/Ø∂µ¨ª∞™ ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ ®µ´ ®µ®≥¿∫∞∫ J.C. Wfppw, Urkzfvwkx} Csppfhf Lsresr
1. Introduction Pjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr kw xjf ywf sg tjsrfxkd w}qcspw xs vftvfwfrx wtffdj wsyrew. Iefapp}, fadj wsyre kr a wtsofr yxxfvardf kw vftvfwfrxfe c} a {vkxxfr tjsrfxkd w}qcsp, ws aw xs gyvrkwj a vfdsve wyggkdkfrx xs vfrefv tswwkcpf xjf addyvaxf vfdsrwxvydxksr sg xjf yxxfvardf.
Tjf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq {kpp kr hfrfvap vfgpfdx xjf tjsrfxkd arap}wkw kqtswfe c} xjf xvarwdvkcfv sr xjf qaxfvkap. Ir tavxkdypav, xjf djskdf sg w}qcsp wfx {kpp xfre xs vfgpfdx efdkwksrw acsyx (k) wfhqfrxaxksr sg xjf parhyahf eaxa are (kk) kxw tjsrfqkdk~axksr sv tjsrspshkdap xvfaxqfrx.
Ir tvadxkdf xjf waqf eaxa wfx qa} cf xvarwdvkcfe kr qsvf xjar srf {a}. Dkggfvfrx xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw qa} cf attvstvkaxf gsv ekggfvfrx tyvtswfw. Sydj tyvtswfw qkhjx krdpyef efwdvktxkzf tjsrfxkdw, xjfsvfxkdap tjsrspsh}, parhyahf tfeahsh}, pf|kdshvatj}, wtffdj are parhyahf xjfvat}, dsqtyxfvk~fe wtffdj vfdshrkxksr are xf|x-xs-wtffdj w}rxjfwkw. Eadj sg xjfwf jaw kxw s{r vfuykvfqfrxw.
2. Phonetic symbols Fsv qswx tjsrfxkdkarw, xjf w}qcsp wfx sg djskdf kw xjf aptjacfx sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr, ors{r aw xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Aptjacfx (IPA). Tjkw kw a wfx sg acsyx a jyrevfe aptjacfxkd w}qcspw (f.h. -, .) xshfxjfv {kxj a jaregyp sg rsr-aptjacfx w}qcspw (f.h. xjf pfrhxj qavo /) are acsyx xjkvx} ekadvkxkdw (f.h. xjswf f|fqtpkgkfe kr x0,0 12)2 . Tjf} avf wyqqavk~fe sr xjf IPA Cjavx (gkh. 1) are tvfwfrxfe, xshfxjfv {kxj hykefpkrfw gsv xjfkv ywf, kr xjf IPA Harecsso (Nspar are Ewpkrh, 1999), {jkdj vftpadfe xjf favpkfv Pvkrdktpfw cssopfx (Jsrfw, 1949).
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Tjf IPA kw rsx xjf srp} tjsrfxkd aptjacfx kr ywf. Ssqf wdjspavp} xvaekxksrw efzkaxf kr xvkzkap tavxkdypavw (f.h. c} xjf ywf sg 8 kr tpadf sg IPA 9, sv } gsv IPA m), sxjfvw kr a wycwxarxkap ryqcfv sg xjf w}qcspw ywfe (f.h. xjf Darkwj ekapfdx aptjacfx, gkh. 2: Jfwtfvwfr, 1890). Wjfvf xjf psdap parhyahf, sv xjf parhyahf cfkrh xayhjx, kw {vkxxfr kr a rsr- Laxkr wdvktx, tjsrfxkd w}qcspw gsv tfeahshkdap sv pf|kdshvatjkd tyvtswfw qa} cf cawfe sr xjf psdap wdvktx, f.h. C}vkppkd (gkh. 3) sv oara (gkh. 4). Ezfr {jfvf xjf psdap parhyahf kw {vkxxfr kr xjf Laxkr aptjacfx, IPA w}qcspw qkhjx cf myehfe yrgaqkpkav are ywfv-yrgvkfrep}. Tjyw kr Erhpkwj-wtfaokrh dsyrxvkfw ~j kw sgxfr ywfe aw ar krgsvqap w}qcsp dsvvfwtsrekrh xs IPA @, {jkpf kr Tyvof} A qkhjx cf ywfe vaxjfv xjar IPA 9. Ssqf ekdxksravkfw akqfe ax raxkzf wtfaofvw sg Erhpkwj axxfqtx xs wjs{ xjf tvsryrdkaxksr sg a {sve frxkvfp} c} gspps{krh xjf dsrzfrxksrw sg xjf Erhpkwj svxjshvatj} (a tvadxkdf tfvjatw cfxxfv xfvqfe BvfwtfppkrhC vaxjfv xjar BxvarwdvktxksrC). Ir tvadxkdf xjfwf dsrzfrxksrw avf krwyggkdkfrx: gsv f|aqtpf, Erhpkwj wtfppkrh esfw rsx krekdaxf {sve wxvfww, are xjfvf kw rs yraqckhysyw {a} sg krekdaxkrh dfvxakr zs{fp uyapkxkfw. Ss svekrav} wtfppkrh dsrzfrxksrw qa} cf wyttpfqfrxfe c} xjf ywf sg ekadvkxkdw kr wydj w}qcspw aw D (= IPA aF), sv kreffe a wtvkropkrh sg IPA w}qcspw wydj aw G. Oxjfv ekdxksravkfw ywf frxkvf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw cawfe sr ae-jsd ekadvkxkdw, ywkrh wydj w}qcspw aw Ï (= IPA fF). Bfx{ffr 1970 are 2000 kr Bvkxakr, xjsyhj rsx kr xjf Urkxfe Sxaxfw, xjfwf rsr-wxareave w}wxfqw {fvf pavhfp} wyttparxfe kr hfrfvap pf|kdshvatj} c} xjf ywf sg IPA.
Urxkp xjf vfdfrx efzfpstqfrx sg dsqtyxfvw acpf xs jarepf pavhf djavadxfv wfxw, ayxjsvw sg tvkrxfe qaxfvkapw {js {arxfe xs ywf IPA jazf sgxfr gadfe x}tshvatjkdap ekggkdypxkfw, wkrdf rsr-wtfdkapkwx tvkrxfvw {sype sgxfr cf yracpf xs tvszkef xjf wtfdkap w}qcspw. Skrdf xjf 1990w xjkw tvscpfq jaw ekwattfavfe, aw gkvwx dywxsqk~fe wkrhpf-c}xf tjsrfxkd gsrxw are xjfr qypxk-c}xf Urkdsef gsrxw jazf cfdsqf azakpacpf, xshfxjfv {kxj xjf attpkdaxksrw xjax dar ywf xjfq (Wfppw, 2003). Nfzfvxjfpfww, xjfvf avf
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ qar} dkvdyqwxardfw L wydj aw fqakp L yrefv {jkdj xjf vscywx xvarwqkwwksr sg wtfdkap w}qcspw darrsx cf vfpkfe ytsr. Tjfvf kw wxkpp a tpadf, xjfvfgsvf, gsv {a}w sg vftvfwfrxkrh tjsrfxkd w}qcspw ywkrh rsxjkrh cyx xjf ASCII djavadxfv wfx. Orf {kefp} ywfe ASCIIk~axksr sg xjf IPA kw SAM PA (gkh. 5; Wfppw, 1997; {{{.tjsr.ydp.ad.yo/jsqf/waqta).
Fsv xjf vfqakrefv sg xjkw avxkdpf kx kw awwyqfe xjax xvarwdvktxksr {kpp cf cawfe sr xjf IPA. Aw {kpp cfdsqf dpfav, js{fzfv, xjfvf kw rs yrkuyf BIPA xvarwdvktxksrC gsv a parhyahf: vaxjfv, xjfvf qa} cf wfzfvap w}wxfqw, app ywkrh xjf IPA aptjacfx are app fuyapp} wdkfrxkgkd.
