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Accelerated Proficiency and Facilitated Retention: Recommendations Based on an Integration of Research and Findings from a Working Meeting AFRL-RH-AZ-TR-2011-0001 Accelerated Proficiency and Facilitated Retention: Recommendations Based on An Integration of Research and Findings from a Working Meeting Robert Hoffman Paul Feltovich Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition 40 S Alcaniz Street Pensacola, FL 32502 December 2010 Final Report for April 2009 to November 2010 Distribution A. Approved for public release; distribution unlimited (Approval given by 88 ABW/PA, 88ABW-2011-0212 , 21 Jan 2011). © 2010 Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. This work is copyrighted. The United States has for itself and others acting on its behalf an unlimited, paid-up, nonexclusive, irrevocable worldwide license. Any other form of use is subject to copyright restrictions. AIR FORCE RESEARCH LABORATORY 711TH HUMAN PERFORMANCE WING, HUMAN EFFECTIVENESS DIRECTORATE, MESA, AZ 85212 AIR FORCE MATERIEL COMMAND UNITED STATES AIR FORCE NOTICE AND SIGNATURE PAGE Using Government drawings, specifications, or other data included in this document for any purpose other than Government-related procurement does not in any way obligate the US Government. The fact that the Government formulated or supplied the drawings, specifications, or other data, does not license the holder or any other person or corporation, or convey any rights or permission to manufacture, use, or sell any patented invention that may relate to them. This report was cleared for public release by the Air Force Research Laboratory Public Affairs Office and is releasable to the general public, including foreign nationals. Qualified requestors may obtain copies of this report from the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) at http://www.dtic.mil. AFRL-RH-AZ-TR-2011-0001 HAS BEEN REVIEWED AND IS APPROVED FOR PUBLICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH ASSIGNED DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT. PAT FITZGERALD, Work Unit Manager HERBERT H. BELL Program Manager Technical Advisor JOEL D. BOSWELL, Lt Col, USAF Chief, Warfighter Readiness Research Division Air Force Research Laboratory This report is published in the interest of scientific and technical information exchange, and its publication does not constitute the Government’s approval or disapproval of its ideas or findings. Form Approved REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) 09-12-2010 Final Report April 2009 – December 2010 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Accelerated Proficiency and Facilitated Retention: Recommendations FA8650-09-2-6033 5b. GRANT NUMBER Based on An Integration of Research and Findings from a Working Meeting 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 62202F 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER Robert Hoffman, Paul Feltovich, Steve Fiore, Gary Klein, Whit Missildine, Lia DiBello 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 1123AC01 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition NUMBER 40 S Alcaniz Street Pensacola, FL 32502 9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S ACRONYM(S) Air Force Materiel Command Air Force Research Laboratory 711 Human Performance Wing Human Effectiveness Directorate 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S REPORT Warfighter Readiness research Division NUMBER(S) 6030 S Kent Street Mesa, AZ 85212 AFRL-RH-AZ-TR-2011-0001 12. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Distribution A. Approved for public release; distribution unlimited (Approval given by 88 ABW/PA, 88ABW-2011-0212 , 21 Jan 2011 ). 13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 14. ABSTRACT In addition to a literature review, this Report integrates results from a "Workshop on Accelerated Learning" (June, 2008) and a "Working Meeting on Accelerated Proficiency and Facilitated Retention" (October, 2009. The Workshops brought together leading academic, private sector, and DoD specialists in areas of training and expertise studies. The goal of accelerated learning calls out an important practical tension. On the one hand is the notion that we must accelerate learning; that is, increase the rate at which highly proficient performance is achieved. On the other hand, there is a significant amount of evidence that developing expertise requires up to 10 years of experience, including practice at tough tasks (Hoffman, 1998). This suggests that it is not possible to accelerate the achievement of high proficiency. A prime goal of the DoD Accelerated Learning Technology Focus Team is to identify critical research challenges that are currently underfunded or not funded, and generate a notional roadmap for science and technology advancement. 