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Routledge Handbook of Contemporary

Robert W. Hefner

Ethnic groups and the Indonesian nation-state

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315628837-3 Leo Suryadinata Published online on: 09 Jan 2018

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 least two typesof nationalist movements: secularandIslamic. IntheIndonesian youth movement language, nationalanthem, andnationalflag. Nevertheless, oneneedstonotethat there were at ofthenation-building process,which canbeseenaspart to prior hadstarted World War II. tookplaceonlyinMay the Indonesianterritory tookplaceonlyin December independence on August the earlierempire boundaries. Indonesiannation-statealongthecolonialboundaries, andestablish amodern Dutch rule not and was ledby the Western-educated whoseaimwas indigenousIndonesianleaders toeliminate produced a nationalist movement. This nationalist movement emerged in the twentieth century underwent majorsocialchange, Indonesianelite, includingtheemergence ofmodern which and oneeconomiclegalsystem. Itwas thattheDutchEastIndies alsounderDutchrule ethnic groups intheIndonesianarchipelagounited various underonecolonialadministration Indonesiaiscloselylinked withDutchcolonialism.of modern Itwas that Dutchcolonialrule to 16thcenturies). This ismisleading. Infact, construct. Indonesiaisamodern The emergence dhist andtheHindu-BuddhistMajapahitempire (13th empire (7thto13thcenturies) Indonesian nationalistshave arguedthatIndonesiatoday isthecontinuation Bud- ofthegreat calledtheRepublic of Indonesia? acountry groups cometogetherreligious toform and Confucians(0.05%)(Anantaet lims (87.51%), (Catholics/Protestants, 9.90%), (1.69%), Buddhists(0.72%), (1.20%) (Anantaet rese (1.74%), Balinese(1.66%), Acehnese (1.44%), Dayak (1.36%), Sasak(1.34%), andChinese (3.03%), Betawi (2.87%), Minangkabau(2.73%), (2.71%), Buginese Bantenese(1.96%), Banja- nese (40.05%), followed by theSundanese(15.50%), Malay (3.70%), (3.58%), Madurese sus, there are more than145ethnicgroupsinIndonesia, ofwhichthelargestisstillJava- Indonesia isamultiethnic andmulti-religious society. According tothe2010Population Cen- All theIndonesiannationalistsymbols were thenationalistmovement: created during national Indonesian leaders, represented andMohammadHatta, by declared thecountry’s INDONESIAN NATION-STATEINDONESIAN ETHNIC GROUPS AND THE With reference special to Chinese ethnic Dutch colonialism and the birth of modern Indonesia modern Dutch of colonialism andthebirth