3. Impressionistic vs. systematic Or gkvwx f|tswyvf xs ar yrors{r parhyahf, sv ar yrors{r ekapfdx sg a gaqkpkav parhyahf, xjf gkfpe{svofv esfw rsx ors{ {jax wsvx tjsrfxkd qaxfvkap kw hskrh xs cf frdsyrxfvfe. Urefv xjfwf dkvdyqwxardfw, a tjsrfxkdapp} yrxvakrfe scwfvzfv {kpp cf pkofp} xs vfgfv xjf krdsqkrh eaxa xs xjf ors{r tjsrfxkd daxfhsvkfw sg jfv s{r gkvwx parhyahf, sv xs xjswf sg wsqf sxjfv parhyahf {kxj {jkdj wjf kw gaqkpkav. Tjf xvakrfe scwfvzfv, sr xjf sxjfv jare, dar kefapp} vfgfv krwxfae xs hfrfvap tjsrfxkd daxfhsvkfw. (Tjf tyvtswf sg tjsrfxkd fav-xvakrkrh kw tvfdkwfp} xs fwxacpkwj wydj parhyahf-kreftfrefrx, hfrfvap-tjsrfxkd daxfhsvkfw kr xjf tjsrfxkdkarCw qkre.) Tjkw kw ar kqtvfwwksrkwxkd xvarwdvktxksr (Acfvdvsqckf, 1964: 35).
Aw xjf wsyre w}wxfq kw krzfwxkhaxfe, ar} kqtvfwwksrkwxkd xvarwdvktxksr kw wycmfdx xs vfzkwksr. Cjavadxfvkwxkdw xjax {fvf krkxkapp} khrsvfe sv szfvpssofe qa} tvszf xs cf tjsrspshkdapp} vfpfzarx; dsrzfvwfp}, wsqf djavadxfvkwxkdw xjax {fvf rsxkdfe are rsxaxfe qa} tvszf xs cf tjsrspshkdapp} kvvfpfzarx. Tjyw gsv f|aqtpf a Eyvstfar tvseydkrh ar kqtvfwwksrkwxkd xvarwdvktxksr sg ar Aywxvapkar parhyahf qkhjx ax gkvwx szfvpsso a ekwxkrdxksr wydj aw apzfspav zw. vfxvsgpf| tpadf ({jkdj xjfr
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ xyvrfe syx xs cf vfpfzarx) {jkpf ekwxkrhykwjkrh zskdfe zw. zskdfpfww tjsraxksr ({jkdj xjfr xyvrfe syx xs cf kvvfpfzarx).
Aw xjf wsyre w}wxfq cfdsqfw dpfav, xjf arap}wx kw kr a tswkxksr xs vftpadf xjf ae-jsd kqtvfwwksrkwxkd xvarwdvktxksr c} a w}wxfqaxkd xvarwdvktxksr xjax vfgpfdxw xjf wxvydxyvf sg xjf parhyahf yrefv efwdvktxksr.
A qa|kqapp} ravvs{ xvarwdvktxksr f|tpkdkxp} krekdaxfw app xjf tjsrfxkd efxakp xjax kw azakpacpf. A cvsae xvarwdvktxksr kqtpkdkxp} wxaxfw qydj sg xjkw efxakp kr xjf dsrzfrxksrw gsv krxfvtvfxkrh xjf w}qcspw, {jkpf offtkrh xjf xvarwdvktxksrw sg adxyap parhyahf qaxfvkap (xjf xf|x) pfww dsqtpkdaxfe. Tjfvf avf x{s qakr gadxsvw xs cf dsrwkefvfe: xjf djskdf sg djavadxfvw (wkqtpf zw dsqtavaxkzf) are xjf ryqcfv sg djavadxfvw (tjsrfqkd zw appstjsrkd). Wf dsrwkefv xjfwf kr xyvr.
4. Simple vs. comparative Fsv tvadxkdap tyvtswfw kx kw kqtsvxarx xjax a xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq gsv a parhyahf cf oftx wkqtpf. Tjf w}qcsp x, tavx sg xjf cawkd ps{fv-dawf Rsqar aptjacfx, kw wkqtpfv xjar wydj w}qcspw aw x0,0 xS sv x0S0 . Tjfvfgsvf, {jfr a parhyahf jaw srp} srf zskdfpfww tpswkzf kr xjf apzfspav avfa, kx kw attvstvkaxf xs w}qcspk~f kx x, vaxjfv xjar xs dsqtpkdaxf xjf xvarwdvktxksr c} eftps}krh xjf qsvf dsqtpf| w}qcsp. Tjyw kx kw attvstvkaxf xs ywf xjf waqf w}qcsp /x/ gsv S{fekwj ({jfvf xjf wsyre ws efrsxfe kw x}tkdapp} efrxap are awtkvaxfe), Erhpkwj (apzfspav, awtkvaxfe), Fvfrdj (efrxap, yrawtkvaxfe) are Dyxdj (apzfspav, yrawtkvaxfe) L fzfr xjsyhj xjf gkvwx xjvff dsype qsvf Btvfdkwfp}C cf {vkxxfr x0S0 , xS, are x0 0 vfwtfdxkzfp}. Ix kw qsvf fggkdkfrx xs wxaxf xjfwf krxfvtvfxaxkzf dsrzfrxksrw srdf srp}, vaxjfv xjar xs vftfax xjf krgsvqaxksr fzfv} xkqf xjf w}qcsp kw ywfe. Ig, js{fzfv, xjf S{fekwj wsyre kw {vkxxfr x0S0 , fxd., xjf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq kw kr xjkw vfwtfdx dsqtavaxkzf.
Skqkpavp}, xjf gkzf zs{fpw sg Gvffo avf vftvfwfrxfe aw k f a s y, fzfr xjsyhj tjsrfxkdapp} xjf wfdsre are gsyvxj qa} {fpp cf kr xjf avfaw
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ awwsdkaxfe {kxj xjf hfrfvap-tjsrfxkd w}qcspw U are . vfwtfdxkzfp}. Tjf gkzf zs{fpw sg Jatarfwf qa} apws cf {vkxxfr wkqtp} aw k f a s y, fzfr xjsyhj xjf pawx kw x}tkdapp} yrvsyrefe are vfwfqcpfw davekrap [W] (Ooaea 1999).
Lfxxfvw sg xjf cawkd Laxkr aptjacfx avf wkqtpfv xjar sxjfv pfxxfvw: e kw wkqtpfv xjar Y sv Z, {jkpf k kw wkqtpfv xjar F. M svf wycxp}, 9 kw dsrwkefvfe wkqtpfv xjar [ sv \, {jkpf G kw wkqtpfv xjar ar} sg ] ^ _ ` a. Nfzfvxjfpfww, kr parhyahfw {jfvf 9 are [ avf ekwxkrdx, f.h. Pspkwj, csxj w}qcspw avf vfuykvfe; wkqkpavp}, csxj G are a avf vfuykvfe kr Darkwj.
Lfxxfvw {kxjsyx ekadvkxkdw avf wkqtpfv xjar pfxxfvw {kxj ekadvkxkdw. (Sff xjf dawf sg S{fekwj x0S0 acszf.) Csrwsrarxap ekadvkxkdw avf ywyapp} yrrfdfwwav} kr xjf cvsae xvarwdvktxksr sg a parhyahf. Tjf Avackd Ba}r dar vfawsracp} cf {vkxxfr b fzfr c} xjswf {js cfpkfzf kx xs cf a tjav}rhfapk~fe hpsxxap wxst [cd] (Tjfp{app are SaCaefeekr, 1999). Tjf vaxjfv {kef krzfrxsv} sg zs{fp w}qcspw gyvrkwjfe c} xjf IPA qfarw xjax ekadvkxkdw gsv vakwkrh, ps{fvkrh, dfrxvapk~krh are ws sr dar rsvqapp} cf ekwtfrwfe {kxj kr cvsae xvarwdvktxksr. Ahakr, ekadvkxkdw qa} cf rfdfwwav} kr parhyahfw {jfvf xjf} w}qcspk~f a tjsrfqkd dsrxvawx, aw kr xjf dawf sg Fvfrdj rawapk~fe zs{fpw, 12 2 fxd.
Ix kw x}tshvatjkdapp} wkqtpf xs xvarwdvkcf xjf Erhpkwj dsrwsrarx kr vfe aw v, fzfr xjsyhj tjsrfxkdapp} kx kw ar attvs|kqarx vaxjfv xjar a xvkpp. Ix {sype cf dsqtavaxkzf xs {vkxf kx e. Euyapp}, kx kw dsqtavaxkzf xs {vkxf xjf Fvfrdj dsrwsrarx kr vyf aw f sv g; kx kw wkqtpf xs {vkxf kx v, aw kr xjf wtfdkqfr (gkh. 6, gvsq Paww} 1958). Byx kr ar addsyrx sg xjf dsrxvawxkzf tjsrfxkdw sg Erhpkwj are Fvfrdj xjf dsqtavaxkzf w}qcspw qkhjx cf attvstvkaxf.
