2. Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution: the Sedimentary Record of the Walland Marsh Region

Romney Marsh: Environmental Change and Human Occupation in a Coastal Lowland (ed. J. Eddison, M. Gardiner and A. Long), OUCA Monograph 46, 1998, 13-29

2. Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution: The Sedimentary Record of the Walland Marsh Region

Christopher Spencec Andrew Plater and Antony Long

This paper presents the results of a study concerned with the Holocene barrier estuary evolution of Walland Marsh. The focus of investigation is the immediate back-barrier environment of Scotney Marsh, where sedimentation under high-frequency low-magnitude tidal and wave processes is likely to have been punctuated aperiodically by abrupt high-energy storm events. The local palaeoenvironrnental record at Scotney Marsh is established using 3400 boreholes, pollen, diatom and radiocarbon dating. This detailed local record is then linked to the regional stratigraphic sequences by two lengthy (c. 10 km) transects of cores running west to east and south-east to north-west across Walland Marsh. Gravel underlies much of Scotney Marsh, and radiocarbon dates on peat directly above these gravels indicate their deposition sometime before c. 4000 cal. yrs BP. Subsequent tidal sedimentation in the resulting back-barrier estuary was followed, under the influence of decelerating relative sea-level rise, by the extensive development of peat between c. 3900 and 2400 cal. yrs BP. Correlation with other studies on Walland and Romney Marsh indicates that a subsequent inundation of the peat by marine conditions is part of a marsh- wide flooding phase linked to renewed relative sea-level rise and the expansion of a tidal creek system in the barrier estuary. Even in such close proximity to the barrier, the influence of low-frequency high-magnitude storms on the Holocene evolution of Scotney Marsh occurred only during initial barrier formation and again, much later, after eventual breaching of the south coast during the 13th century AD.

Introduction 1988; Vollans 1988, 1995; Gardiner 1995; Hipkin 1995; The sediments of Walland Marsh preserve a palaeo- Reeves 1995; Allen 1996). In this paper, we present new environmental record of the barrier estuary system since palaeoenvironmental data from the Scotney Marsh region approximately 7000 cal. yrs BP (Long et al. 1996). In which provide evidence relating to the evolution of the addition to the detailed palaeoenvironmental evidence that fore-marsh, that area in which the marsh sediments abut has emerged from the geomorphological and geological the barrier complex of Dungeness Foreland. This local study of this sedimentary record at a number of sites across record is then linked with previously published data from the marsh (Burrin 1988; Tooley and Switsur 1988; Waller mid- and back-marsh sites using the results from extensive et al. 1988; Greensmith and Gutmanis 1990; Tooley 1990; stratigraphic surveys in a review of the regional history of Plater 1992; Long and Innes 1993; Waller 1994; Long barrier estuary evolution in Walland Marsh. and Hughes 1995; Long and Innes 1995a, 1995b; Plater The focus on the Scotney Marsh site enables the study and Long 1995; Plater et al. 1995; Wass 1995; Long et al. of Holocene barrier and barrier estuary sedimentation in 1996; Spencer 1997; Spencer et al. 1998; Plater et al. in an environmental setting where high-frequency low- press), archaeological and historical information provide magnitude tidal and wave processes are aperiodically important detail on the sequence of barrier estuary interrupted and modified by low-frequency high-magni- sedimentation, drainage, inundation and land claim (Ward tude events (especially storms), which reshape the coastline 1931; Cunliffe 1980, 1988; Eddison 1983b, 1988, 1998; and establish new boundary conditions. A further aim Brooks 1988; Green 1988; Robinson 1988; Tatton-Brown of this paper is, therefore, to assess the geomorphic 14 Christopher Spencer, Andrew Plater and Antony Long significance of coastal processes which operate over these peat and other fine-grained sediments formed. More different timescales. Of especial interest is the interdepend- recently, Tooley (1995) has also noted that the Midley ence and relative importance of long-term (centuries to Sand, as mapped by Green (1968), outcrops between millenia) sea-level rise, medium-term (decades to cent- gravel ridges in the Broomhill area and must, therefore, uries) changes in sediment supply and short-term (hours to post-date gravel deposition here as well. decades) geomorphic events on barrier estuary evolution. An alternative hypothesis for the early development of the barrier was presented by Long et al. (1996) as part of their investigation of the deep sedimentary record in the region of Rye. These authors argued that a strong Barrier estuary formation coarsening upwards trend between approximately -25 m The information relating to the early-Holocene evolution and -12 m OD may be associated with the landward of Walland Marsh has focused on the origins of the barrier migration of a coastal barrier system under the influence and, critically, its relationship to the lower-energy barrier of sea-level rise (Forbes et al. 1991 ; Orford et al. 199 1). estuary environments (e.g. Long and Innes 1995a). Indeed, Other possible explanations for this coarsening upwards it seems unlikely that the fine-grained inorganic and trend included the onset of the west-to-east movement of organic sediments that make up Walland Marsh would sand in the nearshore zone associated with a change in ever have been deposited and preserved were it not for the tidal range following the opening of the Strait of Dover protection afforded by the sand and gravel barriers of (Austin 1991), and also an increase in tidal energy caused Dungeness Foreland (Gulliver 1897; Lewis and Balchin by the rise in Holocene relative sea level. 1940). The nature of this initial barrier has been the source The exact dimensions of this early-Holocene barrier of much debate, especially in terms of its initial formation, are far from certain, largely because its western portions location and composition. have been destroyed by coastal erosion and reworked to Drew (1 864) suggested that the initial sand and gravel feed the more recent easterly expansion of Dungeness barrier owed its origin to the slack water arising from the Foreland. However, this has not stopped many authors meeting of two tides, one from the English Channel and from speculating on the possible form of the barrier at the other from the North Sea. Lewis (1932, 1937) refuted this time, one example of which is provided in Fig. 2.1 this, arguing that this phenomenon occurred over a wide from Lewis (1932). The presence of peat in front of the area from Dungeness to the Goodwins, off the coast of cliffs at the western limits of Rye Bay suggests that the Deal in the Strait of Dover. The basis for many more barrier was not anchored to the present coast (in this area recent models of barrier initiation and barrier estuary at least) until after the end of peat formation in the late- evolution is provided by the Soil Survey of Green (1968). Holocene (Eddison 1983a). In the absence of more In Green's (1968) study, and those of Cunliffe (1980) and conclusive offshore data (see Dix et al. 1998) these Greensmith and Gutmanis (1990), a surface outcrop of reconstructions must be interpreted as speculative at best. Midley Sand was interpreted as a remnant of the early Once established, the barrier provided a period of barrier system, forming a series of low-relief offshore bars prolonged protection to the back-barrier estuary of behind which the fine-grained back-barrier sediments Walland Marsh. Between c. 6000 and 3000 to 2000 cal. accumulated. Greensmith and Gutmanis (1990) suggested yrs BP, peat-forming communities spread and flourished that periodic breaching of the Midley Sand barrier by across much of the area, supporting a range of habitats floodwaters from the Wealden catchment flushed minero- ranging from saltmarsh and transitional freshwater com- genic sediment across a subtidal apron on which the gravel munities to fen can, scrub and raised bog (Waller et al. in beaches of Dungeness Foreland subsequently developed. press). Inundation of these peat-forming communities Radiocarbon dates from the base of this apron place the occurred over several hundreds or perhaps thousands of development of the Midley Sand barrier between 5742- years (Spencer et al. 1998), probably due to the flooding 571 8 and 2765-2741 cal. yrs BP. of a large estuary in the eastern portion of Romney Marsh The importance of the Midley Sand barrier has been proper (Long et al. 1998). questioned recently by a number of workers. For example, Innes and Long (1992) and Long and Innes (1993,1995b) completed three stratigraphic transects across the outcrop of Midley Sand at its typesite, the Midley Church bank. Study area and methodology These authors found that the surface sands there overlie a The interface between the barrier and barrier estuary laterally extensive peat bed, which is similar in age and sedimentary environments is of central importance in the depositional origin to the main deposit of peat recorded understanding controls on marsh-wide patterns of coastal across much of Walland Marsh. This showed that the evolution during the Holocene. Towards the western limit surface outcrop of sand at the Midley Church bank is, in of the gravel outcrop at Broomhill (Fig. 2.2), Tooley and fact, one of the youngest elements of the Walland Marsh Switsur (1988) studied a sequence of peats and intertidal stratigraphy, and that the Midley Sand (at this site at least) silts, clays and sands adjacent to the gravel barrier. These cannot have formed the initial barrier behind which the sediments illustrate both marine and freshwater influences Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution

