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(From Kenneth 1960; Johri 1984; Tootill1984; Fahn 1985;)

Achene Any simple one-seeded, indehiscent dry fruit that develops from a monocarpellary ovary. The caryopsis, cypsela and samarasam ara are all types of achene.

Aerenchyma A parenchymatous tissue characterized by the pres­ ence of large intercellular spaces.

Aestatiphory Diaspores are retained on the skeleton of a winter annual at least until the start of the next rainy season, or delay in dispersal for one summer (summer stan­ ders).

Amphicarpy The production of some, but not all diaspores beneath the soil surface.

Anastomosing Union of ramifications of filaments. filaments

Anatropous Describing the form of ovule orientation in the ovary in which the funiculus has lengthened and the ovule turned through 180 0 so that the micropyle is folded over and lies near the base of the funiculus.

Anemoballism Wind does not exert its influence on the diaspore directly,direcdy, but on the capsule or follicle enclosing the diaspores (e.g. wind induces the fruits to swing, there­ by effecting diaspore dispersal.)dispersal. )

Anemochory Wind-dispersal of diaspores with characters slow­ ing their terminal velocityvelo city of descent (e. g. pappus, bristles).

Anemogeochores Diaspores that are transported along the ground. 218 Glossary

Annuals A plant that germinates from a seed, grows, flowers, produces seeds and then dies within a single year.

Anthesis The time of maturation of the male and female organs of the flower.

Anthropochory Dispersal of diaspores by human activities.

Antitelechory Long-distance dispersal of diaspores is hindered by the initial placement of diaspores (at, near, or below the soil surface) or by morphological characteristics of the diaspores.

Apedal A structureless soil.

AreoleAreoie A sunken cushion representing a condensed lateral shoot from which spines, branches, and flowers arise in cacti. AreolesAreoies may occur either singly on tubercles or in rows along ridges.

Aril A fleshy outgrowth on the surface of certain seeds; true aril, an outgrowth of the funiculus near its top; arilloid, an outgrowth from other parts of the seed.

Atelechory Diaspores lack morphological characters facilitating long-distance dispersal.

Autochory Dispersal of diaspores by the plant itself.

Awn A stiff bristle-like projection, usually at the tip of an organ. The glumes and lemmas of grassesgrass es commonly possess awns, as do some fruits, and less commonly .

Axil The upper angle formed by the junction of a leaf or similar organ with the stem.stern. Organs in the axil, such as flowers, inflorescences, meristems and buds are termed axillary or lateral.

Ballistic dispersal The explosive ejection of the diaspore, by a fruit that opens suddenly or by a trip-lever. Glossary 219

Barospermy Dispersal distance of diaspores is limited by the weight of the diaspore.

Basicarpy Compact inflorescences are produced closedose to the soil surface, the diaspores remain attached to the dead parent, and the dead parent is held in place by a strong lignified root.

Bract A leaf like organ subtending an . Bracts are sometimes brightly coloured and -like. The glumes, lemmas and paleae of grass spikes are exam­ plespIes of bracts.

Bradyspory Dispersal of diaspores from the mother plant is delay­ ed and spread over significant periods of time. For desert plants this refers to spreading dispersal over several rainfall events.

Caducous Deciduous.

Callus A small, hard outgrowth at the base of the spikelet or of a floret, in some grasses.

Calyx The collective term for the , constituting the outer whorl of the perianth. It enclosesendoses and protects the other floral parts during their development.

Capitulum An inflorescence of sessile flowers or florets crowded together on a receptaclereceptade and usually surrounded by an involucre. Capitula are often made up of two distinct types of floret: disc florets, in which the corolla tube terminates in five short teeth; and ray florets, in which the tube is extended into a conspicuous strap. When both types are present the disc florets form the centre of the capitulum and the ray florets are arranged around the edge, giving a daisy like flower.

Capsule Any dry dehiscent fruit derived from two or more many-seeded fused carpels.

Caryopsis (Grain) A fruit that resembles an achene except that the seed wall fuses with the carpel wall during embryo development. The caryopsis is typical of the Poaceae. 220 Glossary

Cencer mechanism Wind does not exert its influence on the diaspore directly,direcdy, but on the capsule or follicle enclosing the diaspores (e.g. wind induces the fruits to swing, there­ by effecting diaspore dispersal.

Chamae- Diaspores that are transported along the ground. anemochory

Chasmogamy The production of flowers that open to expose the reproductive organs. This allows cross pollination but does not preclude self pollination.

Chlorophyl The main class of photosynthetic pigments. They absorb red and blue-violet light and thus reflect green light, so giving plants their characteristic green colour. Chlorophylls are involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis and are located in the chloroplastid.

Cleistogamy The production of flowers that do not open to expose the reproductive organs, so preventing cross pollina­ tion.

Coccus The four to five hard pieces into which a schizoschizocarp carp breaks at maturity.

Cryptogam In early classifications, a plant whose method of reproduction is not immediately apparent, i. e. a plant in which the reproductive structures are not borne in conspicuous flowers or cones. Cryptogams thus included the algae, fungi, bryophytes and most pteri­ dophytes.

Cuticle The continuous layer of cutin, a fatty substance which is almost impermeable to water, on the outer walls of the epidermal cells.

Cutin A mixture of complex macro molecules forming the waxy cuticle that covers the aerial parts of most higher plants.

Dehiscent The splitting open along predetermined lines of cer­ tain plant organs, such as anthers and fruits to release their contents. Glossary 221

Diaspore The plant part to be dispersed; it can be a seed, fruit, compound fruit, part of a plant or the entire plant.

Disc floret See capitulum.

Dormancy An inactive phase often exhibited by seeds, spores and buds, during which growth and developmental pro­ cesses are deferred.

Duodenum That portion of the small intestine next to the pyloric end of the stomach.stomaeh.

Dyszoochory The process whereby diaspores are destroyed (eaten and digested) but some of the diaspores are dropped by accident and thus contributing to dispersal of the diaspores.