IPA w}qcspw gsv zskdfpfww tpswkzfw, wydj aw t x o, qa} cf vfhavefe aw yrwtfdkgkfe {kxj vfwtfdx xs tswwkcpf awtkvaxksr. Dkadvkxkdw avf azakpacpf xs
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ wjs{ xjfq aw awtkvaxfe (tS xS oS) sv aw yrawtkvaxfe (t= x= o=) L xjf paxxfv ekadvkxkd kw rsx tavx sg xjf sggkdkap IPA vftfvxskvf cyx sg xjf E|xIPA wyttpfqfrx efwkhrfe gsv dpkrkdap tjsrfxkdw (Nspar are Ewpkrh, 1999: 187, 193). Ir Cjkrfwf, {jfvf xjfvf kw a tjsrfqkd dsrxvawx cfx{ffr awtkvaxfe are yrawtkvaxfe tpswkzfw, cyx xjfvf avf rs fwwfrxkapp} zskdfe tpswkzfw, xs {vkxf xjfq aw /t x o c e h/ (aw kr xjf Pkr}kr vsqark~axksr) kw wkqtpfv xjar xs {vkxf xjfq aw /tS xS oS t x o/ sv /t x o t= x= o=/ sv / tS xS oS t= x= o=/.
Ssqf tswwkcpf wkqtpkgkdaxksrw avf hfrfvapp} vfmfdxfe aw krattvstvkaxf f|dftx tfvjatw gsv wtfdkap tyvtswfw wydj aw fqakp. Fspps{krh xjf svxjshvatj}, xjf Pspkwj jkhj dfrxvap zs{fp dsype cf {vkxxfr } vaxjfv xjar h (Jsrfw 1956: 335). Tjf Zypy wkqtpf dpkdow dsype cf {vkxxfr d, u, |, ahakr gspps{krh xjf svxjshvatj}, vaxjfv xjar {kxj f|tpkdkx dpkdo w}qcspw j, k, l, (sv xjf gsvqfv IPA w}qcspw m, n, o).
5. Phonemic vs. allophonic Fsv qar} tyvtswfw kx kw qsvf attvstvkaxf xs ywf w}qcspw xjax vfgfv xs tjsrfqfw vaxjfv xjar xs appstjsrfw. Tjf vypfw gsv xjf ekwxvkcyxksr sg appstjsrfw dar cf wxaxfe srdf are gsv app kr xjf addsqtar}krh dsrzfrxksrw, {jkdj apps{w xjf vfqakrkrh xvarwdvktxksr xs cf yrdpyxxfvfe are pfww dsqtpkdaxfe. Pfeahshkdap xvarwdvktxksrw kr ekdxksravkfw are parhyahf-pfavrkrh xf|xcssow avf ywyapp} tjsrfqkd. Orf sg xjf wsyvdfw sg xfrwksr kr xjf fwxacpkwjqfrx sg ahvffe xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw gsv ayxsqaxkd wtffdj vfdshrkxksr, aw wyddfwwkzf parhyahfw {fvf cvsyhjx {kxjkr xjf SAM PA w}wxfq (Wfppw 1997), {aw cfx{ffr xjf hfrfvapkwxCw awwyqtxksr xjax xjfvf wjsype cf a ekwxkrdx tjsrfxkd w}qcsp gsv fadj BwsyreC are xjf pkrhykwxCw tvfgfvfrdf gsv a qsvf fdsrsqkd rsxaxksr {kxj a ekwxkrdx w}qcsp srp} gsv fadj tjsrfqf.
Tjf Starkwj zskdfe scwxvyfrxw jazf csxj tpswkzf are gvkdaxkzf/attvs|kqarx appstjsrfw. Appstjsrkdapp} xjf} krdpyef csxj c e h are p ¤ r. Fspps{krh xjf tvkrdktpf sg wkqtpkdkx}, xjf tjsrfqfw avf
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ ywyapp} {vkxxfr c, e, h. Fsv wsqf tfeahshkdap tyvtswfw kx qa} cf vfpfzarx xs krwkwx sr xjf ekggfvfrdf cfx{ffr tpswkzfw are gvkdaxkzfw; cyx gsv pf|kdshvatjkd sv wtffdj-vfdshrkxksr tyvtswfw xjkw ekggfvfrdf kw kvvfpfzarx (tavxkdypavp} wkrdf {sve-krkxkap /c e h/ avf tvsrsyrdfe aw tpswkzfw kr wsqf dsrxf|xw cyx aw gvkdaxkzfw kr sxjfvw: yr [e]fes Ba gkrhfvC cyx qk [¤]fes Bq} gkrhfvC).
Tjf Erhpkwj paxfvap dsrwsrarx zavkfw cfx{ffr dpfav (tpakr) p are eavo (zfpavk~fe) s, xjf dsrekxksrkrh gadxsv kr Rfdfkzfe Pvsryrdkaxksr cfkrh xjf gspps{krh wfhqfrx: xjf paxfvap kw dpfav cfgsvf a zs{fp, eavo fpwf{jfvf. Ir a tjsrfqkd xvarwdvktxksr csxj avf {vkxxfr p (xjf wkqtpfv sg xjf x{s w}qcspw kr uyfwxksr). Pjsrfqkd rsxaxksr kw yresycxfep} aezarxahfsyw kr a tvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksrav}, wkrdf xjf gkrap dsrwsrarx kr a {sve wydj aw wfpp kw wsqfxkqfw dpfav (wfpp kx), wsqfxkqfw eavo (wfpp xjfq): ws kx kw cfxxfv xs pfazf xjf djskdf sg dpfav sv eavo xs cf efdkefe c} vfgfvfrdf xs xjf hfrfvap vypf vaxjfv xjar wtfpx syx ax fadj frxv}.
Hs{fzfv xjfvf avf dkvdyqwxardfw kr {jkdj a wxvkdxp} tjsrfqkd rsxaxksr qa} cf dsrwkefvfe krattvstvkaxf. Ir Gfvqar xjf gvkdaxkzf dsvvfwtsrekrh xs svxjshvatjkd dj kw zfpav [|] {jfr gspps{krh ar stfr sv cado zs{fp, cyx tapaxap [“] fpwf{jfvf (krdpyekrh gspps{krh a dsrwsrarx are kr krkxkap tswkxksr). Tjf x{s wsyrew qa} cf dsrwkefvfe xs cf ds-appstjsrfw sg xjf waqf tjsrfqf /|/, are (tvszkefe dfvxakr qsvtjspshkdap csyreavkfw avf f|tpkdkxp} krekdaxfe) yraqckhysywp} ws {vkxxfr. Nfzfvxjfpfww, xjkw appstjsrkd ekwxkrdxksr jaw a jkhj tfvdftxyap wapkfrdf gsv wtfaofvw. Tjf x{s wsyrew jazf gaqkpkav rsr-xfdjrkdap raqfw, Adj-payx are Idj-payx vfwtfdxkzfp}. Tjf wxareave Gfvqar tvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksrav} w}qcspk~fw xjfq ekwxkrdxp} (gkh. 7; M arhspe 1990).
Tjfvf avf qar} sxjfv dawfw {jfvf ywfvw sg tjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr qa} gffp qsvf dsqgsvxacpf {kxj a wfpfdxkzfp} ravvs{fe (tavxkapp} appstjsrkd) xvarwdvktxksr. Ar f|aqtpf kw xjf w}qcsp - gsv xjf zfpav rawap kr
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ parhyahfw (f.h. Ixapkar) kr {jkdj kx kw rsx ekwxkrdxkzf, cyx avkwfw srp} c} awwkqkpaxksr cfgsvf arsxjfv zfpav. Arsxjfv kw Rywwkar, {jfvf gsv tfeahshkdap tyvtswfw kx qa} cf ywfgyp xs ravvs{ xjf xvarwdvktxksr ws aw xs krekdaxf zs{fp appstjsrfw f|tpkdkxp} (gkh. 8).
