques) • Inauguration of dispensary (1986) • Improvement of human health • Grain supply store (1987) • Availability and affordability of grain • Opening of first literacy training centre • Access to apprenticeships, management, first aid, in Kel Tamacheq (1991) vocational training • Opening of women’s shop (1991) • Availability of essential commodities (tea, sugar, tobacco, soap, fabrics, etc.) • Rise in purchasing power of women • Increase in women’s activities (market-gardening, reforestation, literacy training) 1992-1996 • Tuareg rebellion • Foodstuff insecurity • Anxiety, fear, concern • Disruption of supply circuits/networks • Massive migration of grazers • Invasion of pests and noxious animals locusts, mice, birds, elephants) • Recourse to animal fodder for the first time • Theft/carrying off of livestock • Reduction in movements of grazers 1996 • Return to peace and social security • Revival of grazing activities • Revival of support activities (NCA)
Table no. 2: Historical profile of food security (Bambara Maoudé) (Group: Men)
Dates Reign Significant events Indicators/Variables Inception Hamma Soule 1894 Sékou Ahmadou’s emissary 1913-1918 • Great famine “world crisis” • Drying up of Dô and Niangaye lakes (kitanga), lasting for 30 years • Rainfall reduction • Invasion of lakes by ephorbs • Population exodus • Consumption of wild plants (fonio, cramcram, boscia, boubey, nenuphar, etc.) • Human mortality • Livestock mortality • Degradation of grazing land • Water supplies from drainage wells Dates Reign Significant events Indicators/Variables
25 1942 • Mandatory contribution of grain • Filling up of lakes to French Army (luwel) • Forced labour • Increase of grain production • Mandatory animal levy • Abundant grazing land 1943 • Destruction of grain by pests • Famine (locusts) • Recourse to fonio, cramcram, boscia • Abundance of milk • Massive exodus toward home country • Shortage of money • “Sawal” measure 1 to 2.75kg • Provisioning by caravans coming from Sarayamou, Kabéka and le Haïré 1950 • Year of mosquitoes and floods • Flooding of lakeside farm land (heavy, abundant rainfall) • Famine • Recourse to boscia, fonio and cramcram • Decline of milk production due to mosquitoes 1973 • Loss of cattle • Livestock mortality • Shortage of grazing land • Cut-price selling of livestock coming from outlying areas • Purchase of cows by population • Migratory flow of Arabs toward Bambara 1983 • Kabomo army • Drying up of Benzena pool • Elephant mortality • Livestock mortality • Bad harvest (2 months) • Exodus (beginning) of youth (Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina, Niger) • Start of provisioning from Mopti (trucks) 1984-85 • Great drought/loss of livestock • Famine • Exodus of grazers toward Burkina • Livestock mortality • Ruin of grazers • Withering of boscia • Emergency aid (year of maize) NCA – CARE Mali 1989 • Damage to harvests caused by • Bad harvest rats and caterpillars, locusts, • Abundant grazing land squirrels 1990 • Creation of grain banks • Price stability • Availability of grain • Emergence of economic interest associations and groups • Affordability of grain
Dates Reign Significant events Indicators/Variables
26 1991-96 • Armed rebellion (Bambara • Widespread fear attack) • Psychosis • Good harvest • Abundant grazing land • Abundant dairy products • Average rainfall (1991-94)
• Flood in Niangaye in 1995
• Bad harvest • Drying up of Niangaye lake • Rainfall shortage • Exodus • Pests (locusts)
• Organisation of society, social hierarchies and structures
Social structures are of a semi-feudal nature – consisting of nobles, vassals and slaves. In practical life, this results in disparities and discriminations between social classes. In such a stratified society, slaves, having no resources of their own, and the poor constitute the most deprived groups. In N’Daki, this inequality is perceived as negative and consequently represents a constraint in respect of production and social self-development.
• Status of women
In both Bambara and N’Daki, women participate in all activities of production and reproduction, as well as in activities associated with community management. In the area of prevention and management of food crises, women play a major role in the distribution of grain through their participation in retail trade, which allows low-income consumers to gain access to grain produce.
Furthermore, during periods of famine and food shortage, women are the first to develop survival strategies by resorting to handicrafts and gathering of wild crops. However, due to the very conservative attitude of the men, women fail to enjoy an autonomous and self- promotional status; they are excessively dependent on their husbands and are unable to develop initiatives without the support and approval of their husbands. As a result, they often have difficult access to literacy training, education, associative lives (N’Daki) and project implementation (N’Daki).
• Exodus of young people
In both communities, the exodus of young people is part of the tradition. During the idle season, young people go off to the towns of the interior and/or outside Mali in search of work. Incomes generated are spent to help the family and to purchase new livestock. However, our investigations indicate that during years of crisis the prolonged stays of the young people away from home often result in a lack of labour and herdsmen.
27
• Migration
Migration was mentioned as having a negative impact on food security. Migration generally takes place in situations of crisis and hence during bad years. Such migration is internal and/or external.
• Conflicts/rebellion
In both localities, rebellion was mentioned as a factor impacting production and food security in a negative fashion. Other consequences mentioned during the inquiry were the theft and carrying off of livestock, general insecurity, disruption of supply circuits, killings, etc.
• Socio-economic stratification
a) Criteria of well-being (or affluence)
Our inquiry identified 3 types of criteria: herds (livestock), foodstuff self-reliance and monetary liquidity.
1) Herds (N’Daki, Bambara Maoudé) In both localities, investigations confirmed that to enjoy a comfortable financial position, one had to own at least: - 400 head of cattle (N’Daki), as opposed to 100-200 in Bambara Maoudé - 1000 head of sheep/goats (N’Daki), as opposed to 200 to 300 in Bambara Maoudé - 5 camels (N’Daki, Bambara Maoudé) - 10 donkeys (N’Daki, Bambara Maoudé) - 8 herdsmen in addition to family labour (N’Daki) - Have permanent access to grazing land, water sources, saltings and markets for trading and supply purposes - Possess sufficient food reserves (Bambara Maoudé)
2) Foodstuff self-reliance (Bambara Maoudé) - Dispose of food reserves permanently: 200-300 faggots (1 faggot = 25 kg) - Own 50-60 head of cattle - Own 50-100 head of sheep/goats - Own 1-2 camels - Own 1-2 horses - Own at least 2 donkeys - Own 3-4 lake-bed fields and 1 large dune field - Be capable of assisting the needy in periods of crisis - by means of loans or gifts and donations - Own a dwelling - Have access to health
3) Monetary liquidity (Bambara Maoudé) - Possess at least 3-4 million CFA francs in ready cash - Own at least 100-1000 head of cattle
28 - Own 200-300 head of sheep/goats - Own 4-5 camels - Own a dwelling - Be literate in French and Arabic
Upon analysis, these criteria vary not only from one locality to another, but also from one socio-economic group to the next.
In N’Daki the criteria of affluence for grazers are essentially based on the possession of a large herd. On the other hand, in Bambara Maoudé, for both farmers and traders, the criteria of affluence are based on foodstuff self-reliance for the first category and on monetary liquidity for the second.
It must be noted that in neither locality was the criterion of equipment mentioned. On the other hand, in the current situation for criteria of well-being, new elements have been mentioned, such as access to literacy training, to education and health. Among the factors of well-being that may influence food security, interviewees underscored three aspects – sound management of grazing resources, perseverance in production work and clemency with respect to natural disasters.
b) Poverty criteria
Generally speaking, the poor are perceived as those who are unable to procure the essentials to cover basic needs to survive. In a Malian context, poverty is defined as a level of expenditure under which a population fails to satisfy food-energy needs, ie. 2450 cal/j. This basic definition must be examined in the light of the context of the present study.
In Bambara Maoudé the results of the study make a distinction between two major classes: one so-called poor class, divided into three sub-groups and one so-called destitute class. The latter class encompasses, of course, of those who have nothing and who are unable to do anything for themselves (elderly persons without support, widowed women without support, single women, the sick and disabled, etc.)
In N’Daki, on the other hand, the population is divided into three distinct categories: the rich (or affluent), the poor and the destitute.
For further details on these criteria of classification, we refer the reader to the tables below.
29 Table no. 3: Socio-economic stratification (Bambara Maoudé) (Group: Men)
In Bambara Maoudé the population is classified into two major socio-economic categories: the poor and the destitute
Category of poor Indicators 1. The poor 3 to 10 cows 10 to 20 sheep/goats First category: Those who manage to satisfy all their needs and 2 to 4 donkeys make some savings; they represent 13% of the total population At the most 1 horse At the most 1 camel At least 2 fields At the most 1 cart Family and paid labour Medical expenses Clothing expenses Granting of loans Valuables (gold, radio, tape-recorder) Second category: Those who are able to satisfy only their basic No cows needs; they represent 20% of the total population 5 to 10 sheep/goats At least 1 donkey At the most 2 fields No cart Family labour At the most clothing for the family Contract loans Valuables – at the most radio, tape-recorder Third category: Those who have difficulty in satisfying their basic 1 to 3 sheep/goats needs; they represent 48% of the population At the most 1 donkey At the most 1 field No cart Service-provider (labour) Irregular clothing (family) Difficult access to credits Large family 2. The destitute: Miskin Lack support Beggary This category essentially includes those who can do nothing for No belongings themselves; they represent 19% of the population Malnutrition/disease Disabilities
Remark: As can be seen from the table above, our inquiry shows that there is no affluent class in Bambara Maoudé at present.
Table no. 4: Socio-economic stratification (N’Daki) (Group: Men)
30
Affluent Poor Destitute The affluent are defined as those Two distinct categories: Those who can do nothing by own who manage to satisfy all their 1st category: Those who are able to means, representing 5% of the needs and accumulate wealth. They satisfy basic needs, representing population. represent 5% of the population: 50% of the population The criteria are: - Cattle……………... 400 head - Cattle……………….. 20 head - Sheep/goats……… 1000 head - Sheep/goats………… 50 head - Elderly people without support - Camels…………… 5 head - Camel.……. .………. 1 head - Disabled people - Donkeys…………. 10 head - She-camel…………... 1 head - Single widowed women - Herdsmen………... 8 - Donkeys……………. 2 head - Widowed women without support - Plus family labour - Family labour
2nd category: Those who have difficulty in satisfying basic needs, representing 40% of the population. The criteria are:
- Cattle………………… 0 head - Sheep/goats………….. 20 head - Camels……………….. 0 head - Donkey……………….. 1 head - Family labour (many children)
• Coping strategies
In the two localities, populations have always developed coping strategies - not only to survive, but also to adapt to their environment. In the case of the present study, it is worth noting that our analysis has focused not only on situations of food crisis but also on normal and average situations (See annexes: Indicators of food security in good, average and bad years in N’Daki (Annex 1) and in Bambara Maoudé (Annex 2). A food crisis is defined as a crisis engendering famine, hunger, food shortage, etc. and is caused by either drought, floods, invasion of pests or noxious animals or by conflicts (rebellion), etc. Usually, this type of crisis will manifest itself in a pastoral environment by poverty and/or scarcity of grazing land and water source, prevalence of animal diseases and, in consequence, by a shortage of dairy products, scarcity of grain and wild crops for gathering. Hence, we asked our interviewees to tell us about the strategies they apply when reaching 3 critical thresholds during one and the same year of crisis:
- The first threshold, which is also the most dangerous, corresponds to the early onset of the crisis, just two to three months after harvest-time;
- The second threshold corresponds to the exhaustion of stocks (or reserves) six months before the next harvest;
- The third threshold is reached seven to ten months before the next harvest.