Edaphic factors (Soil(Soll factors) The physical, chemical and biological properties of soil that influence the live organism. The main edaphic factors includeindude water content, organic content, texture and pH.pR.

Elaiosome A fleshy tissue which attracts animals, is localized in a specific region of the diaspore and is easily detached from the remainder of the diaspore which is hard and inedible.

Endocarp The innermost layer of the pericarp of an angiosperm fruit, internal to the mesocarp and exocarp and exter­ nal to the seed(s).

Endophytic Living in the tissues of plants.

Endosperm The storage tissue in the seeds of most angiosperms, derived from the fusion of one male gamete with two female polar nuclei.nudei. The endosperm is a compact tri­ ploid tissue, lacking intercellular spaces and storing starch,stareh, hemicelluloses, proteins, oils and fats.

Endothelium A specialized, nutritious layer of radially stretched cells with dense cytoplasm and, sometimes, large nucleinudei which differentiates from the inner epidermis of the inner integument in bitegmic ovules, or from the inner epidermis of the single integument in uni­ tegmic ovules. 222 Glossary

Ephemeral A plant with a short life eyde.cycle.

Ephemeral Multi-seeded diaspores separate into secondaryseeondary units synaptospermy during transportation of the diaspores.

Epidermis The outermost eellcell layer of the primary plant body, usually eonsistingconsisting of a single layer but sometimes severalseverallayers layers thick.

Epiphyte A plant that has no roots in the soilsoH and lives above the ground surface,surfaee, supported by another plant or object.objeet. It obtains its nutrients from the air, rain water and from organicorganie debris on its support.

Eu-anemochoresEu-anemoehores True anemochores,anemoehores, see anemochory.anemoehory.

ExocarpExoearp The outermost layer of the pericarpperiearp of an angiosperm fruit, external to the mesocarp.mesoearp. It is usually only a thin layer, as in the plum, where it forms the outer skin.

FollicleFollide A dry, dehiscentdehiseent many-seeded fruit derived from one earpel,carpel, whichwhieh on ripening splits down one side only, usually the ventral suture, to expose the seeds.

Frugivores Fruit-eating animals.

Funicle The stalk attachingattaehing the ovule, and later the seed, to the placentaplaeenta or ovary wall in angiosperms. It serves as an anchoranehor and provides a vascularvaseular supply to the ovule and seed.

GeocarpyGeoearpy The productionproduetion of diaspores beneath the soilsoH surfaee.surface.

Germination The physiologiealphysiological and physical ehangeschanges undergone by a reproductive body, suehsuch as a seed, pollen grain, spore or zygote, immediately prior to and includinginduding the first visible indicationsindieations of growth. This processproeess will not occuroeeur unless both internal and external eon­con­ ditions are favourable.

Glume One of a pair of bracts subtending eacheaeh spikelet in the inflorescenceinfloreseenee of grasses.grass es. Glossary 223

Granivores Seed-eating animals.

Haustorium A specialized organ that draws nutrients from another organ or tissue.

Herbaceous A plant without a woody stem.stern.

Heterodiasporyl Production of two or more morphologically distinct Heterocarpy types of diaspores by an individual plant.

Hilum The scar on the seed coat comprising a corky abscis­ sion layer where the seed or ovule was attached to the funiculus.

Hydrochory Dispersal of diaspores by water; it can range from short-distance dispersal by rain wash or sheet flood­ ing to long distance dispersal by rivers or ocean cur­ rents.

Hygrochasy Opening and closing of the dispersal unit (or organ of the mother plant enclosing the dispersal units) as a function of moisture. (Opening when wet and infold­ ing when dry.)

Hygroscopic Dispersal of diaspores, as a function of moisture, movements which creep or leap on the ground.

Hypanthium The flat or cup-shaped receptacle found in perigy­ nous flowers. It is joined to the ovary when the ovary is inferior.

Hypocotyl The region of the stemstern derived from the part of the embryo between the cotyledons and the radicle. The transition from the stelar arrangement of the stemstern to that of the root occurs in the hypocotyl.

Hypsophyll An inflorescence bract; a vestigial leaf or any other leaf having a structure different from that of a foliage leaf and occurring near the top of the shoot.

Hysterocarpy A type of geocarpy in which the fertilized ovary pene­ trates into the soil by means of a long peduncle. 224 Glossary

Imbibition The process by which a substance absorbs a liquid and, as a consequence, swells in volume but does not dissolve.

Indehiscent Describing a fruit or fruiting body that does not open to disperse its contents.

Inferior ovary The floral organs are inserted above the ovary.

Inflorescence Any flowering system consisting of more than one flower. It is usually separated from the vegetative parts by an extended internode,intern ode, and normally comprises individual flowers, bracts and peduncles and pedicels.

Infructescence An inflorescence matured into a fruit; a composite or confluent fruit.

Integument A protective structure that develops from the base of an ovule and encloses it almost entirely except for an opening, the micropyle, at the tip of the nucellus.

Involucre A whorl of bracts around or beneath a condensed inflorescence, such as a capitulum or umbel. It resem­ bles and performs the function of the calyx of a single simple flower.

Jactitation Wind does not exert its influence on the diaspore directly,direcdy, but on the capsule or follicle enclosing the diaspores e.g. wind induces the fruits to swing, there­ by effecting diaspore dispersal.

Lignin A complex carbohydrate polymer making up about 25% of the wood of trees and also found in the cell walls of sclerenchyma tissues and vessels, fibres and tracheids at maturity. It increases the strength of such tissues making them more resistant to compression and tension.

Locule A cavity within which specialized organs may devel­ op, most usually the ovules or pollen grains. Glossary 225

Loess A fine-textured yellowish azonal soilsoll that is wide­ spread in central Europe, southern Russia, northern China and Argentina. It consists of clayday and silt par­ ticlestides that were deposited at the edge of the ice sheets during the last ice age. It is a fertile, often calcareous soil and is the parent material of chernozem.