ROMNEY MARSH

WALLAND MARSH

Upland

0 km 10 I.S,111~,,J

Fig. 2.1. Proposed evolution of the gravel barrier conzplex, after Lewis (1932). The dashed lines are postulated former shorelines, illustrating an eastward progradation of the gravel foreland.

ROMNEY MARSH

B - B' Transect II Land above 10m 0 km 10 lIIIII.I..I

Fig. 2.2. Location of the Scotney Marsh sample site and the long stratigraphic transects. Other sites mentioned in the text are also illustrated. 16 Christopher Spencer, Andrew Plater and Antony Long on sedimentation afterc.3500 cal. yrs BP, and radiocarbon the back-barrier development of Walland Marsh as a whole. dates from here provide a minimum age for gravel Lithostratigraptic data at Scotney Marsh were collected deposition. In contrast, organic sediments are absent in using a 25 m interval grid-based sampling framework. the sedimentary record from sites to the south and east of Between adjacent boreholes, where the altitude of the Lydd at Denge Marsh (Plater 1992; Plater and Long 1995) buried gravel changed by more than 2 m, additional and across the intervening area between Denge Marsh boreholes were sunk at 12.5 m intervals. A total of 3400 and Broomhill (Long and Hughes 1995). Instead, the cores were collected, with stratigraphic data being obtained records from these sites are dominated by minerogenic using Edelman auger and Eijkelkamp gouge corers. sediments deposited under the combined influence of Sediments were described according to the classification storms and longer-term wave and tidal processes. This scheme of Troels-Smith (1955) to enable direct com- contrast in Holocene sedimentation is addressed here by parison with previous investigations undertaken in the focusing on the interface between the barrier and barrier Romney Marsh region. All altitudes were levelled to estuary environments at Scotney Marsh, Lydd (Fig. 2.2). Ordnance Datum using a Sokkia optical level and a Sokkia The Scotney Marsh site encompasses a series of SET-5 Total Station EDM. The three-dimensional and Holocene sand and gravel storm beaches which interdigitate contour plots were generated using SURFER. with marsh sediments. In places, fine-grained marsh Following the stratigraphic investigations at Scotney sediments have infilled buried gravel troughs, the con- Marsh, strato-type cores were collected for diatom, pollen figuration and dimensions of which have been determined and particle size analyses from locations AY17, A-B27, by several thousand close-interval cores (Spencer 1997). G60, AW63 and AW-AX67 (Fig. 2.3). Samples for pollen In addition to this highly detailed local information, two and diatom analysis were prepared using standard tech- long stratigraphic transects have been completed which niques, with pollen identifications based on Moore et al. connect the stratigraphy at Scotney Marsh to the main (1992) and the University of Liverpool type slide col- back-barrier sequences of Walland Marsh (Waller et al. lection. Diatom nomenclature follows Hartley (1986), with 1988; Long and Innes 1995a; Long et al. 1996). The first identifications being made using Van der Werff and Huls of these transects, A - A', extends north-westwards from (1958-74) and Hendey (1964), and interpretation under- Denge Marsh across Scotney Marsh and Walland Marsh taken using the schemes of Vos and de Wolf (1988,1993) to Brookland. The second transect, B - B', runs in an and Denys (1994). For particle size analysis, samples were easterly direction from Guldeforde Lane Corner to digested in a 20% solution of 100 volume H,O, and Hammonds Corner near New Romney (Fig. 2.2). Together, dispersed in Calgon before analysis using a coulter Laser these transects provide a good coverage of Walland Marsh LS130 particle sizer. Results were expressed in statistical and a stratigraphic framework necessary for examining form according to Folk (1974), and the interpretative the link between barrier dynamics at Scotney Marsh and model used in this study follows the principles outlined in