31 The table below provides a detailed overview of these different coping strategies:
Table no. 5: Coping strategies (N’Daki) (Group: Men)
Inventory of survival strategies Early onset Itermediate Late onset onset Sale of livestock (ruminants) X XX Build-up of food stocks X - Search for grazing areas and water sources X X XX Recourse to animal fodder - XX Disposal of livestock (in anticipation of scarcity of grazing land and - water sources) X X Recourse to emergency foodstuffs (gathering of wild crops) - XX Adjustment of meals (cold season dinner: 1 meal every second day, XX hot season lunch, 1 single meal) - X Migration X X XX Exodus X X - Sale of valuables (jewelry, sabre, mount, tent, camel saddles - XX Loan of animals, money and grain - X XX Sale of labour - X XX Diversification of activities (agriculture, trade, market-gardening) X X XX Recourse to NGOs X X X Consumption co-operatives - X XX Grain banks - X XX Agriculture - XX Trade X X XX Market-gardening - X XX Sale of sabre - - X Sale of mount - - X Sale of milking cow and her calf - - X
Table no. 6: Coping strategies (N’Daki) (Group: Women)
Inventory of survival strategies Early Intermediate Late Gathering of wild crops (boscia senegalensis, fonio, cramcram, etc) X X XX Fattening of livestock/small-scale husbandry (sheep/goats) X X XX Handicrafts (rugs, cushions, leather goods, mats) X X XX Anthills - - XX Sale of valuables (gold, silver) - - XX Spacing of meals - X XX Donations - - XX Credits/running up debts - - XX Exodus X X XX
32 Table no. 7: Coping strategies (Bambara Maoudé) (Group: Men)
Inventory of survival strategies Early onset Intermediate Late onset onset 1. Farmers Gathering of wild crops (boscia, nenuphars, fonio, cramcram, X X XX anthills, “gori” Cutting/gathering of fuelwood and construction timber - X XX Gathering of straw (hay) X X XX Labour for farming activities, stonework - X XX Stonework (manufacture and sale of bricks) X X XX Sale of livestock (at cut-price) - - -- Sale of jewelry - - XX Exodus X X XX Running up debts - X XX Migration toward le Haïré - X XX Market-gardening - X XX Diversification of income-generating activities X X XX 2. Grazers Search for grazing land X X XX Stocking of hay X X XX Purchase of animal fodder - - XX Gathering of wild crops X X XX Placing of livestock with traders - X XX Sale of livestock X X XX Running up debts - X XX Migration - X XX Taking care of livestock belonging to traders/town dwellers X X XX Exodus X X XX
Table no. 8: Coping strategies (Bambara Maoudé) (Group: Women)
Inventory of survival strategies Early Intermediate Late Market-gardening (vegetable production) - - - Search for fodder - - - Bartering (milk against grain) X X XX Handicrafts (rugs, cushions, leather goods, mats) X X X Anthill - - X Sale of valuables (gold, silver) - - X Spacing of meals - X XX Placement of children - - X Labour X X XX Sale of wood X X XX Donations - - X Credits/running up debts - X XX Exodus X X XX Sale of wood and charcoal X X XX
33
• Socio-cultural aspects
These aspects were particularly highlighted in Bambara Maoudé. Interviewees in N’Daki state that there are no foodstuffs that are forbidden to eat.
- Food taboos Some of these animals are neither killed nor eaten due to their sacred nature: - swans (bird of good omen) - hyenas (religion) - warthogs (religion) - pythons - porcupines (sign of good harvest) - rats - “gueule tapée” (sign of good harvest) - animal carcasses (disease) - insects - donkeys/horses
- Taboos associated with production: - pregnant women must not be in contact with seed grain (causes a bad harvest) - cross through a field (brings bad luck) - cross through a herd or stare at it (brings bankruptcy) - to marry a women with fair skin, small, pointed breasts (brings bad luck)
- Revealing proverbs and idioms These express the deepest thoughts of a community. Within the framework of our study, we were only interested in those relating to either production, relations between men and women or which could explain behaviour and/or attitudes – negative or positive – toward food security (See Annex 20: List of proverbs from Bambara Maoudé)
2.2 Factors associated with production systems
2.2.1 Production
• Scarcity of land
In Bambara Maoudé, this is perceived to be a factor limiting agricultural production. In fact, good lake-bed areas cannot be cultivated due to the absence of flooding to make the land fertile. In the opinion of local populations, this situation has given rise to a scarcity of arable land.
• Insufficiency of labour
This issue was mentioned in Bambara Maoudé in particular. With the exodus of young people, some families are finding that they are short of labour during the farming season.
• Techniques for driving and managing livestock herds
34
During the dry season, the bulk of the herd is in transhumance, leaving a large portion of the family in the village. According to interviewees, this period is often one of shortage of dairy products and transactions (exchanges and bartering) between grazers and farmers.
• Farming techniques
Agriculture is of the extensive type, even itinerant on dune soils. As a result yields are low and result in particular in environmental degradation in the medium-term.
• Shortage of seed
In Bambara Maoudé, it was mentioned that the 1997/98 season had been a very bad year. Interviewees stated that they had had no harvest, and had not even enough seeds to set aside for the next farming season.
2.2.2 Market trade
From our interviews, it appears - in Bambara Maoudé as well as in N’Daki - that grain prices are currently beyond the reach of the purchasing power of local populations. One witness reported that a sack of millet costs between 15 000 and 17 000 CFA francs, i.e. two to three times the price of a goat on the market in Bambara Maoudé.
In N’Daki, there is mention of poor geographical distribution of products. This phenomenon is particularly due to the area’s remoteness from markets and its isolated geographical location.
2.2.3 Gathering of wild crops
This activity plays a very important socio-economic role. Many women state that they derive their source of income from this activity. In years of chronic food insecurity, gathering wild crops remains their last resort. Among the plants most commonly gathered for consumption are:
- wild fonio - cramcram - boscia senegalensis - balanite aegyptiaca - wild water melons - nenuphars, etc. - “fakuhoy”
2.2.4 Purchasing power
35 Animal husbandry and agriculture represent the two principal economic activities of the region. The combined influence of a number of negative factors (drought, pests, noxious animals, animal disease, predators, limitation and remoteness of markets, etc.) have the effect that incomes generated are always insufficient. In order to mitigate this insufficiency, local populations have developed other income-generating activities such as exodus, trade, gathering of wild crops, handicrafts and market-gardening, especially in Bambara Maoudé.
3. Review of the activities of certain development operators in the field of food security
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the various sectors of activity related to food security in the two localities in question, as well as in the intervention zone in general. Among the operators in this field, we find NGOs, technical services, groups, associations and co-operatives. The table below provides a detailed overview of their activities.
36 Table no. 9: Review of activities of some development operators in the area of food security
Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
1. GOSSI
1.1. - Food aid for the - Production of food - Rice/millet/ - Community - Project file Internal: Strengths: Norwegian rehabilitation of crops sorghum activities development - Activity records in - Village - Community Church Aid disaster-struck - Animal husbandry - Dike activities activities the communities associations and approach (NCA) – populations of - Environment - Fonio campaign - Return and - Monthly activity community - Democratisation of International NGO Gourma - Infrastructures and - Building works reinsertion reports groups traditional power - Development small enterprises - Market-gardening of refugees and - Quarterly co- - Administration, support aimed at - Health education - Loan of livestock population groups ordination meeting technical Weaknesses: ensuring food - Agronomic - Fodder production on state of progress services, - Certain entities security research - Improvement of water of activities resource persons within these same - Combat locust sources - Joint NCA/ and APE communities do not Objectives: invasions - Fixing of dunes CLDE evaluation individuals comprehend the - Food self- - Landscape preservation sanctioned by implications of this reliance - Reforestation evaluation report External: approach - Combat - Construction of literacy - Annual activity - CARE Mali - Lack of desertification training centres reports - AFAR/ understanding by - Break geographic - Construction of schools, ACOPAM preservers of isolation community stores, - BIT, HCR, tradition women’s shops technical services - Literacy-training, post- literacy training - Village irrigation systems - Sewage systems - Crop protection - Fodder availability
37 Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
- Grain supply to populations - Reorganisation of populations for market sale of products and sub- products of animal husbandry 1.2 Supply populations Animal husbandry in - Supply of animal fodder - Awareness-raising - Quantity of animal Grazers, livestock Weaknesses: Gossi Livestock with animal food the commune of - Supply of medicines, grain, tea, - Training of breeders fodder and and retail traders - Lack of means Breeders Co- and “bourgou” Gossi milk, sugar, etc. “bourgou” in stock - Cost of operative - Fall in prices transportation (association)
1.3 Supply market at Grain trading in the - Availability of grain on market Awareness-raising and - Quantities of grains External: Weaknesses: Association of Gossi with grain commune of Gossi - Stabilisation of prices training of livestock stocked, sold - Traders in San - Lack of means Grain Merchants - Availability of fodder breeders - Prices - Irregularity of in Gossi Internal: stocks (association) - Retail merchants - High costs of - Population of transportation Gossi 1.4 Supply population Market-gardening in --Increase yields Awareness-raising of Quantities of seed NCA Weaknesses: Co-operatives of with good-quality the commune of - Sales outlets for market-garden populations sown, produce OISI - Shortage of seed, Market-Gardeners market-garden Gossi produce harvested, produce phyto-sanitary of Gossi produce sold, produce products, (association) consumed, produce agricultural inputs stocked - Sale of produce at a loss - Lack of equipment
38 Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
1.5 Promotion of Agriculture, animal - Availability of grazing land and Organisation and - No. of gardens Population of Weaknesses: Consultant various types of husbandry in Gossi water support to the operated Gossi and - Lack of means Support Unit for operations and Adiora - Increase of yield from fonio communes - No. of trees planted administration of - Lack of Rural Management plains - Dune surface area NCA, GRAFP organisation of and Equipment - Stabilisation of grain prices cultivated communities (ACAER) - Establishing bartering systems - No. of irrigated - Poor management (technical service) fields of farming land - No. of fonio plains developed - No. of orchards operated - No. of landscapes protected - No. of head vaccinated - No. of pools stocked with fish - No. of fish-ponds developed - Areas regenerated with “bourgou” 1.6 Control and Environment, - Combat desertification - Market control - Market prices Communities of Strengths: Rural Development regulation agriculture, animal - Increase yields - Control of operations - Quantities of grain Gossi, Ouiderden - Good-quality Sector Control husbandry in Gossi, - Stabilise prices - Control of standards stocked and sold and Inadiatafane produce Office (technical Ouinerden and - Increase livestock prices - Control of slaughters - No. of livestock - Reliable statistics service) Inadiatafane offered and sold - Quantities fish Weaknesses: processed - Lack of means - No. of litres of butter - Lack of structures offered on market for livestock - Quantities inspected market
39 (milk, oil, sardines)
Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
2. BAMBARA MAOUDE
2.1 - Improve training Handicrafts in Supply of grain to all sales - Proper operation of - Management NCA, local Strengths: Bambara Maoudé level of members Bambara Maoudé outlets and at affordable prices handicraft activities committee populations - Strive to overcome Craftsmen’s - Promote and rapid turnover of - Association’s food crisis and Association profession of products archives poverty (established on craftsmen by use involving high work 31.07.97) of modern intensity in normal Weaknesses: (association) techniques years - Poverty and lack of - Facilitate prod- - In average years, organisation of duction functional market, populations operations activities are in - Assist process of decline village develop- - In bad years, very ment through little demand for village councils handicrafts 2.2 - Socio-economic - Food - Rural work - In normal years, - Periodical meetings NGOs in place in Strengths: Association for the and cultural - Social contexts - Market-gardning strategy is to provide - Ordinary and Bambara Mouadé, - Solidarity between Development of deve-lopment of - Agro-pastoral areas - Credit systems provision with grain extraordinary annual local populations members Lac Dô commune - Build head-office of association at a good price general assemblies - Strict management (AMILADO) - Grouping of - Machinery warehouse - In bad years, - Meetings with - Will to succeed (established in young people organise populations authorities and 1991) (assocation) from all social to stay and work in partners environments locality
40 - Maintain price - Maintain stable stability on prices market (regular supplies to shops) - Human invest- ment (cleaning up Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