Macrobiocarpy Delay in diaspore dispersal for an indefinite period.

Macrogeochory Also known as , the whole infructes­ cence, aparta part or the whole plant becomes detached and is blown by the wind along the ground.

Mericarp A one-seeded indehiscent part of a schizoschizocarp. carp.

Mesocarp The middle layer of the pericarp of an angiosperm fruit, positioned between the exocarp and endocarp. In many fruits the mesocarp is the fleshy part of the fruit, however, in some fruits no mesocarp is present, the pericarp consisting only of exocarp and endocarp.

Meteor-anemochory Diapores that are transported by air.

Microfibril A submicroscopic thread-like constituent of the cell wall; composed in most plants of cellulose molecules.

Micropyle The opening at the free end of the ovule, in the integu­ ments.

Middle lamella The lamella present between the walls of two adjacent cells.

Mucilage Any substance that swells in water to form a slimy solution.

Mutualism An intimate relationship between two or more living organisms that is beneficial to all participants.

Myrmecochory The dispersaldispers al of diaspores by ants.

Myxospermy An anchorage mechanism, where mucilage is pro­ duced upon being moistened. 226 Glossary

Nautohydrochory The dispersal of diaspores by water currents.

Ombrohydrochory The dispersal of diaspores by rain and/or dew.

Ovule The female gamete and its protective and nutritive tis­ sue, which develops into the dispersal unit or seed after fertilization in seed plants.

Pappus A modified calyx made up of a ring of fine hairs, scales, or teeth that persists after fertilization and aids the wind dispersal of the fruit, often by forming a parachute-like structure.

Parasitism The temporary or permanent relationship between two different species, in which one, the parasite, bene­ fits by obtaining food and/or shelter at the expense of the other, the host.

Parenchyma A ground tissue composed of living cells which may differ in size, shape and wall structure.

Pedicel The stalk attaching individual flowers to the main axis (peduncle) of the inflorescence.

Peduncle The main axis of an inflorescence.

Perennial A plant that lives for many years.

Perianth The structure that protects the developing reproduc­ tive parts of the flower. In dicotyledons it normally consists of two distinct whorls, the calyx and the corolla. In these whorls are not dif­ ferentiated.

Pericarp The wall of a fruit, derived from the maturing ovary wall.

Phytochrome The proteinpro tein pigment that mediates in photoperiodic responses and certain other photo reactions e.g. light stimulated germination. It exists in two interchange­ able forms, Pr, which absorbs in the red part of the spectrum (660 nm) and Pfr which absorbs in the far-red part of the spectrum (730 nm). Following Glossary 227

exposure of a plant to red light Pr changes to Pfr, while after exposure to far-red irradiation Pr is reformed from Pfr. This reversion of Pfr to Pr maymayaiso also occur in the dark in some plants, a process that is inhibited by low temperatures.

Placenta The tissue by whichwh ich ovules are attached to the mater­ nal tissue. It is usually mostly undifferentiated but contains vascular tissue.

Plastid An organelle found in the cytoplasm of the majority of plant cells. Plastids are surrounded by a double membrane and show a wide variety of structure with a complex internal arrangement of lamellae. These give colour to plant tissues. They may be concerned with photosynthesis (chloroplast) or starch storage (amyloplast), or contain orange or yellow pigments ( chromoplast).

Plumule The bud or shoot apex of the embryo.

Polarized light Ordinary light in a beam is unpolarized. Its electric vector vibrates in a complex way at all angles possible perpendicular to the direction of the beam. When the light is polarized, the electric vector always vibrates in the same direction, perpendicular to the direction of the beam.

Protogeocarpy A type of geocarpy in which both the flowers and fruits are subterranean.

Proventriculus The glandular stomachstornach anterior to the gizzard of birds.

Radicle The embryonic root, which in the seed is directed towards the micropyle. It is normally the first organ to emerge from the seed coat on germination.

Rain ballism Falling raindropsrain drops provide energy to activate alevera lever mechanism by which the diaspores are ejected from their containers.

Ray floret See capitulum. 228 Glossary

Receptacle The expanded region at the end of a peduncle to which the floral parts are attached. It is usually convex but may be flattened or concave.

Replum The ridge surrounding the siliqua of the which remains attached to the false septum, as a frame, on the dehiscence of the fruit.

Samara A winged indehiscent fruit.

Saprophyte A plant that feeds by the external digestion of dead organic material, thus bringing about decay.

Scape A flower-stalk arising at or under ground.

Schizocarp A dry seed-vessel which splits into two or more one­ seeded carpels or mericarps.

Sclerenchyma A supporting tissue composed of relatively short cells (sclereids) and/or relatively long onones es (fibres) with thick, often lignified, cell walls and usually lacking a living protoplast at maturity.

Sepals An individual unit of the calyx. It is usually green and often hairy but in some species the sepals are brightly coloured. Sepals are supplied by several vascular bundles and thought to be modified leaves.

Serotiny The retention of seeds in temporarily or permanently­ closed cones.

Spike A racemous inflorescence in which flowers are sessile and borne on an elongated axis, as in wheat.

Spikelet The basic unit of a grass inflorescence. It consists of a short axis or rachilla, two bracts or glumes, and one or more florets and their bracts (palea and lemma).

Stipular cup A cup-shaped structure formed by stipules.

Suberin A fatty acid polyester found in the cell walls of the endodermis and of bark. It renders the tissue resistant to decay and entry of water. Glossary 229

Synaptospermy Two or more seeds (or one-seeded fruits) are joined together to form a compound diaspore.

Synspermy Several seeds are uniteduni ted in one seed unit.

Synzoochory The deliberate transportation of diaspores externally by an animal.

Telechory Diaspores possess morphological characters facilita­ ting long-distance dispersal (e.g. barbs, pappi, fleshy fruits).