Altitude (m OD) l X Sample site l Fig. 2.3. Contour plot of gravel sugace in the Scotney Marsh region, illustrating the location of prominent ridges and troughs, and recovered stratotype cores. Holocene Burrier Estuary Evolution 17

Friedman (1961) and Friedman and Sanders (1978), and which exhibit a clear relation to past sea-Ievel andlor makes particular reference to the model of Tanner (1991). watertable movement. Radiocarbon dates are presented A chronology for the evolution of Scotney Marsh was in cal. yrs BP using the intercept method within the CALIB obtained using radiocarbon (14C) dating of organic units program of Stuiver and Reimer (1993) (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1. Radiocarbon dates obtained for the Scotney Marsh area.

Sample Name : Core, Environment of deposition and the "C Age (Calibrated Uncalibrated Altitude, significance relative to sea-level. years BP radiocarbon age Laboratory Number (Troels-Smith 1955) * 2 sigma) (* l sigma) Location.

Sample 1 : G60 Minimum age of the gravel barrier 3370 to 2970 3020 * 70 BP -2.280 to -2.235 m OD emplacement. Peat development traces the Beta-81363 removal of marine conditions. Regressive (TR026203) contact. (Sh3,Dhl, %%+,As+)

Sample 2 : G60 Upper contact of terrestrial peat becoming 3375 to 3069 3050 5 60 BP -2.235 to -2.185 m OD saltmarsh peaty-clay under marine Beta-81364 conditions. Transgressive contact. (TR026203) (Sh3,Dhl,7hJ+,As+)

Sample 3 :AY17 Lower contact of peat, as mudflat became 3356 to 2982 3010 * 60 BP +OS2 to +OS7 m OD saltmarsh, tracing the removal of marine Beta-81365 conditions. Regressive contact. (TR034210) (ShZ,DhZ,As+,Th")

Sample 4 : AY17 Upper contact of peat which is overlain by 271 1 to 2585 2380 * 60 BP +0.72 to +0.77 m OD marine deposited sediments. Transgressive and2510 to2318 Beta-81366 contact. (TR034210) (Sh4,Dh+, W+)

Sample 5 : A-B27 Upper contact between saltmarsh and 2794-2496 2610*60BP +0.96 to +1.01 m OD freshwater dominated peat, tracing the Beta-81367 complete removal of marine conditions. FRO3 1208) Regressive contact. (Sh4,Dh+, W+)

Sample 6 :AW63 Lower contact between mudflat becoming 381 1-3497 3410 i 40 BP +0.12 to +0.05 m OD saltmarsh and eventually semi-terrestrial Beta-81368 peat. Minimuni date for gravel (TR023204) emplacement. Regressive contact. (Sh3, Th21,Dh+,As+)

Sample 7 :AW63 Entire peat unit sampled to give an age for 332C2891 2950 * 60 BP +0.74 to +OS9 m OD the period of organic sedimentation caused Beta-81369 by a change in sea-level. (TR023204) (Sh3,Dhl, Th3+)

Sample 8 :AW-AX67 Entire peat unit sampled to give an age for 3580 * 60 BP +O. 16 to +0.21 m OD the period of organic sedimentation caused 4072-3695 Beta-813 70 by a change in sea-level. (TR022204) (Sh3,Dhl, Thl+)

Sample 9 :AW-AX67 Lower contact of the upper peat unit, 3 148-2791 2850 * 60 BP +0.76 to +0.85 m OD saltmarsh peat-clay becomes terrestrial Beta-813 71 peat, indicating the removal of marine (TR022204) conditions. Regressive contact. (Sh3,Th31,Dh+,As+)

Sample 10: AW-AX67 Upper contact of the upper peat unit, 2949-27 17 2690 * 80 BP +0.85 to +0.94 m OD terrestrial peat becomes saltmarsh peaty- Beta-813 72 clay, indicating the return of marine (TR022204) conditions. Transgressive contact. (Sh4, Th3+,Dh+,As+) 18 Christopher Spencer, Andrew Plater and Antony Long

