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Ohio; and San Antonio, Texas. They are unusually Conant, James Bryant. 1959. The American High controversial because their subsidy may pierce the School Today. New York: McGraw-Hill. conventional First Amendment prohibition of pub- Coons, John E.; Clune, William H., III; and Sug- lic funding in support of religious causes. In June arman, Stephen D. 1970. Private Wealth and 2000 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that students in Public . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Cleveland may use state-funded vouchers to pay tu- University Press. ition at private schools, including schools with a reli- Gardner, John W. 1961. Excellence: Can We Be gious affiliation. The decision in this case is likely to Equal and Excellent Too? New York: Harper and have a significant policy impact for years to come. Row. Conclusion Hayek, Friedrich A. von. 1960. The Constitution Will accountability efforts succeed in elevating U.S. of Liberty. : Press. school performance? Will colleges and universities Kaufman, Herbert. 1963. Politics and Policies in eventually be subjected to the same kind of efficiency State and Local Governments. Englewood Cliffs, requirements experienced by public schools? Will NJ: Prentice-Hall. the achievement gap between middle- and lower in- National Commission on Excellence in Educa- come students be narrowed? Will public funding of tion. 1983. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for private and religious schools eventually be approved, Educational Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. and, if so, will such arrangements prove the undoing Government Printing Office. of the great American socialization engine, public Rudolf, Frederick, ed. 1969. Essays on Education schooling? in the New Republic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard There is no effort here at predicting the out- University Press. come of such queries. The answers will come in time Wise, Arthur E. 1968. Rich Schools, Poor Schools: and, no doubt, will be the subject of future analysis The Promise of Equal Educational Opportunity. and comment. What is predictable, however, is that Chicago: University of Chicago Press. the significance of education for society will only in- crease and that government will continue to be chal- Yudof, Mark. 1973. ‘‘Equal Educational Opportu- lenged by continually having to strike a new balance nity and the Courts.’’ Texas Law Review 51:411– among the advocates of greater equality, efficiency, 437. and liberty. James W. Guthrie See also: ; Efficiency in Edu- cation; Financial Support of Schools; Govern- ment and Education, the Changing Role of; Multicultural Education; School Reform; EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Special Education. Educational psychologists ‘‘study what people think and do as they teach and learn a particular curricu- BIBLIOGRAPHY lum in a particular environment where education Bailyn, Bernard. 1967. The Ideological Origins of and training are intended to take place’’ (Berliner, p. the American Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Har- 145). The work of educational psychologists focuses vard University Press. ‘‘on the rich and significant everyday problems of education’’ (Wittrock, pp. 132–133). Barker, Roger G., and Gump, Paul V. 1964. Big School, Small School. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford History University Press. Long before educational psychology became a for- Callahan, Raymond E. 1960. Education and the mal discipline, scholars were concerned about what Cult of Efficiency. Chicago: University of Chica- people think and do as they teach and learn. The go Press. Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle discussed Coleman, James S., et al. 1966. Equality of Educa- topics still studied by educational psychologists— tional Opportunity. Washington, DC: National the role of the teacher, the relationship between Center for Educational Statistics. teacher and student, methods of teaching, the nature

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 677 and order of learning, the role of affect in learning. Psychology and key ideas in education. Develop- In the 1500s the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives ments in education continued to be closely tied to emphasized the value of practice, the need to tap stu- psychologists in the first half of the twentieth centu- dent interests and adapt instruction to individual ry. In fact, in 1919, Ellwood Cubberly dubbed edu- differences, and the advantages of using self- cational psychology a ‘‘guiding science of the comparisons rather than competitive social compar- school’’ (p. 755). It was not uncommon for psychol- isons in evaluating students’ work. In the 1600s the ogists such as Thorndike, Charles H. Judd, or their Czech theologian and educator Johann Amos Co- students to be both presidents of the American Psy- menius introduced visual aids and proclaimed that chological Association and authors of materials for understanding, not memorizing, was the goal of teaching school subjects or measuring achievement teaching. Writings of European philosophers and re- in reading, mathematics, or even handwriting. The formers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712– work of Thorndike, , , and 