“If I had to reduce all of educational to just one principle, I would say this: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly.” (Ausubel et al., 1978)

David P. Ausubel

Person David P. Ausubel (1918 – 2008): American psychiatrist interested in cognitive theories of learning. Education: • Bachelor’s degree in psychology from University of Pennsylvania • M.D. from Middlesex University Medical School • Ph.D. in from Career: • Served in the military and worked for the U.S. Public Health Service • After his military service, he held a series of professorships to practice psychiatry • Retired in 1973 to devote his time to his own psychiatric practice and academic writing • Published many books and articles, most notably, Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View in 1968 (revised in 1978) and The Acquisition and Retention of Knowledge: A Cognitive View in 1963

Ideas Best known for Assimilation Theory and use of advanced organizers.

His theory, also called Theory of Meaningful Reception Learning or Meaningful Verbal Learning, focused on how students learn large amounts of verbal/textual material in a school setting (not a laboratory setting). His primary focus was on reception of knowledge and not discovery of it. He made a distinction between meaningful learning and . To be meaningful, information has to be assimilated into existing cognitive structures. Ausubel also believed that to learn, ideas had to be broken down into small pieces. Then, introduce the broad concepts first and use those generalities to build later learning. This he called subsumption. (Kearsley, 2014)

Ausubel is also credited with the invention of advanced organizers. Advanced organizers are ways to organize thoughts to prepare for new learning. They are introduced at the beginning of a lesson and can be anything from a concept map, timeline, or metaphor, but they are NOT overviews or summaries. Types of Advanced Organizers: • Comparative – use prior knowledge to make connections to new material (Schunk, 2013) Ex. Use a Venn diagram to compare a concept you know to a new concept • Expository – supply student with new knowledge needed for understanding of the material presented through generalizations or concept definitions (Schunk, 2013); they provide an anchor for new material to be incorporated into existing mental structures Ex. The outlines provided for our readings in this class

Theory Ausubel’s theories were research-based and supported by authentic classroom studies. or Research? In a 1960 study, Ausubel hypothesized, “that the learning and retention of unfamiliar but meaningful verbal material can be facilitated by the advance introduction of relevant subsuming concepts.” (p. 267) In this study, he gave undergraduates a 2,500-word passage on an unfamiliar topic and tested their knowledge three days later. Some of the students received this passage with an advanced organizer at the beginning and others did not. Ausubel supported his claim that the advanced organizer helped students retain the knowledge to apply it when they were later tested. In all his studies, he paid particular care to keep the environment as close to a classroom experience as possible. (Ausubel, 1960) Kara Pantalena Theorist Presentation EDIT 704, Spring 2014

Influences Ausubel is a cognitive theorist. He was primarily concerned with the acquisition of knowledge and and building of internal mental structures. He is said to be influenced by who researched cognitive structures and child development. Wertheimer (Gestalt Theory), Bruner Similar (Spiral Learning Model), and Bartlett (Schema) all contain commonalities with Ausubel’s ideas, all Theories dealing in how cognitive structures help learners “go beyond” the material. (Kearsley, 2014)

Contribution While Ausubel did most of his work with undergraduate students, the concepts he proposed can be applied across age groups. He helped to steer teaching and learning away from behaviorism. Adults have a wider range of experiential knowledge, so the use of advanced organizers would be valuable in an adult learning setting.

Take Away 1) To best learn, new material must be integrated with what the learner already knows. 2) Helps organize new ideas. 3) This method helps with the acquisition of large amounts of material. 4) Use of his theory is not restricted to formal learning settings, but should also be used for informal and lifelong learning.

Reflection Without realizing it, I used Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory in my own teaching and learning. I would provide a bridge to previous learning to prep students in thinking about what they would learn each day in class. When I can relate new material to something I already know, I remember it easier.

Resources Ausubel, David P. David P. Ausubel, MD, Ph.D. Retrieved from: http://www.davidausubel.org/index.html.

Ausubel, David P. (1960). The Use of Advanced Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51 (5), 267-272.

Ausubel, D. P. (1978). In Defense of Advance Organizers: A Reply to the Critics. Review of Educational Research, 48 (2), 251-257.

Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50- 72.

Kearsley, Greg. (2014). The Theory Into Practice Database: Subsumption Theory (David Ausubel). Retrieved from http://InstructionalDesign.org.

Schunk, Dale H. (2012). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Woolfolk, A. (2010). Educational Psychology (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Kara Pantalena Theorist Presentation EDIT 704, Spring 2014

(Ausubel et al., 1978) et al., 1978) (Ausubel accordingly.” him teach this and knows. already learner Ascertain the is what learning influencing factor single most important say this: I would principle, The to just one psychology educational of “If all Ito reduce had David P. Ausubel Ausubel P. David

+ + So what do you already know?

Cognitive theorists assert that learning occurs by developing internal mental structures. (Ertmer, 1993) They believe that learning is greatest when material can be related to established internal structures with meaningfulness and organization. (Schunk, 2013) + Ausubel, the Person • Born in 1918 in Brooklyn, NY (passed away 2008) • Education: o B.A. in Psychology from University of Penn in 1939 o M.A. in Experimental Psychology from Columbia University in 1940 o M.D. from Middlesex University in 1943 o Ph.D. in Psychology from Columbia University in 1950 • Career: o Joined military after his M.D., worked for U.S. Public Health Service with United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration o Held a series of professorships until 1973 o Won E. L. Thorndike Award in 1977 o Practiced psychiatry and published for rest of career + Ausubel, the Publications

1. Ego Development and the Personality Disorders. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, 1952.

2. Theory and Problems of Adolescent Development. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, 1954. (German edition, 1968). (Portuguese edition. In press.) (2nd edition, 1977.) (Italian edition, 1968,) (2nd German edition, 1981).