Results the columns entitled 'Sediment Type' and 'Environment of Deposition' in particular. Full details of these data Littzostratigraphy (including pollen and diatom assemblage diagrams) can Scotney Marsh be found in Spencer (1997) and Spencer et al. (1998). Two prominent gravel ridges run approximately south- Minimum dates for the deposition of gravel in the west to north-east across Scotney Marsh, these being Scotney Marsh region range from 4072-3695 (AW-AX67) defined where the gravel surface lies above +1.50 m OD to 381 1-3497 (AW63) and 3370-2970 cal. yrs BP (G60) (Fig. 2.3). The southernmost ridge (Ridge 2) occupies the (Table 2.1). The northernmost of the two prominent ridges south-eastern boundary of the study area, whilst the main (Ridge 1) was deposited before c. 4000 cal. yrs BP, ridge (Ridge 1) trends roughly south-west to north-east followed by Ridge 2 some time before c. 3150 cal. yrs through the middle of Scotney Marsh. A number of smaller BP. These dates imply a progressive eastward sequence gravel ridges are also evident between these ridges, e.g. of ridge construction, and this interpretation receives Ga, Gb and Gc (Fig. 2.3), which are thought to be offshoot support from the asymmetrical form of the buried gravel limbs or earlier recurves of the more prominent ridges. ridges, as also observed in the Denge Marsh region (Plater These ridges divide the Scotney Marsh area into barrier et al. in press). (Ridge I, and to the south-east thereof) and barrier estuary The deepest sediments recorded above gravel are in (north-west of Ridge 1) environments. cores G60 and AY17. In the former (Table 2.5), the lower Over much of Scotney Marsh, where the buried gravel part of the sedimentary sequence accumulated in a shallow lies at sufficient depth, a clear stratigraphic sequence can semi-enclosed gravel trough between Ridge 2 and offshoot be identified (Table 2.2). This comprises a blue-grey silty- limb Ga, which alternated between fresh and marine clay or silty-sand (unit 2) which passes upwards into a conditions. Two peat beds at this site record episodes of grey-brown peaty-clay (unit 3) and then a well-humified reduced marine influence and lower energy, whilst peat with occasional detrital plant remains (unit 4). The intervening units of gravel reflect the slumping of coarse upper contact to this peat and the overlying orange-grey material into the trough, or overwashing during storms. It minerogenic deposit (unit 5) is generally abrupt. Where is clear that Ridges 1 and 2 converge in the north-east of the buried gravel surface rises above c. +IS0 m OD, the Scotney Marsh site. This event may post-date the these finer-grained sediments become attenuated. In deposition of the lower sediments in the Scotney Marsh addition, organic sediments (units 3 and 4) are present to trough and record a period of beach migration under storm the north-west of Ridge 1, but are absent in the Scotney conditions; indeed their merging may be linked to the Marsh trough between Ridges 1 and 2. In this trough, possible remobilisation of gravel recorded in G60 (Spencer blue-grey silts pass directly upward into oxidation mottled el al. 1998). silts. Organic units are also found at the margins of Scotney The blue-grey silts which overlie the gravel surface in Marsh trough and occasionally in sheltered inlets observed the base of AY17 and elsewhere (Tables 2.2-2.7) were in the buried gravel surface. deposited on a tidal mudflat and lower saltmarsh, with an overall decrease in the marine influence with altitude. Transects across Walland Marsh Variations in salinity and tidal flow dynamics and the The results from the long transects (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5) general 'freshening' trend can be attributed to changes in illustrate that the above stratigraphic sequence extends the connection of the barrier estuary to the open sea. This into Walland Marsh, but perhaps with the addition of freshening trend culminated in the widespread develop- grey sands beneath the blue-grey silty unit where gravel is ment of peat across the study area after c. 3300 cal. yrs not present. Furthermore, the marsh stratigraphy is BP. Pollen data record the replacement of saltmarsh by replaced in several locations by orange and grey sands transitional freshwater reedswamp communities with which probably represent former drainage channels localised pockets of alder carr and freshwater pools (Tables (Spencer 1997). The stratigraphic relationship between 2.3-2.7). Towards the top of the peat, the pollen data are the channel and marsh sediments suggests that the channels indicative of a progressive return of marine conditions as post-date the marsh stratigraphy in both transects and, by saltmarsh and intertidal flats became widespread once inference, date from the late-Holocene (see below). more. The stratigraphic boundary between the peat and the overlying oxidation-mottled silts is gradational in the Palaeoenvironmental analysis sample cores, but is generally abrupt elsewhere (Spencer The palaeoenvironmental evidence obtained from laborat- 1997). This indicates that erosion post-dates marsh ory analysis of each of the type cores is summarized in inundation and reflects an increase in energy across much Tables 2.3 to 2.7. These tables present lithological and of the area, perhaps related to the geographical location granulometric information on the predominant strati- of tidal access channels in the newly-flooded barrier graphic units, their contained microfossils, the interpreted estuary. This transgressive event occurred between 3326- environment of deposition and any chronological data. In 2891 (AW63) and 2710-23 18 cal. yrs BP (AY 17). The the following review of these data, the reader is guided to environment of deposition represented by the upper Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution

Table 2.2. Stratigraphic succession from the Scotney Marsh area.

Unit Common term Troels-Smith Description

6 Topsoil nig. 3, strf. 0, elas.O+, sicc. 2, lim. sup. - As3, Agl Sh+, Th2+, Ga+, Gg(maj)+ Brown silty-clay, locally with sand and gravel.

5 Oxidation nig. 2+, strf. 0, elas. 0, sicc. 2, lim. sup. 0 to Mottled Silts nig. 2+, strf. 2, elas. 0, sicc. 2, lim. sup. 0 As3, Agl to Ga3, Agl Lf++, Sh+, Th+, Dh+, Gg(maj)+, Ptm+ Orange-grey silty-clay to silty-sand, with oxidation mottling ranging from slight to extreme both laterally and vertically. Locally laminated with both Turfa herbacea and Detritus herbosus present.

4 Peat nig. 3+, strf. 2+, elas. 2, sicc. 2, lim. sup. 0 to nig. 4, strf. 0, elas. l, sicc. 2, lim. sup. l+ Sh4 to Sh2, Dh2 Th2++, As+, Ag+, Ga+, D1+ Black to dark brown, humified to well-humified, variably laminated peat. Predominantly Substantia humosa with Detritus herbosus and Turfa herbacea. Some minerogenic content and Detritus lignosus.

3 Peaty-Clay 1 nig. 3, strf 0. elas. 0+, sicc. 2. lim. sup. 0 to nig. 3, strf. 1, elas. 1, sicc. 2, lim. sup. 0 As2, Shl, Dhl Th2+, D]+, Ag+, Ga+ Grey to brown, with decreasing organic content with depth. Generally a transitional unit between the overlying peat and the underlying blue-grey silts.

2 B lue-Grey nig. 2, strf. 0, elas. 0, sicc. 2, lim. sup. 0 to Silts nig. 2+, strf. l+, elas. 0, sicc. 2+, lim. sup. 0 As3, Agl to Ga3, Agl Sh+, Dh+, Th2+, Ga+, D1+, Gg(maj)+, Ptm+ Blue-grey to battleship grey silty-clay to silty-sand, generally coarsening downward. Locally some laminations are present, with sandy partings common throughout. Organic material is commonly dispersed throughout the unit (especially the remains of Phragmites), and black staining may be present.

1 Gravel nig. 2+, strf. 0, elas. 0, sicc. 2+, lim. sup. 4 Gg(maj)4 Gg(min)+, Ptm+ Basal gravel encountered in all cores throughout the study area. Rarely observed in detail due to the difficulty in sampling, but generally well-rounded flint. 20 Christopher Spencer, Andrew Plater and Antony Long

Marsh Lydd Brookland NW 4.0 ]

jl Oxidation mottled silts Peat m Blue-grey silt m Grey sands Orange-grey sands Gravel Fig. 2.4. Stratigraphic cross-section of transect I (A -A1)from Denge Marsh to Brookland.