1778), Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827), Jo- illustrate earlier connections be- hann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841), and Friedrich tween psychology and education. Wilhelm August Froebel (1782–1852) stressed the Thorndike, teaching, and transfer. Although value of activity, prior experience, and interest. All Thorndike is most well known in psychology for his these ideas are consistent with current work in edu- research on learning that paved the way for B. F. cational psychology. Skinner’s later studies of operant conditioning, his In the , psychology was linked to impact in education went beyond his studies of education and teachers from its inception. In 1890 learning. He developed methods for teaching read- the American philosopher founded ing and arithmetic that were widely adopted, as well psychology in America and then followed with a lec- as scales to measure ability in reading, arithmetic, ture series for teachers titled ‘‘Talks to Teachers handwriting, drawing, spelling, and English compo- about Psychology.’’ These lectures were given in sition. He supported the scientific movement in ed- summer schools for teachers around the country and ucation—an effort to base teaching practice on then published in 1899 both as a book and in the At- empirical evidence and sound measurement. His lantic Monthly magazine. Again, some of James’s view proved narrow as he sought laws of learning in ideas were quite modern—he supported the use of laboratories that could be applied to teaching with- discussion, projects and activities, laboratory experi- out actually evaluating the applications in real class- ments, writing, drawing, and concrete materials in rooms. It took fifty years to return to the teaching. psychological study of learning in the classroom, James’s student, G. Stanley Hall, founded the when the Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sput- American Psychological Association and was its first nik in 1957 startled the United States and precipitat- president. Teachers helped him collect data for his ed funding for basic and applied research on dissertation about children’s understandings of the teaching and learning. Thorndike also had a lasting world. Hall founded the child-study movement in effect on education by demonstrating that learning the United States and wrote extensively about chil- Greek, Latin, and mathematics did not ‘‘exercise the dren and adolescents. He encouraged teachers to mind’’ to improve general thinking abilities. Partly make detailed observations and keep careful records because of his research, required study of the classics to study their students’ development—as his mother decreased. had done when she was a teacher. Hall’s ideas influ- Binet and assessments of intelligence. About enced education through courses in child study in- the time that Thorndike was developing measures of troduced into normal schools beginning around reading and arithmetic abilities, Alfred Binet was 1863. working on the assessment of intelligence in France. Hall’s student, , founded the Labo- Binet, a psychologist and political activist in Paris in ratory School at the University of Chicago and is the early 1900s, was charged with developing a pro- considered the father of the Progressive education cedure for identifying students who would need spe- movement. Another of William James’s students, cial education classes. He believed that having an Edward Lee Thorndike, wrote the first educational objective measure of learning ability could protect psychology text in 1903 and founded the Journal of students of poor families who might be forced to Educational Psychology in 1910. leave school because they were assumed to be slow

678 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY learners. Binet and his collaborator Théodore Simon in some form. The cognitive domain taxonomy was identified fifty-eight tests, several for each age group revised in 2001 by Lorin W. Anderson and David R. from three to thirteen, that allowed the examiner to Krathwohl. determine a mental age for a child. A child who suc- Moving toward contemporary educational psy- ceeded on the items passed by most six-year-olds, chology. In the 1960s a number of educational psy- for example, was considered to have a mental age of chologists developed approaches to teaching that six, whether the child was actually four, six, or eight foreshadowed some of the contemporary applica- years old. The concept of , or tions and arguments. ’s early research IQ, was added after Binet’s procedure was brought on thinking stirred his interest in education. to the United States and revised at Stanford Univer- Bruner’s work emphasized the importance of under- sity to become the Stanford-Binet . The early standing the structure of a subject being studied, the Stanford-Binet has been revised four times as of need for as the basis for true under- 2002, most recently in 1986. The success of the Stan- standing, and the value of inductive reasoning in ford-Binet has led to the development of several learning. Bruner believed students must actively other modern intelligence tests. identify key principles for themselves rather than re- Piaget and the development of thinking. As a lying on teachers’ explanations. Teachers should new Ph.D. working in Binet’s laboratory, Jean Piaget