Csrzfvwfp}, xjfvf avf dawfw {jfvf ywfvw {arx a xvarwdvktxksr xjax vfgpfdxw tjsrfqkd rfyxvapk~axksrw. Ir qar} parhyahfw xjf zs{fp w}wxfq kr yrwxvfwwfe w}ppacpfw kw pfww dsqtpf| xjar kr wxvfwwfe w}ppacpfw. Ir a tsp}w}wxfqkd xvarwdvktxksr ekggfvfrx zs{fp w}wxfqw avf kefrxkgkfe aw stfvaxkrh kr ekggfvfrx wxvydxyvap tswkxksrw sv ekggfvfrx tjsrfxkd frzkvsrqfrxw. Ir Fvfrdj, gsv f|aqtpf, xjf sttswkxksrw f - U, a - 1, „ L v, s - ., U2 2 - v2 222 avf x}tkdapp} rfyxvapk~fe kr rsr-gkrap w}ppacpfw, are kx kw tswwkcpf xs ywf wtfdkap (rsr-IPA) dszfv w}qcspw xs vfgpfdx xjfwf rfyxvapk~axksrw: E, A, Ω, O, x.
Ir dsrxfqtsvav} Erhpkwj wtfaofvw xfre xs cf a{avf sg xjf hpsxxap wxst c aw wsqfxjkrh ekwxkrdx gvsq x, are wxyefrxw pfavrkrh tjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr wff kx aw raxyvap xs ekwxkrhykwj xjf x{s. Ir xfvqw sg dpawwkdap tjsrfqkdw, xjf wxaxyw sg c kw see kr xjax kr wsqf tswkxksrw kx cfjazfw aw ar appstjsrf sg /x/ (f.h. a[c]qswtjfvf), cyx kr sxjfv tswkxksrw (rsxacp} {sve-krkxkapp}) kx vfapk~fw rs yrefvp}krh tjsrfqf cyx kg ywfe qfvfp} wkhrapw fqtjawkw (stxksrap jave axxado, aw kr ar [c]fhh).
6. Analysis and transcription: the English vowels Tjfvf avf sgxfr wfzfvap tswwkcpf tjsrspshkdap xvfaxqfrxw sg xjf waqf tjsrfxkd eaxa. Naxyvapp}, ekggfvfrx dsqtfxkrh tjsrfqkdk~axksrw qa} cf vfgpfdxfe kr ekggfvfrx tjsrfqkd rsxaxksrw; js{fzfv, xjf x{s es rsx rfdfwwavkp} hs jare kr jare, are kx kw tswwkcpf gsv arap}wxw {js ekwahvff sr xjf tjsrspshkdap xvfaxqfrx xs ywf xjf waqf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq, sv dsrzfvwfp} gsv arap}wxw {js ahvff sr xjf tjsrspsh} xs ywf ekggfvfrx rsxaxksrw.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fyvxjfvqsvf, xjf wjsvxdsqkrhw sg dpawwkdap tjsrfqkd xjfsv} rs{ hfrfvapp} adors{pfehfe c} tjsrspshkwxw qfar xjax qar} avf yrjatt} {kxj xjf rsxksr sg a tjsrfqkd xvarwdvktxksr, efwtkxf kxw dsrzfrkfrdf kr tvadxkdf.
Tjf rsxaxksr sg Erhpkwj zs{fpw (kr RP are wkqkpav zavkfxkfw) jaw cffr a tavxkdypavp} ekggkdypx avfa. Orf zkf{ kw xjax takvw wydj aw wpfft L wpkt dsrxakr xjf waqf zs{fp tjsrfqf, cyx yrefv ekggfvfrx dsrekxksrw sg pfrhxj (pfrhxj cfkrh xvfaxfe aw a wftavaxf, wytvawfhqfrxap, gfaxyvf). Tjkw zkf{ kw vfgpfdxfe kr xjf rsxaxksr wpk/t L wpkt, {kefp} ywfe kr EFL {svo kr xjf gkvwx xjvff-uyavxfvw sg xjf x{frxkfxj dfrxyv}. Tjyw xjf gkvwx x{fpzf fekxksrw sg Darkfp JsrfwCw tvsrsyrdkrh ekdxksrav} (Jsrfw, 1917) xjf Erhpkwj qsrstjxjsrhw {fvf {vkxxfr aw gspps{w, kr {jax {aw xjfr {kefp} ors{r aw EPD xvarwdvktxksr. (Tjf} avf f|fqtpkgkfe vfwtfdxkzfp} kr xjf of}{svew gpffdf, okx, evfww, xvat, wxavx, psx, xjsyhjx, gssx, hsswf, wxvyx, ryvwf, dsqqa, gadf, hsax, tvkdf, qsyxj, djskdf, rfav, wuyavf, gsvdf, dyvf.) k/ k f — 1/ . ./ y y/ z G/ G fk sy ak ay .k kG UG .G yG
Skrdf xjkw wfx sg w}qcspw kw rsx qa|kqapp} wkqtpf (wfdxksr 4 acszf), a wkqtpkgkfe xvarwdvktxksr apws daqf krxs ywf, are {aw tstypav kr EFL {svo kr xjf qkeepf sg xjf x{frxkfxj dfrxyv}. Urdsrgkvqfe jfavwa} jaw kx xjax Jsrfw {sype jazf pkofe xs w{kxdj xs xjkw xvarwdvktxksr gsv EPD, cyx xjax xjf cssoCw tycpkwjfvw vfgywfe xs apps{ kx. k/ k f a a/ s s/ y y/ z G/ G fk sy ak ay sk kG fG sG yG
Ir xjfwf uyarxkxaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw, xjf pfrhxj qavo kw dvydkap, wkrdf kx apsrf vftvfwfrxw xjf ekwxkrdxksr cfx{ffr wfzfvap takvw sg tjsrfqkdapp} ekwxkrdx zs{fpw: rsx srp} wpfft L wpkt cyx apws, kr xjf wkqtpkgkfe xvarwdvktxksr, dax L davx, wtsx L wtsvx, tyx L cssx, are krwfvx (r.) L dsrdfvx.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Arsxjfv tswwkcpf arap}wkw sg xjf Erhpkwj zs{fpw kw xjax xjf psrh are ektjxjsrhap srfw dsrwkwx sg a wjsvx zs{fp gspps{fe c} a hpkef kefrxkgkfe {kxj srf sg xjf wfqkzs{fpw m (rsr-IPA rsxaxksrap zavkarx: }) sv { sv, kr xjf dawf sg a rsr-jkhj gkrap xfrefrd}, j (Tvahfv are Sqkxj, 1951). Tjkw x}tf sg arap}wkw frms}fe dsrwkefvacpf wyttsvx aqsrh aejfvfrxw sg wxvydxyvap pkrhykwxkdw. Attpkfe xs RP ({jkdj kx vavfp} {aw), kx {sype psso pkof xjkw: k} k f — aj s sj y y{ G Gj h f} G{ a} a{ s} kj fj yj
Tjf rsxaxksr ywfe c} Cjsqwo} are Happf kr SPE (1968) cykpew sr xjkw c} vfxakrkrh xjf sgg-hpkef arap}wkw {jkpf aeekrh a qadvsr xs w}qcspk~f xfrwfrfww kr xjf zs{fpw tvfzksywp} arap}wfe aw psrh, }kfpekrh a w}wxfq sg xjf x}tf D} k f — Ïj . {j y |{ G G}j h ž} {{ Ï} Ï{ .}
Hs{fzfv, a psrh-fwxacpkwjfe vkzap zkf{ wa{ zs{fp uyapkx}, vaxjfv xjar uyarxkx} (pfrhxj) sv sgg-hpkefw aw xjf gfaxyvf ekwxkrhykwjkrh wpktLwpfft are wkqkpav zs{fp takvw. Dkggfvfrdfw kr uyarxkx} (are tfvjatw sg sgg- hpkefw) dsype cf xvfaxfe aw tvfekdxacpf srdf xjf uyapkx} {aw ors{r. Fvsq acsyx 1920 tjsrfxkdkarw {svokrh sr Erhpkwj apws qaef ywf sg a uyapkxaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq, kr {jkdj pfrhxj qavow {fvf rsx ywfe: k F U — 1 • . € y z _ G fF s€ aF a€ .F FG UG .G €G (sv a zavkarx sg xjkw kr {jkdj xjf w}qcsp wjatfw F are € {fvf vftpadfe c} • are ‚ vfwtfdxkzfp}).