Guldeford Lane Corner Harnrnonds Corner

- I 9. ..:,I I. . . I )Oxidation mottled silts .L>\ .I . . '1 Peat B Blue-grey slit D Grey sands a Orange-grey sands 1Gravel

Fig. 2.5. Stratigraphic cross-section of transect II (B - B') from Guldeford Lane Corner to Harnmonds Corner. Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution

Table 2.3. Summary table of data for core AY1 7.

Altitude m (OD) Sediment Type 1 Particle Predominant Diatoms Predominant Pollen Environment of Deposition '*C Age (Cal. yrs Size Analysis BP, 2 sigma)

+l .52 to 10.79 Orange-grey oxidation Autochthonous Diplimeis NIS Up to +0.87m OD a brackish NIS mottled clay with silt. internrpta dominates with tidal mndflat exists into (Initially tidal mud allochthonous Paralia sulcata which significant inputs of deposition, however, mean and subordinate marine water occur. The grain size increases upward P.seudopodosira wesfii. energy of the environment and sediments become more appears to increase upward. ------.------.------.------.fine-skewed). +0.79 to +0.48 Dark brown well-hutnified Brackish epiphyticihenthic Initially high frequencies of A brackish Phrugmites 2710 to 2318 peat diatoms dominate at the top. Cheuopodiaceae are saltmarsh becoming a followed by high frequencies freshwater poollreedswamp. of Poaceae and aquatic Progressive drying out pollen. Upward, there is recorded by sedge fen with dominance of Cyperaceae pools and then fen cm. Brackish epiphyticlhenthic and wetland herb pollen. Towards the top the diatoms dominate at the base. Toward the top there is an environment becomes wetter 3356 to 2982 increase in Poaceae, again and, eventually. a Chenopodiaceae and aquatic saltmarsh with marine ...... pollen types. dominance returns. +0.48 to +0.08 Grey-brown silty clay to Marine dominance with Poaceae and Cyperaceae Progressive change from NIS peaty-clay transition. fluctuating brackish and fresh dominate, with significant tidal flats to intertidal inputs. Presence of the frequencies of saltmarsh. Hantzschia an~phior.v.sgroup. Chenopodiaceae and ...... Polamogeton. +0.08 to -2.48 Blue-grey sand with silt and Marine dominance, especially NIS Tidal mudflats in a back- NIS some clay. (Very poorly the Melo.sira s~ilcatagroup. A barrier environment, sorted, medium to very fine gradual reduction in Marine gradually shallowing with silts). epiphytichenthic diatoms. periodic variatiolis in Increase in Brackish influence salinity. at the top, i.e. Nitzschia 11avic1r1ari.s.

Below -2.48 Gravel. NIS NIS NIS NIS

Table 2.4. Summary table of data for core A-B27.

Altitude m (OD) Sediment Type Predominant Diatoms Predominant Pollen Environment of Deposition I4C Age (Cal. yrs BP, 2 sigma)

+l .31 to t1.27 Unit 7: Orange, oxidation Fresh-brackish diatoms NIS Fresh-brackish tidal lagoon. NIS mottled sandy-silt dominate, especially ...... Epithemiu tut@da. +1.27 to +l .24 Unit 6: Brown said with silt Brackish to marine diatoms Cyperaceae, Poaceae and Coastal reedswamp to NIS and clay. dominate, especially Parulia some Chenopodiaceae at the intertidal saltmarsh sulcatu and the Nueicirla upper contact. indicating relatively sudden digitoradia~ai,ar. n~ir~bra return to marine dominance...... group. +1.24 to +1.12 Unit 5: Dark brown humified Fresh to fresh-brackish Poaceae dominate along with Increased waterlogging NIS peat with some clay, diatoms dominated especially aquatic pollen types. Some leading to a freshwater transitional upper contact. Eprthemia turgida and Eunotia wetland herb pollen types reedswamp...... monodon. also present. +l .l2 to t0.95 Unit 4: Brown well humified Fresh-brackish diatoms Cyperaceae and Poaceae Freshwater lagoon with drier 2794 to 2496 peat with clay and silt. dominated with increased dominate, with increasing sedge fen conditions and freshwater diatoms upward. aquatic pollen toward the top. alder cmnearby. Significant inputs of CoryIz~s ...... and Alnus. +0.95 to +0.72 Unit 3: Light brown At the base the same as unit 2, Cyperaceae, Poaceae and Initially intertidal mudflats NIS lithologically transitional toward the top fresh-brackish Chenopodiaceae with some becoming gradually clay with organics and some diatoms dominated, especially aquatic pollen types. At the colonized by saltmarsh and a silt. the Epithemia zebra group upper contact the frequency freshwater sedge fen. with subordinate Navicula of Chenopodiaceae reduce as digitor(ldiatu sar. minima Cyperaceae rises...... group. t0.72 to t0.41 Unit 2: Blue-grey silt and At the upper contact, brackish N/S lntertidal to supratidal NlS clay. diatoms dominate, especially conditions in a tidal inlet the Navicula digitoradia~a with input from the open sea. var. nrinitnu group with subordinate Melosira sulcala group. Below +0.4 l Unit 1: Gravel NIS NIS NIS NIS Table 2.5. Summary table of data for core G60. Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution

Table 2.7. Summary tczble of data for core AW-AX67.