Tenuinucellate In ovules where the nucellus is thin and no parietal cells have developed.

Testa (Seed coat) The protective outer covering of a seed, derived from the integuments of the ovule after fertil­ ization.

Topochory Restriction of dispersal in space (an antitelechoric mechanism).

Trachyspores Those plants that disperse their seeds immediately after ripening.

Trichome An epidermal appendage; may be of various shapes, structures, size and function; includes hairs, scales, etc.

Trypanocarpyf The form and for appendages of the diaspore favour Trypanospermy burial in the soil at the point of initial contact (e. g. by drilling or wedging into cracks).

Turgor pressure The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the contents of the cell against the cell wall.

Unitegmy The nucellus is enveloped by a single integument.

Vacuole A cavity in the cytoplasm bound by a membrane, the tonoplast, and containing an aqueous solution, the cell sap. 230 Glossary

Winter Standers Bradyspores who delay diaspore dispersal for one winter.

Xerochasy Opening and closing of the dispersaldispers al unit (or organ of the mother plant enclosing the dispersal units) as a function of moisture. (Opening when dried and in­ folding when wet.)

Zooballism Bypassing animals provide energy to activate aalever lever mechanism by which the diaspores are ejected from their containers.

Zoochory The dispersal of diaspores by animals, either internal­ ly (endozoochory) or externally (epizoochory).

Zygomorph The styles on one side of the fruit are longerIon ger than on the other. Index of Plant Names

Acacia 27,190 Apatesia 161 Acacia iraquensis (= A. gerrardii subsp. Apiaceae 102 negevensis) 27 Apium graveolens 102 Acacia papyrocarpa 14, 23 Aptosimum 152 Acacia tortilis 27 Aptosimum spinescens 152,153 Acacia tortilis subsp. spirocarpa 27 Arabidopsis kneuckeri 37 Acanthaceae 79, 81, 88, 122, 124, 142, Araceae 117,118 148-152 Arachis hypogaea 118 Acanthopsis 124 Arctotheca calendula 34,40,57,62,66,71 Aegilops geniculata (= A. ovata) 96, 100, 51 104,105,184 Arctotis diffusa 41,42,57,62,63,67 Aegilops kotshyi 104 Arctotis fastuosa 57,61 Aizoaceae 102,105,154 Arctotis revoluta 57,63,67 Aizoon canariense 76 Aridaria 72, 73 Albuca 34 Aristida 52,90 Albuca spiralis 57 Aristida congesta 10 Allium ampeloprasum 144 Artemisia sieberi 131 Allium artemisietorum 144 Asclepiadaceae 45 Allium desertorum 144 Asphodelus aestivus 144 Allium dictyoprasum 144 Asteraceae 42, 45, 51, 54, 71, 89, 96, 101, Allium rothii 52, 144 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 115, 116, 122, Allium trucatum 144 126-130,135,152,154,184 Alysicarpus monilifer 103 Astericus graveolens 71 Alyssum 147 Asteriscus hierochunticus (= A. pygmaeus) Alyssum damascenum 72 77,78,152,155,166,167,184 Amaryllidaceae 52 Astragalus hypogaeus 118 Ambrosia dumosa 55, 56 Astragalus spinosus 38 Amellus strigosus 57 Atriplex 40, 106 Amphicarpaea bracteata 116 Aztekium 18 Amphicarpum purshii 116 Amsinckia menziesii 96 Babiana 94 Amyema quandang 23,24 BaIlotaBallota 124 Anacardiaceae 94 Begonia hypogaea 117 Anastatica hierochuntica 72, 123, 131, Begoniaceae 117 146,147,152,167 Bellevallia desertorum 144 Anchusa capensis 94 Berkheya 12 Androcymbium guttatum 94 Berkheya ferox 62, 66 Anisodontea triloba 94 Berkheya ferox var. tomentosa 57,62,66 Anthemis pseudocotula 71 Biarum 118 232 Index of Plant Names

Bidens pilosa 103,185 Cleome viscosa 87 Blepharis 130,167 CleretumCleTetum papulosum 157-161,164 Blepharis ciliaris 75, 124, 130, 131, 148, Cliffortia ruscijoliaruscifolia 94 150,151 Codon 39 Blepharis grossa 148, 149 Commelina 116 Blossfeldia liliputana 18 Commelinaceae 115,116 Boerhavia diffusa 10,11 Conicosia 161 Boophane 53 Conicosia pugionifoTmispugionijormis 164 Boraginaceae 94,102 Conophytum 72,73 Borreria articularis 87 Convolvulaceae 117,118 Brassicaceae 37, 72, 101, 102, 103, 115, Cotula 130 117,118,122,123,135,146,147 Cotyledon 36 Brunsvig.iea 52 Cotyledon orbiculata 37,38 Brunsvigia appendiculata 98 CrassulaCTassula 36 Brunsvigia orientalis 53 Crassula brevifoliabrevijolia 38 Bulbine sedijoliasedifolia 57,94 Crassulaceae 36 Bulbinella cauda-felis 57,94 Crossyne 52,53 Crotalaria 38 Cactaceae 7,18,26,29,71 Cryptantha angustifolia 55,56 Cakile edentula var.vaT. lacrustrislacTustris 103 Cryptantha nevadensis 55,56 Cakile maritima 103 Cucumis 83 Calendula arvensis 104 Cucumis humifructus 26,118 Callitrichaceae 117 Cucumis prophetaTumprophetarum 185 Campanulaceae 36,81 Cucurbitaceae 7,26,83,117,118, 135 Capparidaceae 81,87 Cyanella hyacinthoides 94 Carduus pycnocephalus 102 Cymbopogon 138 Carduus tenuifloTustenuiflorus 102 Cysticapnos vesicariusvesicaTius 38 Carnegiea gigantea 26 Carpanthea 161 Dalea mollissima 55,56 CarpantheaCaTpanthea pomeridiana 157 Danthonia caespitosa 140 Carpobrotus 163 DelospermaDelospeTma pergamentaceum 163,165 Carpolyza 53 Dianthus namaensis 47 Carrichtera annua 72,123,133,134 Diascia tanyceras 37,38 Caryophyllaceae 36,81,96,101,102,103 Dicoma 42 Cenchrus ciliaTisciliaris 11 Dicoma capensis 43,57,62,63,67 Centaurea eriophora 46 Dicoma tomentosa 42 Cephaelis densinerva 117 Didelta 50,96 CephalocereusCephaloceTeus 26 Didelta carnosa 68 Cephalophyllum 74 Didelta carnosa var. carnosa 63,67, 96- Cercidium floridum 55,56 99 Chaenactis fremontii 55,56 DimorphothecaDimoTphotheca 49 Chaetobromus dregeanus 138 Dimorphotheca polyptera 57, 60-63, 66, CheiridopsisCheiTidopsis 74,75 67,104 CheiridopsisCheiTidopsis denticulata 157-163 Dimorphotheca sinuata 57, 62, 66, 107, Chenopodiaceae 7,18,102,106 108,110-115,185 Chenopodium polyspermum 185 Dimorphotheca tragus 47,57,62 Chorizanthe brevicornubTevicornu 55,56 DipiotaxisDiplotaxis acris 37 Cineraria 126 DipiotaxisDiplotaxis harra 37 Cineraria canescens 126 Dipsacaceae 89 Cistaceae 135 Dischisma spicatum 94 Index of Plant Names 233