al. 2015: 78). ofreligion, Interms thepopulationcanbedivided intoMus-

17, 1945, but theactualtransferofpower from theDutchto 1 Leo Suryadinata

al. 2015: 257). Why didthesemultiethnic andmulti-

1949. 3 43

The inclusionof West (now ) Irian into 1963. Leo Suryadinata Nevertheless, the nationalistmovement, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 Indonesians. This willbeexaminedseparatelylater. sian nation-stateandinthenation-building process are different from thoseoftheindigenous group”“foreign minority withoutahomelandwithinIndonesia, theirpositionsintheIndone- bylenges faced thenationalgovernment. However, astheethnicChinesehave beenseenasa policy regarding Indonesiannation-building over thelastsixty-five orsoandthechal- years with somehaving not. strong andothers ethniccharacters This chapterattemptstoexaminethe have beenstrong, oftherepublic, andintheearlierperiod there were anumber ofrebellions, “Islamic State” offandonafterIndonesiaattainedindependence. continues tosurface mately 88%Muslim. Nevertheless, thecleavages have never beenfullybridged. The issueof cept oftheIndonesiannationwas more secularthan Islamiceven thoughIndonesiaisapproxi- Law,tice Syariah but itwas eventually dropped inorder tosecure unity(Suryadinata1990: 26). Constitution debates, theMuslimstoprac- theIslamicgroupswanted aclauserequiring toinsert a secularnation, unifyinglanguage, state(Suryadinata1998: andunitary 59). the1945 During the well-known Youth Pledge(SumpahPemuda), whichadvocated Indonesianunitybasedon before World War II, theIslamic Youth attendedthe Youth of1928but Congress didnotendorse urban centers until 1954.urban centers However, the rebellion eventually failed. The government employed oped intoaseparatistmovement. Heproclaimed anIslamicstate. Histroops heldmany pore andPenang, which impacted Acehnese revenues. Acehnese unitoftheIndonesian army), ofdirect tradewithSinga- andsuspensionoftheright downgrading of the Acehnese leaders, Division X(thepredominantly disbandingofMilitary Aceh was madea province, but in1951, theprovincial statuswas abolished, accompaniedby the were weak. hadstrongerAceh infact linesofcommunication withtheMiddleEast. Initially, was intoIndonesia. notpolitically integrated Communications withthe nationalistsinJava Acehnese saw the Indonesianrepublic asa Javanese- and Minangkabau-dominated state. Aceh more power tothecentralgovernment inJakarta. genuine desire oflocalpeople. After therebellion, state, Indonesiabecameaunitary whichgave with theDutch. Intheeyes oftheIndonesiannationalists, thiswas aDutchplotratherthanthe ofIndonesia, inotherparts members hadfamily andtherebellion was identified lion. However, thereoftheRMS. tothefailure were thatcontributed otherfactors Many South Hatta (Minangkabau). the solutionwasrebel- incrushing The military definitelyinstrumental (anethnicJavanese)the centralgovernment ofSukarno undertheleadership andMohammad the Republic oftheSouthMoluccas(Republik MalukuSelatanorRMS). “East Indonesia” state, executive oftheregional withthesupport councilofthearea, proclaimed (Feith 1962: 55–71). In April incidentwas inSouthMaluku(theMoluccas),serious thehomelandofChristian rebelled againstthecentralgovernment andsoughttoestablish anindependent state. The most which would catertodifferent andethnicinterests. regional However, afew ethnicgroups fer politicalpower totheIndonesians. oftheIndonesianstatewas federal, atfirst The form conflictupto1949whentheDutch byeventually theIndonesia-Dutch armed totrans- agreed Indonesian nationalistsproclaimed Indonesia’s independence in1945. The event was followed The nation-building process inIndonesiahasnotbeensmooth. EthnicandIslamicfeelings The secularnationalistmovement appeared tohave theupperhand, andtherefore, thecon - The localleader, DaudBeureueh, initiatedamovement forautonomy, but in1953, itdevel- The secondrebellion tookplace in Aceh, astrongly Islamicarea (Sjamsuddin1985). The The rebellion enjoyed measure agreat oflocalsupport, but itwas eventually quelledby Early ethnic conflicts: ethnic Early challenge to the Indonesian nation-state

1950, Soumokil, justiceministeroftheDutch-created theformer Leo Suryadinata 44 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 external konfrontasithreat tounitethepeople.external society. At onetime, era, theSukarno during thegovernment hadalsousedthecreation ofan and thenationalideology, , themulti-ethnic Indonesian isalsoaimedatintegrating through thenationalschoolsandinstitutions. ofnationalsymbols The popularization However, tojointhemajorstream force there thatcompelstheminorities isalsoanintegrating (Bhinneka Tunggal toretain Ika)allows ofculturalautonomy. alargedegree ethnicminorities have introduced abroad-based policyofnationalintegration. The motto of “unity indiversity” of political unit called Indonesia, them into a new form and integrate Indonesiannationalists thatshouldnotbeoverlooked.uting factors Inorder ethnicgroupstogether toholdvarious government’s control andsuppression. ofthe oftheRepublic ofIndonesia cannotbesolelyexplainedinterms since theformation integrity.to maintainterritorial However, thatthere were thefact sofew separatistmovements major threat. Itisclearthatthecentralgovernment means tomilitary didnothesitatetoresort Free Papua Movement isrecent andsmallerinscale. Therefore, it hasnotyet developed intoa the Free Papua Movement 1985). (Osborne Unlike thetwo earlierseparatistmovements, the state basedonethnicity. (Permesta) rebellion of1956–1958, whichwas withinthecontextofIndonesia, notasaseparate Revolusi Republikto thePemerintah Indonesia(PRRI)/PiagamPerjuangan Republik Indonesia It was eventually by crushed thecentralgovernment in1962. This rebellion was quitesimilar Indonesia (DII). The insurgency reached its peak in 1957 but was largely confined to West . ated by Kartosuwirjo, whoattemptedtoestablish anIndonesianIslamicStateorDaarul nese, therebellion was eventually crushed. the governor. policyamongthe Usingstrongoperationsandthedivide-and-rule military Aceh- soft andhard strategies: itrestored theprovincial statusof Aceh andappointedan Acehnese as enclaves andethnicconflicts. in thecountry. hasnotbeenvery successfulasitoftencreated transmigration ethnic Internal (withtheexceptionof instead ofethnicparties Aceh) indicatesthesense ofnationalbelonging forces, forces insteadoftheethnicarmed as thenationalarmed andnational politicalparties ethnicgroups.the Indonesianpopulationofvarious The presence ofnationalinstitutions, such withitsmotto:national emblem (theGaruda Ika)are BhinnekaTunggal generallyacceptedby groups: Betawi, Chinese, andBatak(Anantaet Indonesians continue tospeaktheirethniclanguageathome, withtheexceptionofthree ethnic those whouseIndonesianasadailyhomelanguageonlyconstitute 19.95%. of The majority 92.08% ofIndonesiansare able tospeakBahasaIndonesia(Anantaet.al. 2015: 276). However, “nationalized” theIndonesianlanguage. by learning The 2010populationcensusshows that use BahasaIndonesiaasthemediumofinstruction, Indonesiansofdifferent ethnicgroupsare cation, and this was among themostsuccessful. As Indonesiannational schools are required to institutions, transmigration, internal andthenationalideology orPancasila. ence include the promotion of a national language, national education, national symbols, national adoptedbyThe measures theIndonesiangovernment ofnationalintegration sinceindepend- Moderate government policy and a certain degree of national integration are- twoModerate government of nationalintegration degree contrib policyandacertain The third rebellion involved Jaya theIrian IndependenceMovement andwas known as There was another rebellion in launched in August Indonesian nationalsymbols, suchas thenationalflag, nationalanthem(IndonesiaRaya), and The mostobvious measure was thepromotion ofanIndonesiannationallanguageandedu- National integration andthePancasilaNational integration ideology Ethnic groupsandthenation-state