Altitude m (OD) Sediment Type Predominant Diatoms Predominant Pollen Environment of Deposition I4CAge (Cal. yrs BP, 2 sigma)

+l .l9 to +1.09 Unit 8: Orange, oxidation NIS NIS NIS NIS ...... mottled silty-sand +1.09 to +1.05 Unit 7: Brown silly-clay Brackish to marine-brackish NIS Intertidal mudflats. A return NIS with substantial organics. diatoms dominate, especially to the intertidal back-barrier the Navicula digitoradiala environment with some ...... var. nrirrinra group. open sea input. +1.05 to 10.95 Unit 6: Grey clay with silt. Brackish diatoms dominate, NIS Initially, saltmarsh NIS especially Diplorrei.~ conditions prevailed which inlerupra, with subordinate became intertidal mudflats ...... marine diatoms. upward. +0.95 to +O 76 Unit 5: Brown well Fresh to brackish diatoms Poaceae and Cyperceae Initially, intertidal mudflats 2949 to 2717 humified peat. dominate, with contributio~is dominate. A high value of existed which became from the Navicula Sparganiutt~is recorded and freshwater dominated and a digitoradiota var mmitfrrr and the frequency of coastal reedswamp l1iplonei.s inlerupta groups. Chenopodiaceae gradually developed. Saltmarsh The optimal diatom group is rises towards the upper conditions prevailed at the ...... brackish. contact. upper contact. 3148 to 2791 +0.76 to +0.21 Unit 4: Blue-grey silty-clay Marine planktonic diatoms At the base, Poaceae and At the lower contact, a NIS dominate, especially the Chenopodiaceae dominate saltmarsh / coastal Mrlosiru .vulcata group with with subordinate reedswamp existed, which subordinate Navicula Cyperaceae and aquatic became an intertidal ~ligitrrradiotuvur niinima pollen types. mudflat upward...... group. t0.21 to +0.16 Unit 3: Brown well Fresh-brackish to brackish Initially Chenopodiaceae A saltmarsh was replaced liumified peat with some diatoms dominate, especially .and Poaceae dominate. upward by a fresh to clay. the Naidcula digi/oratliatcz Poaceae, Cyperaceae and brackish coastal reedswamp 4072 to 3695 var. ftiinitna group. Some aquatic pollen types colonised by aquatic plants. allochtho~iousmarine input become dominant upward, exists throughout. with some Chenopodiaceae ...... throughout. +0.16 to +0.09 Unit 2: Blue-grey silty-clay Brackish diatoms are the NIS Intertidal to subtidal NIS optimal diatom group, with a marine-brackish mudflat high allochtlionous marine exposed to the influence of ioput. Mel~fsirasulcala and the open sea. N~rviculudigitorad~ata var. nritrinia ~oupsdominated.

Below +0.09 Unit I: Gravel. NIS NIS NIS NIS

mottled silts is difficult to ascertain, mainly because on peat directly overlying gravel at Broomhill and at diatoms are absent. Although they may not have been Scotney Marsh date from the mid- and late-Holocene, present from the onset, due to extreme turbidity during ranging from c. 3600 cal. yrs BP at Broomhill (Tooley sediment deposition or silica recycling under conditions and Switsur 1988) toc. 4000 cal. yrs BP at Scotney Marsh. of low sedimentation rate, post-depositional dissolution This apparent age difference between the barrier and the of biogenic silica in association with iron oxides (Mayer barrier estuary sediments implies a delay between peat el al. 1991) is, perhaps, more likely. formation on the gravel at these two sites and initial gravel deposition. An alternative explanation is that a hitherto unidentified gravel barrier lies submerged beneath the sediments of Walland Marsh to the west of the Broomhill/ Holocene evolution of the Walland Marsh Lydd complex. Some support for this latter explanation is barrier estuary provided by occasional deposits of gravel recorded at depth in boreholes along the stratigraphic transects which Barrier estuary sedimentation: chronology and extend north and west from Scotney Marsh (Figs 2.4 and controls 2.5). The presence of thick accumulations of freshwater peat in The earliest phase of sedimentation at Scotney Marsh the western margins of Romney Marsh (Waller 1993, 1994) records the accumulation of tidal sandflat and saltmarsh which formed between c. 11,100 and 2000 cal. yrs BP, sediments. The exact position of the open coast at this strongly suggests that there has been a protective barrier time is difficult to establish, but the presence of gravel in this area throughout much of the early- and mid- within these fine-grained sediments indicates that this Holocene (Eddison 1983a). However, radiocarbon ages coarse-grained material was clearly still mobile during 24 Christopher Spencer, Andre !W Plater and Antony Long the 'pre-peat' period (i.e. c. 3500 cal. yrs BP). This gravel here locate this stratigraphic divide more accurately and could represent overwash during storms, implying im- illustrate the extreme abruptness of the sedimentary mediate proximity of the site to the open coast to the east, changes at the barrier and barrier estuary interface. More but overwash deposits are rare phenomena in the exposed recent stratigraphic investigations to the east and south of gravel ridges which comprise Dungeness Foreland today. the Scotney Marsh site also record no organic sediments Another explanation for these gravel intercalations is that (Plater 1992; Plater and Long 1995; Plater et al. 1995), they may represent slumping from the adjoining beaches, further defining this stratigraphic divide. The absence of perhaps due to saltwater percolation and a large difference any mid- to late-Holocene sedimentary units extending in the hydraulic head between the open coast and the across this divide is suggestive of a major physical back-barrier area. boundary between protected and exposed depositional The Scotney Marsh stratigraphy can be divided into settings or, as noted above, an erosional hiatus, perhaps areas with or without peat. The former lie to the north- during a period of reduced sediment supply andlor west of Ridge 1 and extend into the eastern margin of enhanced storm activity. Walland Marsh. Beneath this widespread peat are blue- A further question posed by these data is how the grey clays and sands that attain thicknesses in excess of environments recorded at Scotney Marsh and Broomhill 20 m at Rye (Long et al. 1996). The timing of peat relate to those on the south coast between Jury's Gut and accumulation here coincides with a reduction in the rate Denge Marsh. Long and Hughes (1995) undertook strati- of sea-level rise from 2.3 to 0.8 mm yr.' (Long and Innes graphic investigations here and found no peat - rather 1993; Spencer et al. 1998). Clearly these conditions, they observed extensive accumulations of silts, sands and together with an abundant sediment supply, enabled clays, which diatom analyses showed to have formed under infilling of the gravel lows with intertidal and then turbid tidal channel conditions. That peats are absent from freshwater sediments. Peat initiation at the barrier interface these channels suggests that their sediment fills may post- was late compared with other areas in more open locations date peat formation and probably formed during the last on Walland Marsh (see above), indicating a lingering c. 3000 cal. yrs. This hypothesis is certainly compatible persistence of marine conditions in the Scotney and with the date on the base of a peat in Wickmaryholm Pit Broomhill areas for several thousand years, during which of c. 2100 cal. yrs BP, which provides a minimum age for time freshwater conditions existed only a short distance gravel deposition in this area (as opposed to tidal channel to the north and west (e.g. at Little Cheyne Court, Waller sedimentation) (Long and Hughes 1995). But how did the et al. in press). tidal waters reach these low-lying areas between the gravel With the exception of the possible gravel overwash beaches? The obvious source for the marine influence is deposits referred to above, the initiation and cessation of to their north, but the distal portions of Holmestone and peat growth at Scotney Marsh appears to have been Lydd beaches now merge into a single mass of gravel gradual. The top peat contact is certainly eroded, but this upon which the town of Lydd is established. If the tidal erosion most probably post-dates marine inundation of waters did enter from this direction, then one must invoke the peat and was a result of tidal and wave action during a period of significant reworking of the gravel on which the last few millenia. Moreover, although there are Lydd is built to explain this particular geography differences in the timing, altitude and depositional The extensive phase of marsh flooding following on environments during peat formation at Scotney Marsh and from the period of peat deposition records a marked change elsewhere across Walland Marsh, it is clear that peat in the evolutionary history of the barrier estuary, but this formation here records processes influencing much of return to minerogenic sedimentation is recorded with Walland and Romney Marshes. Timing differences may extreme spatial and altitudinal variation. The inundation reflect the proximity of the site to the open coast, and of the main peat-forming communities in the Scotney perhaps also the persistence of tidal channel(s) which Marsh area is dated to between c. 3200 and 2350 cal. yrs separated Scotney Marsh and Broomhill from these other BP. Ages from elsewhere on the marshland suggest the areas (Long and Innes 1995a, Figs 2.2 and 2.3). Perhaps Scotney Marsh site was one of a number of sites relatively most importantly of all, however, is the evidence for a close to the barrier which were inundated first. For progressive return of marine conditions accompanying example, the transgressive contact to the peat is dated to the end of peat formation rather than any abrupt change between 2569-2474 and 1814-1747 cal. yrs BP at Midley which might reflect barrier breaching. This gradual (Long and Innes 1993), between 3006-2948 and 1814- inundation was caused most probably by the headward 1747 cal. yrs BP at Broomhill (Tooley and Switsur 1988), expansion of a tidal inlet located on Romney Marsh proper and between 3265-2930 and 2510-2220 cal. yrs BP at (see Long et al. 1998). The absence of this episode of Scotney Marsh. Dates from Old Place in the Brede Valley peat development in areas east of the Scotney Marsh trough (Waller et al. 1988), Brookland (Long and Innes 1995a), suggests either non-deposition or subsequent erosion. Long and Rye (Long et al. 1996) reveal a later phase of marine and Innes (1993) observe that the Lydd gravel complex, inundation around 1700 cal. yrs BP (Spencer et al. 1998). of which Scotney Marsh forms part, marks a significant Spencer et al. (1998) suggest that the two groups of divide in the marshland stratigraphy. The data presented radiocarbon dates on the upper surface of the peat across Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution 25