15. SUBJECT TERMS Accelerated Learning, Expertise, Learning Retention, Skill Acquisition, Skill Proficiency, Training 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE Unclassified OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES PERSON a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE 377 19b. TELEPHONE NUMBER (include area code) SAR U U U NA Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8- 98) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239.18 i Report on FA8650-09-2-6033 Accelerated Proficiency and Facilitated Retention: Recommendations Based on An Integration of Research and Findings from a Working Meeting Report on Grant FA8650-09-2-6033 USAF/AFMC DET 1 AF Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-7801 "Technical Community Research Agenda for Facilitating the Achievement and Retention of Expertise" September 2010 Report Submitted To: Dee H. Andrews, Ph.D., SES(ST) Senior Executive Service (Scientific and Professional Career Service); Certified Performance Technologist 711th Human Performance Wing Senior Scientist, Training Psychology Air Force Research Laboratory 6030 S. Kent, Mesa, AZ 85212-6061 Report Submitted By: Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition 40 S Alcaniz St. Pensacola FL 32502-6008 1 Report on FA8650-09-2-6033 Principal Author Robert R. Hoffman, Ph.D., Senior Research Scientist Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition 40 S Alcaniz St. Pensacola FL 32502-6008 With Contributions By Paul J. Feltovich, Ph. D. IHMC Stephen M. Fiore, Ph.D. Institute for Simulation and Training Orlando, FL 32826 Gary Klein, Ph.D. Klein Associates Division of ARA, Inc. Fairborn, OH 45324-3987 Whit Missildine and Lia DiBello WTRI, Inc. San Diego CA 92108 2 Report on FA8650-09-2-6033 Table of Contents Acknowledgement 7 Executive Summary 8 1.0 Introduction 17 1.1 Background 17 1.2 The Workshops on Accelerated Learning 19 1.3 The Challenges 19 1.4 The Concept of Accelerated Learning 22 2.0 Literature Review 27 2.1 Introduction to the Literature Review 27 2.2 The Nature of Proficiency 28 2.2.1 High Proficiency 28 2.2.2 Proficiency Scaling Concepts and Methods 32 2.2.3 What makes the Achievement of High Proficiency Difficult? 39 2.3 Training and Practice 42 2.3.1 Types of Practice and Training Sequences 43 2.3.2 Problem-Based Learning and Guidance Fading 47 2.3.3 Feedback 48 2.3.4 Desirable Difficulties 51 2.3.5 Mentoring 52 2.3.6 Scenario-Based Training 54 2.3.7 Virtual Reality-Based Training 54 2.3.8 Training for Flight Situation Awareness 56 2.3.9 Training for High Proficiency 59 2.3.10 Conclusion 62 2.4 Transfer 63 2.4.1 Demonstrating Transfer: Simple Perceptual-Motor Tasks 66 2.4.2 Demonstrating the Failure to Transfer: The Domain-Specificity of 67 Knowledge and Skill 2.4.3 Promoting Transfer by Exposure to Variants 68 2.4.4 Motivation and Transfer 68 2.4.5 The "Common Elements" Theory 68 2.4.6 Transfer-Appropriate Processing 69 2.4.7 Within-domain Transfer Across Problem Types 71 2.4.8 Generalizations About Transfer 72 2.5 Decay and Retention 73 2.5.1 Introduction 73 2.5.2 General Findings about Decay and Decay Rates 74 2.5.3 Retention of Piloting Skills 79 2.5.4 Differential Decay 84 2.5.5 Generalizations About Decay/Retention 86 2.6 Team Training 88 3 Report on FA8650-09-2-6033 2.6.1 Complex Cognitive Work is Teamwork 89 2.6.2 Coordination 90 2.6.3 Requirements for Team Training 92 2.6.4 Methods for Team Training 93 2.6.6 Some Generalizations? 95 2.7 Accelerated Learning 96 2.7.1 Accelerated Learning in Business 97 2.7.2 Accelerating the Acquisition of Teaching Skills 99 2.7.3 Acceleration of Perceptual Learning 99 2.7.4 Demonstrations of Acceleration in Teaming 100 2.7.5 Intelligent Tutoring Systems 101 2.7.6 The Army's "Think Like a Commander" Training Program 103 2.7.7 Simulation-Based Training 105 2.7.8 Engagement Simulation-Based Training: "Top Gun" 106 2.7.9 Engagement Simulation-Based Training: The Army's National 106 Training Center 2.7.10 Current Department of Defense Efforts at Rapidized Training 109 2.7.11 Conclusions Concerning Accelerated Learning 109 2.8 Summary of Findings From the Literature Review 110 3.0 About the Working Meeting 112 3.1 Meeting Focus and Topics 112 3.2 Roster and Agenda 114 3.3 Pre-Meeting Activities 117 4.0 Integration of the Working Meeting Presentations and Discussions 118 4.1 Domains of Study 118 4.2 Paradoxes of Training and Paradoxes of Careers 126 4.3 Research Challenges 133 4.3.1 Forging the Right Theory 133 4.3.2 Finding the Right Training and Mentoring Methods 142 4.3.3 Methods and Designs for Studying Acceleration 146 5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations 151 5.1.
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