provide problem situations stimulating students to became intrigued with children’s wrong answers to question, explore, and experiment—a process called Binet’s tasks. Over the next several decades, Piaget . Thus, Bruner believed that class- devised a model to describe the thinking behind room learning should take place through inductive these wrong answers and to explain how humans reasoning, that is, by using specific examples to for- gather and organize information. Piaget’s theory of mulate a general principle. cognitive development is based on the assumption David Ausubel disagreed. He believed that peo- that people try to make sense of the world and ac- ple acquire knowledge primarily through reception tively create their knowledge through direct experi- rather than discovery; thus learning should progress ence with objects, people, and ideas. Maturation, not inductively from examples to rules as Bruner activity, social interaction, and equilibration (the recommended, but deductively: from the general to constant testing of the adequacy of understanding) the specific, or from the rule to examples. Ausubel’s influence the way thinking and knowledge develop. strategy always began with an advance organizer—a Piaget believed that young people pass through four technique still popular in the twenty-first century— stages in their cognitive development: sensorimotor, which is a kind of conceptual bridge between new preoperational, concrete-operational, and formal- material and students’ current knowledge. operational. Piaget’s theory transformed education in mathematics and science and is still a force in the early twenty-first century in constructivist ap- Contemporary Views of Learning and proaches to teaching. Motivation Educational psychologists have studied cognition, Bloom and the goals of instruction. Also during instruction, learning, motivation, individual differ- the 1950s and 1960s, results of a project directed by ences, and the measurement of human abilities, to Benjamin Bloom touched education at all levels name just a few areas that relate to education and around the world. Bloom and his colleagues devel- schooling. Of all these, perhaps the study of learning oped a taxonomy, or classification system, of educa- is the most closely associated with education. Differ- tional objectives. Objectives were divided into three ent theories of learning have had different impacts domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. A on education and have supported different practices. handbook describing the objectives in each area was eventually published. These taxonomies have been Behavioral views of learning. The behavioral ap- included in hundreds of books and articles about proach to learning developed out of work by Skin- teaching and testing. Teachers, test developers, and ner, whose research in operant conditioning showed curriculum designers use the taxonomies to develop that voluntary behavior can be altered by changes in instructional objectives and test questions. It would the antecedents of the behavior, the consequences, be difficult to find an educator trained in the past or both. Early work focused on consequences and thirty years who had not heard of Bloom’s taxonomy demonstrated that consequences following an action

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 679 may serve as reinforcement or punishment. Skin- are constructivist approaches in science and mathe- ner’s theories have been used extensively in educa- matics education, in educational psychology and an- tion, by applying principles of reinforcement and thropology, and in computer-based education. punishment to change behaviors, often called ap- Some constructivist views emphasize the shared, so- plied behavior analysis. For much of the 1960s Skin- cial construction of knowledge; others see social ner’s ideas and those of behaviorists who followed forces as less important. him shaped teaching in regular and special educa- Even though there is no single constructivist tion, training in the military, coaching, and many theory, many constructivist teaching approaches other aspects of education. Principles of reinforce- recommend the following: ment continue to be important for all teachers, par- • Complex, challenging learning environments ticularly in classroom management and in decisions and authentic tasks about grades and incentives for learning. • Social negotiation and shared responsibility as In the 1970s and 1980s a number of educational a part of learning psychologists turned their attention from research • Multiple representations of content on learning to research on teaching. Their findings • Understanding that knowledge is constructed shaped educational policy and practice during those • Student-centered instruction years and since. Much of the research that focused on effective teaching during that time period point- Inquiry is an example of constructivist teaching. ed toward a model of teaching that is related to im- Dewey described the basic inquiry learning format proved student learning called or in 1910. There have been many adaptations of this explicit teaching. strategy, but the teacher usually presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students formulate Cognitive views of learning. Behaviorists define hypotheses to explain the event or solve the prob- learning