Romney Marsh may relate to two periods of marsh gaps in the shingle during the mid- to late-Holocene which inundation (see Long et al. 1998 for a more detailed have captured the rivers of the marsh (Drew 1864; interpretation). The fact that the younger group of dates Robertson 1880; Dowker 1897; Gulliver 1897; Lewis are at a lower altitude than the older group may argue 1932; Homan 1938; Piper 1950; Ward 1952; Williamson against an overall sea-level control on marsh inundation. 1959; Green 1968; Cunliffe 1980; Eddison 1983a; Tatton- Indeed, Spencer et al. (1998) suggest that the lower group Brown 1984; Green 1988). These authors believe that the of peat surfaces were inundated only after the higher fore- three major gaps were in turn at Hythe, Romney, and marsh sites had been overtopped, essentially acting as an south of Rye (as illustrated by Green 1988). Moreover, organic barrier feature within the barrier estuary. An until the work of Green (1968), all the models of Romney alternative hypothesis is that the later inundation of peat and Walland Marsh that had attempted to reconstruct the units in the back-marsh occurred due to rising sea-levels topography of the area before the 13th century AD, showed eventually inundating these sites following earlier inunda- a large channel in a broad southerly arc through Walland tion of the mid- and fore-marsh sites (see Long et al. Marsh (Tatton-Brown 1988). A number of workers 1998). With subsequent compaction, particularly of the proposed a Rother channel following this southerly course organic sediments, in the areas with thicker Holocene across Walland Marsh (Elliot 1862, 1874; Livett 1930; sedimentary sequences, the upper peat contact may now Ward 1952; Parkin 1973; Green 1988) (Fig. 2.6). be found at a lower altitude in the back- and mid-marsh The stratigraphic transects completed by Waller et al. than in the fore-marsh areas (Green 1968; Allen 1996; (1988), Long and Innes (1995a) and Long et al. (1996) Waller et al. in press). provide detailed geomorphological evidence regarding the existence and location of a major tidal channel in Walland Marsh. Waller et al. (1988) recorded undifferentiated Late-Holocene drainage of Walland Marsh sands across the northern mouth of the Rother Valley, as The long stratigraphic transects linking the Scotney Marsh well as a smaller deposit near Appledore (Fig. 2.7). Long sequence to that of Walland Marsh provide important and Innes (1995a) also mapped two extensive deposits of information regarding the late-Holocene drainage of the channel sands, one extending southwards from Little region during this most recent period of sedimentation. Cheyne Court towards Broomhill, and a second between The existing consensus is that there have been three major Brookland and The Cheyne. Finally, Long et al. (1996)