of town, hygiene of water sources)
2.3 - Promote - Handicrafts - Knitting - Implementation of Regular meetings of NCA, OISI, Waldé Wafakye diversification of - Trade - Dying all management dewral, (established in women’s - Soap-making, sewing, association activities committee or general agricultural 1993) (association) activities ointments during normal years assembly service, CDA in the village of - Trade - In bad years, storage Bambara Maoudé - Availability of water in lakes of grain - Increase the - Availability of drinking water incomes of women 2.4 - Facilitate Animal husbandry - Sale of animal fodder Management NCA, CDA, Association of transaction - Assistance from veterinary committee breeders Livestock Breeders operations service to combat animal in Bambara - Increase incomes disease Maoudé - Improve level of - Supply grazers with animal (established in training and fodder and veterinary products 1989) (association) expertise - Sale of animal products - Achieve self- organisation
41 - Promote a breeding system enabling modern techniques to increase animal production. Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
2.5 Restoration and - Literacy training - Digging of large diameter well - Participatory - Facilitators based in All development Natural Resource management of - Reforestation, - Two community plant nurseries development, the villages operators, CDA Management natural resources community plant - Two enriched grazing areas following analysis of - Weekly follow-up Project – co- to improve agro- nurseries - Market-garden area records ordination of sylvo-pastoral - Quickset hedge - Geo-physical studies - Development plan “arrondissement” production for the - Fixation - Production of organic manure for area of Bambara good of local - Enrichment of - Improve agro-pastoral Maoudé populations grazing land production (development - Filtration bunds project) - Stone borders - Fodder production - Small-scale equipment - Basket-making - Protection of natural shoots - Market-gardening - Soap-making - Setting up a pastoral code
42 2.6 - Supply - Supply populations - Approx. 100T of grain resold in Regular supply during - Management NCA, CDA Weaknesses: Grain bank populations with with grain 2 years average years and committee Inadequate training (estblished in grain at lower - Control of - Supply populations with grain years of crisis - Keeping of records of members 1990) (association) prices documents at lower prices - Meetings, general - Make stocks - Permanent availability of stocks assemblies permanently - Combat speculation by available merchants - Make a profit Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
2.7 - Mandated to - Agriculture - Consumption of high-quality - Monthly reports NGOs, Control Office control - Animal husbandry foodstuffs - Follow-up records associations, (technical service) veterinary, - Fisheries - Use of high-quality seed groups, co- forestry, animal operatives and fisheries legislation - Control livestock market movements, exports, market prices - Sanitary follow- up of livestock markets - Control quality of food products - Follow-up and control of agricultural seed - Control and follow-up of development and functionality of
43 associations, co- operatives and concerns - Training of leaders
Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
2.8 Participate in - Market sale of - Sale of grain, animal fodder, - Management NCA, village Association of economic, social rain, livestock, tea, livestock committee council, CDA Young Patriots of and cultural sugar - Reforestation of one grove - Management Bambara Maoudé development of - Reforestation - Deepening of one pool documents (established in Mali in our region - Deepening of pools - Strive to meet challenges in all 1997) (association) by re-establishing - Sale of animal socio-economic areas own mutual aid fodder activities 2.9 - Promote -Trade - Market sale of grain, small Supply according to Strengths: Association of women’s - Reforestation ruminants, tea, sugar, paraffin periodical needs - Availability of Women of Balla activities - Market-gardening - Sale of crockery, tannin funds Farandi - Increase incomes - Mat-making (established in - Availability of grain in Weaknesses: 1994) (association) sufficient quantities - Sale of goods at a loss - Geographic isolation 2.10 - Assist women in - Agriculture NCA, OISI, Waldé Strengths: Association of promoting agro- - Trade dewral, CDA, - Availability of Women of pastoral activities Govt. Technical funds Foulouga and co-operative services - Will of members (established in movements 1994) (association) - Create solidarity Weaknesses: between women Illiteracy
44 Name of Goals/Objectives Spheres of activity Prioritised concerns and Experiences/ Follow-up and Partnerships Strengths/ organisation/ activities Intervention, follow- evaluation Weaknesses Date of up and evaluation indicators establishment/ strategies Status
and develop a - Filling up of lakes sense of - Training of members creativity, and initiative in the fields of production and market sale - Improve levels of training/ education 2.11 - Forests - Reforestation In normal years: PGRN, NCA Strength: Consultant - Fisheries - Natural regeneration by means - Application of - Good collaboration Support for Rural - Hunting of landscape protection farming techniques between various Equipment - Animal husbandry - Combat erosion social classes (established in - Agriculture - Extension of improved cooking In average years: 1996) (association) stoves - Use of active Weaknesses: - Identification of problems varieties - Lack of support linked to needs - Lack of funding - Identification of low-income In years of crisis: sources families - Use of available - Emergency aid resources - Creation of micro- projects 2.12 - Increase incomes Trade - Placing of funds - Visit other markets NCA, Waldé Strength: Association of - Satisfy the needs - Repayment at maturity to dewral - Agreement within Women of Koïra of women sell goods the association Koumna - Investment of money (established in in goods that are Weakness: 1995) (association) easily sold Scarcity of grazing land
45
4. Presentation of some follow-up systems set up by development operators
The purpose of this sub-chapter is to review some of the follow-up systems currently being applied in the field of prevention and management of food crises at national level, as well as at the level of the area studied.
4.1 Existing information structures
There are two such structures:
• Early Warning System (“Système d’Alert Précoce”) (SAP); • Grain Market Information System (“Système d’Information du Marché céréalier”) (SIM)
4.1.1 Early Warning System (SAP)
This structure was instituted in 1986 with funding from the EEC (now EU) and EDF. It is attached to the Ministry of Territorial Administration and its mandate is the early detection and alerting of policy-makers of the emergence of a food crisis at a relatively fine geographical level (“arrondissement” level).
SAP is implemented by a central team in Bamako and by mobile regional teams ensuring surveillance of 173 “arrondissements” located north of latitude 14o N.
The work consists of compiling and processing a data base covering a variety of elements: rainfall, development of agriculture, animal husbandry, market prices, demographic migrations, food habits and state of health.
On the basis of such inquiries, SAP formulates recommendations, ranging from the sale of intervention commodities to free hand-outs of foodstuffs and the incorporation of local populations in development and rehabilitation programmes (See Fig. No. 6).
46 Figure no. 6: System of food security in Mali related to grain distribution
PRMC Financing
SAP SIM Information
COC
Decision
PSA/OPAM CNAUR/CAD
NGOs DAG Sales/Association Local Distribution Administration
Target groups
Source: TRAORE Minkoro, 1993
4.1.2. Grain Market Information System (SIM)
SIM was set up in 1989 and is administratively attached to the Mali Agricultural Products Office (“Office des Produts Agricoles du Mali”) (OPAM); its mandate is to compile and disseminate information relating to prices and quantities of grain transacted on the market. SIM information is broadcast on the radio (in all national languages) and on television.
Data collected relate to: state of market supply (availability), wholesale and retail prices and level of transactions. Sluggishness in market transactions and seasonal price increases are telltale signs of a shortage requiring SAP to sound the alert.
Among other structures operating in this area, could be mentioned:
• the FAO network (a world-wide information and early warning system) • CILSS’ Permanent Diagnostic Project (DIAPER, member of the SAP national group) • the AGRIMET Project (with its information bulletin of satellite observations)
4.2 Decision-making structures
47 These are three in number:
4.2.1 Ministry of Territorial Administration and Security (“Ministère de l’Administration Territoriale et de la Sécurité”) (MATS)
The role of this Ministry is to draw up and file applications for the use of security stocks to the Ministry of Finance pursuant to SAP recommendations.
4.2.2 Ministry of Finance (“Ministère des Finances”) (MF)
This Ministry’s role is to inform PRMC of any request for use of National Security Stocks (SNS) formulated by MATS for the purpose of free distribution in zones of insecurity.
4.2.3 Grain Market Restructuring Programme (“Programme de Restructuration du Marché Céréalier) (PRMC)
This programme was set up in 1980 by the Government and funding partners (Germany, Canada, the Netherlands, Belgium, UK, USA, etc.). Its role is to fund economic development by improving the functional operation of the national grain market.
4.3 Implementing structures
The various bodies of intervention in the event of a food crisis are as follows:
• Support Unit for Grass-Roots Development (“Cellule d’Appui au Développment à la Base”) (CADB) • Malian Agricultural Products Office (OPAM) • Non-governmental (NGOs) and private organisations • Associative, co-operative and mutual benefit organisations (“Organisations associatives, coopératives et mutualistes”) (OACM)
4.3.1 Support Unit for Grass-Roots Development (CADB)
According to its Terms of Reference, the role of this body is to:
• direct, co-ordinate and evaluate the activities of development partners at grass-roots level, in particular that of NGOs; • ensure liaison between ministries and donor institutions and bodies and NGOs; • collect useful information enabling the evaluation of the needs of victim populations for assistance; • prepare and follow up the implementation of emergency and rehabilitation activities.
To achieve these ends, the structure is divided into two departments:
• NGO Department
48 • Department for emergency and rehabilitation activities in zones at risk
When necessary, aid is supplied to the Local Development Committee (“Comité Local de Développement”) (CLD) which determines the points of delivery and the distribution between beneficiaries. Control is assured by the Support Unit for Grass-Roots Development (CADB).
4.3.2 Mali Agricultural Products Office (OPAM)
Established in 1965 to replace the Grain Office, OPAM’s mandate is to retain a monopoly on the purchase and sale of grain within the country and abroad.
In 1988, following a number of setbacks due to poor management and unwieldy administration, its monopolistic mandate was modified by Government to one of management of the National Security Stock (“Stock National de Sécurité”) (SNS) for food aid and supplies to zones of shortage, a list of which is drawn up every year on the basis of SAP forecasts.
OPAM has two units responsible for training and awareness-raising of the various operators on the grain market: producers, merchants, processors, consumers, decision-makers, donors, etc. These are the Training and Documentation Unit (CEFODOC) and SIM.
4.3.3 Private agencies and NGOs
In addition to public bodies for the surveillance and management of food crises, NGOs and other private bodies are also involved in the combating of food crises. They work in collaboration with CADB and dispose of a significant capacity of intervention associated with the following:
• sound knowledge of the needs of populations (close presence); • high capacity for detecting the most needy households; • more equitable distribution.
4.3.4 Associative, co-operative and mutual benefit organisations (OACM)
These bodies consist of a multitude of co-operatives, associations, groups, GIEs, etc. which, thanks to the implementation of consumer and sales co-operatives, play a very important role, during normal times as well as during times of crisis, in the implementation of measures and activities.
4.4 Action plan for the implementation of interventions
The process of intervention implementation comprises several stages:
49 ³ Government is informed already in September, thanks to the intervention system; ³ Government then informs its development partners of a threatening risk of disaster; ³ development partners consult one another at various levels – UN system, EEC, Sahel Club, NGOs, etc; ³ members countries concerned meet at CILSS level (if the phenomenon has a regional character); ³ Government instructs its technical and administrative departments to accelerate the compilation of information on the scope of the disaster and to evaluate needs.
Thus, already in October, Government is able to have at their disposal reliable and quantifiable data about:
• grain shortages (geographic distribution, needs for food aid) • population movements and gathering places for victims and vulnerable groups, as well as the epistemological situation; • herd movements and their state of health.
The collection of these data is co-ordinated by the Ministry of Territorial Administration.
4.5 Review of a number of follow-up systems set up by development operators in the zone covered by the present study
The table below is an illustration of the follow-up indicators which are generally applied by technical services, NGOs and associative and co-operatives organisations.