45 al. 2015: 282).

1949. This rebellion was initi- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 of Soeharto, since hisdeparture, theMajelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (Supreme Consultative casila isreplaced by Islam, theyoung Indonesiannationislikely tobreak up. Amanat Nasional, linked to Muhammadiyah) are two examples. Many have realized that if Pan- ideology oftheirparties: thePKB(Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, linked toNU) andPAN (Partai based onPancasila; even someMuslimorganization-linked have parties alsousedPancasila asthe ineverywinners generalelection. GolkarandPDI-P(Partai Demokrasi-Perjuangan) are still casila ideology (Suryadinata1986: 48–9). Nevertheless, Pancasila-based are stillthelargest parties five outof12politicalparties (Suryadinata2014). were Islamicparties Parties. Inthe2009generalelection, five outof38parties were Islamicparties, andin 2014, also elections were IslamicParties; inthe2004generalelection, five outof24parties were Islamic the 1999elections, forinstance, inthegeneral thatparticipated more than20outof48parties a monopolyofthestateideology. Political basedonIslam, parties notPancasila, emerged. In known asthe Era”“Reform (EraReformasi). ofSoeharto,After thefall Pancasila nolongerhad Habibie succeededhimandwas forced tointroduce reform. eraisthereforeThe post-Soeharto andmassivefollowing theeconomiccrisis studentdemonstrations. Hisvicepresident B. J. Indonesiansociety.a meanstointegrate dominated by moderate andnon-Muslims. asaninstitutionalsoserves as The military cal foundationandprofess Pancasila. party, thePartai Persatuan Pembangunan (PPP), was required- todrop ideologi Islamasitsparty succeededinmakingPancasilaSoeharto thepredominant ideology. Even theofficialIslamic were closelyrelated tothePancasila issue. However, era, unlike theSukarno Indonesia under peaceful andviolentopposition. The Tanjung in1984andthesubsequentbombings affair Priok umi) opposedPancasila; thisresulted inthedissolutionofConstituent Assembly in1959. eras.Soeharto was inpower,When Sukarno (bothNahdatulUlamaandMasy- Islamicparties and opposition totheproposal ofPancasila boththeSukarno astheIndonesianideology during mosques andassistingIslamicboarding schools), itsuppressed politicalIslambefore 1990. tolerated andeven (asevidencedinbuilding encouragedIslam asareligion initssponsorship fromattempts toseparateIslamasareligion Islamasapoliticalforce. While thegovernment by many IslamistswhofeltthatPancasila shouldbesubordinate toIslam. The Pancasila ideology lim organizations toacceptPancasila foundation as well. as theirideological This was opposed Under theumbrella ofPancasila, freedom religious was guaranteed. However, itrequired Mus- the examination. government, Intheview oftheSoeharto Pancasila pluralism. meantreligious the Pancasila ideology, makingitarequirement forallcivil servants totake andpass thecourse school was intensified. Between 1978and1990, thegovernment established aninstitutetoinstill (1959–65),period Soeharto’s but during (1966–1998), theteachingofPancasila in Justice –are ideasthatare supposedtobeshared by allethnicgroups. state and culture. – Humanism,The last four principles Indonesian Unity, Democracy, and Social However, italsodeniesaspecialpositionforIslam, reflecting asecularvisionofanIndonesian principle, “Belief inOne Almighty God,” was Indonesians. aimedatembracingallreligious thepreparation ofIndonesia’s during by Sukarno formulated independencein1945. The first If Pancasila was inIndonesia before theonlyideology thefall usedtounitethecountry Political Islam became respectable and its development is often at the expense of the Pan- for32 thecountry ruled Soeharto The strong defendantofthePancasila ideology hasbeentheIndonesianmilitary, whichis theNew Order period,During whenPancasila becamethesoleideology, there was both It isworth notingthatIslamists’ with disagreement pluralism”“religious isevidence oftheir The stateideology was already theGuidedDemocracy arequired schoolsubjectduring Last but notleastisthenationalideology Pancasila –the “five principles” –which was first