as a change in behavior brought about by lem, collect data to test the hypotheses, draw conclu- experience with little concern for the mental or in- sions, and reflect on the original problem and on the ternal aspects of learning. The cognitive view, in thinking processes needed to solve it. Like discovery contrast, sees people as active learners who initiate learning, inquiry methods require great preparation, experiences, seek out information to solve problems, organization, and monitoring to be sure everyone is and reorganize what they already know to achieve engaged and challenged. new insights. In fact, learning within this perspective A second example of constructivist teaching in- is seen as ‘‘transforming significant understanding fluenced by Vygotsky’s theories of assisted learning we already have, rather than simple acquisitions is called cognitive apprenticeships. There are many written on blank slates’’ (Greeno, Collins, and Resn- models, but most share six features: ick, p. 18). Much of the work on behavioral learning principles has been with animals in controlled labo- 1. Students observe an expert (usually the ratory settings. The goal is to identify a few general teacher) model the performance. laws of learning that apply to all higher organisms 2. Students get external support through (including humans, regardless of age, intelligence, or coaching or tutoring (including hints, other individual differences). Cognitive psycholo- feedback, models, reminders). gists, on the other hand, focus on individual and de- 3. Conceptual scaffolding (in the form of velopmental differences in cognition; they have not outlines, explanations, notes, definitions, sought general laws of learning. Cognitive views of formulas, procedures, etc.) is provided and learning are consistent with the educational theories then gradually faded as the student becomes of Bruner and Ausubel and with approaches that more competent and proficient. teach learning strategies, such as summarizing, orga- 4. Students continually articulate their nizing, planning, and note taking. knowledge—putting into words their Constructivist theories of learning. Constructivist understanding of the processes and content perspectives on learning and teaching are increasing- being learned. ly influential today. These views are grounded in the 5. Students reflect on their progress, comparing research of Piaget, , the Gestalt psy- their problem solving to an expert’s chologists, Fredric Bartlett, and Bruner as well as the performance and to their own earlier Progressive educational philosophy of Dewey. There performances.

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6. Students are required to explore new ways to and the psychology of school subjects; to an empha- apply what they are learning—ways that they sis in the 1950s on mental hygiene, child develop- have not practiced at the professional’s side. ment, personality, and motivation; to a greater Motivation in education. Much work in education- emphasis on learning theories and programmed in- al psychology has focused on student motivation: struction in the 1960s; to research on teaching in the the engine that fuels learning and the steering wheel 1970s; to the dominance of Piagetian theories and that guides its progress. Just as there are many theo- the resurgence of cognitive approaches in the 1980s; ries of learning, there are quite a few explanations of to current texts that emphasize Vygotskian influ- motivation. Behaviorists explain motivation with ences and constructivism along with a return to the concepts such as ‘‘reward’’ and ‘‘incentive.’’ Rewards instructional psychology of school subjects. Once a are desirable consequences for appropriate behavior; requirement in virtually all teacher preparation pro- incentives provide the prospect for future rewards. grams, educational courses have been replaced, re- Giving grades, stars, and so on for learning—or de- named, redesigned, and integrated into other merits for misbehavior—is an attempt to motivate education courses. As examples of two issues in edu- students by extrinsic (external) means of incentives, cational psychology and schooling, consider concep- rewards, and punishments. Humanistic views of tions of intelligence and approaches to the teaching motivation emphasize such intrinsic (internal) of reading. forces as a person’s needs for ‘‘self-actualization,’’ What does intelligence mean? The idea of intelli- the inborn ‘‘actualizing tendency,’’ or the need for gence has been with us for a long time. Plato dis- ‘‘self-determination.’’ From the humanistic perspec- cussed similar variations more than 2,000 years ago. tive, motivation of students means to encourage Most early theories about the nature of intelligence their inner resources—their sense of competence, involved one or more of the following three themes: self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualization. (1) the capacity to learn; (2) the total knowledge a Cognitive theorists believe that behavior is de- person has acquired; and (3) the ability to adapt suc- termined by thinking, not simply by whether one cessfully to new situations and to the environment has been rewarded or punished for the behavior in in general. the past. From this perspective, behavior is initiated In the twentieth century there was considerable and regulated by plans, goals, schemas (generalized controversy over the meaning of intelligence. In knowledge), expectations, and attributions (the 1986 at a symposium on intelligence, twenty-four causes we see for our own and other people’s behav- psychologists each offered a different view about the ior). Social learning theories of motivation are inte- nature of intelligence. More than half of the experts grations of behavioral and cognitive approaches: mentioned higher-level thinking processes such as They take into account both the behaviorists’ con- abstract reasoning, problem solving, and decision- cern with the effects or outcomes of behavior and making as important aspects of intelligence, but they the cognitivists’ interest in the impact of individual disagreed about the structure of intelligence: Is it a beliefs and expectations. Many influential social single ability or many separate abilities? Evidence learning explanations of motivation can be charac- that intelligence is a single basic ability affecting per- terized as expectancy and value theories that view formance on all cognitively oriented tasks comes motivation as the product of two main forces: (1) from consistent correlations among scores on most the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal and tests of specific mental abilities. In spite of these cor- (2) the value of that goal to the individual. Attempts relations, however, some psychologists insist that to build a sense of efficacy for classroom learning are there several separate ‘‘primary mental abilities.’’ In educational applications of this approach. 1938 Louis Leon Thurstone listed verbal compre- hension, memory, reasoning, ability to visualize spa- Issues and Controversies tial relationships, numerical ability, word fluency, The application of psychology to education has seen and perceptual speed as the major mental abilities many controversies. The psychological content of underlying intellectual tasks. Joy Paul Guilford and teacher preparation moved from Hall’s emphasis on are the most prominent modern child study to Thorndike’s connectionist approach proponents of the concept of multiple cognitive abil- to learning; to educational psychology texts for ities. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has teachers in the 1920s that included measurement had the greatest impact on education. According to

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Gardner there are at least eight separate kinds of in- Testing in education. By 1925 Charles Judd pro- telligences: linguistic, musical, spatial, logical- claimed that ‘‘tests and measures are to be found in mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, in- every progressive school in the land’’ (p. 807). In trapersonal, and environmental. fact, psychology has had a profound impact on edu- Ability differences in schools. In the early 1900s, cation through the adoption of testing. On the aver- before group intelligence tests were readily available, age, more than 1 million standardized tests are given teachers dealt with student achievement differences per school day in classes throughout the United by promoting students who performed adequately States. But tests are not without controversy. Critics and holding back others. This worked well for those of standardized testing state that these tests measure who were promoted, but not for those who failed. disjointed facts and skills that have no use or mean- The idea of social promotion was introduced to keep ing in the real world. Often test questions do not age-mates together, but then teaching had to change. match the curriculum of the schools, so the tests When intelligence test became available, one solu- cannot measure how well students have learned the tion was to promote all students, but group them by curriculum. Supporters assert that tests provide use- ability within their grade level. Ability grouping was ful information. As Joseph Rice suggested more than the basis of many studies in the 1930s, but fell from a century ago, a good way to judge if teaching has favor until 1957 and the era of Sputnik, when con- been effective might be to test what the students cern grew about developing talent in mathematics learned. The test, however, does not tell all. Also and science. Again, in the 1960s and 1970s, ability more than 100 years ago, William James suggested grouping was criticized. In the early twenty-first cen- that with test results must be combined with obser- tury, teachers are encouraged to use forms of coop- vations made ‘‘upon the total demeanor of the mea- erative learning and heterogeneous grouping to deal sured individual, by teachers with eyes in their heads with ability differences in their classes. and common sense and some feeling for the con- crete facts of human nature in their hearts’’ (p. 84). Learning to read. Educational psychologists have made great progress understanding how students Expectations of the profession. Increasingly tech- learn different subjects. Based on these findings, ap- nology offers an alternative or addition to traditional proaches have been developed to teach reading, materials in teaching and learning. For example, the writing, science, mathematics, social studies, and Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt other subjects. Reading instruction has been the