3. Alcohol and Narcotic Drugs. Teachers' Manual (with W. B. Spalding). Springfield: Office of Superintendent of Public instruction, State of Illinois, 1957.

4. Theory and Problems of Child Development. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, 1958. Revised edition (with E. V. Sullivan), 1970. (German edition, 1974.) (3rd edition, 1980.)

5. Drug Addiction: Physiological, Psychological, and Sociological Aspects. New York: Random House, 1958.

6. The Fern and the TIkli An American View of New Zealand National Character, Social Attitudes and Race Relations. Sydney, Australia: Angus & Robertson, 1960. Reissued by Holt, Rinehart & Winston (New York), 1965, and Christopher House (N. Quincy, MA), 1977.

7. Maori Youth. A Psychoethnological Study of Cultural Deprivation. Wellington, New Zealand: Price, Milburn, 1961. Reissued by HoIt, Rinehart & Winston (New York), 1965. Reissued by Christopher House (N. Quincy, MA), 1977.

8. The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, 1963. (Italian edition, 1966.)

9. Readings in the Psychology of Cognition. (Co-editor with R. C. Anderson.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965.

10. Learning Theory and Classroom Practice. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1967.

11. Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. (German edition, 1974.) (2nd edition, 1978.) (Spanish edition, 1977.) (2nd German edition, 1980.) (Italian edition, 1978.) (Portuguese edition, 1980.) (Romanian edition, 1981.) (2nd Spanish edition, 1982).

12. School Learning: An Introduction to Educational Psychology. (With Floyd C. Robinson.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & WInston, 1969. (British edition, 1971.) (Japanese edition, with A. Yoshida, 1984.) (Australian edition, 1972.) (Romanian edition, 1973.)

13. Reading. In School Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. (British edition, 1970.) (Australian edition, 1971.) …“Continued on next page” (davidausubel.org)

THERE ARE A LOT. + His Theory: Assimilation Theory = an interaction of new information with existing knowledge modifies previous cognitive structures to incorporate new ideas (Ausubel, 1978) • Focus on reception, not discovery • Different from rote learning/memorization • To be meaningful, new ideas have to be linked to previous knowledge • Materials cannot be arbitrary • Materials cannot be verbatim • Involves anchoring ideas • BUT meaning is made by learner (Ausubel, 1978)

• Other names: Meaningful Verbal Learning or Meaningful Reception Learning + His Theory: Meaningful Learning

Meaningful Clarification Well Designed Scientific Learning of Relationships Audio-Tutorial Research Between Concepts Instruction (new music or architecture)

Lectures or Most Routine Most Textbook “Research” or Presentations Intellectual Production

School Laboratory Work

Applying Rote Multiplication Formulas to Trial-and-Error Learning Tables Solve Problems “Puzzle” Solutions

Reception Guided Discovery Autonomous (Ausubel, 1978, p. 25) Learning Learning Discovery Learning + His Theory: Subsumption

red TREES leaves green leaves have roots What Is Being have Learned leaves

have branches

What Is Known + His Theory: Subsumption

Assimilation COGNITIVISM Theory provide advanced techniques for organizers coding new information in internal

What Is Being mental structures Learned forgetting = interference, late bad cues, 1950’s memory loss

What Is Known Cognitivism info from Ertmer (1993) article + His Theory: Advanced Organizers

= ENCODING STRATEGY • Directs attention to what new learning will occur • Highlights relationships among ideas presented • Reminds learner of relevant information he knows (Woolfolk, 2010)

• Presented at higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness (Ausubel, 1978) • Assumes learning is hierarchal • NOT a summary or overview • Highly dependent on what learner already knows • “In short, the principal function of the organizer is to bridge the gap.” (Ausubel, 1978)

Examples: Venn diagrams, metaphors, concept maps, a short passage or brief description, etc. + His Theory: Advanced Organizers

A Few Critiques

• Too vague

• Limited methodology + Theory or Research?

Research-based and supported by authentic classroom studies.

• Experiment in 1960 • 120 senior undergraduate students from University of Illinois • Regularly scheduled class time • Pretest • Used a 2,500 word passage on metallurgical properties of plain carbon steel • Groups were given introductory paragraphs • Experimental = advanced organizer • Control = historical background • Third group had just organizer • Posttest 3 days later • Found statistically significant difference in learning + I.D. Application

• Helps organize new ideas.

• Helps with acquisition of large amount of information.

• Does not need to be restricted to a formal context; should be used in informal and lifelong learning.

• Relate what you are teaching to what the audience already knows. + Resources Ausubel, D. P. David P. Ausubel, MD, Ph.D. Retrieved from: http://www.davidausubel.org/index.html.

Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The Use of Advanced Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51 (5), 267-272.

Ausubel, D. P. (1978). In Defense of Advance Organizers: A Reply to the Critics. Review of Educational Research, 48 (2), 251-257.

Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.

Kearsley, G. (2014). The Theory Into Practice Database: Subsumption Theory (David Ausubel). Retrieved from http://InstructionalDesign.org.

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Woolfolk, A. (2010). Educational Psychology (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.