50 Table no. 10: Follow-up indicators set up by technical services in the area of food security
Intervention structures Follow-up indicators 4.5.1 Technical services 1. Early Warning System (SAP) Three principal types of indicators
1. Isolated indicators (or exogenous indicators) - rainfall, temperature, winds - high water level of river - development of farming activities - pests and noxious animals - predators - geographical isolation - anial disease
2. Artificial indicators (or availability indicators) - availability of food - purchasing power/supply habits - analysis of preceding year
3. Indicators of food risk - availability of food - Grain products - Dairy and animal products - Wild crops gathered, etc. - foodstuff production - Rice - Millet/sorghum - Fonio - Cramcram, etc - purchasing power - Animal husbandry - Agriculture - fishing - trade - handicrafts - wild crop gathering - market-gardening - exodus - market trade - distribution - affordability (price)
51
Intervention structures Follow-up indicators and evaluation systems 2. Consultant Support for the Rural Development and - No. of gardens in operation Equipment of Gossi (ACAER) - No. of trees planted and survived - Dune area cultivated - No. of fields irrigated - No. of fonio plains developed - No. of orchards in operation - No. of forests and grazing lands protected - No. of head of livestock vaccinated - Livestock growth rate - No. of pastoral wells - No. of temporary and permanent poools - No. of trees producing wild crops for gathering - Quantity of products gathered, offered and sold on the market - “bourgou”-producing areas - No. of pools stocked with fish - No. of fish-ponds developed - Quantity of rain received - Level of river flooding
Follow-up system – Evaluation - NCA modules for all supported activities - SAP system 3. Rural Sector Control Office (PRCSR) in Gossi - List of current prices on market (market prices) - Quantity of grain stocked and sold - No. of animals offered and sold - No. of litres of butter offered and sold - Area of fonio plain cultivated - No. of trees yielding wild crops for gathering - Quantity of products gathered - No. of litres of cow milk
52
Table no. 11: Follow-up indicators set up by an NGO – NCA
Intervention structures Follow-up indicators and evaluation systems 4.5.2 Non-Governmental Organisations
4. Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) - No. of wells and pump stations - No. of pools deepened - Quantity (in m3) of water available during 4 month hunger gap season - Quantity of water available during 2 months more than usual in at least one water source in the zone - Quantity of rainfall during the year - Level of high water in river and lakes - Estimate of herbaceous and shrubby grazing land - Area regenerated with “bourgou” (river/pools) - No. of grazers educated about production and management of “bourgou” cultures - Quantity of animal fodder purchased - No. of livestock in each grazer’s herd - No. of animals vaccinated - Livestock growth and birth rate - Range of livestock movements - Migration - No. of litres of milk and butter on the market - Quantity of milk bartered against grain - Quantity of cheese offered and sold on the market - No. of farmers possessing seed - Yield t/ha (or faggots) - No. of motor-driven pumps, ploughs and carts - No. of seed granaries - No. of educated farmers - No. of dikes and other construction works - Quantity of grain harvested (millet, sorghum, paddy rice - Quantity of grain sold per production unit - No. of fonio plains developed/quantity harvested
Follow-up system – Evaluation - Project records containing objectives, indicators and hypotheses - Activity and follow-up records at community and agent level - Monthly activity reports - Quarterly co-ordination meetings on state of progress of activities - Joint NCA/CLDE evaluation - Annual activity reports
53
Table no. 12 : Follow-up indicators set up by a market-gardening co-operative
Intervention structures Follow-up indicators 5. Gossi Market-Gardening Co-operative - Quantity of seed sown - Quantity of produce harvested . Quantity of produce consumed - Quantity of produce sold - Quantity of produce stocked - Exodus - No. of periodic meetings - No. of general assemblies - Activity reports
54 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In the present study, we were asked to evaluate the factors influencing food security, to review a number of significant interventions in this connection, to examine a number of follow-up systems set up by various development operators in the field and finally to propose to NCA follow-up and evaluation indicators for projects in pastoral environments.
Upon completion of this rapid survey, a certain number of conclusions and recommendations can be drawn.
It appears from the study that the ecological basis for food security is extremely precarious in both the sites studied. Furthermore, the study brought to light two series of factors: the constraints linked to the physical environment and the constraints inherent to socio-economic and cultural aspects.
1. Constraints linked to the physical environment
• persistent drought • scanty rainfall • low level of river water and scarcity of irrigation water • soil degradation • degradation of grazing land and the environment • prevalence of animal disease • prevalence of pests and noxious animals • prevalence of predators • geographic isolation
2. Constraints of a socio-economic and cultural nature
• uncontrolled pressure on pastoral resources • poor management of common grazing land • low level of organisation • inadequacy of production • inadequacy of incomes • low level of technical systems and equipment • inequality of relations between men and women • disparities and discrimination linked to social hierarchies • low literacy level • low level of vocational training • inadequacy of social infrastructures (N’Daki) • inadequacy of collaboration between development operators (technical services, NGOs and private bodies)
The above observations have led us to put forward the following recommendations:
1. Rehabilitation of the environment
55
• Organisation, education, information and awareness-raising of pastoral communities aimed at reducing the vulnerability of production systems in the face of drought through improved protection and rational management of ecosystems: regeneration of grazing land, protection of water sources (wells, bore-holes, pools, saltings, etc.), rehabilitation of common grazing land and training and education of pastoralists; • Building vaccination enclosures and setting up a regular follow-up system of the state of animal health (N’Daki); • Extension of techniques to combat the proliferation of predators; • Extension of techniques for animal disease prevention and treatment; • Extension of techniques to combat erosion and to restore the environment.
2. Socio-economic and cultural aspects
Reinforcement of institutional capacities by means of the organisation, literacy training, education, information and awareness-raising of pastoral associations and groups;
Improvement of agro-sylvo production by: - setting up credit and savings funds; - reconstituting livestock herds with the aid of loans through co-operative organisations; - securing livestock herds by setting up a system of seasonal reserves of grazing land and animal fodder; - developing agro-forestry by protecting and regenerating economically viable varieties; - supporting reforestation activities; - developing the marketing and sale of animal produce.
Improving the functioning of exchanges between the various markets by: - breaking geographic isolation (building roads and trails); - controlling livestock and passenger transportation costs: - encouraging transporters to serve geographically isolated areas; - setting up inter-village grain banks; - supporting livestock market through co-operatives organisations.
Improving the purchasing power of local populations by: - supporting the promotion of income-generating activities (market-gardening, fattening of livestock, handicrafts, small-scale trade, etc.); - organising sales promoters in the various sectors of economic activity (animal husbandry, agriculture, trade and handicrafts); - developing job-creating activities.
Improving the nutritional level of local populations by: - diversifying production (animal husbandry, agriculture, trade, gathering of wild crops); - providing access to balanced foodstuffs; - providing access to cleaning drinking water and hygienic foodstuffs; - distributing to women, children and the elderly vitamin A capsules in accordance with health standards.
Any implementation of the above recommendations requires the setting up of a system of regular follow-up of the state of food security of pastoral communities. The indicators
56 suggested in the following table have been identified as a result of observations made of the populations covered by our study, as well as an analysis of secondary data. Certain indicators are difficult to quantify and the brevity of the mission made it impossible to go into any further depth in this respect.
57 Table no. 13: Follow-up indicators of food security
Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators 1. Potential of Rainfall - Annual cumulated/ - Meteorological office - Yield and productivity levels (grazing - Increase or decrease in herd size pastoral average amounts (mm) - SAP land, livestock, wild crops gathered, - Increase or decrease in animal resources - No. of temporary and perennial - Animal husbandry harvest) produce pools and wadis office/comm./NGO - Improvement or deterioration of state of - Increase or decrease in grain and wild - Quantity of herbaceous, shrubby - Animal husbandry grazing lands crop produce and tree-based biomass /water resources and - Productivity of natural forest resources - Increase or decrease in incomes, forests - Availability of surface and underground nutrition water River flooding - Annual cumulated/ - Rural development org. - Level of yields and productivity - Increase or decrease in agricultural average amounts (mm) - ORSTOM - Increase of herds production - No. of lakes, pools and water - SAP - No. of faggots harvested per hectare - Increase or decrease in animal courses that are flooded - Agricultural service - Market-gardening produce - No. of hectares developed for - Animal husbandry - Availability or not of animal, dairy and - Diversification of diet cultivation during flooding and grain produce - Satisfaction or not of foodstuff subsidence of river water needs - No. of hectares of grazing land - Presence of grain stocks during flooding and subsidence of river water - No. of hectares of land for market-gardening Water supplies - No. of drainage wells, wells and - Water authority/NGO - No. of families with access to drinking - Reduction of water-carrying work in pastoral borehole wells - SAP water - No. of new families settled due to communities - Discharge/flow (m3) - Animal husbandry - Improvement of animal watering system water sources - Population - Reduction of water-borne diseases - Improvement of state of health of - Inquiries populations
58 Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators Grazing land - Composition of vegetation on - SAP - Decrease or increase in livestock - Availability or not of animal (livestock grazing lands - Animal husbandry movements produce feeding, - Average no. of litres of milk per - Inquiries - Improvement or deterioration of state of - Availability or not of grazing land saltings) milking cow - Studies grazing land - Satisfaction or not of animal protein - Agrostologic value (%) - Water resources and - Availability or not of grazing land and dairy product needs - No. of hectares of regenerated forest authorities - Increase or decrease in animal produce - Accessibility or not to animal grazing land - Population (resource - Availability or not of animal fodder produce - No. of tons of animal fodder persons) - Increase or decrease in herd size - Increase or decrease in incomes - No. of hectares of harvest - Improvement or deterioration of animal - Decrease or increase in hunger gap residues health period - No. of months of trans-humance - Fleshiness or not of livestock - No. of saltings
Livestock - No. of cattle - Activity reports - Improvement or not of animal production - Satisfaction or not of animal protein - No. of sheep/goats - Animal husbandry - Livestock growth, stagnation or decrease needs - No. of donkeys - Inventory of livestock - Accessibility or not to animal - No. of camel - Inquiries produce - No. of horses - Studies - Increase or decrease in incomes - No. of head per grazer - Load capacity ratio of grazing lands - Real load on grazing land - No. livestock/ha Animal health - No. of animals vaccinated - Activity reports - Increase or decrease in animal produce - Satisfaction or not of animal protein - No. of animals not vaccinated - SAP - Increase or decrease in livestock herds needs - Types and quantities of vaccine - Animal husbandry - High-quality products - Increase in incomes - Mortality and morbidity rates - Population - Nutrition - Frequency of epidemics - Co-ops, associations - Private sources 2. Potential of Forest species - Composition of species - Water resources and - Increase or decrease in tree-covered and - Satisfaction or not of consumer forestry (dominant, in the process of forest authorities shrubby grazing land product needs of forest origin resources disappearing, disappeared, - Population - Increase or decrease in wild crops for - Increase in incomes, nutrition protected) - Inquiries gathering (fruit, construction timber, - Diversification of diet - No. of trees per hectare - Punctual studies firewood, etc.) - Reduction of hunger gap season