University has developed a problem-based learning focus of great controversy. Educators have debated environment called anchored instruction. The an- whether students should be taught to read and write chor is the rich, authentic, and interesting situation through code-based (, skills) approaches presented via videodisk or computer that provides that relate letters to sounds and sounds to words or a focus—a reason for setting goals, planning, and through meaning-based (whole-language, literature- using mathematical tools to solve problems. An- based, emergent literacy) approaches that focus on chored instruction is an example of cognitive ap- the meaning of the text. prenticeships described above. Research in educational psychology demon- It is likely that educational psychologists will strates that approaches to reading continue to contribute to education as they learn and writing are most effective in preschool and kin- more about the brain and how learning occurs; the dergarten because they improve students’ motiva- development of intellect, affect, personality, charac- tion and interest and help them understand the ter, and motivation; ways of assessing learning; and nature and purposes of reading and writing. Phone- the creation of multifaceted learning environments. mic awareness—the sense that words are composed It also is likely that some issues will spiral through of separate sounds and that sounds are combined to these contributions. What is a useful and appropri- say words—in kindergarten and first grade predicts ate balance of discovery and direct instruction? How literacy in later grades. If children do not have pho- can teachers, who must work with groups, adapt in- nemic awareness in the early grades, direct teaching struction to individual variations? What should be can dramatically improve their chances of long-term the role of testing and ? What achievement in literacy. Excellent primary school are the goals of education and how do instructors teachers use a balance of explicit decoding-skills balance cognitive, affective, and psychomotor objec- teaching and whole language instruction. tives? How can learning technologies be used to best

682 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY advantage for students? How can teachers help stu- De Corte, Erik; Greer, Brian; and Verschaffel, dents understand, remember, and apply knowledge? Lieven. 1996. ‘‘Mathematics Learning and These questions may not be as new as they seem Teaching.’’ In Handbook of Educational Psychol- upon attendance to the history of psychology and its ogy, ed. David C. Berliner and Robert C. Calfee. applications to education. New York: Macmillan. Driscoll, Marcy P. 1994. Psychology of Learning for See also: Developmental Theory; Individual Instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Differences; Instructional Design; Learning Graham, Steve, and Harris, Karen R. 1994. ‘‘The Theory. Effects of Whole Language on Children’s Writ- ing: A Review of the Literature.’’ Educational BIBLIOGRAPHY Psychologist 29:187–192. Alexander, Patricia A. 1996. ‘‘The Past, Present, Greeno, James G.; Collins, Allen M.; and Resn- and Future of Knowledge Research: A Reexami- ick, Lauren B. 1996. ‘‘Cognition and Learn- nation of the Role of Knowledge in Learning ing.’’ In Handbook of Educational Psychology, ed. and Instruction.’’ Educational Psychologist David C. Berliner and Robert C. Calfee. New 31:89–92. York: Macmillan. Hilgard, Ernest R. 1996. ‘‘History of Educational Alexander, Patricia A., and Murphy, P. Karen. Psychology.’’ In Handbook of Educational Psy- 1998. ‘‘The Research Base for APA’s Learner- chology, ed. David C. Berliner and Robert C. Centered Psychological Principles.’’ In How Stu- Calfee. New York: Macmillan. dents Learn: Reforming Schools through Learner- Centered Education, ed. Nadine M. Lambert and James, William. 1899. Talks to Teachers on Psychol- Barbara L. McCombs. Washington, DC: Ameri- ogy: And to Students on Some of Life’s Ideals. New can Psychological Association. York: Holt. Judd, Charles H. 1925. ‘‘The Curriculum: A Para- Anderson, Lorin W., and Krathwohl, David R. mount Issue.’’ In Addresses and Proceedings. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Washington, DC: National Education Associa- Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Ed- tion. ucational Objectives. New York: Longman. Mayer, Richard E. 1992. ‘‘Cognition and Instruc- Anderson, Lorin W., and Sosniak, Lauren A., tion: Their Historic Meeting within Educational eds. 1994. Bloom’s Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Re- Psychology.’’ Journal of Educational Psychology trospective. Chicago: University of Chicago 84:405–412. Press. Neisser, Ulrich, et al. 1996. ‘‘Intelligence: Knowns Ausubel, David Paul. 1963. The Psychology of and Unknowns.’’ American Psychologist 51:77– Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune 101. and Stratton. Piaget, Jean. 1970. ‘‘Piaget’s Theory.’’ In Handbook Berliner, David C. 1992. ‘‘Telling the Stories of of Child Psychology, 3rd edition, ed. P. Mussen. Educational Psychology.’’ Educational Psycholo- New York: Wiley. gist 27:143–152. Ross, Dorothy. 1972. G. Stanley Hall: The Psycholo- Berliner, David C. 1993. ‘‘The 100-Year Journey gist as Prophet. Chicago: University of Chicago of Educational Psychology: From Interest, to Press. Disdain, to Respect for Practice.’’ In Exploring Skinner, B. F. 1953. Science and Human Behavior. Applied Psychology: Origins and Critical Analy- New York: Macmillan. ses, ed. Thomas K. Fagan and Gary R. Vanden- Thurstone, Louis Leon. 1938. Primary Mental Bos. Washington, DC: American Psychological Abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Association. Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich. 1978. Mind in Society: Bruner, Jerome S. 1966. Toward a Theory of In- The Development of Higher Mental Process, ed. struction. New York: Norton. Michael Cole et al. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. 1919. Public Ed- University Press. ucation in the United States. Boston: Houghton Wharton-McDonald, Ruth; Pressley, Mi- Mifflin. chael; and Mistretta, Jennifer. 1996. Out-