Dodonaea attenuata 14 Gazania heterochaeta 57,62,66 Drosanthemum 74,75 Gazania lichtensteinii 57,62,66,129 Droseraceae 36 77,152 Dyerophytum africanum 39 Geigeria ornativa 154,155 Geococcus pusillus 118 Ecballium elaterium 83,84 Geraniaceae 43,44,86,89,90,91,102,105, Echinopsis chilensis 11,12 136, 138, 139 Emex spinosa 116 Geranium 86 Encelia frutescens 55,56 Gladiolus orchidiflorus 47,57 Enneapogon desvauxii 106 Globulariaceae 94 Eremalche rotundifolia 55,56 Glottiphyllum linguiforme 105 Eriocephalus 40,41,71 Gnidia nitida 94 Eriocephalus ericoides 57,62,66 Gorteria diffusa subsp. diffusa 57,98 Eriocereus 26 humifusum 57,95,96,98,99 Erodium 44, 86, 90, 91, 105, 136, 138, Gymnarrhena micrantha 78,116, 184 139-141,191 Gymnocalycium 18 Erodium botrys 86, 139 Gynandriris setifolia 94 Erodium brachycarpum 86, 105, 139 Erodium cicutarium 86,91,139,189 Harpagophytum procumbens 9,10 Erodium moschatum 86,135-137,139 Hebenstretia 94 Erucaria rostrata 72 Hedypnois cretica (= H. rhagadioloides) Eulychnia acida 11,12 104,105 Euphorbia 88 Heliophila 49, 123 Euphorbia dregeana 87 Heliophila deserticola 57,61 Euphorbia mauritanica 87 Heliophila latisiliqua var. macrostylis 57, Euphorbiaceae 81,87,136 123 Euryops 60,126,127 Hemimeris montana 35, 125 Euryops dregeanus 57,63,67,126,127 Hemizonia increscence 102 Euryops multifidus 57,60,63,67,127 Hermannia 28, 94 Euryopssubcarnosus 40,41,57,60,61,63, Hesperantha 94 67 Hesperocallis undulata 55,56 Euryops tenuissimus 126 Hessea 53 Heteropogon contortus 90 Fabaceae 7,23,27,38,81,85,100,101,102, Heterotheca latifolia 103 103,115-118 Hirpicium 62 Falckia repens 118 Hirpicium alienatum 57,62,66 Fedia 18,19,106 Hirpicium echinus 41,42,57,62,66 Fedia cornucopiae 19,106 Homeria 94 Fedia graciliflora 19, 106 Hordeum spontaneum 138 Fedia pallescence 19,106 Hura crepitans 173 Felicia 42 Hydrophyllaceae 38 Ferraria 94 Hymenocarpos circinnatus 100 Ficus 117 Hymenoclea salsola 55,56 Foveolina albida 49,50,58,128 Hyoseris scabra 104 Hypertelis salsoloides 37 Galenia fruticosa 28 Galium tomentosum 12 Ifloga 42, 126 Garhadiolus angulosus 104 Ifloga paronychioides 126 Gazania 128,129 lridaceae 94 234 Index of Plant Names

