Scientists are People, Too: Biographies of Astronomical Scientists as a Literary Introduction to the Heliocentric Theory Autry McMorris Welch Middle School INTRODUCTION The Setting and Objectives One of the teaching tools that teachers often use is to take advantage of their students’ prior knowledge. This allows students to connect with the author or subject. Many students have had astronomical awareness or experiences as simple as Aristotle’s in 320 BC – that the Earth must be round because it casts a crescent shape on the moon. For me, it was an incidental thing that I sometimes noticed the moon out in the mornings and evenings when I walked my dogs. Almost as a type of entertainment, I started to anticipate where the moon would be positioned on my next walk. I found myself exhilarated as I could correctly anticipate its position. The key for me was that the moon was moving west, but because of the Earth’s rotation, it appeared to be moving east. At that moment, I shared an icon of truth with the great masters. Astronomy is very complex, to say the least. Some students, aware of their limitations, would not begin to broach the subject except from a non-threatening position. What if an introductory course were to be available that introduced the periphery of the subject? What if selected writings, biographies, autobiographies, theories and the like were a part of a curriculum to superimpose our literary devices of today on great works that were written hundreds of years ago? Copernicus described himself somewhat as candid and clear enough that both the unlearned as well as the learned might see that he was not seeking to flee from the judgment of any man, even if someone provided a guard against the bites of slanderers, the proverb holds that there is no medicine for the bite of a sycophant. A student might suppose that a sycophant might be an insect of some kind seeing the quote uses “bite” with “medicine.” The simple act of using the dictionary to clarify the meaning of sycophant could offer a lesson on inferences and metaphor. Students could explore the sanctity of the priesthood and its ability to protect Copernicus’ writings, as was his expectation – being a priest himself, and do a comparative analysis of a later time when the priesthood might be seen as being fervently against those people like Galileo who espoused the heliocentric position. Students could have a curriculum that includes terms associated with the church at that time: “Your Holiness,” “Ecclesiastical Commonwealth,” “Lateran Council,” etc. Additionally, students could do research papers on why the church’s influence was pivotal in the acceptance of this theory. For example, they could study why Copernicus lectured on the principles of his planetary theory before Pope Clement VII, who approved his works; why the word “hypotheses” (believed to have been added by Andrew Osiander) appeared in the title when the findings were presented to Pope Paul III, the one to whom Copernicus dedicated his work; and why Galileo was put under house arrest for espousing the same theory. 94 Houston Teachers Institute Because the curriculum would be considered introductory in design and focused on the literary aspects, rather than science or math, it would give some marginal students the confidence to peer into the window of great works in a different time period. This would allow a larger group of students to participate, as it will be written in such a way to gain knowledge of the period while incorporating the TAKS standards that our students are required to learn. At Welch, our students range from remedial to gifted. A program of this caliber would create an opportunity for greater exposure to the astronomical masters of the sixteenth century on a level that is comprehensible to a wider range of students through this introductory curriculum. Students would be able to get an insight into why it was so difficult to oppose longstanding scientific theories and consider why religious posturing on social and legal issues was quite different from what it is today. When the opportunity came to study the Copernican theory as part of the curriculum of the philosophy seminar of Dr. James Garson at the University of Houston, I was sure that using Galileo and also Copernicus and other astronomers to a lesser extent could be an opportunity to encourage students to explore further the lives of persons who made significant contributions to physics, advanced math, and astronomy. Copernicus expected some “idle talkers” and “unlearned” to oppose his theory. We can reduce the amount of this type of present-day opposition by introducing him as a man with superior intellect who fought for a cause that made the world a better place. Some of the students will surely want to explore that place even now as they look up at the heavens and again later after they have met the great astronomers. Looking at Scientists in Down-to-Earth Terms Famous people who contribute to society on such a grand scale as Galileo Galilei (1564- 1642) – a physician, astronomer, and theologian – are often not everyday people, and perhaps rightly so. We mostly approach their history on the basis of their contribution to society, but do not always look at their personal lives. Yet moral and social aspects permeate their lives just as they do the lives of other people. It is easy to be in awe of their tremendous contributions, thinking that such study is reserved for the most advanced students when it actually can be the domain of all students. Generally, we have the idea that Galileo and other scientists embracing the heliocentric system are so different from the vast majority of society that we seldom look at events in their lives that might be shared by a great number of ordinary people. Galileo shared one of our modern-day problems – that of out-of-wedlock children. The implications of this act were much more intense during that time, as indicated by the events in the lives of Galileo’s family. Even compared with one hundred years ago when hospitals stamped “Illegitimate” across the face of the birth certificate, the act has been viewed at various levels of disdain. Galileo’s son, Vincenzio Gamba Galilei, to whom he gave his name, received a scholarly position with a pension. He later received a Doctorate degree from the University of Pisa. Afterward, he became engaged to Sestilia Bocchiner, a socialite from a prestigious family who brought with her a significant dowry. However, consider the plight of the daughters of Galileo. Their lives were spent in a nunnery, being considered unworthy of marriage due to their illegitimate status. This is an amazing comparison of brother and sisters with the same mother and father, where the only noticeable differences were their sexes. The son had the father’s name; the daughters did not. Students need to see the results of Galileo’s choices on his significant other, his children, and himself. The impact of these actions can be compared with the same actions of people today, and the resulting consequences, where applicable. Students can look at welfare, subsidized housing, food stamps, drop-out rates, crime, health issues, and other social problems that often plague broken families, one-parent families, and/or poor families. Autry McMorris 95 Modern-day workers strive to reach the glass ceiling in their fields of endeavor, as did the men of Galileo’s day. This curriculum allows students to look at how wealth and property was transferred for posterity. Students can also compare how men obtained work. Education was and is a factor, but generally, people could live a lifetime in the same class to which they were born. Today, people in America are able to obtain education and advance in their careers. However, men at the top of the hierocracy still make most of the decisions if one looks at the Food and Drug Administration, Supreme Court and lower courts, Congress, institutions of learning, the Church, etc. What is significant about Galileo’s day is that there were two world systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican. Galileo addressed this in his writing the Dialogues Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. In his day, Galileo could present his scientific findings, provided they did not clash with the church/scriptures. Students will see how breaking this rule became his undoing. Because the Church and the institutions of learning, along with groups in the upper society, seem to have had the greatest impact on the acceptance or rejection of his theories, Galileo dedicated his work to many religious leaders and nobility. The personal lives of other scientists working on astronomy related to Galileo and Copernicus will also play a role in this curriculum. Here are some examples: Johannes Kepler experienced poor health during his early years and he was also nearsighted. In school, the other boys bullied him and beat him up. As an adult, he published astrological calendars and horoscopes to support himself. Yet he was still able to make a dynamic contribution to society. Isaac Newton never knew his father – also named Isaac. When he was two years old, his mother remarried. According to his journal entries, he despised his stepfather because he threatened to burn his father and mother and the house with them. Sir Isaac Newton had a mental breakdown in later life supposedly stemming from altercations with Leibniz regarding the Calculus Priority Dispute, with the Jesuits over God and the Universe, and the grief from his mother’s death. Albert Einstein was the greatest scientist in recent history. Yet he started off slow in school and was even considered dyslexic.