Ir xjf Urkxfe Sxaxfw, a w}wxfq sg xjkw x}tf {aw ywfe c} Kfr}sr are Krsxx (1944). Tjf} arap}wfe xjf zs{fpw sg gadf are hsx aw fwwfrxkapp} qsrstjxjsrhap, are {vsxf xjfq f are s vfwtfdxkzfp}: k F U — 1 • . € y z „ G … f s aF a€ .F (Tjf jssofe w}qcspw avf gsv xjf vjsxadk~fe zs{fpw kr ryvwf are pfxxfv vfwtfdxkzfp}. Aqfvkdar Erhpkwj esfw rsx jazf tjsrfqkdapp} ekwxkrdx
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ dfrxvkrh ektjxjsrhw.) Tjkw rsxaxksr hakrfe {kef tstypavkx} kr wsqf Aqfvkdar dkvdpfw, ws qydj ws xjax xjf f|tvfwwksr BIPAC kw sgxfr yrefvwxsse aw qfarkrh xjkw xvarwdvktxksr sg Erhpkwj. Ix kw sgxfr ywfe kr Aqfvkdar-svkfrxfe EFL {svo.
Tjf zkf{ xjax fzfrxyapp} tvfzakpfe kr Bvkxakr {aw xjax xjf zs{fpw sg wpfft are wpkt avf tjsrfqkdapp} ekwxkrdx, cawfe sr a dsqtpf| ekwxkrdxksr sg pfrhxj, uyapkx} are xfrwkx}. Tjf vkzapv} cfx{ffr uyarxkxaxkzf are uyapkxaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw {aw vfwspzfe c} A.C. Gkqwsr (u.z.), {jswf rsxaxksr w}wxfq (Gkqwsr, 1962) w}qcspk~fe csxj uyarxkx} are uyapkx} ekggfvfrdfw, vfeyrearxp} cyx dsrzfrkfrxp}: k/ F f — 1/ • ./ € y/ z _/ G fF G€ aF 1€ .F FG fG €G (B} xjkw xkqf xjf uyapkx} sg xjf ektjxjsrh kr hsax jae djarhfe are xjf ektjxjsrh .G jae qfvhfe {kxj ./.)
M krsv qsekgkdaxksrw {fvf wycwfuyfrxp} krxvseydfe, pfaekrh xs xjf w}wxfq rs{ ywfe c} xjf rfavp} app Bvkxkwj tjsrfxkdkarw (Wfppw, 1990). k/ F f — 1/ • ./ € y/ z _/ G fF G€ aF a€ .F FG fG €G k y Tjf kqtsvxarx djarhf jfvf kw xjf aeekxksr sg x{s w}qcspw gsv {fao zs{fpw, k (aw kr jatt}) are y (aw kr wkxyaxksr). Apxjsyhj wsqfxkqfw zkf{fe aw ar accvfzkaxsv} dsrzfrxksr, qfarkrh Bfkxjfv k/ sv FC are Bfkxjfv y/ sv €C, xjfwf aeekxksrap w}qcspw vfapp} vfgpfdx a ekwwaxkwgadxksr {kxj dpawwkdap tjsrfqkdw. Ir {fao-zs{fppfe w}ppacpfw Erhpkwj jaw a rfyxvapk~axksr sg xjf tjsrfqkd dsrxvawxw k/LF are y/L€, are xjf w}qcspw k are y wxare gsv {jax wsqf {sype dapp avdjktjsrfqfw, sxjfvw yrefvwtfdkgkfe zs{fpw. Stfaofvw qa} cf krdsrwkwxfrx kr {jfxjfv xjf zs{fp sg jatt} sv hpsvksyw kw qsvf pkof xjf k/ sg wpfft sv xjf F sg wpkt, are kx qa} sgxfr cf kqtswwkcpf gsv xjf pkwxfrfv xs daxfhsvk~f kx {kxj dfvxakrx} aw srf sv xjf sxjfv. Tjfvf avf rs takvw sg {svew ekwxkrhykwjfe c} xjkw ekwxkrdxksr kr xjkw tswkxksr.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
7. Segments and digraphs Erhpkwj psrh zs{fpw avf rsx xjf srp} avfa kr {jkdj kx kw tswwkcpf gsv ekggfvfrx zkf{w xs f|kwx szfv xjf ryqcfv sg wyddfwwkzf wfhqfrxw krxs {jkdj xjf tjsrfxkd qaxfvkap wjsype cf arap}wfe. Tjkw uyfwxksr xfrew xs avkwf {jfrfzfv ektjxjsrhw sv aggvkdaxfw avf xs cf xvarwdvkcfe.
Tjfvf avf apws dfvxakr x}tfw sg Bwkrhpf wsyreC xjax avf dsrzfrkfrxp} {vkxxfr aw a ekhvatj, k.f. aw x{s wyddfwwkzf pfxxfvw. Tjf IPA esfw xjkw gsv zskdfe are rawapk~fe dpkdow , f.h. hl, -k, are gsv dsrwsrarxw {kxj esycpf avxkdypaxksr, f.h. ot. (E|dftxksrw avf xjf attvs|kqarxw { are † are xjf S{fekwj zfpav-tapaxsapzfspav gvkdaxkzf ‡, gsv {jkdj wkrhpf w}qcspw avf azakpacpf). Ig rfdfwwav}, xjf gadx xjax xjfwf ekhvatjw wxare gsv wkrhpf wfhqfrxw dar cf qaef f|tpkdkx c} xjf ywf sg a xkf cav: hˆl, -ˆk, oˆt.
Ir hfrfvap, ekqkryfres (BgappkrhC) ektjxjsrhw qa} cf vfhavefe fkxjfv aw yrkxav} tjsrfqfw sv aw wfuyfrdfw sg zs{fp tpyw wfqkzs{fp. Tjf dsvvfwtsrekrh efdkwksr jaw xs cf qaef kr xvarwdvktxksr. Tjyw kr wsqf parhyahfw L Pspkwj, gsv f|aqtpf L a ektjxjsrh sg xjf x}tf [fk‰]‰ kw cfwx arap}wfe aw xjf zs{fp f gspps{fe c} xjf dsrwsrarx m. Ir sxjfvw L Erhpkwj, tfvjatw L kx qa} cf vfhavefe aw ar yrarap}wacpf {jspf. Erhpkwj svxjshvatj} gspps{w xjf paxxfv attvsadj, hkzfr wydj wtfppkrhw aw cawkd ŠcfFwFo, are xjf yrkxav} arap}wkw kw vfgpfdxfe kr xjf vfwtfppkrh rsxaxksr Ï. Byx IPA ywfvw, fzfr xjswf {js dsrwkefv xjf ektjxjsrh tjsrspshkdapp} yrkxav}, qswxp} {vkxf kx {kxj x{s pfxxfvw, fF. Tjf ywf sg xjkw ekhvatj esfw rsx davv} ar} rfdfwwav} kqtpkdaxksr xjax xjf ektjxjsrh dsrwkwxw sg f (aw kr evfww) are F (aw kr okx).
Ir tvkrdktpf xjf IPA {vkxfw aggvkdaxfw, xss, aw ekhvatjw, aw kr xjf f|aqtpfw t‹, e~, x9, o|. Ts fqtjawk~f xjfkv yrkxav} wxaxyw xjf xkf cav dar cf ywfe: tˆ‹, eˆ~, xˆ9, oˆ|. (Ir 1976 xjf IPA {kxjevf{ vfdshrkxksr gvsq a ryqcfv sg aggvkdaxf w}qcspw xjax jae gfaxyvfe kr favpkfv zfvwksrw sg xjf
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ tjsrfxkd aptjacfx cyx jae rfzfv cffr {kefp} ywfe, f.h. Œ gsv e~. (Wfppw, 1976))
Hs{fzfv xjf w}qcspw d are • avf wsqfxkqfw tvfwwfe krxs wfvzkdf xs vftvfwfrx {jax qkhjx sxjfv{kwf cf {vkxxfr x9 are e@. (Apxfvraxkzfp}, xjf rsr-IPA ˛ are • qa} cf ywfe.) Tjkw kw tavxkdypavp} dsrzfrkfrx {jfvf xjf aggvkdaxfw sddyv dsrxvawxkzfp} awtkvaxfe are yrawtkvaxfe, aw kr Hkrek. Csrxvawxkzf awtkvaxksr kxwfpg vakwfw xjf uyfwxksr sg {jfxjfv kx wjsype cf w}qcspk~fe c} a ekadvkxkd (tS zw. t) sv ywkrh ekhvatjw (tj zw. t). Ir xjf dawf sg ar awtkvaxfe aggvkdaxf, aw kr Hkrek Jjfpyq, xjfvf kw a xvarwdvktxksrap djskdf cfx{ffr ekadvkxkdw apsrf (••), a ekhvatj (e@• sv •‘), sv a xvkhvatj (e@‘). (M svf wkqtp}, xjf ekadvkxkd S sv xjf pfxxfv j dsype cf ywfe krwxfae sg •, ‘.) Ojapa, 1999, djsswfw a ekhvatj {kxj a ekadvkxkd, e@• (gkh. 9).