Juncaceae 135 Mesembryanthemum nodijlorum 76, 77, Juncus 122,130 164,165,184 Microloma 45 Karroochloa 138 Molluginaceae 94 Monechma genistifolium 88 Lachenalia 94 Montinia caryophyllacea 58 Larniaceae 12,74,94,122,124,135 Moraceae 117 Lampranthus 74,156 Moraea 94 Lampranthus godmaniae 156-160 Lapeirousia 94 Nasturtiopsis coronopifolia 37 Larrea divaricata subsp. tridentata 55,56 Nemesia 34,49 Lasiospermum brachyglossum 34, 40, 58, Nemesia bicornis 48,49 62,66,71 Nenax cinerea 47 Lathyrus 116 Neuradaceae 95 Lavandula 124 Notocactus 18 Legurninosae, see Fabaceae Notoceras bicorne 72 Leipoldtia 74 Nyctaginaceae 7,11,135 Leipoldtia klaverensis 156 Lepidium 72 Lessertia 38 Oncosiphon 128 Lessertia annularis 28 Onobrychis crista-galli 100 Lessertia diffusa 39,57,63,67,98 Ononis sicula 185 Lessertia spinescensspineseens 57,61,63,67 Opophytum aquosum 164,165 Leysera 42 Opthalmophyllum 72, 73 Leysera tenella 44, 58, 59 Opuntia 26,29,31,32 Lightfootia thunbergiana 38 Opuntia robusta 29,31 Liliaceae 49,81,94 Opuntia streptacantha 29,31 Limeum 94 Orchidaceae 36 Linaceae 135 Ornithogalum xanthochlorum 47,58 Lopholaena 126 Ornithogalum secundum 58 Loranthaceae 7,11,23 Ornithogalum 49 Lycium 28 Orobanchaceae 36 Lycoperdon 54 Osteospermum 51 Lythraceae 135 Osteospermum grandijlorum 49, 51, 58, 60,63,67 Machaeranthera orcuttii 55,56 Osteospermum pinnatum 58,61 Malephora 161 Osteospermum spinescensspineseens 51 Malephora lutea 164 Othonna arbuscula 58 Malvaceae 94 Othonna 42,59,60,62,126 Mammillaria 26 Othonna diversifolia 58,59,60,62,66,67 Manulea benthamiana 37 Othonna floribunda 127 Medicago tuberculata 100 Othonna macrophylla 58-60,63,67 Melianthus 47 Othonna obtusiloba 58,62,66 Mentha 124 Oxalidaceae 83 Mesernbryanthernaceae 28, 72, 73, 75, 79, Oxalis 83 154-165,167 Oxalis annae 83 Mesembryanthemum 72 Oxalis comosa 83 Mesembryanthemum aitonis 163,165 Ozoroa dispar 94 Mesembryanthemum karrooense 157-160 Index of Plant Names 235

Pachycereus 26 Ruellia malacosperma 151 Pachycereus pringlei 26 Ruschia 74,75 Pallenis spinosa 71 Ruschia tribracteata 157-160 sickenbergeri 40 Papaveraceae 81,102 Salicornia europaea 102 Pedaliaceae 7,9,144 Salicornia patula 102 Pelargonium 44,86, 136 Salsola iberica 52 Pelargonium crithmifolium 43,62,66 Salsola kali 52,97 Pentaschistis 138 Salvia 124,131 128 Sapindaceae 7,14 Pentzia incana 50 Sarcocaulon 44,86, 136 Petalidium 124 Scabiosa 89 Phagnalon rupestre 71 Scabiosa columbaria 89 Pharnaceum aurantium 37 Schismus arabicus 37 Pharnaceum croceum 37 Schizachyrium fragile 89 Phoradendron californicum 24 Scilla hanburyi 40 Picea abies 54 SclerolaenaSc/erolaena diacantha 18 Picris 104 Scrophularia arguta 116 Pilucaria crispa 42 Scrophulariaceae 81,115,116,125,152 Pinus sylvestris 54 Selago 94 Plantaginaceae 122,124,135,147,148 Senecio 42,126 Plantago 124,147 Senecio cardaminifolius 126 Plantago coronopus 124, 133, 134 Senecio glabrifolius 43 Plantago cretica 147,148 Setaria verticillata 10 Poaceae 7,10,11,37,43,45,89,90,96,101, Solanaceae 7, 24 102,104,115,135-138 Solanum luteum 24,25 Polycarena pubescens 37, 38 Spergularia diandra 37,184,185 Polygonaceae 115,116 Spergularia marina 103 Polypogon monspeliensis 185 Spergularia media 103 Portulaca oleracea 185 Spinacia oleracea 131 Psathyrotes ramosissima 55,56 Stachys jlavescens 94 Pteranthus dichotomus 96,97 Stapelia 45 Pteronia 28,42 Stenocereus thurberi (= Lemaireocereus Pteronia ciliata 58,62,66 thurberi) 26 Pteronia divaricata 58,62,66,67 Sterculiaceae 94 Pteronia glabrata 58 Stipa 52, 136 Pyrolaceae 36 Stipa capensis 90 Stipa tenacissima 90,141,188 Ranunculaceae 115 Stipagrostis 43,136-138,140 Ranunculus hilairea 116 Stipagrostis zeyheri subsp. macropus 43 Reboudia pinnata 72, 133, 134 Strombocactus 18 Rebutia 18 Stylochaeton 118 Resedaceae 81 Sutherlandia 38 Restio 94 Syringodea longituba 146 Restionaceae 94 Rhagadiolus stellatus 104 Taraxacum officinale 54 Rogeria longiflora 144,145 Tephrosia 85 94 Tephrosia purpurea 85 Rubiaceae 81,87,117 Tetragonia 50 Ruellia 124,150,151 Tetragonia reduplicata 49,58,63,67 236 Index of Plant Names

Thymelaeaceae 94 Ursinia 51,62,128 Trachyandra 94 Ursinia cakilefolia 58,62,66,107,109,112 Trachyandra falcata 58 Ursinia calenduliflora 50,51,58,62,66,67 Trachyandra laxa 58 Ursinia chrysanthemoides 58,62,66 Tragus berteronianus 10 Ursinia nanana na subsp. nana 50, 51, 58, 62, Tribulus 9,99 66,128 Tribulus terrestris 9, 10,99 Urticaceae 135 Tribulus zeyheri 95 Trichodesma africanum 94 Valerianaceae 7,18,102,106 Trifolium subterraneum 116 Vicia 115,116 Trigonella arabica 100,185 Vigna subterranea 118 Tripteris 34,50,51,127 Viola 116 Tripteris amplectens 49,51,58,127 Violaceae 115 Tripteris hyoseroides 49, 51, 58, 63, 67, Viscaceae 7,24 127,185 Tripteris oppositifolia 49,51,58,59,60,62, Wahlenbergia 34,38 66,127 Wahlenbergia annularis 37,38 Tripteris pinnatilobata 51,127 Wahlenbergia prostrata 37 Tripteris sinuata 51,127 Wahlenbergia paniculata 35 Tristerix aphyllus 11,12 Wiborgia monoptera 47,58,63,67 Tulipa polychroma 144 Tulipa systola 144 Zaluzianskya benthamiana 37,38 Tylecodon 36 Zaluzianskya gilioides 37,38 Tylecodon paniculatus 37,38 Zaluzianskya villosa 37,38 Tylecodon reticulatus 38 Zygophyllaceae 7,9,94,95,135 Tylecodon wallichii 37,38 Zygophyllum 94 Zygophyllum morgsana 47 Umbelliferae, see Apiaceae Urginia maritima 40 Index of Animal Names