59 Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators Wild - Estimate of no. of hectares of - NGOs - Increase or decrease in production - Improvement of diet Graminaceae fonio plains - Inquiries - Yield per hectare - Significant contribution to food self- - No. of hectares of cramcram - Punctual studies reliance plains - Increase in incomes - Reduction of hunger gap season Forestry - Estimate of no. of m3 of - Water resources and - Diversification or not of income- - Increase or decrease in incomes operations firewood cut per annum forest authorities generating activities related to forestry - Satisfaction or not of need for forest - Estimate of no. of m3 of - Inspection registers products construction timber - Activity reports - Nutrition - Estimate of quantity of sacks of - Inquiries charcoal obtained - Punctual studies - Estimate of quantity of forest products used for handicraft purposes 3. Potential of Demography - No. of inhabitants - National register - Availability or not of farm and pastoral - Increase or decrease in production human and - No. of inhabitants per km3 - Administrative census labour - Increase or decrease in incomes institutional - Composition of population - General population - Ratio between population and available - Satisfaction or not of animal and resources - No. of families census resources grain products - No. of active/family - Inquiries - Birth rate - Studies - Mortality rate - Rate of natural growth - No. of temporary or definitive emigrants - No. of temporary or definitive migrants - No. of recent immigrants
60 Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators Forms of - No. of advisors responsible for - Community - Increase, stagnation or decline in - Presence of production and power and natural resource management - Inquiries production and productivity consumer co-operatives collective and decision-making - Socio-economic studies - Easy or difficult supply situation - Presence of grain bank organisations - No. of traditional organisations - NGOs - Availability of food reserves - Presence of shops (women’s associations, adult - Technical services - Reduction of conflicts - Presence of saving/credit fund men’s associations, youth - Rural district support - Existence of a system of mutual associations) schemes assistance and solidarity - No. of modern associations (co- - NGOs - Food self-reliance operatives, producer groups, - Activity reports - Job-creation GIE, credit funds) - Inquiries - Improvement or not of standard of - No. of committees responsible - Punctual studies living for regulation of common grazing land, water infrastructure management, grain supply, environmental protection and rehabilitation - No. of projects accomplished per activity sector - No. of members per association or group - Amount of funds generated per association or group - No. of association members who are educated or literate Promotion of - No. of women’s associations or - NGOs - Increase or decrease in production - Satisfaction or not of food product women groups - Projects - Improvement or not of population’s needs - No. of income-generating - Technical services standard of living - Increase or decrease in incomes, activities - Local representation of - Involvement of women in decision- nutrition - No. of literate women Commission for the making - Improvement or not of standard of - No. of educated women Promotion of Women - Contribution of women to production living (education, health, hygiene) - Inquiries - Reduction of inequality of relations - Creation of jobs - Punctual studies between men and women - Diversification of income-generating activities
61 Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators Intervention of - No. of technical services - Activity reports - Increase, stagnation or decrease in - Satisfaction or not of food needs technical operating in the locality - CCA – NGOs production and productivity - Availability or not of animal and services, - No. of activities per intervention - Technical boards - No. of jobs created grain products NGOs, private sector - CLD - No. of literate and educated persons - Accessibility or not of supply bodies - No. of projects completed - Punctual studies sources (markets) - No. of staff involved - Affordability or not of prices - Size/scope of logistic means (purchasing power) - Capacity of intervention in the - Increase or decrease in incomes event of famine - Creation or not of jobs - Improvement or not of standard of living - No. of NGOs operating in the - Activity reports - Increase, stagnation or decrease in - Satisfaction or not of food needs locality - CCA – NGOs production and productivity - Availability or not of animal and - No. of activities per intervention - Technical boards - No. of jobs created grain products sector - CLD - No. of literate and educated persons - Accessibility or not of supply sources - No. of projects accomplished - Punctual studies (markets) - No. of staff involved - Affordability or not of prices - Logistic means (purchasing power) - Capacity of intervention in the - Increase or decrease in incomes event of a natural disaster - Creation or not of jobs - Improvement or not of standard of living - No. of private bodies operating - Activity reports - Increase, stagnation or decrease in - Satisfaction or not of food needs in the locality - CCA – NGOs production and productivity - Availability or not of animal and - No. of activities per intervention - Technical boards - No. of jobs created grain products sector - CLD - No. of literate and educated persons - Accessibility or not of supply sources - No. of projects accomplished (markets) - No. of staff involved - Affordability or not of prices - Logistic means (purchasing power) - Capacity of intervention - Increase or decrease in incomes - Creation or not of jobs - Improvement or not of standard of living
62 Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security food security indicators Social - No. of vaccination centres - Health and social - Organisation or not of areas of economic - Satisfaction or not of population’s infrastructures - No. of storage warehouses welfare services activity (animal husbandry, agriculture, food product needs - No. of grain banks - Activity reports trade and handicrafts) - Foodstuff self-reliance or shortage - No. of shops and consumer and - Punctual studies - Organisation or not of producers - Availability or not of foodstuffs supply co-operatives - “conveyance” - Availability or not of food products - Improvement of supply situation - No. of credit funds documents - Affordability or not of prices in relation - Improvement of population’s state of - Presence of a school or Moslem - Town planning to the purchasing power of pastoralists health college authorities - Increase in incomes - Capacity of self-organisation - Presence of literacy training and - Technical bodies for - Improvement of living conditions of - Reduction of hunger gap season vocational training centres basic education pastoralists - Export or not of food surplus - Presence of a dispensary - Resource persons - Improvement of state of health of - Building up or not of safety reserves - Presence of a pharmacy populations - Presence of a market - No. of wells and borehole wells 4. Potential of Data - No. of hectares of potential - DNSI-DNAMER - Increase or decrease in production and - Satisfaction or not of food needs agricultural pertaining to arable land - SIM productivity - Increase or decrease in incomes, resources farm land - No. of hectares of cultivated - SAP - Availability or not of farm land nutrition (rainfall- land - Activity reports - No. of faggots per production unit - Availability or not of food reserves watered - No. of hectares of fallow land - Results of associations - Reduction of hunger gap season cultivation) - No. of hectares of brush land - No. of faggots harvested per hectare
Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security
63 food security indicators 5. Economy Availability of - No. of tons of grain harvested - Technical services - Increase or decrease in production - Satisfaction or not of food needs foodstuffs per year - SAP - Satisfaction or not of food needs - Presence or not of safety stocks at - No. of tons of grain - PRMC - Accessibility or not of purchasing power family level available/family/month/ - NGOs - Abundance or not of products stemming - Presence or not of grain bank at year - Activity reports from gathering of wild crops community level - Quantity of grain offered and - Studies - Improvement or not of diet - Increase or decrease in incomes sold on market - Inquiries - Disposal of surplus on markets - Importance of animal produce - Resource persons offered and sold according to season - Importance of products stemming from gathering of wild crops offered and sold according to season - No. of consumer and supply co- operatives - No. of production co-operatives - No. of storage warehouses - No. of grain banks - No. of seed stores Food - Total no. of tons of - Technical services - Increase or decrease in production and - Satisfaction or not of food needs production millet/sorghum harvested per - NGOs productivity - Increase in size of livestock herds year - SAP - Improvement or not of diet - Disposal or not of surplus - No. of tons/kg or faggots of - PRMC - Presence or not of reserve stocks - Stability or not of prices millet/sorghum harvested per - Resource persons - Improvement or not of standard of living - Increase or decrease in incomes production unit - Punctual studies - Purchase or not of livestock - Importance of quantity of - Inquiries - Security stocks millet/sorghum offered and sold - Activity reports on market - Importance of quantity of fonio offered and sold on market - No. of meals per family/season
Elements of Types of Units of measurement Source of data Impact on production Impact on food security
64 food security indicators Purchasing - No. of income-generating - Technical services - Increase or decrease in incomes - Satisfaction or not of food needs power activities (animal husbandry, - NGOs - Availability or not of food reserves - Increase in incomes and purchasing agriculture, trade, gathering of - Punctual studies - Access or not to food products power wild crops, handicrafts, exodus, - Inquiries - Affordability of grain prices etc.) - SAP - Purchase or not of new livestock - Relationship between - Resource persons purchasing power and grain prices Prices - Range of price fluctuations per - Technical services - Increase or decrease in prices - Control or not of price fluctuations month/season/year - SAP - Affordability or not of prices - Relationship price/availability - NGOs - Punctual studies - Inquiries - Resource persons - PRMC Market sale - Quantity of products disposed of - Technical services - Geographical distribution or not of - Satisfaction or not of food needs on markets - SAP products - Availability or not of foodstuffs - Quantity of products imported - NGOs - Relationship between product/purchasing - Relationship between products onto markets - Punctual studies power consumed/price - Origin of products - Inquiries - Significance according to period - Resource persons - PRMC Food habits - Daily composition of meals - Socio-sanitary services - Modification or stability of food habits - Satisfaction or not of food needs according to season - Punctual studies - Modification or diversification of food - Availability or not of foodstuffs - No. of meals per day according - Inquiries habits - Quality or impoverishment of to season - SAP - Modification or stability of composition foodstuffs consumed - Composition of sauce according - NGOs of meals to meal and season - Modification or stability of eating daily - Average quantity of foodstuffs meals consumed per person per meal
65 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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AG MAHMOUD M, 1992: The High Central Gourma, 6th Region of Mali, NCA, Oslo
WORLD BANK, 1993: Mali – Evaluation of Living Conditions. Bamako
COELO Serge and DEME Moustapha (no date): Support mission for the finalisation of PRMC’s medium-term action plan in Mali. Provisional memo. Bamako.
COELO Serge and DEME Moustapha, 1994: Capitalising on the experience of PRMC’s three initial phases in Mali: 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Bamako.
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DIARRA Daouda, TRAORE Oumar, 1997: Study of systems for the prevention and management of food crises in the Sahel: the case of Mali. (Final report). Bamako
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MARCON Sandrine, 1998: Update of information about the Sahelian environment and its development. Gossi
MARTY André, 1996: Review of the development of NCA in Gourma. Mission report. NCA
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NYBORG Ingrid and HAUG Ruth, 1994: Food security indicators for the development activities of Norwegian NGOs in Mali, Ethiopia and Eritrea. Noragric
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Natural Resource Management Programme (PGRN) – Local co-ordination in Douentza – Gourma Rharous 1997. Analysis of the Bambara Maoudé area. Douentza
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SARR Mamadou, SISSOKO Keffing and BAGAYOGO Abou, 1991: The dynamics of markets in the Gourma-Rharous district. SSE
SARR Mamadou and DIAKITE Y, 1991: The population of the Gourma-Rharous district.
SARR Mamadou, SISSOKO Keffing and BAGAYOGO Abou, 1992: Economic life in the Gourma-Rharous district.
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67 WORLD BANK, 1986: Population Growth and Politics in sub-saharan Africa. A World Bank Policy Study. Washington DC.