Ir a xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfq xjax krdpyefw ekhvatjw kx kw kqtsvxarx xs qakrxakr tavwackpkx}, azskekrh tswwkcpf dsrgywksr cfx{ffr xjf wkrhpf wsyre w}qcspk~fe c} xjf ekhvatj are xjf wfuyfrdf sg wsyrew w}qcspk~fe c} xjf x{s w}qcspw wftavaxfp}. Ir a parhyahf {jfvf aggvkdaxfw avf kr dsrxvawx {kxj dpywxfvw (sv wfuyfrdfw) sg xjf dsvvfwtsrekrh tpswkzf tpyw gvkdaxkzf, fkxjfv xjf aggvkdaxfw qywx cf {vkxxfr {kxj a xkf cav sv xjf dpywxfv (wfuyfrdf) qywx cf {vkxxfr {kxj a wftavaxsv w}qcsp. Tjyw Pspkwj d~} are xv~} qywx cf {vkxxfr fkxjfv aw xˆ9h d~} are x9h xv~} sv (qsvf dsrzfrkfrxp}) aw x9h d~} are x-9h xv~}. Ssqf gsrxw tvszkef pkhaxyvfe w}qcspw wydj aw ’ (=xˆ9), ws xjax srf dar {vkxf ’h are x9h vfwtfdxkzfp}. Ir rsr-IPA rsxaxksr, ˛h are x8h dar cf ywfe. (Arsxjfv zkf{ sg xjf Pspkwj dpywxfv vftvfwfrxfe c} svxjshvatjkd xv~ xaofw kx aw x99, k.f. aggvkdaxf tpyw gvkdaxkzf. Wkxj xjkw arap}wkw, xjf tvscpfq sg tavwackpkx} esfw rsx avkwf.)
Pvscpfqw sg wfhqfrxaxksr apws avkwf kr xjf arrsxaxksr sg wtfdxvshvaqw sv sxjfv tj}wkdap vfdsvew sg xjf wtffdj wkhrap. Tjf paxxfv xfrew xs cf
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ dsrxkrysywp} zavkacpf, vaxjfv xjar vfgpfdxkrh xjf rfaxp} ekwdvfxf wfhqfrxw kqtpkfe c} a tjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr, {jkdj qfarw xjax xjf wxvfxdj sg wtffdj dsvvfwtsrekrh xs a hkzfr xvarwdvktxksr w}qcsp kw rsx fawkp} efpkqkxfe. Fsv f|aqtpf, xjf qsqfrx sg wkpfrdf kr xjf qkeepf sg ata dsvvfwtsrew xs xjf zskdfpfww tpswkzf kefrxkx} sg t; cyx kxw packapkx} dar cf krgfvvfe srp} gvsq xjf gsvqarx xvarwkxksrw kr xjf aemadfrx tsvxksrw sg xjf zs{fpw are gvsq xjf djavadxfvkwxkdw sg xjf tpswkzf cyvwx ax xjf vfpfawf.
8. Dictionary entries Tjf tvsryrdkaxksr frxv} kr a ekdxksrav} {kpp ywyapp} vfpaxf xs xjf dkxaxksr gsvq sg xjf {sve kr uyfwxksr. Tjkw qa} ekggfv kr zavksyw vfwtfdxw gvsq xjf gsvqw xs cf f|tfdxfe kr dsrrfdxfe wtffdj, wsqfxkqfw vfgfvvfe xs aw tjsrsx}tkdap gsvqw.
Tjf rsxksr sg a tjsrsx}tkdap xvarwdvktxksr avkwfw gvsq xjf {svo sg wtffdj xfdjrspshkwxw {svokrh sr Fvfrdj, a parhyahf kr {jkdj qar} gkrap dsrwsrarxw xjax qa} attfav kr vyrrkrh wtffdj avf acwfrx kr xjf dkxaxksr gsvq L xjf {fpp-ors{r tjfrsqfrsr sg pkakwsr. Tjyw xjf dkxaxksr gsvq sg xjf tvsrsyr zsyw B}syC kw zy, cyx xjf pkakwsr gsvq, ywfe cfgsvf a {sve cfhkrrkrh {kxj a zs{fp, kw zy~. Tjf tjsrsx}tkdap xvarwdvktxksr sg xjf tjvawf zsyw azf~ B}sy jazfC kw zy~azf. Pvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksravkfw sg Fvfrdj qywx krdpyef xjfwf pkakwsr gsvqw, cfdaywf xjf kefrxkx} sg xjf pkakwsr dsrwsrarx, kg ar}, darrsx cf tvfekdxfe gvsq xjf dkxaxksr gsvq. Cfvxakr zs{fp-krkxkap {svew cpsdo xjf adxkzaxksr sg xjf pkakwsr dsrwsrarx (xjswf wtfpx {kxj Bj awtkv‘C are dfvxakr sxjfvw, f.h. sr~f BfpfzfrC): xjkw, xss, qywx cf wjs{r kr xjf tvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksrav} (ywyapp} c} ar awxfvkwo sv wsqf sxjfv avckxvav} w}qcsp).
Ir Erhpkwj, sr xjf sxjfv jare, gsvqw {kxj gkrap pkakwsr v (pkrokrh v, krxvywkzf v) qa} rsx rffe xs cf pkwxfe kr xjf ekdxksrav}, wkrdf xjkw tswwkckpkx} attpkfw xs fzfv} {sve {jswf dkxaxksr gsvq frew kr a rsr-jkhj zs{fp. Aw {kxj xjf wkqtpf/dsqtavaxkzf are tjsrfqkd/appstjsrkd
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ ekwxkrdxksrw, kx kw qsvf fggkdkfrx xs wxaxf a vypf srdf vaxjfv xjar xs vftfax xjf wxaxfqfrx sg kxw fggfdxw ax fadj vfpfzarx ekdxksrav} frxv}.
M ar} Erhpkwj gyrdxksr {svew jazf ekwxkrdx wxvsrh are {fao gsvqw, f.h. ax, wxvsrh gsvq —x, {fao gsvq Gx. Tjf wxvsrh gsvq kw ywfe {jfr xjf {sve kw addfrxfe are kr dfvxakr w}rxadxkd tswkxksrw ({jax avf }sy pssokrh ax?). A gf{ {svew jazf qsvf xjar srf {fao gsvq, dsrxf|x-eftfrefrx, aw kr xjf dawf sg xjf: ¤k fh xjf fhh, tvfzsdapkd, cyx ¤G q—r xjf qar, tvfdsrwsrarxap. A tjsrsx}tkdap xvarwdvktxksr sg dsrrfdxfe wtffdj {sype wfpfdx xjf attvstvkaxf gsvq gsv xjf dsrxf|x.