y ears but wasears eventually forced tostepdown inMay Leo Suryadinata 46

1998,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 between thegovernment andtherebel group. OnDecember governmentpost-Soeharto was eagertoresolve theproblem, were andpeaceagreements signed Developments in were ofSoeharto Aceh afterthefall more promising (Suryadinata2012b). The reflected in the two laws that he issued in May At themoment, theseparatistmovement isstillundercontrol. place, resulting inviolencebetween Papuans andthepolice. Uptoseven Papuans were killed. flag. Oneperson was killed by thepolice. Inthenextfew days, more flag-hoisting events took their resistance againstIndonesian rule. InearlyJuly, protesters hoistedtheseparatist West Papuan Eraandtheweakenedthe Papuans madeuseoftheReform positionofJakarta todemonstrate tourists. They were laterrescued by theIndonesian Special Forces. Ethno-nationalismdieshard; 1996, theFree Papua Organization (FPO)kidnapped26hostages; many ofthemwere Western control, theNew Order eraresulted during inworsening rule situations. military but harsh In , many arguedthatPapua and Aceh mightfollow suit. the situationwas different Jaya from Irian (Papua) and Aceh. ButwiththeindependenceofEast of theDutchEastIndies; itsannexationby was never recognized by theUN. Therefore, tion oftheRepublic ofIndonesia. Butthisproved nottobethecase. the Republic ofIndonesia.- Many maintainedthatthismarkedofthedisintegra the beginning Timor. The referendum (September ian troops moved in. to have Habibie finally agreed a referendum on theindependence ofEast Soeharto, clashesanddemonstrationscontinued andUNpeacekeeping forces, ledby Austral - Prize, oftheEast importance againhighlightingtheinternational Timor issue. of After thefall East Timorese, BishopCarlos Filipe Belo and Jose Ramos-Horta, received the Nobel Peace was regime violations. severelyand theSoeharto forthehumanrights criticized In1996, two fierce resistance.riots in1992and1996 received attention Demonstrationsand international never disappeared. eventually oftheIndonesianmilitary rule gaveThe harsh toeven rise more Timor by force. East Timorese rebels were defeatedbut oppositiontoIndonesia temporarily This created amajorproblem forIndonesialater, East tointegrate asJakarta was determined independent country. In1975, Indonesiainvaded East Timor andannexed itthefollowing year. whenEast Indonesian nationalunityencountered acrisis Timor leftIndonesiatobecomean pillars,these ideological have but someIslamicparties (SinarHarapan disagreed 2013). ledbythe politicalparty Sukarno’s daughterMegawati Sukarnoputri, would like tosocialize Republik Indonesia), UnityinDiversity (Bhineka andtheprinciple Tunggal Ika). The PDI-P, (1945 Constitution), State(NKRIorNegaraKesatuan theconceptofIndonesianUnitary Council, MPR)hasbeeneagertopromote three pillars: otherideological theUUD1945 peace agreement, known astheCessation ofHostilities Agreement, inGeneva. ment andrepresentatives oftheFree Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, GAM)signeda tem toafederalstatesystem, but thecentralgovernment refused tobudge (Nasutionet ethnic identitybecamestronger, threatening thenationalunityofIndonesia. timent, arguedthatinreality but others theyethnic nationalism. gave tominority rise Regional refinement. Someconsidered thattheselaws were ethnicnationalistsen- meanttopacify regional autonomy (Bell2001). However, thesetwo laws have many ambiguitiesthathave required further Toward theendofhispresidency, administrationas inregional Habibieinitiatedamajorreform The problems in JayaAceh andIrian are notnew, however. At one time, they were under East Timor was unique. IthadbeenaPortuguese colony andwas never oftheterritories part Some regional ethnic groups demanded the state structure bechangedfromsys- ethnicgroupsdemandedthestatestructure Some regional theunitary Nation-building or nation-destroying? Ethnic groupsandthenation-state

1999) confir

1999 r 47 med the desire of the East Timorese to leave egarding the regulations and laws of regional