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standing Literacy Instruction in First Grade: Anyone interested in education can obtain cop- Teacher Practices and Student Achievement. Al- ies of the full text of many ERIC documents at any bany, NY: National Reading Research Center. library that owns the ERIC microfiche collection. Wittrock, Merlin C. 1992. ‘‘An Empowering Full-text microfiche or paper copies can also be or- Conception of Educational Psychology.’’ Educa- dered from ERIC’s Document Reproduction Ser- tional Psychologist 27:129–142. vice. The full texts of some documents are also Woolfolk Hoy, Anita. 2000. ‘‘Educational Psy- available online. ERIC does not supply full-text cop- chology and Teacher Education.’’ Educational ies of journal articles abstracted in the ERIC data- Psychologist 35:257–270. base; these can be obtained from many library periodical collections or from the journal publisher. Woolfolk Hoy, Anita. 2001. Educational Psycholo- gy, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. During the 1990s ERIC implemented several in- valuable electronic services. One of the most popular Anita Woolfolk Hoy is AskERIC, an Internet-based service begun in 1992. AskERIC provides access to a web-based version of the ERIC database that includes document and jour- nal citations from 1966 to the present. AskERIC also EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES offers education-related question-and-answer ser- INFORMATION CENTER vices, a question archive, lesson plans, mailing lists, internet links, and listings of educational organiza- The Educational Resources Information Center tions, meetings, and conferences. (ERIC) is a federally funded nationwide information ERIC publications include popular two-page re- system established to provide easy access to informa- search syntheses called ERIC Digest. The digests are tion about education research. ERIC offers educa- short reports that give an overview of a current topic tors and researchers a single source through which of interest in education. ERIC produces approxi- they can identify and obtain copies of education- mately one hundred new digests each year. By 2001 related documents, articles, books, monographs, there were nearly 2,500 ERIC Digests, most available tests, manuals and handbooks, bibliographies, statis- online. Another publication, the ERIC Review, fea- tical reports, conference papers, dissertations and tures information about emerging education issues, theses, historical materials, yearbooks, and transla- as well as announcements about ERIC products, ser- tions. ERIC’s mission is to improve American learn- vices, and developments. ERIC also issues Parent ing, teaching, and educational decision making by Brochures, produces an online journal called Parent facilitating access to helpful educational research News, and sponsors the National Parent Information and information. Network for parents who are interested in their chil- Program dren’s education. The massive ERIC database contains more than 1 million abstracts of education-related documents Organization and articles, making it the world’s largest repository ERIC is supported by the U.S. Department of Educa- of education information. The database is updated tion’s Office of Educational Research and Improve- monthly, and more than 30,000 items are added ment, and is administered by the National Library each year. Interested parties can access the database of Education. Unlike most federal information sys- via the Internet or through commercial vendors. Ac- tems, in which all activities are conducted under one cess to the ERIC database is also available at more roof with centralized control, ERIC conducts much than 1,000 libraries and education resource centers of it its document processing and dissemination ac- around the world. Many of these sites maintain an tivities at decentralized and relatively autonomous ERIC microfiche collection and can provide elec- clearinghouses. The ERIC network consists of six- tronic copies of ERIC documents. In addition, ERIC teen main clearinghouses, nine adjunct clearing- abstracts are available in the print publications Re- houses, one affiliate clearinghouse, and three sources in Education, ERIC’s main announcement support components. ERIC’s clearinghouses and bulletin, and Current Index to Journals in Education, components are located at various sites around the a monthly comprehensive index to periodical litera- country. Most clearinghouses are associated with a ture in education research. college or university.