Awkef tfvjatw gvsq wydj wtfdkap-dsrxf|x gsvqw, gsv tvsryrdkaxksr kr a hfrfvap-tyvtswf ekdxksrav} kx qa} cf wyggkdkfrx xs wxaxf srp} xjf dkxaxksr gsvq sg a {sve. Ssqf ekdxksravkfw, xjsyhj, are tavxkdypavp} wtfdkapkwx tvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksravkfw, {kpp hs gyvxjfv; are xjkw qa} kqtadx sr xjf gsvq sg xvarwdvktxksr djswfr, f.h. kr xjf ywf sg accvfzkaxsv} dsrzfrxksrw. • Fkvwx, xjf {sve qa} jazf wfzfvap dsqtfxkrh dkxaxksr gsvqw, ywfe c} ekggfvfrx wtfaofvw sg xjf wxareave gsvq sg xjf parhyahf are ekggfvkrh yrtvfekdxacp} gvsq srf arsxjfv. Tjyw kr Bvkxkwj Erhpkwj ahakr qa} vj}qf {kxj tfr sv {kxj takr; dsrxvszfvw} qa} cf wxvfwwfe sr xjf krkxkap w}ppacpf sv sr xjf arxftfrypxkqaxf; wdjfeypf qa} cfhkr {kxj 9- sv wo-. (Fsv wxaxkwxkdw sr wtfaofv tvfgfvfrdfw kr xjfwf {svew, wff Wfppw, 2000.) Ir Erhpkwj xjfvf kw hvfax krxva- wtfaofv are krxfv-wtfaofv zavkackpkx} kr xjf djskdf cfx{ffr F are G kr {fao w}ppacpfw (vfeydf, awtkvaxksr, jsvwfw). LDOCE (2003) ywfw a wtfdkap w}qcsp • xs wjs{ xjkw. • Sfdsrep}, xjf ekdxksrav} qa} {kwj xs dszfv qsvf xjar srf gsvq sg xjf parhyahf, f.h. Aqfvkdar are Bvkxkwj Erhpkwj, sv Aqfvkdar are Eyvstfar Starkwj. Raxjfv xjar xvarwdvkcf fadj vfpfzarx {sve wftavaxfp} gsv fadj zavkfx} sg xjf parhyahf, ekdxksravkfw qa} ywf accvfzkaxsv} dsrzfrxksrw xs wjs{ wydj zavkackpkx}. Fsv f|aqtpf, xjf Erhpkwj {sve wxavx qkhjx cf xvarwdvkcfe wx1/(v)x sv wx1/vx, {kxj
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
xjf dsrzfrxksr xjax xjf v kw xs cf tvsrsyrdfe kr AqE cyx rsx kr BvE. • Tjkvep}, xjfvf qa} cf tvfekdxacpf (vypf-hszfvrfe) zavkackpkx}. Fsv f|aqtpf, kr dfvxakr tswkxksrw kr a {sve, {jfvf wsqf Erhpkwj wtfaofvw jazf xjf dpywxfv rw sxjfvw tvsrsyrdf rxw, f.h. tvFrw sv tvFrxw tvkrdf. Tjkw qa} cf wjs{r c} ar accvfzkaxsv} dsrzfrxksr wydj aw tvFrxw sv tvFr(x)w. (Tjf vypf sg tpswkzf ftfrxjfwkw kw qsvf hfrfvap xjar xjkw: kx apws aggfdxw sxjfv dpywxfvw sg rawap tpyw zskdfpfww gvkdaxkzf. Ix apws attpkfw kr Gfvqar, xjyw jar(x)w Harw, cyx kw khrsvfe kr M arhspe 1990.) Aw a wfdsre f|aqtpf, Erhpkwj {svew {kxj qsvf xjar srf pf|kdap wxvfww avf tvsrsyrdfe kr kwspaxksr {kxj ar addfrx sr xjf pawx wydj wxvfww (wFowŠxk/r wk|xffr) cyx kr dsrrfdxfe wtffdj, yrefv dfvxakr wyvvsyrekrh addfrx dsrekxksrw, {kxj xjf addfrx sr xjf gkvwx wydj wxvfww (ŠwFowxk/r Štk/tp wk|xffr tfstpf). Pavxkdypavp} kr ekdxksravkfw akqfe ax wtfaofvw sg EFL, xjkw xss qa} cf f|tpkdkxp} krekdaxfe. Aw a xjkve f|aqtpf, kr csxj Erhpkwj are Gfvqar xjf w}ppackd dsrwsrarxw p– – are r– – apxfvraxf {kxj xjf wfuyfrdfw Gp, Gr: {svew qa} cf tvsrsyrdfe {kxj fkxjfv xjf gkvwx sv xjf wfdsre, eftfrekrh sr a dsqckraxksr sg tjsrfxkd- frzkvsrqfrx, wx}pkwxkd are wtffdj-vaxf gadxsvw: xjyw Gfvqar GÁvxfp Šh˜vxp– – sv Šh˜vxGp, Erhpkwj jkeefr ŠjFer– ––– sv ŠjFeGr. Apxjsyhj xjf Dyefr ekdxksrav} qfrxksrw xjf apxfvraxksr srp} kr xjf gsvf{sve (1990: 32), Erhpkwj ekdxksravkfw sgxfr qaof kx f|tpkdkx ax fadj vfpfzarx frxv}, ywkrh accvfzkaxsv} efzkdfw wydj aw ŠjFeGr, ŠjFe(G)r.
9. Pedagogical transcription, dictation and reading exercises Ir tjsrfxkd xvakrkrh sg xjf okre awwsdkaxfe {kxj xjf Darkfp Jsrfw are Kfrrfxj Pkof xvaekxksrw, xjswf wxye}krh xjf tjsrfxkdw sg a tavxkdypav parhyahf (krdpyekrh xjfkv s{r) tvadxkwf xjf wokppw sg xvarwdvkckrh tjsrfxkdapp} gvsq svxjshvatj}, xvarwdvkckrh gvsq ekdxaxksr, are vfaekrh apsye gvsq a tjsrfxkdapp} xvarwdvkcfe xf|x. Ir xjfwf f|fvdkwfw {svew avf xvarwdvkcfe rsx kr xjfkv dkxaxksr gsvq, cyx tjsrsx}tkdapp}. Ir tavxkdypav,
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™ hvfax axxfrxksr kw take xs xjf tswwkckpkx} sg dsrrfdxfe-wtffdj tvsdfwwfw wydj aw awwkqkpaxksr, fpkwksr, pkakwsr, are {faofrkrh (krdpyekrh zs{fp vfeydxksr). Ir xjf dawf sg Erhpkwj, krwxfae sg xjf pf|kdap wxvfww-qavokrh sg {svew, xjf wxyefrx qa} cf vfuykvfe xs tvseydf a gypp qavo-yt sg addfrxyaxksr (wfrxfrdf wxvfww) are krxsraxksr.
Fsv f|aqtpf, kr xjf Erhpkwj tjvawf cvfae are cyxxfv xjf {sve are {sype qswx tvscacp} cf tvsrsyrdfe rsx —re, cyx vaxjfv Gr sv Gq sv r– – sv q–.– Tjf xvarwdvkcfv gvsq svxjshvatj} wjsype cf acpf xs tvfekdx xjkw, xjf xvarwdvkcfv gvsq ekdxaxksr wjsype cf acpf xs jfav {jkdj sg xjfq {aw ywfe, are xjf wxyefrx vfaekrh gvsq xvarwdvktxksr syhjx xs cf acpf xs vftvseydf {jkdjfzfv gsvq kw kr xjf {vkxxfr xf|x.
Tjf xvarwdvktxksr ywfe gsv xjfwf f|fvdkwfw kw sgxfr vfgfvvfe xs aw BtjsrfqkdC. Hs{fzfv, kg {f gspps{ dyvvfrx kefaw kr vfhavekrh tjsrfqfw aw cfkrh qfrxap frxkxkfw, tavx sg xjf wtfaofvCw dsqtfxfrdf, xjfr xjkw xfvq kw rsx vfapp} addyvaxf. Tjf {sve cae tvfwyqacp} ap{a}w jaw xjf qfrxap vftvfwfrxaxksr c—e, fzfr xjsyhj yrefv awwkqkpaxksr kr a tjvawf wydj aw cae qar kx qa} cf tvsrsyrdfe {kxj a gkrap ckpackap, rawapp} vfpfawfe, xjyw c—c q—r. Tjkw gsvq sg xvarwdvktxksr kw cfxxfv vfgfvvfe xs aw a vfaekrh xvarwdvktxksr.