9, 2002, theIndonesiangovern-

al. 1999). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 us look at the journey oftheethnicChineseinmakingIndonesiannation-state.us lookatthejourney Chinese Indonesiansfeelthatthere isafuture fortheircommunity inthisyoung secularrepublic. Let are ofthenation, recognized part asanintegral atleastintheory. Underthesecircumstances, some change intheconceptofanIndonesiannation. Multiculturalismisaccepted, andtheethnicChinese they completelygave uptheirethnicChineseidentity. However, hasseena ofSoeharto thefall of an “indigenous”) nation. (pribumi The ethnicChinesedidnothave aplaceinthisnationunless an electionw armament. to represent Local political parties Acehnese interests were allowed. InDecember special broad autonomy. The government troops would bewithdrawn inexchangeforGAM’s dis- Kalla vicepresident (Husain2007: 3–4; BBC2005). According tothetreaty, Aceh would begiven a was signedon August by usingforce. Butittookthree more years forbothsidestocometogether. The peaceagreement and longed for peace. By 2002, both sides had come to realize that they would notbe able to win active role inmediatingtheconflict Aceh. The Acehneseingeneralfelttired of bloody clashes ating table. community,The international especiallytheUnitedStates, was alsowillingtoplay amore group. In the generalatmosphere ofanti-terrorism, tothenegoti- GAMhadnochoicebut toreturn since September status, citizenship, political ideology, religion, andculture. haveThe majority become Indonesian In reality, IndonesianChinesedonotconstitute agroup. They are divided by generation, economic their homelanguageorallIndonesian Chinesewhohave Indonesiancitizenship? these peranakanChineseare. Are ChinesewhouseBahasaIndonesia as they Indonesian-born assimilated intothe “indigenous Indonesian nation.” Nevertheless, who didnotclarify Sukarno anakan Chinese are already of the Indonesian nation and therefore members do not need to be “peranakan Chinese” groupisamember (suku)oftheIndonesiannation. Inother words, per- suku(ethnicgroups). various (bangsa Indonesia)comprises presented aratherconcreteSukarno argument. According toSukarno, theIndonesiannation in any detail. Itwas only in1963, whennation-building becameapoliticalmovement, that oftheRepublic ofIndonesiawere recognized oftheIndonesiannation. asmembers territories alah 1992: 62–3). Those who regarded and were and lived Indonesia as their country born in the Renan’stion ofErnst conceptofnation, whichisthepolitico-culturaldefinitionofnation(Ris- andHattadeclared Indonesia’sWhen Sukarno independencein1945, usedthedefini- Sukarno It should be mentioned that the Indonesian nation during the Soeharto era was defined in terms erawas theSoeharto definedinterms It shouldbementionedthattheIndonesiannationduring The situationaftertheBaliBombingsonOctober This was time that the president the first of the Republic of Indonesia clearly stated that the However, intheIndonesiannation ofmembership explain theterms didnotatfirst Sukarno national legs. Sumba leg, Peranakan Chineseleg, Peranakan ChineselegisoneoftheIndonesian possesses Javanese leg, Sundanese leg, Sumatranleg, leg, Irian Dayak leg, Balileg, Suku [also]meansleg, Indonesiannation hasmany legs, justlike acentipede, which as heldandtheex-GAMleaderIrwandi Jusuf was electedprovincial governor.

11, 2001, Heterogeneous andthenation

15, Ethnic Chinese andtheIndonesian nation 2005, afterSusiloBambang Yudhoyono (SBY)becamepresident andJusuf GAM has been regularly threatened with being labeled as a terrorist GAMhasbeenregularly threatened with being labeledasaterrorist Leo Suryadinata 48

12, 2002, nolongerfavored GAM. Infact, (Siauw 1963: 14)