Acanthogenys rufogularis 23 Messor 19 Aphelocoma ultramarina 30 Messor capensis 28 Mimus polyglottus 24 BosRos taurus 31 Mimus thenca 11 Neotoma albigula 30 Canis latrans 26,30 Neotoma goldmani 30 Capra hircus 31 Neotoma lepida 13 Capra nubiana 27 Carpodacus mexicanus 29 Orycteropus afer 26,27,28 Colaptes auratus 29 Corvus cryptoleucus 30 Perognathus nelsoni 30 Phainopepla nitens 24 Dama virginiana 31 Pheidole 14 Desmodillus auricularis 13 Pheidole xerophila 189 Dicaeum hirundinaceum 23 Pipilo fuscus 29 Dipodomys phillipsii 30 Pogonomyrmex 31 Dipsosaurus dorsalis 26 Pogonomyrmex barbatus 29 Pogonomyrmex rugosus 189 Equus cabal/uscaballus 30 Procyon lotor 30 Pycnonotus xanthopygos 24 Gazella dorcas 27 Gerbillurus paeba 13 Rhytidoponera 18 Gopheris 26 Sauromalis obesus 26 Homo sapiens 31 Scarabaeidae 29 Sylvilagus audubonii 26,30 Leptonycteris 26 Leptonycteris curasoae 26 Taxidea taxus 30 Leptonycteris nivalis 30 Tayassu tajacu 29 Lepus californicus 26 Toxostoma curvirostre 26,30 Liomys irroratus 30 Turdus merula 29

Macroscelides proboscideus 13 Urocyon cinereoargenteus 26,30 Melanerpes hypopolius (= uropygiales) 24 Mephitis macroura 30 Zenaida asiatica 29 SubjectSubjeet Index

aardvark 26,27,28 blackbird 24, 25 accidental endozoochory 27 black-tailed jackrabbit 26 achory 2,6 Bolivia 18 aestatiphory 6,143-145,176,193,196,217 Bots~ana 44 allochore 5 bradyspore 143 arnphicarpyamphicarpy 6, 68, 78, 79, 115-117, 174- bradyspory 6,165,166,219 177,179,184,193,197,217 bulbul 24, 25 anemoballismanernoballisrn 34,47,94,217 burr 10,11 anemochoryanernochory 172,217 BushrnanlandBushmanland 123,152 anemogeochoresanernogeochores 35, 52, 97, 99, 217 (see charne-anernochory)chame-anemochory) carnelscamels 27 anthropochory 130,218 California 95 antitelechory 2, 3, 5, 6, 45, 74, 81, 89, 93, capsule 35, 72-75, 88, 105,lOS, 151, 154, 156, 99,101,115,129,132,174-181,198,199, 157,159-161,163,164,167,219 218 cencer mechanismrnechanisrn 34, 220 (see anerno­anemo­ ants 3,7,13-19,27-29,31,72,77,100,133, ballisrn)ballism) 140,141,166,175,189,190,191,195 charnae-anernochorychamae-anemochory 33, 35, 39, 52-54, Argentina 18 97,220 aril 14,17,18,218 chasrnogarnouschasmogamous 101 atelechory 2,6,68,79,93,94,101,118,132, Chihuahua 77, 189 174-177,179,180,198,218 Chile 11 Australia 3, 7, 13, 14, 16, 18, 23, 76, 118, ChileanChile an mockingbirdrnockingbird 11 171,172,175,179 chuck~alla lizard 26 autochore 5 cleistogamouscleistogarnous 101,106,197 autochory 173 (spectrum),(spectrurn),218 218 cohesion mechanismrnechanisrn 146,147 a~n 10,11,45,52,81,86,88-91,136-140, colonization hypothesis 195 187,191,193,218 comosecorno se diaspore, see hairy diaspores cornpetitioncompetition 2, 23, 82, 91, 93, 100,lOO, 102, Balearic Islands 90 111-113,141,194-196,197 ballistic dispersal 81-88,91,138,140,81-88,91,138,140,150, ISO, coyote 26, 30 151,173,177,218 crumblingcrurnbling containers 70,71 balloon diaspores 33,38-40,57,61 balloons, see balloon diaspores Dead Sea 76 barosperrnybarospermy 6,93,94,174,176,219 dehiscent containers 70, 72 basicarpy 6,106,118,119,174-177,219 desert cottontail 26 bats 20,26 desert iguana 26 Bedouin goats 27 desert turtle 26 birds 11,12,20,21,26,29,31,32,166,169, directed dispersaldispers al 140,189,190,195,196 170,190,195 disperser effectiveness 21 240 Subject Index