68
ANNEXES
69
N’DAKI SITE
Annex 1: Factors influencing food security,
Factors Impact on production Food security indicators I. Factors of the physical environment
1. Drought (rainfall and river water - Drying up of water sources - Famine shortage, resource degradation) - Scarcity of grazing land - Degradation of natural resources - Death of livestock and humans - Disruption of supply circuits - Migration of grazers - Poverty - Scarcity of wild crops for gathering - Cut-price selling of livestock - Shortage of dairy products - Migration/exodus - Shortage of agricultural produce - Shortage of seed
2. Flooding (abundance of rainfall and - Multiplication of water sources - Growth of herds river water) - Abundance and diversity of grazing - Rise in livestock prices land - Increase in dairy products - Abundance of wild crops for - Improvement of animal health gathering (fleshiness). - Abundance of dairy products - Stability of grazers - Return of emigrants - Reduction of period of food - Abundance of agricultural produce shortage - Increase of incomes - Duration of food stocks - Increase of purchasing power
3. Predators/pests/noxious animals . Reduction of herds . Hunger . Destruction of natural resources . Bankruptcy (grazing land, wild crops for . Poverty gathering, harvests, etc.) . Resorting to donations . Exodus . Migration
70
Factors Impact on production Food security indicators II. Human factors
1. Conflicts/wars/rebellions - Disruption of production - Famine - Instability of grazers - Poverty - Famine - Exodus - Malfunctioning of supply circuits - Migration - Decline in incomes - Psychosis
2. Migration - Decline in production - Hunger - Shortage of labour - Poverty
3. Exodus - Improvement of living conditions of - Improvement of purchasing households power of households - Purchase of livestock
4. Epidemics/Famine - Decline in production - Famine - Precariousness of human resources - Poverty - Shortage of labour - Mortality - Malnutrition - Migration - Exodus - Vulnerability
III. Institutional factors
1. Social hierarchies - Social discrimination - Uneven distribution of resources (women/castes) and incomes - Inequality of access to and control over resources (women/lower classes - Inequality of access to information (women)
2. Relations between men and women - Participation of women in all - Income-generating activities
71 production activities - Increase in purchasing power - Increase in production - Nutrition (improvement of foodstuffs) - Participation in community activities (projects)
3. Co-operatives, associations, groups - Availability of food products - Improved state of supply - Mutual aid/solidarity - Increase in incomes - Strengthening of agreement and - Livestock “banks” social cohesion - Grain banks - Dynamics of production - Price stability - Stability of grazers - Easing of hunger gap - Improvement/increase of production
IV. Economic factors
1. Absence of market - Dependence on Gossi and Hombori - Breakdown of supply stocks markets (75 – 90 km) - Increase in prices - Remoteness of market: livestock - Geographic isolation fatigue and death en route - Starvation - Difficulty for women to dispose of - Threat of famine dairy products (selling at loss) - Hunger gap - Decline in purchasing power - Lack of incomes - Deterioration of supply due to - Malnutrition remoteness of markets
2. Devaluation - Increase in livestock prices - Difficult living conditions - Increase in grain prices - Impoverishment of households - Impoverishment of households without resources without resources or incomes - Increase in prices of basic c commodities
V. Socio-cultural factors
1. Food taboos None None
72 Annex 2: Food security indicators during normal, medium or bad years
Normal year Average year Bad year Activities Characteristics Impact of food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security I. Animal husbandry
1. Production - Water resources - Growth - Animal birth - Insufficient - Average - Decline in - Shortage of - Food shortage - Famine - Grazing land - Increase in rate/year rainfall growth rate animal births water and - Cut-price - Poverty - Saltings purchasing - No. of - Scarcity of - Decline in - Miscarriages grazing land selling of - Migration - Fleshiness power head/grazer grazing land production and - Mortality of - Weight livestock - Exodus - Dairy products - Improvement - Reduction of - Passable reproduction young reduction - Bankruptcy - Emergency - Stability of foodstuffs mortality fleshiness - Fragile health - Decrease in - Mortality - Lack of foodstuffs - Wild crops for - Production of rate - Decrease in - Fall in prices size of herds - Animal income - Donations gathering raw materials - Decrease of dairy - Decrease in - Animal diseases - Difficulties of - Sale of - Wild crops for hunger gap products raw materials diseases - Migration supply valuables gathering - Rate of - Trans- and products - Fall in prices - Instability - Emergency - Recourse to - Availability of variation of humance for gathering - Change of - Shortage of foodstuffs secondary foodstuffs livestock - Difficult diet products for activities - Supply prices supply gathering - NGOs situation - Decrease in no. of meals 2. Marketing - Rise in prices - Supply of grain - Purchase of - Decline in - Prolonged - 6 months - Selling at loss - Difficulty in and sale - Increase in - Availability on grain in situ livestock hunger gap hunger gap - Cut-price ensuring incomes markets - Supply prices - Difficulties of - Demand selling survival - Purchase of - Price stability higher than - Decreased supply higher than - Insufficient - Poversty of cows or sheep - Increase in demand incomes - Price supply income grazers - Sale of small purchaseing - Price - Sale of fluctuations - Difficult ruminants to buy power stability livestock to - Fall in incomes access to cows - Rise in buy grain grain and - Puchase of livestock livestock camels prices - Purchase of donkeys - Dowry
73 Normal year Average year Bad year Activities Characteristics Impact of food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security 3. Supply - Availability of - Food self- - No. of meals - Insufficient - Food shortage - Breakdown - Food crisis - Hunger - Malnutrition livestock, grain, reliance (3) quantities of supplies - Increased - Fluctuations of - Disease etc. - Easy access - Quantity available - Fall in demand prices - Mortality - Price stability - Organisation of available on - Price livestock - Hunger - Decrease in no. - Poverty traders markets instability prices of meals - Emergency - Diversity of - Rice in grain - Prolonged foodstuffs supply prices hunger gap - Exodus sources - Migration - Donations - Free handouts - NGOs II. Agriculture
1. Agricultural - Sufficient - Improvement - No. of - Rainfall - Difficulties of - Breakdown - Drought - Famine - Migration production rainfall of diet faggots shortage supply of stocks - Bad harvest - Poverty - Exodus - Absence of - Availability of (400- - Presence of - Price - Increased - Pests/noxious - Vulnerability - Famine pests/noxious reserves 500/year) pests/noxious fluctuations demand animals - Price animals - Increase in - Nutrition animals - Decrease in - Price increases - Good harvest incomes - No. of meals - Decrease in incomes increases - Emergency 3 +/day available foodstuffs - Purchase of reserves - Donations livestock - Distribution of food rations 2. Marketing - Availability of - Price stability - Build-up of - Shortage of - Instability of - Hunger - Increased - Food shortage - Malnutrition and sale stocks - Easy supply stocks available prices - Prolonged demand - Famine - Disease - Increase in - Availability stocks - Increased hunger gap - Increase of - Exodus - Mortality incomes on markets demand - Exodus prices - Difficulties of - Emergency - Purchase of - Decrease in - Poverty supply foodstuffs livestock incomes
Normal year Average year Bad year
74 Activities Characteristics Impact of food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security 3. Supply - Availability of - Food self- - No. of meals - Insufficient - Food shortage - Breakdown - Food crisis - Starvation - Malnutrition livestock, grain, reliance (3) quantities of supplies - Increased - Price - Disease etc. - Easy access - Quantity available - Fall in demand fluctuations - Mortality - Price stability - Organisation of available on - Instability of livestock - Starvation - Reduction of - Poverty traders markets prices prices no. of meals - Emergency - Diversity of - Rise in grain - Prolonged foodstuffs supply prices hunger gap - Exodus sources - Migration - Donations - Free distribution - NGOs III. Wild crop for gathering
1. Production - Abundant - Improvement - Stability of - Rainfall - Deficit/ - Dependence - Poor - Food shortage - Hunger rainfall of diet no. of meals shortage reduction of on markets distribution of - Famine - Extension of - Diversification (3/day) - Reduction of stocks - Recourse to rainfall - Malnutrition areas growing of foodstuffs - Nutrition/ crop-growing grain - Famine - Migration fonio, cramcram - Build-up of health areas - Prolonged - Change of - Absence of food/stocks - No. of sacks - Presence of hunger gap diet pests/noxious reserves in stock/ pests/noxious - Exodus animals - Increase in household animals - Sale of - Wild fruits incomes - Purchase of - Reduced livestock - Edible herbs - Medicinal livestock production plants - Availability on markets - Supply of medicinal plants
75
Annex 3: Characteristics of animal husbandry during good, medium and bad years (Focus Group: Women)
Normal year Average year Bad year Activities Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security Animal - Abundant rainfall - Livestock - Animals - Insufficient - Average growth - Decrease in - Shortage of - Food shortage - Famine husbandry - Abundant and growth births/year rainfall - Decline in animal births water and - Cut-price selling - Poverty varied grazing - Fleshiness - No. of - Scarcity of production and - Miscarriages grazing land of livestock - Migration land - Few animal head/grazer grazing land reproduction - Death of - Weight loss - Bankruptcy - Exodus - Abundant saltings diseases - Reduction of - Passable - Fragile health young animals - Mortality - Lack of income - Emergency - Sound animal - Increase in mortality rate fleshiness - Decline in prices - Decrease in - Animal diseases - Difficult supply foodstuffs health purchasing - Decrease in - Decrease in - Decrease in raw size of herds - Migration situation - Donations - Abundance of power hunger gap dairy products materials and - Animal - Instability - Recourse to - Sale of water sources - Improvement of - Increase in - Transhumance wild crops for diseases - Lack of wild emergency valuables - Abundance of diet livestock gathering - Drop in prices crops for foodstuffs - Recourse to dairy products - Production of prices - Difficult supply - Change of diet gathering secondary - Abundance of raw materials situation activities grain - Wild crops for - NGOs - Fleshiness of gathering - Reduction in livestock - Availability of no. of meals - Abundance and foodstuffs diversity of wild - Good supplies crops for gathering
76 Annex 4: Profile of activities (Focus group: Men)
77
Activities conducted Men Women I. Production activities 1. Animal husbandry XX X 2. Agriculture XX X 3. Trade XX X 4. Gathering of wild crops X XX 5. Handicrafts X XX 6. Exodus XX X 7. Hunting X - II. Reproduction activities 1. Driving livestock XX X 2. Tending young animals XX X 3. Transformation of dairy X XX products 4. Water young (sick) animals X XX 5. Transporting hay XX X 6. Water-carrying chores X XX 7. Fuelwood chores X XX 8. Preparing meals X XX 9. Minding children X XX 10. Caring for the elderly X XX 11. Procreation X XX 12. Educating children XX X 13. Upkeep of huts/tents - XX 14. Sweeping/cleaning - XX 15. Sale/bartering of animal - XX produce Observations: - Women participate in all production activities - Reproduction activities are essentially the responsibility of women - Women assume much of the workload
78 Activities conducted Men Women III. Community activities 1. Building storehouses XX X 2. Vaccination of livestock X - 3. Building enclosures XX X 4. Drilling wells XX X 5. Building small dams X - 6. Tending plains X - 7. Deepening pools X - 8. Protecting the environment X - 9. Reforestation X XX 10. Community meetings XX X 11. Education/literacy training XX X 12. Celebrating festivals X XX 13. Marriages, baptisms, deaths X XX 14. Building mosques XX X 15. Upkeep of community centres X X 16. Cleaning - XX Observations: - Women do not participate in the building of dams, deepening of pools or environmental protection - The workload falls essentially on the men, thus preventing them from devoting much time to the principal activities of production and development projects
79 Annex 5: Gender distribution of principal tasks related to animal husbandry (Focus group: Men)
Activities conducted Men Women 1. Herd management X - 2. Driving herds XX X 3. Search for water sources, grazing X - land and saltings 4. Tending of young animals X XX 5. Building livestock enclosures X - 6. Rope-making XX X 7. Making “delus” X - 8. Milking animals XX X 9. Building wells X - 10. Building watering places X - 11. Searching for fodder XX X 12. Market sale of livestock XX X 13. Transformation of dairy products - X 14. Vaccination X - 15. Castration X - 16. Tending livestock XX X 17. Transhumance X X 18. Branding livestock X - 19. Searching for lost animals XX X 20. Selection of sires X - 21. Competing for the best herd XX X 22. Searching for new grazing land X - 23. Fattening of livestock X XX Observations: - women participate in all activities of production related to animal husbandry with the exception of herd management, searching for water sources, grazing land, building enclosures, wells, watering places, vaccination, castration, branding, sire selection
80
Annex 6 : Profile of access to/control over resources and benefits drawn from animal husbandry (Focus group: Men)
Designation Access Control Men Women Men Women I. Resources 1. Livestock XX X XX X 2. Grazing land X X X - 3. Wells/pools X X X - 4. Saltings X X X - 5. Labour (herdsmen) X X XX X 6. Vaccination enclosures X X X - II. Benefits 1. Dairy products X XX XX X 2. Money/income XX X X - 3. Food X XX X XX 4. Hides – leather X X - X 5. Wool X X X - 6. Manure X X XX - 7. Prestige XX X X X 8. Clothing X X XX X 9. Taxes X - XX - 10. Dowry X X XX X 11. Sacrifices X X XX X 12. Dwelling X XX - XX Observation: - Unequal access of women to resources and benefits drawn from animal husbandry
81 Annex 7: Profile of factors of influence (Focus group: Men)
Types of problems Proposed alternatives Factors of influence identified Opportunities Constraints Strategies 1. Excessive workload of Diminish the workload of - Drilling of wells - Religion - Awareness-raising of men and women women - Improved cooking stoves - Tradition/custom women - Grain mills - Conservatism of men - Introduction of technology - Gas supply for cooking purposes - Lack of organisation of women - Organisation/training of women - Consumer co-operatives - Submissiveness of women - Literacy training and civic education - Animal fodder - School attendance for girls - NCA/HCR - Associations/groups - Education and literacy training centres 2. Unequal access of - Equal access of women to - Women’s associations - Man as the family head - Awareness-raising women to herd herd management - Literacy training - Tradition/custom - Civic education management - Establishing a system of joint - NCA/HCR - Lack of organisation of women - Support to women’s associations management of the herd - Vocational training - Vocational training - Women owning herds - Literacy training 3. Unequal access to/ - Establishing a system of joint - NGO activities - Tradition/custom - Awareness-raising of men and Control over natural management of natural - Presence of women’s associations and - Weak organisational capacity of women resources resources groups women - Education/literacy training - Concomitant support 4. Unequal access to/ - Equal access to/control lover - Presence of NCA and HCR - Tradition/custom - Awareness-raising control over the the benefits drawn from - Presence of women’s associations - Weak organisational capacity of - Education/literacy training benefits drawn from animal husbandry - Literacy training/education/activation women - Support for women’s activities animal husbandry
82 Annex 8: Profile of activities (Focus group: Sedentary women)