UShinglelgravel beach

Fig. 2.6. The drainage of Romney Marsh during the medieval period showing a southerly-arcing channel across Walland Marsh, from Brentnall (1972) after Lewin (1862). 26 Christopher Spencer, Andre !W Plater and Antony Long recorded a substantial deposit of sand across the current The role of storm events in controlling patterns course of the Rother at Rye. The two stratigraphic transects of coastal development described in this paper furnish further detail to this pattern and are usefully viewed in conjunction with Green's map The paradox of the Walland Marsh and Dungeness (1968, Fig. 6) of the deposits and parent materials of Foreland stratigraphy is that whilst the latter is an undisputed record of storm events in the eastern English Romney Marsh, with which it clearly has some semblance. Channel, the imprint of these storms on the barrier estuary The most striking feature of Fig. 2.7 is the presence of environment appears to have been minimal. As argued an extensive deposit of laminated sandy sediments which above, much of the depositional history of Scotney Court parallels the barrier / barrier estuary interface between reflects low-energy sedimentation under reasonably calm Broomhill and Midley. These sediments clearly relate to conditions, and this is epitomized by the gradational a tidal channel known as the Wainway, and lend support to previous assertions of authors such as Ward (1952), contacts between the peat and its intercalating sediments. Parkin (1973) and Green (1988) that a significant tidal Indeed, the only clear evidence for barrier breaching occurs relatively late in the depositional history of the barrier creek once existed in this area. Tracing this feature north- estuary, when the storms of the 13th century AD (Eddison east across Romney Marsh proper has not been possible 1998) breached the south coast of the foreland between (see Long et al. 1998) and it is uncertain whether these Rye and Broomhill. This implies that, as argued previously sediments relate to a channel which issued into the English by Long et al. (1996), Dungeness Foreland was a remark- Channel at Old Romney or further north at Hythe. The ably stable landform capable of withstanding significant sand-rich sediments at Rye, and across the mouth of the Rother and near Appledore, are more easy to interpret sea-level rise and storm incidence without experiencing and presumably relate to tidal channels connected to the breakdown. Moreover, storms from the south-west (the valleys which drain into Walland Marsh on its western predominant direction of approach in this area) would border. These and the other channels acted as primary only have a significant impact on the barrier estuary conduits for the transfer of tidal waters across Walland environments if the south coast of the barrier were Marsh accompanying and post-dating the end of peat breached, and this appears to have required the combina- formation and, therefore, played a critical role in the timing tion of a reduction in sediment supply and an exceptional and pattern of inundation during the late-Holocene. period of storms (Eddison 1998). During earlier periods of the Holocene, so long as the south coast held firm, the

ROMNEY MARSH

0Denge Marsh Stratlgraphy (No peat) Walland Marsh Strat~graphy(Peat) 0 km 10 ISI~8I~IIII U Land above 10rn

Fig. 2.7. The location of drainage channels across Walland Marsh as illustrated by the results from long stratigraphic transects. Holocene Barrier Estuary Evolution 27

low-energy barrier estuary environments would have an expansion of a tidal inlet in the east of the study area remained protected. (Long et al. 1998). Depositional conditions during the late-Holocene are difficult to determine due to the paucity of microfossil data from the sediments deposited during this period. Conclusions The effect of low-frequency high-magnitude storm This paper has addressed the important relationship events appears to have been minimal on the sedimentary between the barrier and barrier-estuary environments of history at Scotney Marsh and also elsewhere across Walland Marsh. Whereas early comparative studies (e.g. Walland Marsh. This probably reflects the robust nature Tooley and Switsur 1988) were unable to identify strong of Dungeness Foreland, as well as the exceptional links between the depositional record from these different protection which the barrier provided against storms environments, the combination of detailed investigations approaching up the English Channel from the south-west, at Scotney Marsh and more expansive stratigraphic surveys rather than any long-term variation in storm activity in the across Walland Marsh show clearly how these areas relate region. Far more important are the combined influences throughout the mid- and late-Holocene. of changes in relative sea level and variations in sediment The depositional record at Scotney Marsh presented supply. Storm events, although limited in their impact here is significantly shorter than the longer records during much of the Holocene, were nevertheless clearly preserved in protected locations in the west of Walland important in defining boundary conditions at two critical Marsh and the adjoining valleys. Nevertheless, during the periods during the Holocene. The first of these was last 4000 cal. yrs or so, this record shows many similarities associated with the initial deposition of the protective to the trends observed in the main back-barrier environ- barrier, which cast such a protective embrace around ments of Walland Marsh. An initial fining-upwards Walland Marsh throughout much of the Holocene. The sequence above the buried gravel culminated in the second was the period of storms that culminated in the development of an extensive deposit of peat across the breaching of the south coast of the barrier during the 13th Scotney Marsh area, which began forming c. 3900 cal. century AD, and which once again wholly redefined the yrs BP. This is later than the timing of peat initiation boundary conditions of the depositional complex. elsewhere on Walland Marsh but coincides with a period of increased dryness in pollen profiles from peat beds accumulating at this time elsewhere (Waller et al. in press) and also with a deceleration in the rate of relative sea- Acknowledgements level rise. These factors suggest that the change in The authors acknowledge Robert Brett and Sons Ltd. and stratigraphy reflects processes operating over a large the Romney Marsh Research Trust for their financial and spatial scale and not simply the operation of site-specific logistical support during the course of this research. Special processes. thanks are also extended to Jill and David Eddison, Marine conditions returned to the Scotney Marsh site Dorothy and Robert Beck, and Ann and Peter C. Payne after c. 3200 cal. yrs BP, and this too reflects the beginning for their assistance during the fieldwork campaign, to the of a widespread period of coastal inundation and shoreline laboratory staff at Liverpool for their help and advice, to recession across Walland Marsh. The gradational trans- Sandra Mather for the final drafts of the figures, and to ition from freshwater to saltmarsh and then tidal flat Richard Delacour for his extraordinary performance in conditions suggests that the cause of the inundation was the field and the laboratory.

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