2006, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 mainstream ofIndonesian society. many Indonesians, themselves theexpectationis thatChineseIndonesianswillintegrate intothe nese descentspeaking a Chinese dialect orMandarin. showThese and other indicators that, for of theirrelatives ethnicChinese; marrying 78%did notapprove ofIndonesian citizensofChi- a sians’ minds. The socialdistancebetween Indonesian ethnicgroupsremains wide. According to ism” was (pribumi-isme) thebasisof thestatepolicy, remains deeplyrooted inmany Indone- basis oftheIndonesiannation. Butthe 32-year oftheNew Order, rule which during “indigeni- government tohave appears acceptedmulti-culturalism ratherthanmono-culturalismas the Indonesian intellectualshave alsobeguntoacceptthisconcept. era, theReformasi During the begun toregard themselves asasukuTionghoa(“Chineseethnicity”)withinIndonesia. Some The threeoftheChineseculture pillars have largely beenrestored. ChineseIndonesians have also increased. Era, the new Reform During the government policy also underwent changes. powerthe military hadbeenundermined, was reform introduced, had andpolitical participation obtained Indonesiancitizenshipandbecamethenew ofthecountry. members strongly felt. rule, theSoeharto Itisalsoworth noting thatduring almostalltotokChinese However, thetotoksare more dynamicintheeconomicfield, andtheirpresence hasbeen haslargelystoppedand thethreewere Chineseculturalpillars Chinese migration abolished. “peranakan” and “” remains, but thenumber oftotokChinesehas rapidlydeclinedasnew this doesnotmeanthattheChineseIndonesianshave beenhomogenized. The division between nity; IndonesianChineseinthe32 ding theConfucianorganizationfrom holdingnationalcongresses. (Agama Khonghucu), by withdrawing state recognition of Confucianism in 1979 and forbid- names to “Indonesian names.” promulgated a “name changing” regulation, “appealing” to Chinese Indonesians to change their Chinese” asanIndonesiansuku(ethnicgroup), but alsoadvocated theirtotalassimilation. He ever, cametopower whenSoeharto in1966, henotonlyrefused toacknowledge “peranakan actually beendeveloped, ChineseIndonesiannationalidentitycouldhave beenresolved. How- In fact, ifthe concept of “peranakan Chinese” groupasamemberof the Indonesian nation had Bahasa Indonesiaasthedailylanguageandquicklyjoinedexistingperanakancommunity. ants ofthetotokChinesewere intoanew typeofperanakanChinese: transformed they used overseas (Chineseschools, Chinese organizations, andChinesemassmedia), and the descend- nese,” asthey attendedChinese-medium schoolsandlived inaChinesecommunity environment. or soon after the Second World War, are still closer linguistically and culturally to the “totok Chi- they were notclassifiedas “peranakanChinese.” Theirchildren, who inIndonesiabefore were born astheirhomelanguageandtheofeverydaylect orMandarin communication. Therefore, twentieth usuallystillretained theChineselanguageandculture. century They usedaChinesedia- language andofcommunication. the Those ChinesewhocametoIndonesiaduring their commandoftheChineselanguageandusedalocaldialectorMalay (Indonesian)asahome Indonesia andinfluenced by thelocal(Malay/Indonesian) culture. Peranakan Chineseusuallylost Chinese”and “totok Chinese). (ormigrant in referstothoseChineseborn The former plural aswell. totheSecond Prior World War, IndonesianChinesewere divided into “peranakan (35.09%), Muslim(5.41%), andHindu(1.77%)(Anantaet a large number are in trade and business. of religion, In terms they are Buddhist (53.82%), Christian towardcitizens and politically oriented Indonesia, especially the younger generation. Economically, Tempo survey (Tempo 2001:12–13), 52%ofrespondents indicatedthatthey didnotapprove In theeraofglobalizationanddemocratization, was Soeharto eventually forced tostepdown, Soeharto’s assimilationistpolicyhadaprofound impactontheIndonesianChinesecommu- However, assumedpower, afterSoeharto heprohibited threeoftheChinese culturalpillars 2 He also restricted thedevelopment Healsorestricted oftheConfucianReligion Ethnic groupsandthenation-state 3

y ears of Soeharto rule became rule ofSoeharto ears “more Indonesianized.” But 49

al. 2008: 30). Culturally, they are quite

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 (Undang-Undang 2007:5). vice president candidacyhasbeenchangedto inIndonesia”“Indonesian citizenwho was born to beusedinthecitizenshipclause, but therequirement forbothIndonesianpresident and ished. However, intheamended1945IndonesianConstitution, Indonesiaaslicontinues theterm (non-indigenousIndonesian)shouldbeabol- (indigenousIndonesian)andnon-pribumi pribumi ofSoeharto,fall B. J. statingthatthedivision HabibieissuedaPresidential between Instruction indigenous); italsostipulated that the Indonesianpresident should be Indonesiaasli.the After divided IndonesiancitizensintoIndonesiaasli(indigenousIndonesian)andbukan asli(non- (Winarta 2008:(Winarta 67). is “a revolutionary law,” which againstethnicChinese” ofdiscrimination “eliminate(s) allforms inIndonesia”born (Sadeli2007: 31). FransH. Winarta, lawyer, ahumanrights notedthatthis (Suryadinata 2016,principle Vol. I: lii). It defines Indonesia asli as an “Indonesian citizen who was the division between indigenous and non-indigenousIndonesiansbut also themale-centered gubernatorial elections onJuly gubernatorial ing many national, provincial, and municipal elections. The mostrecent examples are theJakarta and racistattackshave beenusedinorder todefeatpoliticalopponents. This hashappeneddur- process hasnotalways beensmooth. Racialandethnicsentimentshave notgoneaway easily, significant compared tothatofindigenousIndonesian-dominated NGOs. NGOs. Seen from the mainstream society, in the ethnic Chinese NGOs is less the participation (PSMTI) andPerhimpunan Indonesia Tionghoa (INTI)are two prominent ethnicChinese have established socio-culturalorganizations. The Paguyuban SosialMarga Tionghoa Indonesia 媚), alsomayor Hua2017). ofSingkawang (Suryadinata2012a:13; Yin Harian 黄少凡),(Huang Shaofan mayor ofSingkawang (West ); and Tjhai ChuiMei( 蔡翠 Ahok), whowas BupatiofEastBelitungandlater, deputygovernor ofJakarta; HasanKarman mayor ordeputyregent. These includeBasuki (Zhong Tjahaja Purnama Wanxue 钟万学alias 11 from thePDI-P (Suryadinata2014). 2014, there were 14 ChineseIndonesianMPs: one from PD, one from PKB, one from PAN, and the parliament: five from thePDI-P, onefrom Golkar, onefrom PAN, andonefrom PBI. In ticketsmainstream party (Suryadinata2014). In1999, there were eightChineseIndonesiansin many Chinese Indonesians were elected to national and provincial of parliaments as members inIndonesianowChinese politicalparties appearfinished. insubsequentgeneralelections. torun failed Basedonthisandotherindicators, tocreate efforts poorly,performed gainingonlyoneseatinthenationalparliament(from West Kalimantan). It soon afteritsformation; Parti did not develop. OnlythePBIcontested1999election, but it Tunggal IkaIndonesia(PBI). The Partai Pembauran intoasocialorganization was transformed parties: Partai Reformasi Tionghoa Indonesia(Parti), Partai Pembauran, andPartai Bhinneka there was toestablish new arush political parties. ChineseIndonesiansestablished three political nesians were era. notactive theSoeharto during steppeddown,As soonasSoeharto however, Only Indonesiancitizenshaveinpolitics. toparticipate theright ButChineseIndo- In July It shouldbenotedthatthe1945IndonesianConstitution(before itsamendmentin2002) While political participation isawayWhile politicalparticipation intoIndonesianmainstream society, to integrate the politics,Outside the field of party fall ofSoeharto many ChineseIndonesianssince the Since the1999generalelections, Chinese Indonesianshave alsobeenelectedtothepostsof (1999, ofSoeharto In thefourgeneralelectionsafterfall 2004, 2009, and 2014), however,