References Acfvdvsqckf, D., 1953. BPjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksrwC. Lf qaŸxvf tjsr‘xkuyf 100. 32-34. Acfvdvsqckf, D., 1964. Erhpkwj tjsrfxkd xf|xw. Lsresr: Facfv are Facfv. Bvkro, L., Lyre, J., Hfhfv, S. are J„vhfrwfr, J., 1991. Dfr wxsvf earwof yexapfsvecsh. Cstfrjahfr: M yrowhaave.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Gkqwsr, A.C. (1962). Ar krxvseydxksr xs xjf tvsryrdkaxksr sg Erhpkwj. Lsresr: Avrspe. Jfwtfvwfr, O., 1890. Darkaw p}ewovkgx. Darka I. 33-79. Jsrfw, D., 1917. Erhpkwj tvsrsyrdkrh ekdxksrav}. Lsresr: Dfrx. Jsrfw, D., 1956. Ar syxpkrf sg Erhpkwj tjsrfxkdw. Ekhjxj fekxksr. Caqcvkehf: Hfggfv. Attfrek| A, T}tfw sg tjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr. [Jsrfw, D.], 1949. Tjf tvkrdktpfw sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr: cfkrh a efwdvktxksr sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Aptjacfx are xjf qarrfv sg ywkrh kx, kppywxvaxfe c} xf|xw kr 51 parhyahfw. Lsresr: Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr. Kfr}sr, J. are Krsxx, T., 1944. A tvsrsyrdkrh ekdxksrav} sg Aqfvkdar Erhpkwj. Stvkrhgkfpe, M A: M fvvkaq. M arhspe, M ., 1990. Dyefr Aywwtvadjf{·vxfvcydj. W·vxfvcydj efv efyxwdjfr Sxareaveaywwtvadjf. Tjkve fekxksr. M arrjfkq: Dyefrzfvpah. [Nspar, F. are Ewpkrh, J. are sxjfvw (few.)], 1999. Harecsso sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr: a hykef xs xjf ywf sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Aptjacfx. Caqcvkehf: Caqcvkehf Urkzfvwkx} Pvfww. Ojapa, M ., 1999. Hkrek. Ir Nspar are Ewpkrh, 1999. Ooaea, H., 1999. Jatarfwf. Ir Nspar are Ewpkrh, 1999. Paww}, P., 1958. Csrzfvwaxksrw gvar“akwfw fr xvarwdvktxksr tjsr‘xkuyf. Sfdsre fekxksr, fekxfe c} Csywxfrscpf H. Lsresr: Urkzfvwkx} sg Lsresr Pvfww. Sjkqasoa, T., 2004. Nkjsrhs oava wytfv-raxkzf rs Ekhs f. Tso}s: Kakxaoywja. Sqkvrkxwo}, A., 1975. Ewwfrxkapw sg Rywwkar hvaqqav. M swds{: V}wwja}a Sjospa. Tjfp{app, R. are SaCaefeekr, M ., 1999. Avackd. Ir Nspar are Ewpkrh, 1999.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Tvahfv, G. are Sqkxj, H., 1951. Ar syxpkrf sg Erhpkwj wxvydxyvf. Nsvqar, OK: Baxxfrcyvh. Sfdsre fekxksr 1957, Wawjkrhxsr, DC: Aqfvkdar Csyrdkp sg Lfavrfe Ssdkfxkfw. Wave, D., 1966. Rywwkar tvsryrdkaxksr kppywxvaxfe. Caqcvkehf: Caqcvkehf Urkzfvwkx} Pvfww. W[fppw], J., 1976. Tjf AwwsdkaxksrCw aptjacfx. Jsyvrap sg xjf Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr 6, 1: 2-3. Wfppw, J., 1990. Lsrhqar tvsryrdkaxksr ekdxksrav}. Havps{: Lsrhqar. (Sfdsre fekxksr 2000, Havps{: Pfavwsr Eeydaxksr.) Wfppw, J., 1997. BSAM PA dsqtyxfv vfaeacpf tjsrfxkd aptjacfxC. Ir Gkccsr, D., M ssvf, R., are Wkrwok, R. (few.), Harecsso sg wxareavew are vfwsyvdfw gsv wtsofr parhyahf w}wxfqw. Bfvpkr are Nf{ Ysvo: M syxsr ef Gvy}xfv. Pavx IV, wfdxksr B. Wfppw, J., 2003. BPjsrfxkd w}qcspw kr {sve tvsdfwwkrh are sr xjf {fcC. Pvsdffekrhw sg xjf 15xj Irxfvraxksrap dsrhvfww sg tjsrfxkd wdkfrdfw, Bavdfpsra, 3-9 Ayhywx 2003.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 1. Tjf IPA djavx. Fvsq jxxt://{{{.avxw.hpa.ad.yo/IPA/gyppdjavx.jxqp.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 2. Tjf Darka tjsrfxkd aptjacfx, aw ywfe kr Dfr wxsvf earwof yexapfsvecsh.
Fkh. 3. Tvarwdvktxksr sg Rywwkar dkxaxksr gsvqw kr C}vkppkd vfwtfppkrh. Fvsq Sqkvrkxwo} 1975.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 4. IPA w}qcspw gsv Erhpkwj dsrwsrarxw are xjfkv oara xvarwdvktxksr fuykzapfrxw. Nsxf xjf ywf sg ekadvkxkdw {kxj xjf oara fuykzapfrxw sg p are v. Fvsq Sjkqasoa, 2004.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 5. Vs{fp w}qcspw, kr SAM PA are IPA. Fvsq jxxt://{{{.tjsr.ydp.ad.yo/jsqf/waqta/.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 6. Pfeahshkdap xvarwdvktxksr sg Fvfrdj. Fvsq Paww} 1958. Tjf Fvfrdj g kw {vkxxfr wkqtp}, aw v.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 7. Fvsq M arhspe 1990. Nsxf xjf w{kxdj gvsq | kr xjf wkrhypav sg xjf {sve Bydj xs “ kr xjf tpyvap BÁdjfv. Ir xjf wkrhypav xjkw dsrwsrarx kw tvfdfefe c} xjf cado zs{fp y:, cyx kr xjf tpyvap c} xjf gvsrx }:.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 8. Navvs{ xvarwdvktxksr sg Rywwkar (Wave, 1966). Tjf w}qcsp · vftvfwfrxw a dfrxvapk~fe appstjsrf sg /s/. (Ir 1989 xjf IPA {kxjevf{ vfdshrkxksr gvsq xjf tapaxapk~axksr ekadvkxkd wffr jfvf, vftpadkrh kx {kxj a vakwfe m, xjyw e• kr tpadf sg ž; are gvsq xjf w}qcsp •, ar apxfvraxkzf xs F.)
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Fkh. 9. Tvarwdvktxksr sg Hkrek. Fvsq Ojapa, 1999.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Abstract Ir tjsrfxkd xvarwdvktxksr tjsrfxkd w}qcspw avf ywfe xs vftvfwfrx wtffdj wsyrew.
Dkggfvfrx xvarwdvktxksr w}wxfqw qa} cf attvstvkaxf gsv ekggfvfrx tyvtswfw. A xvarwdvktxksr qa} cf kqtvfwwksrkwxkd (ravvs{) sv w}wxfqaxkd (cvsae), eftfrekrh sr {jfxjfv xjf w}qcspw avf (k) wkqtpf sv dsqtavaxkzf, are (kk) tjsrfqkd sv appstjsrkd.
Ssqf wsyrew avf dsrzfrxksrapp} {vkxxfr aw ekhvatjw (f.h. esycpf- avxkdypaxksr scwxvyfrxw, zskdfe dpkdow). Dktjxjsrhw are aggvkdaxfw qa} cf {vkxxfr {kxj x{s w}qcspw sv wsqfxkqfw {kxj srf.
Wsvew kr dsrrfdxfe wtffdj avf sgxfr tvsrsyrdfe ekggfvfrxp} gvsq {svew kr kwspaxksr. A tjsrsx}tkdap xvarwdvktxksr wjs{w xjfkv tvsryrdkaxksr kr dsrxf|x. Dkdxksrav} frxvkfw sgxfr krzspzf wtfdkap accvfzkaxsv} dsrzfrxksrw. Ir parhyahf xfadjkrh, a j}cvke vfaekrh xvarwdvktxksr qa} cf attvstvkaxf.
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™
Keywords tjsrfxkd w}qcsp, xvarwdvktxksr, xvarwdvkcf, IPA, Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Awwsdkaxksr, Irxfvraxksrap Pjsrfxkd Aptjacfx, ekadvkxkd, SAM PA, ASCII, kqtvfwwksrkwxkd, w}wxfqaxkd, ravvs{ xvarwdvktxksr, cvsae xvarwdvktxksr, wkqtpf xvarwdvktxksr, dsqtavaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr, appstjsrkd, tjsrfqkd, kdj-payx, adj-payx, rfyxvapk~axksr, uyarxkxaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr, uyapkxaxkzf xvarwdvktxksr, ekhvatj, aggvkdaxf, dpkdo, ektjxjsrh, tavwackpkx}, dkxaxksr gsvq, tjsrsx}tkdap, fav xvakrkrh, vfaekrh xvarwdvktxksr
ªπ®µ∫™π∞∑ª∞∂µ $++ ´∂™