Activities conducted Men Women 1. Production activities 1. Animal husbandry XX X 2. Agriculture XX X 3. Trade XX X 4. Handicrafts X XX 5. Wild crop gathering XX X 6. Market-gardening XX X II. Reproduction activities 1. Procreation X XX 2. Water-carrying chores X XX 3. Fuelwood chores X XX 4. Preparing meals X XX 5. Minding children X XX 6. Transformation of dairy X XX products 7. Educating children XX X 8. Caring for the elderly X XX 9. Upkeep of huts/tents - XX 10. Sweeping/cleaning - XX III. Community activities 1. Building mosques XX X 2. Building dispensary XX X 3. Building community XX X storehouses 4. Building literacy training XX X centre
83
Annex 9: Profile of activities (Focus group: Peul women)
Activities conducted Men Women 1. Production activities 1. Animal husbandry XX X 2. Handicrafts - X 3. Provision of services X X 4. Trade X XX 5. Wild crop gathering - X II. Grazing-related activities Fattening of livestock 1. Sale on market X XX 2. Milk-feeding X XX 3. Feeding hay X - 4. Watering XX XX 5. Grazing XX X 6. Buying on market - X Extensive animal husbandry 1. Driving to grazing lands XX X 2. Placing in enclosures X XX 3. Milking X XX 4. Separating calves X - 5. Salt XX X 6. Search for animal fodder XX X 7. Search for herbs XX X 8. Control (number) XX X Observation: Women have their own livestock Remark: Use of income: - festivals - baptisms - purchase of clothing - purchase of new livestock - purchase of grain
84
Annex 10: Profile of access to/control over resources and benefits drawn from animal husbandry (Focus-group: Women)
Designation Access Control Men Women Men Women I. Resources 1. Livestock XX X XX X 2. Grazing land X X X X 3. Wells/pools XX X X X 4. Saltings X X X X 5. Labour (herdsmen) X X X X 6. Food X X X X II. Benefits 1. Milk X XX XX XX 2. Meat X XX XX XX 3. Leather – hides - XX XX XX 4. Money/income X XX X XX 5. Butter X XX X XX 6. Offerings, donations X XX XX X
Annex 11: List of principal problems identified (Focus group: Men) (By order of importance)
1. Insufficiency of water sources and grazing land 2. Proliferation of animal diseases 3. Geographic isolation/difficult supply situation: lack of markets 4. Predators: proliferation of hyenas 5. Lack of livestock credits 6. Lack of schools 7. Insecurity: thefts, carrying off of livestock
85 Annex 12: Analysis of problems identified (Focus group: Men)
Problems identified Causes Consequences Proposed solutions Constraints 1. Inadequacy of water - Rainfall shortage - Death of livestock - Deepening of pools - Lack of means of funding sources and grazing - Hunger/famine - Increase in number of and material land - Poverty pastoral wells - Lack of sound management - Decline in income - Establishing a market of grazers - Exodus/migration - Supplies of animal fodder - Lack of vocational training - Lack of supplies - Supplies of grain - Lack of market/geographic - Bankruptcy of grazers - Paving N’Daki-Gossi road isolation - Grain banks - Poverty 2. Proliferation of - Absence of veterinary - Death of livestock - Establishing a staffed - Administrative constraints animal diseases station - Poverty of grazers veterinary station - Poor organisation of - Strong concentration of - Hunger/famine - Providing supplies of grazers livestock in neighbouring - Decline in incomes veterinary products - Poverty areas - Exodus/migration - Vaccination of livestock 3. Geographic - Lack of roads - Difficult supply - Setting up a market - Administration/technical isolation/lack of - Lack of market situation - Paving N’Daki-Gossi road services supplies/market - Price fluctuations - Grain banks - Lack of organisation of - Difficult access to - Support for associations grazers livestock markets and groups involved with supply 4. Proliferation of - Lack of veterinary station - Decrease in herds - Setting up a veterinary - Administration predators - Lack of organisation of - Decline of income station - Lack of organisation grazers - Bankruptcy - Poisoning - Lack of means - Poverty - Organisation of grazers 5. Lack of school -Administration - Illiteracy/ignorance - Setting up a school - Administration - Lack of organisation of - Lack of organisation grazers - Lack of means 6. Insecurity - Proliferation of banditry - Killing of people - Setting up a security station - Administrative decision - Absence of security - Killing of livestock - Lack of organisation of services - Road robbery grazers
86 BAMBARA MAOUDE SITE
Annex 13: Indicators of food security (Focus group: Men)
Normal year Average year Bad year Activities Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security
87 I. Animal husbandry
1. Harvest - Good flooding - Increase of - Filling up of - Medium - Reduction of - 60-100 - No river - No lakebed - Famine of river cultivated areas Niangaye and flooding of river lakebed fields faggots flooding fields - Poverty - Good rainfall - Dune fields Dô lakes - Average rainfall - Reduction of - Duration of - Shortage of - No. dune fields - Migration distribution (production) -100-1000 - Reduction of dune fields harvest – 1 rainfall - Famine - Exodus - Absence of - Increase in faggots predators month - Existence of - Disease - Emergency predators incomes - 400-500 mm - 200-300mm predators - Death foodstuffs - Abundance of - Duration of - Filling up of - Donations milk harvest – 3 Niangaye - Sale of - Abundance of months halfway valuables wild crops for - 3 meals - 3 meals - Recourse to gathering secondary activities - NGOs - Reduction in no. of meals 2. Duration of - Extension of - Guarantee of - Grain stores - Reduction of - Difficult hunger - 3 months - Lack of food - Dependence on - No. of stocks stocks into food security 100-120 stocks gap season hunger gap stocks market emigrants following year - Price stability faggots - Exodus - Price - Sale of 1-2 - Lack of income - Price - Recourse to - Increase in - Purchase of 2- - Food insecurity fluctuations animals fluctuations wild plants incomes 5 cows - Decline in prices - 1 meal - Availability of - 10-15 sheep/ foodstuffs goats - 1-2 donkeys - 1 horse - No hunger gap 3. Grain - Less expensive - Independence of - Price of sack - Rise in prices - Food shortage - 100kg millet - Rise in prices - Food shortage - No. of loans prices - Availability market of millet - Inadequacy of - Difficult access 10000-12000 - Shortage of (hunger/famine) contracted - Self-reliance - Rise in livestock 100kg 4000- stocks to grain CFA grain - Lack of income - No. of prices 5000 CFA - Absence of - Lack of seed meals/day - Paddy rice 1 imported sack 3500- paddy rice 4500 CFA 10000-12500 CFA
88 4. Purchasing - Stability of - Rise in incomes - No. of lakebed - Decline in - Difficult access - No. of - None - Lack of income - Poverty power purchasing and dune incomes to grain activities power fields practised - Diversity of - No. of faggots - Annual income- - No. of income = generating livestock 50000-250000 activities owned/ CFA purchased - Clothing - Annual income = 500 000 CFA
89 II. Animal husbandry
1. River - Filling up of - Increase in - Size of herd - Filling up of - Decline in - Size of herd - Drying up of - Death of - No. of active flooding/ pools animal per grazer 30- pools and lakes animal per grazer 20- lakes and pools livestock water sources rainfall - Filling up of production 50 head to medium level production 30 head - Insufficient - Lack of grazing - No. of animal lakes - Reproduction of - No. of animal - Poor - Decline in - No. of animal rainfall and land deaths - Even livestock births/year distribution of animal births poor - Lack of dairy - No. of distribution of - Improvement of - Reduction rainfall reproduction - No. of animal distribution products available rainfall animal health mortality rate - Passable - Fragile animal deaths - Mediocre - Excessive pastures - Abundance of - Rise in - Price of heifer grazing health - Animal grazing land workload on - Range of grazing land livestock = 100000f land - Fall in livestock diseases - Lack of dairy grazers movement - Abundance of prices - Bull = - Decrease in prices - 1 heifer = products - Bankruptcy of - No. of dairy products - Improvement of 100000- dairy products - Decrease in 70000- grazers migrant human health 175000 f - Transhumance dairy products 75000 f grazers - Raw materials - Ewe = 15000- - Decrease in raw - Bull = - No. of for handicrafts 20000 f materials (hikes 110000- milking cows/ (hides/leather) - Ram = 30000- – leather) 125000 f household 40000 f - Ewe =10000- - No. of - She-goat = 125000 f bankrupt 7500-10000 f - Ram = 20000- grazers - He-goat = 25000 f 15000- - She-goat = 20000 f 5000-7500 f - She-donkey = - He-goat = 25000- 10000- 30000 f 12500 f - He-donkey = - She-donkey = 30000- 15000- 40000 f 20000 f - She-camel = - He-donkey = 100000- 20000- 150000 f 30000 f - He-camel = - She-camel = 150000- 75000- 200000 f 125000 f - He-camel = 100000- 150000 f
90 2. Grazing - Abundance of - Increase in - Size of herd/ - Filling up of - Decline in - Size of herd/ - Drying up of - Death of - No. of active land grazing land animal grazer 30-50 lakes and pools animal grazer 20-30 lakes and pools livestock water sources - Abundance of production head to medium level production - No. of animal - Insufficient - Lack of grazing - No. of animal dairy products - Reproduction of - No. of animal - Poor - Decline in births rainfall and land deaths - Fleshiness of livestock births/year distribution of animal - No. of animal poor - Lack of dairy - No. of livestock - Increase in - Reduction of rainfall reproduction deaths distribution products pastures - Abundance of livestock prices mortality rate - Passable - Fragile animal - Animal - Mediocre - Excessive available saltings - Animal health - Price of heifer grazing land health diseases grazing land workload on - Range of - Improvement of = 100000 f - Decrease in - Fall in livestock - Heifer = - Lack of dairy grazers movements diet - Bull = dairy products prices 70000- products - Bankruptcy of - No. of - Hides and 100000- - Transhumance - Decline in dairy 75000 f grazers migrant leather 175000 f products - Bull = grazers - Ewe = 15000- - Decrease in raw 110000- - No. of 20000 f materials (hides 125000 f milking cows/ - Ram = 30000- – leather) - Ewe = 10000- household 40000 f 12500 f - No. of - She-goat = - Ram = 20000- bankrupt 7500-10000 f 25000 f grazers - He-goat = - She-goat = 15000- 5000-7500 f 20000 f - He-goat = - She-donkey = 10000- 25000- 12500 f 30000 f - She-donkey = - He-donkey = 15000- 30000- 20000 f 40000 f - He-donkey = - She-camel = 20000- 100000- 30000 f 150000 f - She-camel = - He-camel = 75000- 150000- 125000 f 200000 f - He-camel = 100000- 150000 f
91 3. Animal - Fleshiness of - Increase in - Size of herd/ - Deterioration of - Decline in - Size of herd/ - Lack of - Decline in - No. of health livestock animal grazer fleshiness animal grazer fleshiness animal livestock per - Rarity of production - No. of dead - Epidemics production - Proliferation of production grazer disease - Abundance of livestock - Veterinary - Decline in dairy epidemics - Decline in dairy - No. of animal due to dairy products - No. of animal service products - High rate of production deaths inadequate food - Rise in prices births/species - Association of - Fall in livestock mortality - No. of - Presence of - Animal - Rise in grazers prices - Association of epidemics veterinary reproduction livestock - Pharmacy grazers - No. of service - Increase in prices - Pharmacy bankrupt - Presence of purchasing grazers grazers’ power associations - Pharmacy III. Trade - Availability of - Duration of - No. of - Decline in food - Reduction in - No. of months - Lack of food - Chronic food - Cost of grain food stocks stocks of the persons stocks duration of of hunger gap stocks shortage - No. of 1. Supplies - Self-supply year dependent on - Exodus stocks - No. of - Supplies - Recourse to families - Supply of - Demographic market - Anxiety among - Dependence on households coming from gathering of dependent on markets in stability - No. of traders population market buying grain Mopti, Koro, wild crops gathering wild Timbuktu, - Few people coming to buy - Shortage of - Lack of seed on market Douentza, etc. - Vulnerability, crops. Rharous, Diré, emigrating grain and seed - Rise in grain - No. of - Rise in grain famine, diseases - No. of Inajataphane - Availability of livestock - Recourse to prices persons prices - Malnutrition families eating seed - No. of faggots external markets - Decline in lacking seed - Exodus only one meal - Increase in in stock livestock prices - No. of grain per day incomes merchants - No. of mal- coming from nourished outside children - Lack of - No. of income departures 2. Fluctuation - Stability of - Increased - No. of traders - Instability of - Situation of - Grain and - Rise in grain - Food shortage - No. of of grain grain prices production coming to buy rising prices vulnerability livestock prices - Malnutrition livestock sold prices - Rise in - Availability of supplies on - Build-up of - Households prices during - Decline in - Sale of - No. of livestock prices grain market security stocks contracting hunger gap livestock prices livestock at a valuables - Easy access to - No. of people debts season loss grain coming to settle in Bambara - No. of livestock purchased
92 Annex 14: Indicators of food security (Focus group: Women)
Activities Normal year Average year Bad year Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators Characteristics Impact on food Indicators security security security
93 Agriculture
- Harvest - Good harvest of - People are well- - No. of faggots 100 faggots Bad harvest Famine - No or very rice and millet fed (500-10) poor harvest 0-5 faggots - Sale of grain - Good - 3 meals/day - 3 meals/day purchasing (milk, meat, but reduced - 2 meals/day power butter, grain quantities, small and fish) especially of quantities meat and milk (grain, no - Introduction meat, fish or of gruel milk) (midday meal) - fakhoy + small fish without grain, boscia, “hassou” - Stocks Grain stores full Sufficient Close control Duration 6 Max: 1-3 of millet stocks for the months months year (food, Seed kept No seed kept seed, sale and gifts) - Hunger gap No hunger gap Duration of Harvest in season hunger gap: 2 November (5 months months) - Prices Low prices (see Middling prices Increased prices analysis of market) Animal husbandry
- Reproduction Good Increase in Animal births: Same as during No reproduction reproduction livestock Goats: twice good year but Cows: once the animals are Sheep: once weaker (rainy season)
94 - Grazing land Abundance of Abundance - Sufficient Milk: 2-4 Poor grazing land Transhumance Milk: Max. 1 grass (milk, butter) milk months from month after throughout time of rainy season year birthing - Max: rainy season - Min: dry season (Weight increase of livestock) - Prices Low prices (milk Price of milk 1250 f cfa 3000 f cfa/litre and butter) and butter butter (750 f cfa) - Health Decrease in Decrease in A few animal mortality rate mortality rate deaths Gathering of Consumption of Fonio available Consumption of - Availability - No fonio wild crops all wild crops during rainy all wild crops of fonio and - No cram-cram gathered season gathered cramcram 3 - Heavy 1. fakhoy 1. boscia months consumption 2. fonio and Cramcram 2. “halum” harvest + 1 of “Hay” cramcram available 3. “houlbeye” month boscia until 3. nenuphars during cold during rainy rainy season 4. tannin and season season - During when replaced acacia 4. “hassou” hunger gap, by milk 5. jujubes 5. “ngonfu” consumption 6. wild dates 6. “doum” of boscia and 7. gums fruits nenuphars * Depending on river flooding (3 months harvest) drying and storage during rest of year
95 Annex 15: Profile of activities (Focus group: Men)
Activities conducted Men Women 1. Production activities 1. Agriculture XX X 2. Animal husbandry XX X 3. Commerce X XX 4. Handicrafts X XX 5. Wild crop gathering X XX II Reproduction activities 1. Pounding - X 2. Water chores X XX 3. Fuelwood chores X XX 4. Preparing meals - X 5. Taking care of children - X III Community activities 1. Deepening of pools XX X 2. Pebble-dashing of XX X mosques/community infrastructures 3. Reforestation X XX 4. Cleaning XX X 5. Community meetings XX X Observations: • Women participate actively in all activities associated with production, reproduction and community management • Women represent the most burdened category; they start work at 5 a.m. and do not go to rest until midnight. • This situation has a negative impact on the production capacity of women.