2006, anew Indonesiancitizenshiplaw was promulgated. This law abandonsnotonly Ethnic participation Chinese andpolitical

11, 2012, andFebruary Leo Suryadinata 50

15, 2017. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3 against Islam and sentenced by a North Jakarta district court totwo court years imprisonment. against IslamandsentencedbyJakarta district aNorth electionto lost therunoff Anies Baswedan. thereafter hewas Shortly convicted ofblaspheming of thevotes andwas therefore required tocontestasecondround. On 19,April 2017, Basuki who hadbeenthemostpopularcandidatebefore beingaccusedofblasphemy, won lessthan50% which resulted intwo majoranti-BasukidemonstrationsinJakarta. InFebruary the pair. Their opponentsfocusedtheirattacksonBasuki, whowas accusedofblaspheming Islam, election,2017 gubernatorial appealstodiscredit theiropponentsagainusedethnicandreligious ment andcombatingcorruption. When Basuki-Djarot inthe announcedtheirintentiontorun Jokowi and Basukilater, Basuki and Djarot, did a good job in improving theliving environ- 2014 presidential election; heeventually won. Basukisucceededhimtothegovernorship. Both pair. term, Halfway Jokowi intohisgubernatorial was nominatedby thePDI-Ptocontest ground (ChineseandChristian). Surprisingly, Jakarta voters eventually electedtheJokowi-Basuki election asapair, but Basuki was attacked by back- their opponents forhisethnicand religious separatist movements, which were quelledby thecentral government withtheexception of try’s diverse ethnicgroupsandcreated theIndonesiannation-state. There were afew ethnic the twentieth underDutchcolonialrule. century The movement eventually united thecoun- Indonesiawas aproductModern oftheIndonesiannationalist movement, whichemergedin nation. ambiguous citizenshippolicymay have intothe Indonesian animpactonChineseintegration with. oftheIndonesianculture tobegin been part Inthelongrun, ofChinaandits therise stream societywillfindidentifying withIndonesiannation “lessattractive,” asthey have not this circumstance, thoseChinesewhohave themselves notintegrated intoIndonesia’s main- adopted country” (Setiono2008:77). Zhou Enlai “Overseas ChinesePolicy”: to educate Chinese Indonesians to be “loyal to their 2008: 77). The peranakanChineseeliteappealedtotheembassyimplement officials. Thiscouldjeopardizerun (Setiono theinterests oftheChineseIndonesiansinlong Chinese Indonesianassociationsonlyinvited Indonesianembassy officials but notIndonesian nesian associations. thecelebrationofIndonesianIndependenceDay, During forinstance, Indonesia have complained that theChineseembassy has beentooclosetotheChineseIndo- Chinese inSoutheast Asia problematic (Yang 2008: 84–5). Many peranakanChineseelitesin citizens ofChinesedescentas “Chinese citizens”; thismakes thenationalstatusofethnic Chinese inSoutheast Asia problematic (Yang 2008: 84–5). Policy today tendstoregard foreign citizens and zens amongtheChineseoverseas, of ethnicChineseidentityinSoutheast Asia ingeneralandIndonesiaparticularly. a majoreconomic, political, power totherevival andmilitary thatcontributed isanotherfactor the casewithtotokChinesewhohave adoptedIndonesiancitizenship. ofChinaas The rise ethnically consciousonceagainandtoaspire toretain theirethnic identity. This isparticularly The democratizationofIndonesiacausedmany ethnicminorities, including theChinese, tobe Joko (Jokowi) Widodo-Basuki Tjahaya (alias Purnama Ahok) contestedthe2012gubernatorial Still today, someChineseIndonesianshave a weak sense of themselves asIndonesian. Under Although in