Dorcas gazelles 27 hygroscopichygroseopie movement 81, 88, 124, 135, dormancy 98,105,131,163,164,174,185, 138-140,223 191-193,197,221 dung beetles 29,31 Iberian peninsula 18,90 dust diaspores 33,36-38,40 ibex 27 dynamic flyers 47,49-51,62 imbibition mechanism 84-89, 136, 138, Dynamic propellers, see dynamic flyers 146,147 dyszoochory 12-15,221 India 4, 11,42,85,87 Irano-Turanian regions 104 ectocarp 24 Israel 3, 7, 13, 15, 24, 68, 79, 81, 94, 103, endogenous rhythm 163 116, 118, 119, 144, 171, 172, 174, 175, elaiosome 7,14,15,17,18,19,46,190,221 177-179,189 embryo 19,21,36,70,101,104,111,131 emergence 8, 9 jactitation, see anemoballism endocarp 21, 38, 85, 221 172,175,180,181 endoparasite 11 Judea 104 endophyte 11,221 endosperm 21,36,221 Kalahari 7,43,140,144,171 endozoochory 7,20-29,170,177,190,230 Karoo 7, 10, 13, 27, 28, 38, 40, 146, 154, ephemeral synaptospermy 94,97-99,222 171,172,174,189 epiphyte 36,222 Knersvlakte 132 epizoochory 7,8-12,45,98,122,130,171, 177,230 escape hypothesis 196 lodging ability 45,53,91,100,139 establishment 194 lofting ability 45, 61-63 eu-anemochores 98,222 exocarp 38,85,222 Macedonia 18 rnacrobiocarpy 143,176,225 fish 20 rnacrogeochory, see anemogeochory frugivores 20,21,24,222 masting 141 Mediterranean 76,83,94,95,103,104,106, geocarpy 6, 117, 118, 174-177, 179, 196, 116,118,178,179 222 mesocarp 9,24 germination 21,22,24-29,32,45, 52, 70, meteor-anemochory 33,35,225 71,76-80,91,94,95,98,100-102,104- Mexico 26, 29 107, 110-112, 115, 116, 130-134, 138, 3,146,152 140-142, 151, 152, 163-166, 184, 185, mistletoe bird 23,24 190,191,193,194,197,199,222 mockingbird 24 Gila woodpecker 24 Mojave 144,189 gliders 47,48,62, Monte Desert 189 granivores 13,29,31,144,188,189,223 mother site theory 2,79,167,174,198,199 gray fox 26, 30 mucilage 9, 72, 75, 83, 84, 121, 122-124, hairy diaspores 33,40-46,57-59,60,67 126,127,129-132,225 heterocarpy 18,45,193,223 mutualism 15,26,188,190,225 heterodiaspory 59, 60, 68, 79, 101-115, myrmecochory 15-19,118,172,193,196, 117,175-178,180,184,223 225 hydrochory 69,173,223 myxospermy 6, 68, 70, 72, 75, 76, 79, hygrochasy 6,70,72,74,76,77,79,84,143, 121-135, 141, 142, 173-176, 179, 191, 146-167, 173, 175, 176, 178, 180, 193, 193,196,225 196,223 Subject Index 241

Namaqualand 3, 7, 34, 37, 40, 42, 47-50, rodents 3,13,20,29,31,32,141,166,189, 54-57,61-63,66-68, 7l, 76, 81, 83, 87, 190,195 89, 94, 95, 98, 103, 104, 106, 116, 118, round-eared elephant shrew l3 119, 123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 134, 135, 152, 157, 171-173, 175, 176, 178-180, safe site 46, 190 193 90,116,171,178,179 Namib 77,88,144,148, 154, 166, 167 Saharo-Arabian territories 116 Namibia 9,44,88, 118, 136, 144, 148, 152, Sahel 116 179 samarasam ara 68, 228 nautohydrochory 70, 7l, 226 saprophyte 36,228 Negev 13, 15, 27, 37, 45, 52, 7l, 94, 100, secondary dispersal 6, 36, 42, 60, 61, 68, 104, 116, 124, 129, 131-133, l38, 144, 71,138,140-142,147,186-188 178,188 seed bank 18,76,77,79,80,104,105,107, North Africa 3, 18, 90, 94, 106, l34, l35, 111,112,115,131,164,167,185,199 178,179 seed development 184 North America 3, l3, 15, 26, 76, 94, 95, seed production 112-114 103,172,179,198 seed shadow 22,23,63,160,186,195 Northern Cape 88 serotiny 143,228 Simpson Desert 189 ombrohydrochory 70,71-79,173,226 snails 20 omnivore l3 Sonoran 3,13,24,26,54-56,61,68,144, 187,189 Palestine 3,97,118,177,178 South Africa 3,7,9,10, l3, 17,52,76,105, pappus 42,42,45,46,51,56,57-59,62,67, 118,134,136,138,152,171,172,179 79,101,112,116,129,130,193 South America 3, l3, 76,189 parasite 11,24,36,226 spiny-cheeked honey-eaters 23,24 paraspermy 159 splash-cap mechanism 72,73 pericarp 103,106,111,107,122,124,226 springboard mechanism 73-75 phainopepla 24 sticky diaspores 11 Phase I dispersal, see primary dispersal summer standers, see aestatiphory Phase 11 dispersal, see secondary disper- synaptospermy 3,6,76,94-96,98,99,101, sal 144,174-178,193,196,197,229 plumed diaspores 33, 40-46, 54, 59, 67, synaptostasy 6 (see hairy diaspores) synzoochory 7,12-15,229 polychory 5 polymorphism 101 porcupine diggings 52,188 telechory 2,5,32,45,81,82,85,93,94,99, predation 14, 15, 76, 79, 89, 94, 124, 140, 101,115,130,177,180,229 141,144,166,180,190,195,196,199 terminal velocityvelo city 62-67 predator 14,15,46,100, l32, 142, 166, 175, testa 26, 36, 229 188,189 topochory 6,229 primary dispersal 6,61,68,86, l38, 140- trachyspores 143,229 142,186 trample burrs 9,10,96 trichomes 8,18,40,229 rain 70-74, 76-79, 147, 150, 156, 157, trypanocarpy 6,229 165-167,183 trypanospermy 6,68,70,74,76,79,81,89, rain ballism 70,73,74,79,173,227 90,121,133,135-142,173-176,179,191, rain wash 70,72,79, 173 193,196,229 raptors 28, 29 39,52, 172, 177 reptilesreptil es 20 turgor mechanism 82, 83 242 Subject Index winged diaspore 33,40,46-51,54,57-59, xerochasy 34,84,85,146,230 60,67 winter standers 6,143,176,230 zooballists 12, 230 woodrats l3 zoochory 7,169,230 zygornorphzygomorph 96,229