96 Annex. 16: Profile of access to/control over resources and benefits drawn from animal husbandry (Focus group: Men)
Designation Access Control Men Women Men Women I Resources 1. Grain X - X - 2. Livestock X - X - 3. Forests X X X - II Benefits 1. Food X XX - X 2. Dairy products - X - X 3. Money/income XX - X - Observations: • Women do not have access to grain, livestock or incomes; they do not participate in the management of these resources • Women are extremely dependent on their husbands.
97 Annex. 17: Profile of activities (Focus group: Women)
Activities conducted Women Men I Production activities 1. Agriculture: millet, rice X XX 2. Commerce: grain, livestock, butter, milk X XX 3. Handicrafts: mats, hides, pottery, baskets XX X 4. Service-provision: labour X XX II Reproduction activities 1. Childbirth X - 2. Taking care of and educating children X - 3. Caring for the elderly X - 4. Water chores XX X 5. Fuelwood chores XX X III Community activities 1. Construction of Alpha centre XX X 2. Construction of social centre XX X 3. Construction of mosque X XX 4. Construction of community storehouses XX X 5. Sweeping of market X XX Observations: Women participate in all activities of production and community management and have responsibility for reproduction. Women carry a heavy workload. During recent years, women have become increasingly engaged in agriculture due to: - the departure of men - loss of livestock - poverty
Annex. 18: Profile of access to/control over resources and benefits drawn from animal husbandry (Focus group: Women)
Designation Access Control Men Women Men Women I Resources 1. Seed X X X XX 2. Labour X X X XX 3. Land XX X X XX 4. Agricultural equipment X X - - II Benefits 1. Harvest for consumption X X X X 2. Income/money XX X X XX 3. Purchase of livestock X - X XX 4. Stalks (millet): sheds, livestock, sale X X X X 5. Offerings, gifts (friends, relatives) X X X XX Sales only apply to surpluses. Incomes are intended for the purchase of livestock, clothing, food, fish, medicine and school material.
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Annex 19: Principal problems identified
1. Problems associated with animal husbandry
• Lack of grazing land • Lack of water sources • Lack of pharmaceuticals • Lack of income • Lack of food
2. Problems associated with agriculture
• Lack of food • Lack of seed • Lack of technical infrastructure • Lack of incomes • Lack of equipment
3. Problems associated with trade/supply
• Geographical isolation • Price fluctuations
99 Annex 20: Proverbs/quatations
The poor man says he has wet his hide; the dogs have brought it; they say this is not true. The rich man says he has wet his strings; the dogs have brought them; they say this is true. This means that a poor man is never right in relation to a rich man.
If you make of your wife your mother and your father, you will not be far removed from being an orphan. This means that you should avoid totally relying on your wife.
If you eat the eggs of your hen, you will never have chickens. This means that he who has nothing put aside in reserve will have nothing in times of need. One should be provident in life.
A one-year old ant is capable of dismembering an old cow. This reflects a bad year.
May God preserve us from a standing calf that applauds. This means there will be no harvest.
May God preserve us from this young Peul hiding behind the village. This means hunger.
Your mother-in-law told you to go and wash the leaf in the river, a carp tore it away from you and, in return, you must bring her some nenuphar. This means that one must resort to emergency food during a bad year.
A father-in-law underestimates his son-in-law. This means poverty (risk of losing ones wife).
When you go hunting, you meet the iguana; if you let go of it, you will have nothing to eat; if you hurt it, fat will be spilt and if you beat it, eggs will be broken. This signifies avarice.
The mother-in-law who receives meat in a funnel, must not expect much of the soup. This signifies a period of hunger crisis and great food difficulties.
Do not hope to have something to eat from the wife of your uncle, when she gives birth during the hunger gap period. This reflects food shortage.
Patience enables the year to pass. This means that with patience you can overcome a bad year.
100 Annex 21: Methodology outline
Food security indicators. Factors of influence.
Elements of research Questions of research Indicators/Variables Techniques and tools Objective 1. Estimate the factors What are the factors of the - Rainfall/drought - Historical Profile (HP) influencing food physical environment - Flood/high river water - Land use map security which influence the food - Pests/noxious animals - Prioritisation Diagram security of grazers? - Predators (PD) 1.1. Factors associated - Geographical isolation - Interview check list with the physical, - Deterioration/ human and economic maintenance of environment; productive potential institutional factors; (resource/environment) factors linked with the - Poor soils existence or not of economic and social infrastructures; factors associated with modes of conflict prevention and conflict resolution What are the human - Food shortage, hunger, - Historical Profile factors involved? famine - Polarisation Diagram - Conflicts, wars, - Interview check list rebellions - Epidemics - Migration, exodus - Population growth
What are the economic - Devaluation - Historical Profile factors (associated with - Purchasing power - Interview check list production)? (incomes) - Prices - Access to credits - Access to natural resources (arable land, forests, flora, fauna, grazing land, water) - Access to technology and inputs - Access to labour (family and paid) - Availability of food (grain, milk, butter, wild crops) - Supply circuit - Transportation - Exodus - Analysis of preceding year (surplus, shortage) What are the institutional - Social hierarchies Interview check list factors involved? - Relations men/women - Associations, groups, GIE - Social cohesion - Framework setting
101
Elements of research Questions of research Indicators/Variables Techniques and tools Objective What are the socio- - Taboos Interview check list cultural factors involved? - Forbidden foods - Religion - Custom/tradition
What are the modes of - Refugees - Historical Profile conflict prevention and - Repatriated persons - Interview check list conflict resolution? - Measures/modalities of conflict prevention and conflict resolution - Role of opinion leaders - Role of marabous - Role of women 1.2. Factors associated What is the traditional - Roles and - Profile of activities with the relationships division of labour? responsibilities according - Profile of access to and between men and to gender (who does control over resources women What changes have there what) and benefits been in this division of - Workload - Profile of factors of labour? - Access to resources and influence benefits Are changes desirable? If - Control over resources so, which changes? and benefits - Disparity, discrimination 1.3. Significance of What are the principal - Animal husbandry - Interview check list principal production production activities by (species, size, number, - Profile of activities activities linked to order of importance? composition, health, - Land-use map food security for each watering places) social group - Commerce - Gathering of wild crops - Handicrafts - Market-gardening - “Bourgou” cultivation - Agriculture - Transport What is the situation for each activity in a good, average or bad year? What are the incomes - Incomes drawn from such activities - Ways of spending and how are they spent? income - Constraints What are the strategies - Adjustment of harvests - Profile of Access/Control developed by populations and livestock - Profile of Factors of in times of crisis - Modification of diet Influence (occurring early, - Resorting to crisis - Interview check list intermediately or late)? foodstuffs - Borrowing grain - Selling labour - Selling small livestock - Borrowing money and grain - Selling means of production - Sale of land - Emigration
102
Elements of research Questions of research Indicators/Variables Techniques and tools Objective 1.5. Links between various What links exist to other - No. of people outside the Interview check list locations groups, fractions and village villages? - No. of emigrants - Significance of labour Significance of migration. coming from elsewhere - Products sold outside the Sale of products village - Investments, purchases Links between residents made outside the village 1.6. Definition of a socio- What are the criteria of - Choice of welfare Interview check list economic welfare populations use to criteria stratification classify themselves? - Factors influencing welfare What are the criteria for - Definition of a class and classifying a population as percentage of families being rich or poor? belonging to such a class - Survival strategy of deprived classes (credits, providing services, mutual aid) - Dynamics of change: increase or decrease of disparities between various classes 2. Review of activities What are the principal - Animal husbandry - Interview check list carried out to improve activities performed in - Wild crop gathering - Venn Diagram the conditions of food projects to improve food - Trade security security (players)? - Handicrafts - Market-gardening - Irrigation and water supply - Health - Education - SEAD - Reconstitution of herds - Fattening of livestock “bourgou” regeneration - Education/training - Supply, etc
103
Elements of research Questions of research Indicators/Variables Techniques and tools Objective 3. Existing follow-up What follow-up systems Physical indicators systems in the field of exist in the field of food (rainfall, flooding, food security security? predators, drought, isolation, etc.) Artificial indicators (availability of food, purchasing power, supply customs and habits, analysis of preceding year)
Indicators of food hazard or vulnerability - Availability of food (dairy products, grain, etc.) - Production of foodstuffs in the area (rice, millet, sorghum) - Supply circuit
Indicators of purchasing power (principal income- generating activities in a normal, average or bad year; animal husbandry, handicrafts, wild crop gathering, market- gardening, exodus, etc.)
104