for

eign citizensofChinesedescent; thismakes thenational statusoftheethnic la w, Chinese Indonesian identity and the rise of China of Chinese Indonesian andthe rise identity

toda Ethnic groupsandthenation-state y

contin in practice Conclusion ues todivide Chinesecitizensfrom non-Chineseciti- , it 51

tends to

b lur thedistinctionbetween Chinese

2017, Basuki, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 22:51 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315628837, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315628837-3

Bell, although diminished, continues. been welcome tojointheIndonesiannation. However, prejudice againsttheethnicChinese, abandoned theconceptofnationhoodpremised onindigenousness, andethnicChinesehave themselves intoindigenoussociety. Sincethedawn ofReformasi, however, thegovernment has of Soeharto, they were andwere considered asanon-homelandminority expectedtoassimilate building inIndonesia. events ofSoeharto. before andafterthefall This may affectthecontinuing process ofnation- haveideologies attimeschallengedthenationalideology. political This canbeseeninvarious only remaining ethnicseparatistmovement ofsomescaleisthatinPapua, but itremains weak. that inEast Timor, whichbecameanindependentstatein2002, but thiswas aspecialcase. The Sadeli, Eddy. ed. 2007. Undang-UndangRepublik Indonesiano.12 Tahun 2006tentangKewarganegaraan Repub- Risalah Sidang Badan Penyelidik Usaha-Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI) Panitia Persiapan Osborne, Robin. 1985. Indonesia’s Secret War: Jaya StruggleinIrian The Guerrilla (Sydney: Allen andUnwin). Nasution, Adnan Buyung, T. Jakob Koekerits, andSt. Sularto. 1999. FederalismeHusain, (Jakarta: untukIndonesia Farid. 2007. To SeetheUnseen: KisahdiBalikDamai Aceh (Jakarta: Health Hospital). Hua. 2017. Yin Harian “Yinni diyigehuayi nu shizhangdansheng” Indonesian [TheFirst Woman Mayor F BBC News. 2005. “Aceh RebelsSignPeace Agreement,” 15 August. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia- Ananta, Aris, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M. Hasbullah, Sairi Nur Budi Handayani, and Agus Pramono. 2015. Ananta, Aris, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, and Bakhtiar. 2008. “Chinese Indonesiansin Indonesia and theProvince 3 2 1 eith, Herbert. 1962. oftheConstitutional Democracy Decline inIndonesia (Ithaca: University Cornell Press).

lik Indonesia(Jakarta: LPPM-TI). lik Indonesia). Kemerdekaan Indonesia (PPKI), 29Mei1945–19 Agustus 1945. 1992(Jakarta: NegaraRepub - Sekretariat Penerbit Kompas). Who IsofChineseDescent], 23February. January fusing Laws,” Pacific, Law and Policy Journal 2. www.hawaii.edu/aplpj/2/1.html (Accessed 8 pacific/4151980.stm (Accessed9 January Demography ofIndonesia’s Ethnicity(: ISEAS). of Riau Archipelago: A The position of ethnic Chinese in the Indonesian nation has greatly improved.The positionofethnicChineseintheIndonesiannationhasgreatly Before thefall Although thesecularideology asreflected in Pancasila remains dominant, Islamist various In thelatecolonialperiod, have arrived, (Suryadinata2004). andmany Chineseemigrated higher but notmore than2%, aspopulationgrowth amongChineseislow, few new Chinesemigrants ing. There were about0.86%Chinesein2000and1.2%2010. The actual number may be Chinese populationhasbeenincludedagain. - The censushasbeenbasedonself-identification report has been unavailable. However, sincethe2000 population census, onthesize of the theinformation 2.03% (Suryadinata2004). Since1930, onthesizeofChinesecommunity inIndonesia information This was an estimate based on the 1930 population census, which shows that the Chinese constituted Name-changing r Name-changing accepted asanIndonesianname. Indonesian nameisdifficulttodefine; many arguedthataslongitisnot a “Chinesename,” itcanbe in Sur With regard tothenationalistmovement andtheemergenceofanIndonesiannation, seemy discussion Gary. 2001. “The New IndonesianLaws RelatingtoRegional Autonomy: GoodIntentions, Con- yadinata 2015:20–2.

2013). egulations were promulgated in1966. Itisinteresting tonotethattheso-called

Demo theChineseconstitutedabout2.8–3%oftotalIndonesianpopulation. graphic graphic Analysis,” inSuryadinata, ed., 30. References cited

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